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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


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In  ftp  ://www.arcli  ive.org/details/farmersdictionarOOgardricli 


THE 


FARMER'S  DICTIONARY: 

A  VOCABULARY 


OF     THE    TECHNICAL     TERMS    RECENTLY     INTRODUCED     INTO    AGRI- 
CULTURE   AND    HORTICULTURE    FROM    VARIOUS    SCIENCES, 
AND    ALSO    A    COMPENDIUM    OF 


PRACTICAL  FARMIIG: 


THE     LATTER    CHIEFLY    FROM    THE    WORKS     OP    THE    REV.    W.   L. 

RHAM,    LOUDON,    LOW,    AND    YOUATT,    AND    THE 

MOST    EMINENT 

AMERICAN    AUTHORS. 

EDITED    BY 

D.    P.    GARDNER,    M.D., 

HONOBATIT    MEMBER    OF    SEVERAL    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES. 


WITH    NUMEROUS    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


N  E  W  -  Y  O  R  K  : 

HARPER   &   BROTHERS,   PUBLISHERS, 

82   CLIFF   STREET. 


1849. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1846,  by 

Harper  &  Brothers, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


5V// 


Or 


X 


PREFACE. 


The  Farmer's  Dictionary  was  undertaken  originally  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  a  want  long  felt  by  the  editor,  in 
common  with  the  agricultural  community,  of  a  short  expla- 
nation of  the  many  technical  terms  introduced  into  the  works 
written  on  farming.  Much  opposition  has  arisen  to  the  use 
of  technical  words  in  these  productions,  and  our  journals  are 
full  of  complaints,  from  respectable  men,  against  the  innova- 
tion. If,  however,  words  having  so  precise  a  meaning,  and, 
in  many  instances,  conveying  so  much  information,  be  dis- 
carded, what  shall  be  substituted  in  their  place  ?  It  is  obvi- 
ously impossible  for  every  writer  who  has  occasion  to  use 
the  terms  hybrid,  hydrogen,  or  eremacausis,  to  explain  in  de- 
tail what  these  mean  ;  and  if  the  attempt  were  made,  our 
treatises  would  present  the  most  tiresome  examples  of  tau- 
tology. Each  farmer  may  satisfy  himself  with  a  set  of  arbi- 
trary terms,  which  convey  all  the  information  he  desires  ;  but 
they  will  not  answer  if  he  wishes  to  impart  that  inforination 
to  others.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  greater  drawback  to  the 
advancement  of  our  art  than  the  indefinite  words  used  among 
us — words  which  are  often  peculiar  to  a  small  district,  and 
which  are  used  to  designate  a  variety  of  objects  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  We  find  one  writer  using  the  word 
"  withers"  for  the  shoulders  of  an  animal,  another  for  the 
womb. 

The  friends  of  agricultural  improvement,  and  especially 
our  journalists,  should  use  all  exertions  to  establish  a  suitable 
nomenclature.  The  art  has  arrived  at  that  stage  that  this  is 
the  greatest  object  to  be  accomplished.  It  will  open  to  the 
practical  man  the  extensive  information  of  the  scientific  world, 
and  will  enable  the  theorist  to  study  his  generalizations  by 
consulting  the  works  of  the  true  farmer.  I  have  not,  in  at- 
tempting to  carry  out  my  original  design  of  preparing  a 
vocabulary,  thought  it  advisable  to  insert  every  provincial 
phrase,  but  have  taken  only  those  words  in  common  use 
among  farmers,  and  which  have  become  somewhat  fixed  by 


iv  PREFACE. 

being  frequently  introduced  into  essays.  I  have  thought  it 
useful,  when  words  were  occasionally  met  with  a  strange 
signification,  to  omit  them  as  an  error  in  language  ;  nor  has 
it  appeared  conformable  with  my  object  to  introduce  the  well- 
known  words  of  our  language  which  have  a  place  in  the 
common  dictionaries.  In  this  compilation  I  am  necessarily 
under  infinite  obligations  to  others,  especially  to  Loudon, 
Rham,  Youatt,  Stephens,  Johnson,  Deane,  Young,  Buel,  Arm- 
strong, Ellsworth,  Colman,  Low,  Brande,  Clater,  &c.,  &c., 
and  our  journalists.  My  task  has  not  been,  however,  with- 
out labour;  for  I  could  find  no  vocabulary  such  as  that  I 
desired  to  produce  already  in  existence,  to  serve  me  as  a 
model ;  and  if  any  merit  should  be  awarded  me  for  this  un- 
dertaking, it  may  be  claimed  on  the  ground  that  the  Farm- 
er's Dictionary  is  the  first  book  of  its  kind.  This  will  also, 
I  trust,  avert  much  of  the  criticism  to  which  I  know  the  work 
is  obnoxious.  So  much  for  my  design,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  has  been  accomplished. 

In  addition  to  the  vocabulary,  my  friends  have  suggested 
the  introduction  of  short  and  practical  essays  on  the  opera- 
tions of  farming ;  and  these  have  been  introduced  the  more 
readily,  from  the  facility  with  which  they  were  procured  from 
the  works  of  the  Rev.  W.  L.  Rham,  one  of  the  best  practical 
writers  of  Britain,  and  others,  as  Loudon  and  Low,  of  great 
merit,  and  but  little  known  in  the  United  States.  In  this  part 
of  the  work,  care  has  been  taken  to  edit  the  essays  so  as  to 
make  them  of  practical  value  in  this  country.  To  the  jour- 
nalists of  the  United  States  I  am  also  deeply  indebted  for  the 
matter  introduced,  and  for  which  I  have  uniformly  given 
them  credit. 

To  most  of  the  crops  raised  in  the  United  States,  an  Ajj- 
pendix  has  been  made  of  the  composition  of  the  ashes,  and 
remarks  offered  on  the  special  manures.  This  has  been 
done  in  consideration  of  the  existing  desire  for  information 
on  the  topic,  and  the  impression  that  the  most  suitable  ma- 
nures for  plants  are  discoverable  by  a  study  of  their  ashes. 
The  best  theories  of  the  chejnical  school  of  agriculture  are 
also  introduced.  In  this  part  of  the  work,  I  am  indebted  to 
the  labours  of  Chaptal,  Davy,  Braconnot,  Saussure,  Berthier, 
Berzelius,  Sprengel,  Hermbstaed,  Paycn,  Johnston,  Boussin- 
gault,  Dumas,  Thaer,  Liebig,  Mulder,  Fowncs,  Fresenius, 
Will,  Hertwig,  Kane,  Shephard,  and  other  chemists. 

D.  P.  Gardner. 


THE 


FARMER'S  DICTIONARY. 


ABO 

ABATTOIR.  A  building  for  the 
slaughtering  of  animals. 

ABDOMEN.  The  region  of  the 
body  containing  the  stomach,  intes- 
tines, liver,  spleen,  &.c.  In  insects  it 
is  the  third  division  of  the  trunk,  in 
spiders  the  second. 

ABIES.  The  Fir  genus  of  trees. 
See  Pmus. 

ABNORMAL.  Irregular  or  unu- 
sual: applied  to  deviations  from  the 
ordinary  development  of  parts  of  an- 
imals or  plants. 

ABORTION.  Miscarriage.  In 
veterinary  surgery,  miscarriage,  slip- 
ping, slinking,  casting,  or  warping,  all 
meaning  the  expulsion  of  the  young 
at  so  early  a  period  of  pregnancy  as 
to  render  it  impossible  for  it  to  live. 
The  immediate  causes  appear  to  be 
the  death  of  the  fetus,  or  derange- 
ment in  the  functions  of  the  womb  or 
its  dependencies,  arising  from  some 
external  cause  or  causes  operating 
on  tlie  mother.  Among  these  causes 
may  be  reckoned  too  much  or  too 
little  food,  producing  fullness  or  ema- 
ciation ;  sudden  fright  or  sympathy 
with  certain  smells  or  sights,  sucli  as 
the  smell  or  sight  of  blood,  of  bones, 
of  horns,  and  particularly  of  the  abor- 
ted fetus  of  another  animal.  Acci- 
dents, also,  such  as  falls,  bruises, 
over- driving,  or  fatigue,  and  the  like, 
may  frequently  bring  on  abortion. 

The  signs  of  approaching  abortion 
are,  great  languor,  uneasiness,  and 
restlessness,  sometimes  a  discharge 
of  bloody  matter,  and  the  sudden  fill- 
ing of  the  udder,  similar  to  the  signs 
of  approaching  delivery. 

Abortion  in  the  Marc. — Abortions 
very  frequently  happen  among  mares. 
This  often  arises  in  consequence  of 
over-exertion  during  the  latter  period 
of  pregnancy.  Mares  are  liable,  also, 
very  frequently,  to  various  accidents 
A2 


ABO 

in  their  pastures,  which  may  be  the 
cause  of  their  slipping  their  foal,  such 
as  kicks,  tumbling  into  holes  and 
ditches,  over-exerting  themselves  to 
get  over  fences,  and  the  like.  On 
this  account,  when  a  mare  is  near 
her  time,  she  should  be  kept  by  her- 
self, in  some  convenient  place.  But 
there  is  another,  and,  we  suspect,  a 
very  general  cause  of  these  accidents 
in  mares  ;  we  mean  a  stinting  of  them 
in  their  food,  either  in  quantity  or 
quality.  It  appears,  indeed,  that  some 
imagine  that  the  mare,  when  she  is 
in  foal,  may  be  turned  out  almost  any- 
where ;  but  this  opinion  is  ill-found- 
ed ;  for,  although  she  does  not  require 
to  be  kept  so  high  in  condition  as 
when  she  is  at  hard  work,  yet  she  is 
not  to  be  turned  out  into  a  pasture 
where  she  may  be  in  a  manner  starv- 
ed :  but  how  often  do  we  see  the 
mare  in  foal  on  the  worst  piece  of 
ground  in  the  whole  farm,  exposed, 
during  the  rigorous  winter  season,  to 
endure  the  cold,  as  well  as  to  put  up 
with  scanty  food  ?  On  the  other  hand, 
when  the  mare  is  not  worked  at  all, 
and  indulged  with  too  high  keep,  she 
is  almost  equally  in  danger  of  abor- 
tion, her  high  condition  having  a  ten- 
dency to  cause  inflammation  and  oth- 
er disorders  ;  and  these,  deranging  the 
reproductive  organs,  frequently  pro- 
duce miscarriage.  It  would  seem, 
then,  that  moderate  exercise  and  diet 
are  best  suited  as  means  to  avoid  the 
misfortune  of  the  premature  exclu- 
sion of  the  foal. 

Abortion  in  the  Cow. — Abortion  oc- 
curs oftener  in  the  cow  than  in  all 
other  domestic  animals  put  together. 
Perhaps  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  an- 
noyances the  proprietor  of  cows  has 
to  encounter.  The  causes  are  fre- 
quently involved  in  obscurity  ;  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  an  extremely 


ABO 

hot  and  foul  cow-house  will  now  and 
then  produce  alwrtion.  and  similar  to 
those  in  maros.  Anythini,'  wliatov- 
er,  indeed,  that  seriously  affects  the 
health  of  the  animal  in  general,  or 
the  state  of  the  reproductive  origans 
in  particular,  may  do  so.  But  abortion 
occurs  again  and  again  when  no  such 
causes  as  those  enumerated  can  be 
traced.  The  disease,  if  such  it  may 
be  called,  as  we  think  it  may,  is  even 
said  to  be  infectious.  No  sooner  does 
it  show  itself  in  one  animal  than  it  is 
seen  in  another  and  another,  till  it 
has  spread  over  the  most  part  of  the 
cow-house.  Some  say  this  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  odour  arising  from 
the  things  evacuated.  Possibly  it 
may  be  so  ;  there  can  be  no  great 
harm,  however,  in  acting  as  if  we 
were  assured  that  the  mischief  has  its 
origin  in  the  source  so  commonly  sup- 
posed, provided  we  do  not  shut  our 
eyes  to  any  other  which  accident  or 
investigation  may  reveal.  In  the 
mean  time,  the  number  of  abortions 
may  be  diminished  by  carefully  avoid- 
ing all  those  causes  which  are  known 
to  be  capable  of  producing  it.  Let  the 
cows  be  regularly  fed  ;  let  their  food 
be  good,  and  in  proper  quantities  ;  let 
them  have  water  as  often  as  they  will 
take  it ;  avoid  sudden  exposure  to 
cold  or  heat ;  and,  above  all,  let  the 
cow-house  be  well  ventilated.  Pro- 
hibit all  manner  of  rough  usage  on 
the  part  of  those  who  look  after  the 
cows,  whether  they  be  pregnant  or 
not.  If  any  of  them  accumulate  flesh 
too  rapidly,  gradually  reduce  their  al- 
lowance ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
any  become  emaciated,  discover  the 
cause  and  remedy  it,  always  by  slow 
degrees.  Sudden  changes  in  the  mat- 
ter or  mode  of  feeding  should  also  be 
avoided.  The  same  sort  of  diet  does 
not  agree  equally  well  with  all  the 
cows,  and  this,  in  general,  is  indica- 
ted by  undue  relaxation  or  constipa- 
tion of  the  bowels  ;  this  should  be 
watched,  and  removed  at  once.  At- 
tention to  these,  and  many  other  mi- 
nor circumstances,  will  amply  repay 
the  proprietor  for  the  little  additional 
trouble. 
It  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  the  his- 
G 


ABO 

tory  of  this  complaint,  that  those  an- 
imals that  have  once  miscarried  are 
particularly  liable  to  do  so  again  at  ' 
the  same  period  of  their  succeeding 
pregnancy.  Greater  care  is  therefore 
recpiisite  to  guard  against  those  caus- 
es which  do,  or  are  supposed  to  excite 
it.  The  treatment  of  abortion,  when 
it  does  take  place,  differs  not  from 
that  adopted  in  cases  of  parturition, 
only  that  the  cow  which  miscarries 
should  be  removed,  with  all  that  be- 
longs to  her,  from  among  pregnant 
cows. 

If  the  signs  of  approaching  abortion 
be  discovered  early,  the  accident  may 
sometimes  be  prevented.  If  the  cow 
is  in  good  condition,  then  immediately 
let  it  be  bled  to  the  extent  of  five  or 
six  quarts,  and  the  bowels  opened 
with  half  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts,  two 
ounces  of  Glauber's,  or  three  or  four 
ounces  of  castor  oil,  administered  in 
a  quart  of  gruel ;  but  if  the  cow  is  in 
very  poor  condition,  and  the  miscar- 
riage is  anticipated  from  her  having 
been  exposed  to  cold,  avoid  bleeding, 
and  give  her  a  warm  gruel  drink,  with 
an  ounce  of  laudanum  in  it.  If  after 
this  abortion  does  take  place,  let  her 
be  kept  in  a  comfortable  place  by  her- 
self; and  if  the  after-birth  has  not 
passed  off.  let  no  injudicious  and  un- 
necessary administration  of  violent 
forcing  medicines  be  given.  Nature, 
with  a  little  assistance,  is  generally 
equal  to  the  perfect  restoration  of  the 
animal. 

Abortion  hi  the  Sheep. — Ewes  are 
subject  to  abortion,  in  consequence 
of  the  numerous  accidents  they  are 
liable  to.  A  pack  of  hounds  in  pursuit 
of  a  hare  got  among  a  flock  of  sheep 
belonging  to  a  farmer,  and  so  hurried 
and  alarmed  them,  that  thirty  out  of  a 
flock  of  two  hundred  ewes  premature- 
ly dropped  their  lambs.  It  is  the  same 
in  sheep  as  in  the  other  cases  of  do- 
mestic animals  ;  scarcity  of  food,  and 
exposure  to  severe  cold,  having  a 
great  tendency  to  make  the  ewes  pre- 
maturely drop  their  lambs,  or  produce 
them  weakly  and  crippled  at  the  full 
time  ;  and  although  there  may  be  a 
little  danger  in  giving  too  much  food, 
such  as  allowing  them  to  feed  all  the 


ABS 

•winter  on  turnips,  the  danger  is  tri- 
fling compared  witli  the  starving  sys- 
tem.—(.V;7/fr.) 

ABORTIVE.  Deficient.  A  com- 
mon term  in  botany,  and  signifying 
the  absence  of  stamens  or  pistils, 
whereby  fruit  cannot  be  produced ; 
but  also  used  to  designate  the  partial 
or  complete  obliteration  of  any  other 
organ,  as  the  leaf,  petals,  carpels,  dec. 

ABRAXAS.  A  genus  of  butterfly 
(Lepidopterous)  insects  of  the  family 
of  geometers  ;  one  of  which,  the  A. 
grossidariata,  is  the  well-known  goose- 
berry moth,  the  caterpillar  of  which 
destroys  the  leaves  of  currant  and 
gooseberry  bushes. 

ABS  C  E  S  S.  A  gathering  or  tu- 
mour containing  pus  ;  it  is  the  result 
of  accidents  or  impaired  health  ;  and 
is  only  of  moment  when  it  atTects 
internal  organs  or  is  produced  near 
joints.  Abscesses  in  joints,  especial- 
ly the  hock  joint  of  the  horse,  oft- 
en produce  incurable  lameness,  and 
those  of  internal  organs  destroy  life 
by  enfeebling  the  system.  Superfi- 
cial abscesses  are  to  be  opened  freely 
at  their  lowest  point  when  the  pus  is 
well  formed  ;  and  poultices  are  to  be 
applied  to  encourage  the  disciiarge  : 
the  wound  must  be  kept  clean,  and 
dressed  daily.  It  is  advisable  to  hind- 
er the  formation  of  the  abscess  by  low 
diet,  and  scarifying  the  part  with  a 
lancet ;  but  this  is  only  serviceable  in 
the  first  stages. 

ABSORBENTS.  In  vetcrbmry 
medicine,  drugs  that  are  given  inter- 
nally for  the  purpose  of  neutralizing 
any  acid  which  forms  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  in  consequence  of  impair- 
ed digestion.  Prepared  chalk  is  gen- 
erally used  for  this  purpose  ;  or  car- 
bonate of  soda.  Those  medicines  are 
likewise  termed  absorbents  which 
are  applied  externally  for  absorbing 
moisture.  Starch,  calamine,  flour, 
and  the  like,  are  employed  in  this  way. 
They  are  sometimes  dusted  between 
folds  of  the  skin  when  galled,  and  raw 
from  friction,  blisters,  or  grease. 
They  are  likewise  useful  in  canker 
of  the  horse's  foot,  foul  in  the  foot  of 
cattle,  foot-rot  in  sheep,  and  sores 
between  the  toes  of  dogs  ;  and  they 


ABCr 

are  beneficial  in  some  forms  of 
mange,  in  slaying  bleeding,  and  as- 
sisting the  cure  of  a  wounded  joint. 

Absorbents.  In  physiology,  a 
class  of  vessels  whose  office  is  to 
convey  the  product  of  digestion  and 
the  residue  of  nutrition  into  the  cir- 
culation, to  be  mixed  with  and  repair 
the  waste  of  the  blood.  They  are 
divided  into  lacteals  and  lymphatics. 
The  former  are  all  situated  in  the  cav- 
ity of  the  abdomen  ;  and  by  extreme- 
ly minute  mouths,  opening  on  the  in- 
ner surface  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines, they  receive  the  nutritious  por- 
tion of  the  food,  and  carry  it  to  a  ves- 
sel which  runs  along  the  left  side  of 
the  spine,  and  which,  in  its  turn, 
empties  itself  into  the  left  jugular 
vein. 

The  lymphatics  are  distributed  over 
every  portion  of  the  frame.  The  uses 
of  the  lymphatics  are  to  remove  the 
residue  of  nutrition  ;  and,  when  the 
supply  of  food  is  deficient,  to  remove 
such  portions  of  the  body  as  can  be 
spared  and  converted  into  blood.  The 
lymphatics  ultimately  empty  their 
contents  into  the  same  vessel  as  the 
lacteals,  and  they  follow,  in  their  dis- 
tribution through  the  body,  the  same 
course  as  the  veins.  In  the  horse 
they  are  liable  to  a  disease  termed 
farcy ;  and  in  all  animals  they  are 
frequently  inflamed  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  a  sore. 

ABSORBENT  SOILS.  Soils  in 
such  a  state  of  improvement,  or  of  so 
good  a  quality  as  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  air. 

ABSORPTION.      The   imbibition 

I  of  fluids.     In  plants  this  takes  place 

!  chiefly  by  the  swelling  terminations 

i  of  the  rootlets  (the  spongioles).     In 

i  very  damp  weather,  leaves  and  the 

green   stems    also   absorb   moisture 

from  the  air.    Fluids  and  gases  only 

can  be  absorbed,  no  insoluble  matters 

entering  plants.     Absorption  in  ani- 

mals  is  carried  on  by  the  lacteals  and 

'  lymphatics. 

ABSTERGENTS.  Medicines  used 
!  for  resolving  tumours.  They  are  usu- 
ally stimulating. 

I  ABUTMENT.  The  solid  part  of  a 
1  pier  from  which  an  arch  springs. 


ACI 


ACI 


ACACIA.  Spinous  leguminous 
trees,  with  small  flowers  collected  in 
spikes  or  heads  ;  they  are  usually  of 
small  size.  Two  or  three  insig- 
nificant species  belong  to  the  United 
States.  The  locust  is  often  improp- 
erly called  by  this  name. 

ACARl.     The  family  of  mites. 
ACCIPITRKS.    The  order  of  birds 
containing  the   hawks,   eagles,    and 
similar  birds  of  prey. 

ACCLIMATE.  To  accustom  or 
mure  animals  or  vegetables  to  a  par- 
ticular climate. 

ACER.  The  generic  name  of  the 
maples. 

ACERANS.  A  family  of  wingless 
insects  without  antennaj. 

ACEROSE.  In  botany,  leaves 
which  are  thin  and  sharp,  such  as 
those  of  the  pine-trees. 

ACETABULUM.  In  anatomy, 
acetahvlum  signifies  the  cavity  of  the 
hip  joint.  In  entomology,  it  is  the 
socket  on  the  trunk  in  which  the  leg 
is  planted. 

ACETARIOUS  PLANTS.  Salad 
plants. 

ACETATES.  Salts  containing 
acetic  acid,  of  which  the  acetate  of 
lead  or  sugar  of  lead  is  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  arts. 

ACETIC  ACID.     See  Vinegar. 
ACHENIUM,  AKENIUM.  A  small 
bony  fruit,  containing  a  single  seed, 
which  does  not  adhere  to  the  shell  or 
pericarp,  nor  open  when  ripe. 

ACHLAMYDEOUS.  Plants  which 
have  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  and 
whose  flowers  are  consequently  des- 
titute ofa  covering,  or  naked. 

ACICULAR.    Sharp,  like  a  needle. 
ACIDS.    For  the  most  part,  sharp, 
sour  bodies,  which  redden  litmus,  and 
combine  with  metallic  oxides  or  bases 
to  form  salts.     Many  are,  however, 
destitute  of  sour  taste.    They  are  di- 
vided into  organic  and  inorganic  :  the 
latter  constitute  the  mineral  acids. 
The  organic  acids  are  divided  into 
vegetable  and  animal  acids.    The  fol- 
lowmg  are  interesting  in  agriculture  : 
Mineral  Acids. 
The  sulphuric.     See  Sulphur. 
Muriatic.     See  Chlorine. 
Silicic.     See  Sand. 
Phosphoric.    See  Phoaphorui. 
8 


Vegetable  Acids. 

Nitric.     See  Silrogen. 
Acplic.     See  Vinegar. 
Carbonic.     See  Carbon. 
Tannic.     See  Tannin. 
Gnllic.     See  Tannin. 
I'russic.     See  Hydrocyanic  acid. 
Humic.     See  Humus. 

Oxalic  acid  in  the  free  state  is  found 
in  the  hairs  of  the  Ciccr  arictinum,  or 
chick  pea.  It  is  very  common  in  com- 
bination with  potash,  in  sorrels,  docks, 
rhubarbs,  &c.,  and  with  lime  in  lich- 
ens. It  is  a  very  soluble,  crystalline, 
colourless  solid,  of  intense  sourness, 
and  highly  poisonous.  The  composi- 
tion is  C;  O3  -f  HO,  the  HO  (water) 
being  replaced  by  bases.  A  solution 
is  used  as  a  test  for  lime,  which  it 
precipitates  from  its  solutions  as  a 
white,  insoluble  oxalate  of  lime. 

Tartaric  acid.  Combined  with  pot- 
ash, it  abounds  in  the  juice  of  the 
grape,  and  is  also  found  in  tamarinds, 
bilberries,  &c.  It  is  a  white,  crys- 
talline bodv,  of  the  composition  Cg 
H4  Oi  -\-  2  HO,  and  is  bibasic.  The 
racemic  acid  is  isomeric.  A  solu- 
tion precipitates  potash  in  the  form 
of  the  white  crystalline  bitartrate 
(cream  of  tartar). 

Benzoic  acid  gives  an  aroma  to 
many  balsams,  sweet-scented  grass, 
&c.  Its  formula  is  Cu  H.,  O3  +  HO, 
and  it  is  considered  an  hydrated  oxyde 
of  benzoyl,  or  Bz.  O  -f  HO, 

Citric  acid.  This  is  the  sour  prin- 
ciple of  lemons,  cranberries,  cherries, 
gooseberries,  &c.  It  is  a  very  solu- 
ble, crystalline  solid,  of  the  composi- 
tion Ci;  H.^  Oji  -f  3  HO  ;  but  the  crys- 
tals contain  1  and  2  atoms  of  water 
of  crystallization  besides. 

Malic  acid  is  the  acid  body  of  un- 
ripe apples,  pears,  plums,  &c.  In  the 
insulated  condition,  it  is  a  deliques- 
cent crystalline  substance  of  intense 
sourness,  composed  of  Cs  H^  O3  -+- 
2  HO. 

Besides  these,  all  oily  bodies  con- 
tain one  or  more  acids.     See  Oils. 

The  animal  acids  are  enumerated 
under  that  head.  The  acids  in  plants 
are,  for  the  most  part,  combined  with 
bases  :  potash  and  lime  are  the  most 
common ;  but  magnesia,  soda,  alu- 
mina, and  iron  are  also  found.     Oc- 


ACU 

casionally  they  are  united  with  vege- 
table alkalies. 

As  food,  the  acids  are  not  of  nauch 
moment ;  they  do,  however,  serve  to 
sustain  the  heat  of  the  body  by  fur- 
nishing carbon  for  the  respiratory 
function. 

ACINACIFORM.  Of  a  curved  fig- 
ure, like  the  cimeter. 

ACINUS.    The  small  and  separate 
carpels  of  a  compound  succulent  fruit. 
ACOXITINE.     The  poisonous  al- 
kaloid of  Monk's-hood. 

ACORN.  The  fruit  of  the  oak. 
That  of  the  live  oak  and  other  species 
is  sweet  and  agreeable  :  it  is  an  ad- 
mirable food  for  pigs,  and  in  England 
commands  37V  cents  the  bushel. 

AC0TYLED(3NS.  Plants  desti- 
tute of  seed-lobes,  the  cryptogamia 
of  Linnaeus,  including  fungi,  mosses, 
sea-weeds,  ferns. 

ACRE.  A  standard  land  meas- 
ure. The  imperial  acre  is  subdivided 
into 

4  roods,  each  rood  40  perches. 
160  perches,  16  feet  and  a  half 
each. 
4840  square  yards,  9  feet  each. 
43,560  square    feet,    144     inches 

each. 
174,240  squares  of  six  inches  each, 
36  inches  each. 
6,272,640  inches,  or  squares  of  one 
inch  each. 
From  this   table   the  farmer   can 
readily  discover  how  many  plants  can 
he  set  in  the  acre,  according  as  they 
are  one  yard,  one  foot,  &.C.,  apart 
each  way. 

ACROGENS.  The  same  as  cryp- 
togamia or  acotyledons. 

ACRID.     A  biting,  nauseous  taste, 
often  producing  blistering,  belonging 
to  many  poisonous  plants. 
ACROLEIN.     See  Glycerine. 
ACROSPIRE.     The     young    up- 
ward shoot  of  germinating  seeds. 
ACRYDIUM.     A  genus  of  locusts. 
ACTINOLITE.  A  variety  of  horn- 
blende. 

ACTINOMETER.  An  instrument 
to  measure  the  intensity  of  the  sun's 
rays. 

ACULEATE.     Furnished  with 
prickles. 
B 


AGA 

ACULE  ATES.  The  insects  of  the 
bee  and  wasp  kind,  furnished  with 
stings. 

ACUMINATE.  Tapering  to  a 
point. 

ADDUCTORS.  Those  muscles 
which  draw  the  parts  to  which  they 
are  attached  together  :  they  are  op- 
posed to  the  abductors. 

ADEPS.     Lard. 

ADI ANTUM.  A  genus  of  elegant 
ferns  :  the  fructification  is  in  short 
marsjinal  lines. 

ADIPOSE.  Fatty,  as  the  adipose 
tissues. 

ADNATE.  Adhering,  growing,  or 
attached  to  the  surface. 

ADVENTITIOUS.  Occurring  in 
an  unusual  manner,  as  when  a  bud 
arises  from  the  root  of  a  plant. 

ADULARIA.  A  brilliant  crystal- 
line feldspar. 

AERATING.  Introducing  air  or 
gases. 

ESTIVATION.  The  manner  in 
which  the  parts  of  the  flower  bud  are 
folded  together. 

yETHEOGAMOUS  PLANTS. 
The  cryptogamia. 

AETHER.     See  Ether. 

AETIOLOGY.  The  study  of  the 
causes  of  disease. 

AFFINITY.  In  natural  history, 
the  close  resemblance  of  animals  or 
plants  in  their  organization. 

Affinity.  In  chemistry,  the  force 
which  combines  dissimilar  bodies  to- 
gether in  precise  proportions.  See 
Atom. 

AFTER-GRASS.  The  second  crop 
of  grass  from  lands  mowed  the  same 
year. 

AFTER-MATH.  The  second  mow- 
ing of  permanent  meadows  the  same 
year.  It  is  free  from  flower  stems, 
and  often  much  more  nutritious  than 
the  first  crop  ;  but  it  is  customary  to 
feed  it  off'  by  sheep  or  cattle  instead 
of  cutting. 

AGAMOUS.     Cryptogamic  plants. 

AGARICUS.  A  genus  of  mush- 
rooms distinguished  by  plaits  or  gills 
under  the  cap,  which  are  arranged 
nearly  parallel.  Several  are  nutritious 
and  of  a  delicate  flavour,  as  A.  cam- 
pestris  (the  common  mushroom),  chaU' 
9 


AGE 

tarcUus,  delkiosus,  cinnamomcus,  ■pra- 
tcnsis,  vwlaccus.  The  poisonous 
kinds  have  usually  a  narcotic  or  acrid 
odour. 

AGAVE.  The  Mexican  aloe.  The 
juice  yields  pulque,  and  a  good  hemp 
is  made  from  the  leaves. 

AGE  OF  ANIMALS.  For  that  of 
the  horse,  see  Horse. 

Age  of  Neat  Cattle. — The  age  of 
cou's,  oxen,  and  bulls  is  known  by  the 
teeth  and  horns.  At  the  end  of  about 
two  years  they  shed  their  first  fore- 
teeth, which  are  replaced  by  others, 
larger,  but  not  so  white  ;  and  before 
five  years  all  the  incisive  teeth  are 
renewed.  These  teeth  are  at  first 
equal,  long,  and  pretty  white  ;  but  as 
the  animals  advance  in  years,  they 
wear  down,  become  unequal,  and 
black.  When  three  years  old,  neat 
cattle  also  experience  a  considerable 
change  in  the  structure  of  their  horns, 
after  which  period  these  appendages, 
like  the  second  or  permanent  teeth, 
preserve  the  same  character.  Du- 
ring the  first  year  of  the  animal's  age, 
two  small,  smooth,  pointed,  and  neat- 
ly-formed horns  make  their  appear- 
ance, attached  to  the  head  by  a  kind 
of  button.  This  conformation  con- 
tinues during  the  first  three  years, 
after  which  the  button  moves  from 
the  head,  being  impelled  by  a  horny 
cylinder.  Thus  the  horns  continue 
growing  as  long  as  the  animal  lives, 
as  is  indicated  by  the  annual  joints, 
which  are  easily  distinguished  in  the 
horn,  and  by  which  the  age  of  the 
creature  may  be  easily  known,  count- 
ing three  years  for  the  point  of  the 
horn,  and  one  for  each  of  the  joints 
or  rings.  Dishonest  dealers  some- 
times obliterate  these  rings  by  shaving 
or  filing  the  horns,  in  order  to  conceal 
the  age  of  the  beast. — (Johnson.) 

Age  of  Sheep. — The  age  of  these 
animals  is  known  by  their  having,  in 
their  second  year,  two  broad  teeth ; 
in  their  third  year,  four  broad  teeth  ; 
in  their  fourth  year,  six  broad  teeth  ; 
and  in  their  fifth  year,  eight  broad 
teeth  before  ;  after  which  none  can 
tell  how  old  a  sheep  is  while  its  teeth 
remain,  except  by  their  being  worn 
down. 
10 


AIR 

About  the  end  of  one  year,  rams, 
wethers,  and  all  young  sheep  lose  the 
two  fore-teclli  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  and 
tliey  are  known  to  want  tiie  incisive 
teelh  in  the  upper  jaw.  At  eighteen 
months,  the  two  teeth  joining  to  the 
former  also  fail  out ;  and  at  three 
years,  being  all  replaced,  they  are 
even  and  pretty  white  ;  but  as  these 
animals  advance  in  age,  the  teeth 
become  loose,  blunt,  and  afterward 
black. 

AGI,  or  AGY.  Chilian  pepper, 
Capsicum  baccalum. 

AGlSTMEiNT.  Payment  for  pas- 
turage on  another's  lands. 

AGRICULTIKE.  The  whole  art 
and  science  of  husbandry.  For  the 
history,  see  Loudon'' s  EncycJopcvdia  of 
Agriculture. 

AGRIMONY.  The  genus  Agri- 
monia,  perennial,  unimportant  weeds 
of  small  size. 

AGRIONTD.E.  The  family  of  in- 
sects called  dragon  flies  (Libellula, 
Agrion). 

AGRONOMY.  The  cultivation  of 
land,  agriculture. 

AGROSTIS.  The  genus  of  bent 
grasses.  They  grow  chiefly  in  wet 
places,  and  flower  late  ;  most  are 
perennial,  stoloniferous,  or  creeping, 
and  are  therefore  difficult  to  extir- 
pate, and  unsuited  to  rotations.  The 
Agrostcs  stricta  is  the  red  top,  or  herd 
grass.  A.  stolonifera  is  Richardson's 
florin,  and,  when  grown  in  rich,  wet 
pastures,  is  very  superior. 

AIGRETTE.  The  down  or  pap- 
pus of  the  seeds  of  compositae. 

AIR.  Any  gas,  but  usually  the  at- 
mosphere, which  see. 

AIRA.  The  genus  of  hair  grasses. 
They  are  perennial,  usually  grow  in 
wet  places,  and  are  of  little  moment 
in  agriculture. 

AIR  CELLS.  In  plants,  enlarged 
cavities  in  the  cellular  tissue,  to  pro- 
duce buoyancy  in  aquatic  plants.  In 
birds,  membranous  cavities  commu- 
nicating with  the  lungs,  and  traver- 
sing all  parts  of  the  bird,  even  to  the 
interior  of  the  bones  and  quills.  In 
some  insects  the  air  vessels  are  en- 
larged into  cells. 

AIR  PLANTS.  Those  which  grow 


AIR 

without  striking  their  roots  into  the 
soil.  They  usually  derive  sustenance 
from  other  plants. 

AIR  PU.MP.  A  machine  for  remo- 
ving the  air  out  of  a  vessel.  The 
principle  of  this  important  philosoph- 
ical instrument  is  very  simple,  and 
may  be  easily  comprehended  from  a 
brief  explanation.  The  essential  part 
,|  of  the  machine  con- 

,11  sistsofan  exhaust- 

IQ       /^^      ing     syringe     (a), 
a\  I      formed   of  a  tube 

j  /        I  I      o""  barrel  of  brass, 

•'^^^~'/—'-y  closed  at  one  end, 
^  with  the  exception 

of  a  small  orifice,  to  which  a  valve 
(A),  opening  inward,  is  attached.  An 
air-tight  piston  is  worked  up  and 
down  in  the  barrel  by  a  rack  and  pin- 
ion turned  by  a  winch.  The  piston 
has  also  an  orifice  with  a  valve  (c), 
which  opens  upward,  or  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  valve  of  the  tube. 
The  syringe  communicates,  by  means 
of  a  small  pipe  {d)  fitted  into  the  open- 
ing at  its  lower  extremity,  with  a  ves- 
sel (e)  called  the  receiver,  from  which 
the  air  is  to  be  extracted. 

The  receiver  is  placed  on  a  brass 
plate  ( f,  g),  over  a  small  hole,  into  | 
which  Ihe  other  end  of  the  pipe  is  in- 1 
serted  ;  and,  in  order  that  the  contact , 
maybe  air-tight,  the  edge  of  the  glass  I 
is  previously  rubbed  with  lard  or  some  [ 
unctuous  matter.  I 

Suppose  the  piston  at  the  bottom  [ 
of  the  tube.    As  it  begins  to  be  drawn  j 
up,  the  valve  c  of  the  piston  is  imme- 
diately shut  by  the  pressure  of  the  ex- 1 
terior  atmosphere,  so  that  no  air  can  | 
enter  the  barrel,  and  a  perfect  vacu- 
um would  be  left  under  it,  were  it  not 
that  the  valve  at  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel  is  forced  open  by  the  pressure 
of  the  air  in  the  receiver,  which  rush- 
es into  the  barrel  till  its  density  be- 
comes the  same  both  in  the  receiver 
and  barrel.  When  the  piston  has  been 
drawn  to  the  top  of  the  barrel,  the 
whole  of  the  air  which  occupied  the  ; 
barrel  has  been  removed,  and  the  re- 
ceiver and  barrel  are  now  both  filled 
with  the  air  which  was  previously  , 
contained   in   the   receiver  alone. —  I 
{Brande's  Encyclopedia.)  1 


ALG 

I      AIR  VESSELS.      Spiral   vessels, 
tracheae. 

j  ALATE  (froma/a,  a?nV).  With 
i  lateral  expansions,  winged. 
!  ALBUMEN.  One  of  tlie important 
'  azotized  principles  of  animals  and 
plants.  In  the  solid  state  it  consti- 
tutes the  principal  component  of 
membranes,  and  in  the  fluid  form  is 
found  in  the  serum  of  blood  and  the 
white  of  egg.  The  juice  of  all  plants 
contains  a  small  quantity.  In  the 
moist  state  it  is  readily  putrescible, 
and  coagulates  at  about  180^  Fahren- 
heit ;  but  when  dry  it  is  a  transpa- 
rent, brittlfe  substance,  which  resists 
decay.  For  its  composition,  see  Pro- 
tein. 

Albumen,  in  botany,  is  the  fleshy, 
mealy,  or  horny  substance  forming 
the  substance  of  the  seed,  and  lying 
between  the  embrvo  and  testa. 

alburnum".  The  sap  wood. 
The  ascending  sap  rises  along  its 
pores.  It  is  usually  of  a  different 
colour,  and  much  more  perishable 
than  the  heart  wood. 

ALCOHOL.  Spirit  of  wine.  It  is 
formed  daring  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion. The  pure  spirit  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  .792,  and  consists  of  d  He 
0:.  It  is  present  in  brandy,  whiskey, 
and  strong  spirits  to  the  extent  of 
fifty  per  cent.,  twenty-five  per  cent, 
in  strong  wines,  ten  per  cent,  in  ci- 
der and  ales,  and  six  per  cent,  in  beer. 
It  is  of  great  use  in  the  laboratory  as 
a  solvent  of  resins,  &c.,  and  for  the 
hot  flame  it  produces  when  burned  in 
lamps. 

ALDER.  Shrubs  of  the  genus  ^Z- 
nus,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the 
birch.  The  common  swamp  alder  is 
the  A.  scrrulata.  The  A.  glauca  (black 
alder)  is  used  by  dyers  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  black. 

ALE.  A  strong  beer  made  from, 
light  malt. 

ALE-HOOF.     Ground  ivy. 

ALEMBIC.  A  retort  with  a  move- 
able cover  or  cap. 

ALEXANDERS.  An  umbelliferr 
ous  plant,  formerly  cultivated  like 
celery. 

ALG-E.        The    family   of   sea- 
weeds and  fresh- water  weeds  (^Con,' 
11 


ALL 

ferva).  They  are  cellular  and  crypto- 
gamic. 

ALIMENTARY  CANAL.  The 
passage  from  the  mouth  through  the 
stomach  and  intestines. 

ALITKUNCK,  ALITRUNCUS. 
In  entomology,  the  posterior  segment 
of  the  thorax  of  an  insect,  to  which 
the  abdomen  is  alhxed,  and  which 
bears  the  legs,  properly  so  called,  or 
the  two  posterior  pairs,  and  the 
wings. 

ALIZARINE.  The  red  colouring 
principle  of  madder. 

ALKALI,  ALCALI.  A  term  ori- 
ginally applied  to  the  ashes  of  plants, 
now  generally  used  to  designate  pot- 
ash, soda,  lithia,  and  ammonia,  which 
are  also  termed  vegetable,  mineral, 
and  volatile  alkali.  These  substan- 
ces have  certain  properties  in  com- 
mon, such  as  neutralizing  and  form- 
ing salts  with  the  acids,  reddening 
several  vegetable  yellows,  and  chan- 
ging some  blues  to  green,  and  ready 
solubility  in  water.  Lime,  baryta, 
strontia,  and  magnesia  have  been 
called  alkaline  earths,  from  their  an- 
alogous action  on  vegetable  colours. 
Lithia  is  also  one  of  the  alkalis.  A 
singular  class  of  bodies  have  been  dis- 
covered in  vegetables,  which  have 
been  termed  alkalis,  or  alkaloids, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  their  pow- 
er of  saturating,  and  forming  detinite 
salts  with  the  acids.  Morphia,  quin- 
ia,  &c.,  are  substances  of  this  descrip- 
tion. 

ALKALIMETER.  A  graduated 
glass  tube  employed  in  determining 
the  quantity  of  real  alkali  in  commer- 
cial potash  and  soda,  by  the  quantity 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  a  known 
strength  which  a  certain  weight  of 
these  saturates. 

ALKANET.  Anchusa  tincloria. 
The  root  of  this  plant,  which  is  a  na- 
tive of  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe, 
contains  a  red  resinous  colouring 
matter,  which  it  imparts  to  alcohol 
and  oils  ;  it  is  used  to  tinge  some 
ointments,  especially  lip-salves,  of  a 
red  colour. 

ALLANTOIS.  A  membrane  at- 
tached to  the  extremity  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  in  the  fetal  calf  and 
12 


ALM 

other  animals.  It  contains  the  allan- 
toic fluid. 

ALLSPICE.     The  pimento. 

ALLUVIUM,  ALLUVION.  A  soil 
formed  by  the  deposites  of  ancient 
rivers,  or  washed  from  hill-sides  by 
floods.  The  character  of  the  soil  dif- 
fers with  the  country  through  which 
the  flood  has  passed  ;  hut  it  is  al- 
ways rich,  because  it  contains  matter 
finely  divided,  and  much  organic  re- 
mains. It  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  diluvium,  which  signifies  an  an- 
cient gravel. 

ALMOND.  Amygdalus  argentea 
and  nana.  The  silver  and  dwarf  al- 
mond ornamental  slirubs. 

ALMOND-TREE.  Amygdalus  com- 
munis. Varieties  :  bitter,  sweet  ten- 
der shell,  sweet  hard  shell,  long  fruit, 
and  peach-almond  of  large  size.  The 
tree  is  of  small  size,  bears  an  abun- 
dance of  flowers,  and  may  be  grown 
advantageously  south  of  Maryland. 

Propagation. — All  the  species  and 
varieties  are  propagated  by  seeds, 
budding,  grafting,  layers,  and  occa- 
sionally they  will  produce  suckers, 
which  may  be  successfully  planted 
out.  "When  stocks  for  budding  or 
grafting  upon  are  wanted,  or  new  va- 
rieties desired,  these  are  obtained  by 
sowing  the  fruit  stones,  though  they 
may  be  budded  or  grafted  on  mussel- 
plum  stocks. 

The  stones  of  the  last  season's 
produce  should  be  sown  in  October, 
upon  a  bed  of  light,  rich  soil,  about 
three  inches  apart,  and  covered  four 
inches  deep  with  fine  soil.  This  is 
indispensable  ;  for  when  the  soil  is 
left  in  lumps,  the  shoots  are  often 
forced  into  a  crooked  direction,  and 
this  causes  the  trunk  to  be  deform- 
ed, and  unfit  to  become  a  fine  tree. 
"When  the  surface  of  the  seed-bed 
has  been  smoothed,  a  covering  of  rot- 
ten tanner's  bark  or  leaf  mould,  to 
the  depth  of  two  inches,  must  be  laid 
upon  it,  which  being  light,  prevents 
the  fruit-stones  from  being  damaged 
by  any  severity  of  winter.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  May  this  covering  of  bark 
or  leaves  must  be  raked  clean  off  the 
bed.  The  stones  might  be  reserved 
till  spring,  and  be  sown  at  the  end  of 


ALM 

Marcli,  but  the  plants  do  not  come  so 
certainly  as  when  sown  in  autumn. 
An  additional  advantage  of  an  au- 
tumn sowing  is,  that  the  plants  come 
np  about  six  weeks  or  two  months 
earlier  than  those  sown  in  spring ; 
consequently,  the  plants  become  vig- 
orous and  well  rooted  the  first  year, 
and  thereby  not  liable  to  be  thrown 
out  of  the  ground  by  thaws  succeed- 
ing frost  in  the  following  winter. 

During  summer,  care  must  be  ta- 
ken to  pull  up  all  weeds  when  very 
young  ;  for  if  they  be  allowed  to  get 
strong  before  pulling  out,  tliis  opera- 
tion is  apt  to  injure  the  roots  of  the 
almond  plants. 

When  almond  stones  have  been 
sown  in  spring,  it  will  be  necessary, 
at  the  approach  of  the  succeeding 
winter,  to  have  the  beds  covered 
with  rotten  tanner's  bark,  or  leaf 
mould,  scattering  it  an  inch  deep  or 
more  among  the  plants  :  a  cover- 
ing which  will  tend  to  prevent  the 
plants  being  injured  or  thrown  out 
by  frost. 

In  the  second  spring  after  the  sow- 
ing, the  plants  should  he  taken  up, 
carefully  preserving  all  the  fibrous 
roots :  a  care  which,  as  they  are  but 
sparingly  produced,  will  be  essentially 
necessary.  The  plants  must  be  trans- 
planted in  rows,  two  feet  apart  row 
from  row,  and  a  foot  and  a  lialf  dis- 
tant in  the  rows.  Here  they  may  be 
trained  to  form  standards,  half  stand- 
ards, or  dwarfs,  and  be  regulated  and 
prepared  either  ibr  wall  training  or 
shrubbery  plantations.  For  i)oth  pur- 
poses, attention  will  be  requisite  du- 
ring summer  and  wniter  to  thin  out 
the  branches,  reserving  only  a  suita- 
ble number  for  the  future  limbs  of  the 
tree,  and  these  so  far  apart  that  they 
may  not,  in  any  future  stage  of  growth, 
be  liable  to  rub  against  each  other, 
which  standard  trees  would  be  liable 
to  ;  for  if  this  be  not  avoided,  gum 
would  be  exuded  at  such  injured 
parts,  and  the  speedy  decay  of  the 
tree  be  the  consequence. 

Almond  plants  intended  for  train- 
ing against  walls  should  have  some 
stakes  fixed  in  the  ibrm  of  a  trellis, 
to  which  the  branches  should  be  se- 


ALU 

cured  in  a  proper  form,  so  that  they 
may  be  suited  to  the  position  of  the 
wall  on  their  final  removal. — {Miller's 
DicUonan/.) 

ALOES.  The  dried  juice,  or  an 
extract  of  numerous  species  of  Aloe, 
particularly  the  Aloe  spicata.  The 
plants  inhabit  arid  countries  in  the 
tropics,  and  have  long,  rather  fleshy 
leaves,  and  a  liliaceous  inflorescence 
arranged  in  spikes. 

The  drug  is  a  nauseous,  bitter,  and 
warm  purgative.  It  is  administered 
to  horses  in  balls  of  six  to  eight 
drachms. 

ALOPECURUS.  The  genus  of 
fox-tail  grasses  ;  they  resemble  the 
cat's-tail.  Many  are  of  great  agricul- 
tural value.     See  Grasses. 

ALPACA.  The  Llama,  or  Peru- 
vian sheep.  It  is  cultivated  in  the 
Andes  of  Peru  lor  its  long  fleece,  and 
as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  flesh  is 
also  good.    These  animals  are  of  the 


same  family  as  the  camel,  and  are  ex- 
tremely hardy  and  abstemious.  Their 
wool  is  largely  imported  into  England 
from  Peru. 

ALTERATIVES.  Medicines 
which  improve  the  health  without 
any  active  effects. 

ALTERNATE  HUSBANDRY 
The  system  in  which  one  part  of  the 
farm  is  in  pasture  and  part  arable  ; 
and  these  are  changed  every  few 
years. 

ALUDEL.  An  implement  used  in 
sublimation,  and  resembling  an  alem- 
bic. 

ALUM.  The  sulphate  of  alumina 
and  potash.  The  powder  is  a  pow'er- 
ful  styptic,  and  used  to  arrest  bleed- 
ing. In  lotion  it  is  astringent  and 
13 


AMI 


ANA 


stimulating.  "Wlien  burned,  the  pow- 
der becomes  caustic. 

Tlie  lotion  may  be  made  with  six  to 
eight  drachms  of  alum  to  a  quart  of 
water.  It  is  used  for  grease,  cracks 
in  the  heels  of  horses,  and  ulcers 
after  the  inflammation  is  subdued. 

The  alum  is  used  by  dyers,  but  the 
solution  of  acetate  of  alumina  is  su- 
perior for  most  i)urposes. 

ALUMINA.  Pure  base  of  clay, 
argil.  It  is  a  scsquioxide  of  alumi- 
nium, white,  insoluble  ;  but  it  possess- 
es a  great  affinity  for  water.  In  the 
crystalline  state  it  forms  the  sap- 
phire and  emerald.  It  is  a  feeble 
base,  uniting  with  acids.  The  hy- 
drated  silicate  of  alumina  forms  the 
bulk  of  clav. 

ALUMLNIU.M.  The  metallic  base 
of  alumina. 

ALVEOLATE.  Covered  with  lit- 
tle pits  ;  honey-combed. 

ALVINE.  Relating  to  the  bow- 
els. 

AMALGAM.  A  compound  of  mer- 
cury with  a  metal. 

AMANITA.  A  genus  of  poisonous 
mushrooms. 

AMAUROSIS.  Total  blindness, 
without  loss  of  brilliancy  in  the  eye. 

AMBLE.  The  same  as  the  pace 
in  horsemanship. 

AMBUSTION.     A  scald  or  burn. 

AMELIORATING  CROPS.  Root 
crops,  clovers,  and  grasses,  fed  on 
the  land. 

AMENDMENTS.  Sand,  marl,  and 
other  substances  applied  in  large 
quantities  to  amend  the  tilth. 

AMENTUM.  The  catkin  ;  a  de- 
ciduous spike,  such  as  that  of  wil- 
lows, poplars,  dec.  Trees  with  this 
inflorescence  are  called  amentaceous, 
and  usually  contain  much  potash  in 
their  ashes. 

AMENTABOLIANS.  Insects 
which  do  not  undergo  metamorpho- 
ses. 

AMERICAN  BLIGHT.  The  wool- 
ly or  mealy  aphis.  Aphis  lanigcra, 
also  called  Erwsoma  mali :  it  is  very 
destructive  to  apple  and  pear  trees  in 
England.     See  Insects. 

AMIDOGENE.  A  theoretical  ba- 
sis of  ammonia,  composed  of  N  Hj  : 
14 


its  compounds  with  metals  are  term- 
ed amides,  or  amidides. 

AMIDINE.  The  soluble,  internal 
portions  of  the  starch  globules. 

AM.MONIA.  Volatile  alakli,  spir- 
its of  hartshorn.     See  Nttro^cti. 

AMMONIACAL  GAS.  The  gas- 
eous state  of  pure  ammonia  before  it 
is  dissolved  by  water,  in  which  it  is 
extremely  soluble ;  it  is  also  rapidly 
absorbed  by  charcoal,  clays,  rust,  dec. 

A.MMONTUM.  A  hypothetic  base 
of  ammonia,  consisting  of  N  H4.  The 
oxide  of  ammonium  is  the  common 
base,  as  found  in  the  salts  of  ammo- 
nia, and  consists  of  N  H4  0. 

AMNION.  The  delicate  membrane 
which  surrounds  the  fetus  in  utero : 
it  contains  the  amniotic  fluid,  or  li- 
quor amnios. 

AMNIOS.  The  fluid  within  the 
nucleus  of  the  young  seed,  on  which 
the  embryo  feeds. 

AMORPHOUS.  Without  regular 
figure  or  form. 

AMPHIBOLE.  A  variety  of  horn- 
blende. 

AMPHITROPAL.  In  botany,  an 
embryo  which  is  turned  round  in  the 
albumen,  or  curved  upon  itself  in 
such  a  manner  that  both  its  ends  are 
presented  to  the  same  point. 

AMPLEXICAUL.  Clasping  or 
embracing  the  stem. 

AMYGDALUS.  The  generic  name 
of  the  peach  and  almond. 

AMYGDALOID.  Rocks  in  which 
other  minerals  are  imbedded,  pudding- 
stone. 

AMYGDALIN.  A  white,  sweet- 
ish, soluble  matter  in  bitter  almonds, 
changeable  into  oil  of  bitter  almonds 
by  the  action  of  emulsin. 

AMYLACEOUS.  Starchy,  full  of 
starch. 

AMYLIN.     Pure  starch. 

ANAL  GLANDS.  Glands  for  the 
secretion  of  various  substances,  sit- 
uated near  the  anus. 

ANALYSIS  The  separation  of 
the  components  of  any  substance.  It 
is  quanlUatitc  when  the  amount  of 
each  ingredient  is  to  be  known,  quali- 
tative when  the  nature  only. 

Analysis  of  soils  is  of  no  value  un- 
less rigorously  performed  with  per- 


ANALYSIS. 


feet  means.     It  is  best,  however,  for  ' 
agricultural  purposes,  to  discover  the 
presence  or  absence  of  a  given  sub- 
stance, as  lime  or  bone  earth,  rather 
than  enter  into  the  complete  solution 
of  the  substance.  The  ordinary  means 
flf  distinguishuig  the  components  of , 
a   soil  is  given    under  Soils.     The  | 
following,  from  Boussingault,  is  of  a  ; 
higher  character :  | 

In  examining  a  soil,  attention  ought  | 
to  be  directed,  1st,  to  the  sand  ;  2d,  to  ] 
the  clay  ;  3d,  to  the  humus  which  it  ] 
contains.     It  would  farther  be  useful 
to  inquire  particularly  in  regard  to 
certain  other  principles  which  exert  '■ 
an  unquestionable  inlluence  upon  ve- 
getation, such  as  certain  alkalme  and 
earthy  salts. 

Vegetable  earth  dried  in  the  air 
until  it  becomes  quite  friable  may 
nevertheless  still  retain  a  considera- 
ble quantity  of  water,  and  which  can 
only  be  dissipated  by  the  assistance 
of  a  somewhat  high  temperature.  It 
is  therefore  proper,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, to  bring  all  the  soils  which  it 
is  proposed  to  examine  comparative- 
ly, to  one  constant  degree  of  dryness. 
The  best  and  quickest  way  of  drying 
such  a  substance  as  a  portion  of  soil, 
is  to  make  use  of  the  oil  bath  ;  a  quan- 
tity of  oil  contained  in  a  copper  ves- 
sel is  readily  kept  at  an  almost  uni- 
form temperature  by  means  of  a  lamp. 
A  thermometer  plunged  in  the  bath 
shows  the  degree  to  which  it  is  heat- 
ed :  the  substance  to  be  dried  is  put 
into  a  glass  tube  of  no  great  depth, 
and  sufficiently  wide  ;  or  into  a  por- 
celain or  silver  capsule,  if  the  quan- 
tity to  be  operated  upon  be  somewhat 
considerable  :  these  tubes  or  vessels 
are  placed  in  the  oil  so  as  to  be  im- 
mersed in  it  to  about  two  thirds  of 
their  height.  For  the  desiccation  of 
soils,  the  temperature  may  be  carried 
to  150^  or  160^  C.  (334=  or  352=  F.). 
The  weight  of  the  vessel  is  first  ac- 
curately taken,  and  a  given  weight  of 
the  matter  to  be  dried  is  then  thrown 
into  it,  after  which  it  is  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  bath.  If  we  oper- 
ate upon  from  GOO  to  700  grains,  the 
drying  must  be  continued  during  two 
or  three  hours ;  the  weight  of  the 


capsule  with  its  contents,  after  hav- 
ving  been  wiped  thoroughly  clean,  is 
then  taken.  It  is  placed  anew  in  the 
bath,  and  its  weight  is  taken  a  sec- 
ond time  after  an  interval  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  minutes  ;  if  tlie  weight  has 
not  diminished,  it  is  a  proof  that  the 
drying  was  complete  at  the  time  of 
the  first  trial.  In  the  contrary  case, 
the  operation  must  be  continued,  and 
no  drying  must  be  held  terminated  un- 
til two  consecutive  weighings,  made 
at  an  interval  of  from  fifteen  to  twen- 
ty minutes,  show  anything  more  than 
a  very  trifiing  difference.  Davy  points 
out  another  and  much  more  simple 
method,  which,  although  far  from  ac- 
curate, may  nevertheless  suffice  in 
many  general  trials.  The  soil  to  be 
dried  is  put  into  a  porcelain  capsule 
heated  by  a  lamp,  and  a  thermome- 
ter, with  whicii  the  mass  may  be  stir- 
red, is  placed  in  its  middle,  and  shows 
the  temperature  at  each  moment. 
Lastly,  in  many  circumstances  the 
marine  bath  may  suffice.  In  drying, 
the  main  point  is  to  do  so  at  a  known 
temperature,  and  one  which  may  be 
reproduced  ;  for  the  absolute  desicca- 
tion of  a  quantity  of  soil  could  not  be 
accomplished  except  at  a  heat  close 
upon  redness,  and  this  would,  of 
course,  alter  or  destroy  the  organic 
matters  it  contains. 

The  organic  matters  contained  in 
ordinary  soils  consist  in  part  of  pie- 
ces of  straw  and  of  roots,  which  are 
usually  separated  by  sifting  the  earth 
through  a  hair  sieve  ;  the  gravel  and 
stones  which  the  soil  contains  are 
separated  in  the  same  way. 

The  earth  sifted  is  now  washed. 
To  accomplish  this,  it  is  introduced 
into  a  matrass,  with  three  or  four 
times  its  bulk  of  hot  distilled  water  ; 
the  whole  is  shaken  well  for  a  time, 
the  matrass  is  left  to  stand  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  then  the  liquid  is  decanted 
into  a  wide  porcelain  capsule.  The 
washing  is  continued,  fresh  quanti- 
ties of  water  being  added  each  time, 
until  the  whole  of  the  clay  has  been 
removed,  which  is  known  by  the  fluid 
becoming  clear  very  speedily ;  the 
sand  which  remains  is  then  washed 
out  into  another  capsule.  The  argil- 
15 


ANALYSIS. 


laceous  particles,  or  the  clay  and  all 
the  matters  held  in  suspension  in  the 
water,  are  tlirowii  upon  a  lilter  and 
dried  ;  the  desiccation  is  completed 
by  the  same  process,  and  under  the 
•ame  circumstances  as  that  of  the 
•oil  had  been.  The  sand  is,  in  like 
nanner,  dried  with  the  same  care. 

If  we  would  ascertain  the  nature 
and  quantity  of  the  soluble  salts,  the 
whole  of  the  water  used  in  the  wash- 
ing must  be  put  together  and  evapo- 
rated, which  may  be  done  upon  a 
sand  bath.  The  evaporation  is  push- 
ed to  dryness,  and  the  salts  that  re- 
main, having  been  previously  weigh- 
ed, are  thrown  into  a  small  platinum 
capsule,  in  which  they  are  heated  to 
a  dull  red  by  means  of  a  spirit-lamp, 
in  order  to  burn  out  the  organic  salts, 
and  thus  distinguish,  by  means  of  a 
subsequent  weighing,  between  them 
and  the  inorganic  salts. 

The  sand  may  be  silicious  or  cal- 
careous. The  presence  of  carbonate 
of  lime  is  readily  ascertained  by  treat- 
ing it  with  an  acid  wiiich  will  form 
a  soluble  salt  with  lime,  such  as  hy- 
drochloric, nitric,  or  acetic  acid.  Ef- 
fervescence shows  the  presence  of 
a  carbonate,  the  quantity  of  which 
may  be  estimated  by  weighing  the 
sand  dry  before  and  after  its  treat- 
ment with  the  acid,  particular  care 
being,  of  course,  taken  to  wash  the 
remaining  sand  well  before  setting  it 
to  dry.  Tiiis,  however,  is  an  opera- 
tion of  little  use  ;  the  great  object  is 
to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  sandy 
matter.  Had  we  a  particular  inter- 
est in  ascertaining  the  presence  and 
estimating  the  quantity  of  the  earthy 
carbonates  contained  in  a  sample  of 
soil,  it  would  be  advisable  to  make  a 
special  inquiry,  inasmuch  as  the  fine- 
ly-divided calcareous  earth  being  car- 
ried off  along  with  the  clay  in  the 
course  of  the  washing,  the  sand  ob- 
tained never  contains  the  whole  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  argillaceous  matter  procured 
by  the  washing  is  far  from  being  pure 
clay ;  it  contains  a  quantity  of  ex- 
tremely fine  sand,  particles  of  calca- 
reous earth,  and  if  the  soil  contain 
humus,  the  more  delicate  particles 
16 


of  this  substance  will  also  be  inclu- 
ded. 

To  determine  the  quantity  of  hu- 
mus, recourse  is  generally  had  to  its 
destruction  by  heat.  A  known  weight 
of  dried  earth  is  heated  to  redness  in 
a  capsule,  and  constantly  stirred  for 
a  time,  and  when  no  more  of  those 
brilliant  points  or  sparks,  which  are 
indications  of  the  combustion  of  car- 
bon, are  observed,  it  is  set  to  cool, 
and  then  weighed.  This  is  the  meth- 
od which  has  been  generally  followed 
by  Davy  and  others.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  find  a  method  more  con- 
venient than  this,  but  it  is,  unfortu- 
nately, very  inaccurate.  Soils  dried 
at  a  temperature  at  which  organic 
matter,  such  as  humus,  &c.,  begins 
to  change,  still  retain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water  in  union  with  the 
clay.  This  water  is  disengaged  at 
the  red  heat  required  for  the  combus- 
tion of  the  organic  matters  ;  and  as 
their  quantity  is  estimated  by  the  loss 
of  weight  on  the  subsequent  weigh- 
ing, it  is  obvious  that  the  loss  from 
the  dissipation  of  water  is  added  to 
that  which  proceeds  from  the  de- 
struction of  the  humus.  It  is  un- 
doubtedly to  this  cause  of  error  that 
we  must  ascribe  the  large  proportions 
of  humus  mentioned  in  the  soils  ex- 
amined by  Thaer  and  Einhoff;  it  is 
therefore  better  to  restrict  the  exam- 
ination to  the  determination  of  the 
presence  or  absence  of  humus  than 
to  attempt  to  ascertain  its  quantity 
by  so  imperfect  a  method. 

Priestley  and  Arthur  Young  were 
already  aware  that  a  more  delicate 
operation  was  required  to  determine 
the  quantity  of  humus.  They  recom- 
mend calcination  of  the  soil  in  a  close 
vessel,  and  that  the  gaseous  products 
should  be  collected.  This  mode  of 
proceeding,  however,  would  have  but 
slight  advantages  over  that  which  I 
have  just  criticised,  inasmuch  as  the 
volume  of  gas  collected  varies  with 
every  diflerence  of  heat  employed. 

The  only  method,  in  my  opinion, 
which  we  have  of  learning  the  quan- 
tity of  humus,  of  organic  debris, 
which  is  contained  in  a  sod,  is  that 
of  an  elementary  analysis.     It  is  by 


ANALYSIS. 


burning  a  known  quantity  of  earth 
thoroughly  dried  by  means  of  the  ox- 
yde  of  copper,  aided  by  a  current  of 
oxygen,  that  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
may  be  determined.  But  the  most 
important  point  of  all  is  to  ascertain 
the  amount  of  azote  included  in  the 
organic  remains  of  the  soil ;  and  we 
have,  happily,  precise  means  in  our 
elementary  analysis  of  ascertaining 
the  quantity  of  azote  from  which  the 
amount  of  azotized  organic  matter 
may  be  accurately  inferred. 

It  may  be  very  useful  to  determine 
the  presence  or  absence  of  carbonate 
of  lime  in  a  soil ;  this  knowledge 
would,  of  course,  guide  us  in  our  ap- 
plications of  lime,  marl,  &c.  Two 
modes  may  be  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  1st,  the  soil  may  be  treated  by 
nitric  acid  slightly  diluted  with  water. 
Any  etfervescence  will  denote  the 
presence,  in  all  probability,  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime.  I  say  in  all  probability, 
because  the  disengagement  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  under  such  circum- 
stances generally  indicates  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonate  of  lime  ;  it  is  not, 
however,  a  special  character,  because 
the  disengagement  may  be  due  to  the 
presence  of  any  other  carbonate.  It 
is  well  to  boil  the  acid  solution  upon 
the  sample  of  soil  that  is  analyzed ; 
the  part  which  is  not  dissolved  is 
thrown  upon  a  filter  and  washed  with 
distilled  or  rainwater  boiling  hot. 
Into  the  clear  filtered  liquor  which 
results  from  all  the  portions  of  water 
used  in  the  washing,  a  little  ammonia 
is  added  ;  if  any  precipitate  falls,  it 
is  collected  upon  a  filter  and  washed  : 
to  the  new  liquors  obtained  by  this 
washing,  a  solution  of  oxalate  of  am- 
monia is  added.  If  there  be  any  lime 
present,  it  is  thrown  down  in  the 
state  of  oxalate,  and  the  liquor,  hav- 
ing been  left  at  rest  for  five  or  six 
hours,  becomes  completely  clear ;  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  the  solu- 
tion of  oxalate  of  ammonia  to  this 
clear  fluid  satisfies  us  whether  the 
whole  of  the  lime  has  been  precipita- 
ted or  not.  The  oxalate  of  lime  is 
received  upon  a  filler,  washed,  and 
dried  ;  it  is  then  thrown  into  a  plati- 
num capsule  along  with  the  piece  of 
B2 


filtering  paper  upon  which  it  was  col- 
lected, and  is  heated  to  a  dull  red,  un- 
til the  paper  of  the  filter  is  complete- 
ly consumed  and  no  farther  trace  of 
carbon  appears  ;  the  capsule  is  then 
taken  from  the  fire,  or  from  over  the 
spirit  lamp,  and  cooled  ;  when  cold, 
the  matter  which  it  contains  is  moist- 
ened with  a  concentrated  solution  ot 
carbonate  of  ammonia. 

The  matter  is  then  dried,  great 
care  being  taken  that  nothing  is  lost 
by  particles  flying  out,  and  the  cap- 
sule is  again  heated  to  a  dull  red  ; 
when  cold,  it  is  weighed  accurately, 
and  the  quantity  of  matter  contained 
then  becomes  known.  This  matter 
is  carbonate  of  lime,  100  of  which 
represents  56-3  of  lime  and  43-7  of 
carbonic  acid.  I  have  said  that  in 
arable  soil  other  carbonates  may  be 
met  with  besides  that  of  lime  ;  calca- 
reous soils,  for  example,  very  com- 
monly contain  carbonate  of  magne- 
sia. If  we  would  ascertain  the  quan- 
tity of  this  earth,  the  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding which  I  have  just  particular- 
ly indicated  enables  us  to  do  so  ;  we 
have  but  to  evaporate  the  liquid  from 
which  the  oxalate  of  lime  was  depos- 
ited, and  then  to  calcine  the  product 
of  the  evaporation  in  a  platinum  cap- 
sule. Any  nitrate  of  magnesia  which 
may  exist  there  will  be  decomposed 
at  a  dull  red  heat,  as  well  as  any  ox- 
alate of  ammonia  which  may  have 
resulted  from  anmionia  added  in  ex- 
cess. By  treating  the  residue  of  the 
calcination  with  water,  we  obtain  the 
magnesia,  which,  being  washed,  has 
only  to  be  calcined,  and  its  weight 
ascertained  by  weighing. 

2.  If  we  would  be  content  with  a 
simple  approximation,  we  may  judge 
of  the  quantity  of  calcareous  carbon- 
ate contained  in  a  vegetable  soil  by 
measuring  the  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  which  we  obtain  from  it.  We 
counterpoise  upon  the  scale  of  a  bal- 
ance a  vial  containing  some  diluted 
nitric  acid  ;  we  weigh  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  the  earth  to  be  analyzed,  and 
this  is  added  by  degrees  to  the  acid. 
If  the  earth  contains  carbonates,  ef- 
fervescence ensues.  The  liquid  is 
shaken  with  care,  and  having  waited 
17 


ANALYSIS. 


a  few  minutes  in  order  to  let  the  car- 
bonic acid  whicli  is  mixed  with  the 
air  of  the  vial  escape,  the  vial  with 
its  contents  is  ajrain  put  into  the  bal- 
ance. If  there  has  been  no  disen- 
gagement of  carbonic  acid,  it  is  clear 
that,  to  restore  the  equilibrium,  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  add  to  the  opposite 
scale  the  weight  of  the  earth  which 
was  put  into  the  vial ;  whatever  is 
wanting  of  this  weight  represents 
precisely  the  weight  of  carbonic  acid 
which  has  been  disengaged.  Presu- 
ming this  acid  to  have  been  combi- 
ned with  lime,  the  weight  of  the  cal- 
careous carbonate  can  be  calculated 
exactly. 

Sulphate  of  lime  is  an  occasional 
constituent  of  soils  ;  to  ascertain  its 
presence  and  quantity,  the  following 
is  the  method  of  procedure  : 

The  earth,  well  pulverized,  is  first 
roasted  for  a  considerable  time  in  a 
crucible  or  platinum  capsule  until  all 
the  organic  matter  is  completely  de- 
stroyed ;  it  is  advisable  to  operate  on 
about  100  grammes,  or  about  32  oun- 
ces troy  of  soil.  After  this  operation, 
the  matter  is  boiled  in  four  or  five 
times  its  weight  of  distilled  water  for 
some  time,  water  being  added  to  re- 
place that  which  is  dissipated  by 
evaporation  ;  we  then  filter,  rewash, 
and  having  added  all  the  liquors,  we 
evaporate  in  a  capsule  until  the  vol- 
ume of  the  lifjuid  is  reduced  to  a  few 
drachms.  To  the  liquid  thus  concen- 
trated we  add  its  own  bulk  of  alcohol. 
If  the  solution  contains  sulphate  of 
lime,  it  will  be  deposited,  and  the  de- 
posite  being  received  upon  a  filter 
and  washed  with  weak  alcohol,  its 
weight  is  taken  after  having  been 
dried  and  calcined.  This  salt  is  fre- 
quently seen  deposited  in  the  form  of 
fine  colourless  needles  on  the  cooling 
of  the  sufliciently  concentrated  solu- 
tion ;  but  the  addition  of  alcohol  is 
always  useful,  because  the  sulphate 
of  lime,  which  is  not  very  soluble  in 
water,  is  altogether  insoluble  in  weak 
spirits,  which,  on  the  contrary,  dis- 
solves certain  alkaline  and  earthy 
salts  whose  presence  would  interfere 
with  the  accuracy  of  the  result. 

It  may  be  matter  of  great  moment 
18 


to  determine  the  existence  and  the 
quantity  of  phosphates  contained  in 
a  soil  destined  for  cultivation.  Al- 
though the  search  for  phosphoric  acid 
may  perhaps  require  a  certain  famil- 
iarity with  chemical  analysis,  I  shall 
nevertheless  indicate  the  method  of 
procedure.  It  is  much  to  be  desired 
that  enlightened  agriculturists  should 
not  remain  strangers  to  manipula- 
tions of  this  kind. 

The  soil  to  be  analyzed  must  be  de- 
prived of  all  organic  matters  by  cal- 
cination. After  having  reduced  it  to 
a  very  fine  powder,  it  is  to  be  boiled 
for  about  an  hour  with  three  or  four 
times  its  weight  of  nitric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  solution  is  then 
diluted  with  distilled  water,  and  filter- 
ed ;  the  matter  which  remains  upon 
the  filter  is  generally  silica  or  alumina 
which  has  escaped  the  action  of  the 
acid.  After  having  reduced  the  wash- 
ings by  evaporation,  and  added  them 
to  the  acid  liquor,  ammonia  in  solu- 
tion is  poured  in.  Taking  the  sim- 
plest instance,  the  precipitate  which 
lalls  upon  the  addition  of  this  alkali 
may  contain,  1st,  phosphoric  acid  in 
union  with  the  peroxide  of  iron  and 
lime  ;  2d,  oxide  of  iron  and  of  man- 
ganese ;  3d,  silica.  This  precipitate, 
which  is  usually  of  a  gelatinous  ap- 
pearance, is  received  upon  a  filter, 
well  washed  and  dried,  when  the  pre- 
cipitate is  readily  detached  from  the 
filter.  It  is  thrown  into  a  platinum 
capsule  which  is  raised  to  a  white 
heat,  after  which  the  weight  of  the 
residue  is  taken.  The  precipitate  af- 
ter calcination  is  thrown  into  a  small 
glass  matrass,  and  dissolved  by  hot 
hydrochloric  acid.  If  there  is  any  sil- 
ica undissolved,  its  quantity  is  merely 
estimated  if  it  be  very  small  ;  if  it  be 
a  larger  quantity,  it  is  to  be  collected 
upon  a  filter  and  weighed.  To  the 
new  acid  solution  about  three  times 
its  weight  of  alcohol  is  added  ;  the 
mixture  is  shaken,  and  pure  sulphuric 
acid  is  then  instilled  drop  by  drop  un- 
til there  is  no  longer  any  precipitate. 
The  precipitate  is  sulphate  of  lime, 
which  is  thrown  upon  a  filter,  where 
it  is  washed  with  diluted  alcohol ;  it 
is  then  dried,  calcined,  and  the  weight 


ANALYSIS. 


of  the  sulphate  of  lime  obtained  per- 
mits us  to  calculate  that  of  the  lime 
which  formed  part  of  the  precipitate 
thrown  down  by  the  ammonia  in  the 
first  instance.  100  of  sulphate  of  lime 
are  equivalent  to  41-5  of  pure  lime. 

The  alcoholic  liquor  is  concentra- 
ted in  order  to  expel  the  spirit ;  as  it 
is  acid,  it  is  saturated  with  ammonia 
until  a  slight  precipitate  begins  to  be 
formed,  which  is  not  redissolved  upon 
shaking  the  mixture.  A  few  drops 
of  the  hydrosulphate  of  ammonia  are 
then  added,  upon  which  the  iron  and 
the  manganese  fall  in  the  state  of  sul- 
phurets.  As  a  part  of  the  metals  has 
been  precipitated  in  the  state  of  ox- 
ide by  the  ammonia  added  in  the  hy- 
drosulphate, it  is  well  to  digest  for 
eight  or  ten  hours,  because  the  hy- 
drosulphate of  ammonia  always  ends 
by  changing  the  metals  present  into 
sulphurets,  which  being  washed, 
dried,  and  reduced  to  the  state  of 
oxides  by  calcination  in  a  platinum 
capsule,  are  weighed. 

If  the  first  ammoniacal  precipitate 
did  not  contain  phosphoric  acid,  its 
weight  ought  to  be  reproduced  by 
adding  that  of  the  hme  to  that  of  the 
metallic  oxides  proceeding  from  the 
calcination  of  the  sulphurets.  Any 
loss  which  is  noted  after  this,  is  due, 
if  the  process  has  been  well  conduct- 
ed, to  phosphoric  acid,  which  had  not 
been  collected,  but  which  has  remain- 
ed in  the  state  of  phosphate  of  ammo- 
nia in  the  liquid  treated  by  the  hydro- 
sulphate.  To  determine  with  pre- 
cision the  presence  of  phosphoric 
acid,  the  liquid  in  question  must  be 
evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  resi- 
due heated  strongly  in  a  platinum 
capsule.  After  the  dissipation  and 
decomposition  of  the  ammoniacal 
salts,  there  remains  watery  phos- 
phoric acid,  distinguishable  by  its 
powerful  acid  reaction,  its  sirupy  con- 
sistence, and  its  fixity. 

By  way  of  example,  I  shall  give  the 
results  obtained  in  an  analysis  of  this 
kind  : 

From  the  acid  liquor,  ammonia  threw  down 
of:  grs.  troy. 

Phosphates  and  metallic  oxides  .  .  t>'lll2 
These  gave  of  sulphate  of  lime  .  .  b'dS 
E  luivalent  to  lime  ....  3'612 


Hydrosulphate  of  ammonia  caused  a  pre- 
cipitate, which,  calcined,  gave  of  me- 
tallic oxides  Ifi20 

Lime  and  metallic  oxides  together       .  5-2:t3 
Difference  due  to  phosphoric  acid        .  2'7a9 

The  analysis  for  phosphoric  acid 
may  be  simplified  by  employing  a  pro- 
cess conceived  by  M.  I3erthier,  and 
which  is  founded  ujjon  the  strong  af- 
finity of  this  acid  for  the  peroxide  of 
iron,  and  the  insolubility  of  the  phos- 
phate of  the  peroxide  of  iron  in  dilute 
acetic  acid.  If  to  a  fluid  containing  at 
once  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  peroxide 
of  iron,  alumina,  and  magnesia  in  so- 
lution, ammonia  be  added,  the  precipi- 
tate will  contain  the  whole  of  the  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  acid  will  be  in  great 
part  combined  in  the  state  of  phos- 
phate of  iron,  if  the  peroxide  of  iron 
be  in  quantity  more  than  sufficient  to 
neutralize  it :  a  condition  which  must 
be  frequently  expected  in  an  arable 
soil ;  however,  to  make  sure  of  this 
point,  it  is  well  to  add  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  the  peroxide  of  iron  to  the  soil 
which  is  to  be  analyzed.  Besides  the 
phosphate  of  iron,  the  precipitate  may 
contain  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate 
of  alumina,  and  certainly  ammoniacal 
magnesian  phosphate.  Finally,  with 
these  phosphates  will  be  found  asso- 
ciated alumina  and  oxide  of  iron,  the 
latter  especially,  if  it  has  been  intro- 
duced in  excess.  The  precipitate,  col- 
lected upon  a  filter  and  washed,  must 
then  be  treated  with  dilute  acetic  acid, 
which  will  dissolve  the  lime,  the  mag- 
nesia, and  the  excess  of  the  oxides  of 
iron  and  alumina  ;  and  there  will  re- 
main phosphate  of  iron  or  phosphate 
of  alumina,  because  the  latter  salt  is 
as  insoluble  as  the  former  in  acetic 
acid.  Whenever  the  precipitate  in 
question,  therefore,  leaves  a  residue 
which  is  insoluble  in  vinegar,  the 
presence  of  phosphoric  acid  may  be 
inferred  ;  this  residue  may  consist  of 
basic  phosphates  of  iron  or  alumina, 
or  of  a  mixture  of  the  two  salts,  and 
no  great  error  will  be  committed  if 
one  hundred  parts  of  this  residue,  cal- 
cined, be  assumed  as  representing 
fifty  of  phosphoric  acid. 

'i'he  presence  of  silica  in  the  pre- 
cipitate insoluble  in  acetic  acid  may, 
19 


ANALYSIS. 


however,  lead  to  error.  To  make 
sure  that  the  precipitate  is  formed  by 
a  phosjiiiatc,  it  must  be  rcdissolved  in 
hydroc'iilorio  acid,  and  the  acid  solu- 
tion evaporated  to  dryness,  so  as  to 
render  the  silica  which  may  e.vist  in 
it  insoluble.  13y  treating  the  resi- 
due with  hydrochloric  acid  again,  the 
phosphates  alone  will  be  dissolved. 
The  presence  of  phosphoric  acid  may 
otherwise  be  determmed  by  treating 
the  phosphate  of  iron  in  solution  in 
the  way  which  I  have  already  indi- 
cated. 

From  what  precedes,  it  must  be  ob- 
vious that  the  most  carefully  conduct- 
ed chemical  analysis  of  a  soil  only 
leads  us  to  the  discovery  of  certain 
principles  which  exist  in  very  small 
quantity,  although  their  action  is  un- 
questionably useful  to  vegetation.  As 
to  the  determination  of  the  relative 
quantities  of  sand  and  loam,  this  rests 
upon  simple  washing  ;  and  a  chemist 
would  spend  his  time  to  very  little 
purpose  in  seeking,  by  means  of  ele- 
mentary analyses,  to  determine  the 
precise  composition  of  these  substan- 
ces. The  finest  part,  carried  off  by 
the  water,  will  always  show  proper- 
ties analogous  to  those  of  clay  ;  the 
sand,  which  is  generally  silicious,  will 
exhibit  the  characters  of  quartz  ;  and 
the  calcareous  fragments  which  are 
mixed  with  it  will  exhibit  those  that 
belong  to  carbonate  of  lime.  It  will 
be  sufficient,  then,  in  connexion  with 
the  mineral  constitution  of  arable 
soils,  to  expose  very  briefly  the  gen- 
eral properties  of  clay  or  loam,  of 
quartz,  and  of  carbonate  of  lime,  sub- 
stances, in  fact,  which  form  the  bases 
of  all  arable  lands.  Pure  clay,  com- 
posed of  silica,  alumina,  and  water, 
does  not  contain  these  substances  in 
the  state  of  simple  mixture.  The  in- 
quiries of  M.  Berthier  have  satisfac- 
torily shown  that  clay  is  a  hydrated 
silicate  of  alumina.  When  we  re- 
move a  portion  of  the  alumina  from 
clay,  for  example,  by  treating  it  with 
a  strong  acid,  the  silica  which  is  set 
at  liberty  will  dissolve  in  an  alkaline 
solution,  which  would  not  be  the  case 
were  the  silica  present  in  the  state 
of  quartzy  sand,  however  fiue. 
20 


Pure  clays  are  white,  unctuous  to 
the  touch,  stick  to  the  tongue  when 
dry,  and  when  breathed  upon,  give 
out  an  odour  which  is  well  known, 
and  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
argillaceous  odour.  Tiiis  property  of 
dry  clay  to  adhere  to  the  tongue  is 
owing  to  its  avidity  for  water.  It  is 
known,  in  fact,  that  dry  clay,  brought 
into  contact  with  water,  first  swells, 
and  finally  mixes  with  it  completely. 
Duly  moistened,  it  forms  a  tough  and 
eminently  plastic  mass.  Exposed  to 
the  air,  moist  clay,  as  it  dries,  shrinks 
considerably  ;  and  if  the  drying  be 
rapid,  the  mass  cracks  in  all  direc- 
tions. It  is  to  an  action  of  this  kind 
that  we  must  ascribe  the  cracks  and 
deep  fissures  which  traverse  our  clay- 
ey soils  in  all  directions  during  the 
continuance  of  great  droughts. 

The  constitutional  water  of  clays 
is  retained  by  a  very  powerful  affin- 
ity, and  does  not  separate  under  a  red 
heat ;  pure  clay  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  about  25  ;  but  the  weight  is  fre- 
quently modified  by  the  presence  of 
foreign  matter,  for  it  contains  sand, 
metallic  oxides,  carbonate  of  lime, 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  frequent- 
ly even  combustilile  substances,  from 
bitumen  to  plumbago,  all  of  which  ad- 
mixtures of  course  modify  the  prop- 
erties  which  are  most  highly  esteem- 
ed in  clays,  such  as  fineness,  white- 
ness, iniusibility,  &c. 

Quartz  is  abundantly  distributed 
throughout  nature,  and  is  met  with  in 
very  different  states  :  in  the  form  of 
transparent  colourless  crystals,  con- 
stituting rock  crystals,  as  sand  of  dif- 
ferent fineness  ;  finally,  in  masses, 
constituting  true  rocks.  .  Quartz  is 
the  silica  of  chemists,  and  a  com- 
pound, according  to  them,  of  oxygen 
and  silicon,  in  the  proportion,  Berze- 
lius  says,  of  100  of  the  radical  to  108 
of  oxygen. 

Silica,  in  a  state  of  purity,  occurs 
in  the  form  of  a  white  powder,  and 
having  a  density  of  2-7.  It  is  infusi- 
ble in  the  most  violent  furnace  ;  but 
it  not  only  melts  in  the  intense  heat 
which  results  from  the  combustion 
of  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
gas,  but  it  is  even  dissipated  in  va- 


ANALYSIS. 


pour.  As  generally  obtained,  silica 
is  held  insoluble  in  water ;  still,  when 
in  a  stale  of  extreme  subdivision,  it 
is  soluble  ;  and  then  its  insolubility  is 
probably  not  so  absolute  as  is  gener- 
ally supposed,  for  M.  Payen  has  found 
notable  quantities  in  the  water  of  the 
Artesian  well  of  Crenelle,  and  in  that 
of  the  Seine.  Silica  exists  especially, 
in  very  appreciable  quantity,  in  cer- 
tain hot  springs,  where  the  presence 
of  an  alkaline  substance  favours  its 
solution  ;  the  water  of  the  hot  springs 
of  Reikuni  in  Iceland  contain  about 
j-g^th  parts  of  its  weight  of  silica; 
and  the  thermal  spring  of  Las  Trin- 
cheras,  near  Puerto  Cabello,  depos- 
ites  abundant  silicious  concretions. 
The  water  of  this  latter  spring,  which 
is  at  the  temperature  of  210°  Fahren- 
heit, besides  silica,  contains  a  quan- 
tity of  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas,  and 
traces  of  nitrogen  gas.  Rock  crystal, 
when  colourless  and  transparent,  may 
be  regarded  as  pure  silica  ;  in  the  va- 
rieties of  quartz  which  mineralogists 
designate  as  chalcedony,  agate,  opal, 
&c.,  the  silica  is  combined  with  dif- 
ferent mineral  substances,  particular- 
ly oxide  of  iron  and  of  manganese, 
alumina,  lime,  and  water. 

Carbonate  of  Lime,  considered  as 
rock,  belongs  to  every  epoch  in  the 
geological  series,  and  frequently  con- 
stitutes extensive  masses.  When 
pure,  it  is  composed  of  lime,  563 ;  car- 
bonic acid,  437 ;  and  its  density  is 
then  from  27  to  29.  It  dissolves 
with  effervescence,  without  leaving 
any  residue  in  hydrochloric  or  nitric 
acid.  Exposed  to  a  red  heat,  its 
acid  is  disengaged,  and  quick-lime  re- 
mains. Carbonate  of  lime  is  insolu- 
ble in  water,  but  it  dissolves  in  very 
considerable  quantity  under  the  influ- 
ence of  carbonic  acid  gas.  When 
such  a  solution  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
the  acid  escapes  by  degrees,  and  the 
carbonate  is  deposited,  by  which 
means  those  numerous  deposites  of 
carbonate  of  lime  are  produced  which 
we  see  constituting  tufas  and  stalac- 
tites. The  solubility  of  carbonate  of 
lime  in  water  acidulated  with  carbon- 
ic acid  enables  us  to  understand  how 
plants  should  meet  with  this  salt  in 


the  soil,  inasmuch  as  rainwater  al- 
ways contains  a  little  carbonic  acid. 

The  mineral  substances  whi(;h  we 
have  now  studied,  taken  isolatedly, 
would  form  an  almost  barren  soil  ; 
but,  by  mixing  them  with  discretion, 
a  soil  would  be  obtained  presenting 
all  the  essential  conditions  of  fertil- 
ity, which  depend,  as  it  would  seem, 
much  less  on  the  chemical  constitu- 
tion of  the  elements  of  the  soil  than 
on  their  physical  properties,  such  as 
their  faculty  of  imbibition,  their  den- 
sity, their  power  of  conducting  heat, 
&c.  It  is  unquestionably  by  study- 
ing these  various  properties  that  we 
come  to  form  a  precise  idea  of  the 
causes  which  secure  or  exclude  the 
qualities  we  require  in  arable  soils 
This  has  been  done  very  ably  by  .M 
Schubler ;  and  his  admirable  papei 
will  remain  a  model  of  one  applica- 
tion of  the  sciences  to  agriculture.* 

The  researches  of  M.  Schubler  were 
directed  to  the  mineral  substances 
which  are  generally  found  in  soils, 
viz.  :  1st.  Silicious  sand  ;  2d.  Calca- 
reous sand  :  3d.  A  sandy  clay  con- 
taining about  xnths  of  sand  ;  4th.  A 
strong  clay  containing  no  more  than 
about  Xflths  of  sand  ;  5th.  A  still 
stronger  clay  containing  no  more 
than  about  ygth  of  sand  ;  6th.  Near 
ly  pure  clay  ;  7th.  Chalk,  or  carbon- 
ate of  lime  in  the  pulverulent  state  ; 
8th.  Humus ;  9th.  Gypsum ;  10th. 
Light  garden  earth,  black,  friable, 
and  fertile,  and  containing,  in  100 
parts,  clay  52-4,  quartzy  sand  365, 
calcareous  sand  1-8,  calcareous  earth 
20,  humus  7-3  ;  11th.  An  arable  soil 
composed  of  clay  51-2,  silicious  sand 
427,  calcareous  sand  04,  calcareous 
earth  2-3,  humus  34;  and,  12th.  An 
arable  soil  taken  from  a  valley  near  the 
Jura,  containing  clay  333,  silicious 
sand  630,  calcareous  sand  12,  calca- 
reous earth  and  humus  12,  loss  1-3. 

The  object  of  these  inquiries  was 
to  ascertain,  tst.  The  specific  grav- 
ity of  soils  ;  2d.  Their  power  of  re- 
taining water ;  3d.  Their  consist- 
ency ;    4th.  Their  aptitude  to  dry ; 

*  Schubler,  Annals  of  French  Agriculture, 
▼ol.  xl.,  p.  122,  2d  series. 

21 


ANA 


ANB 


5th.  Their  disposition  to  contract 
while  drying  ;  Gth.  Their  hygrometric 
force  ;  7th.  Their  power  of  absorbing 
oxygen  ;  8th.  Their  faculty  of  retain- 
ing heat ;  and,  9th.  Their  capacity  to 
acquire  temperature  when  exposed 
to  the  sun's  rays. 

Specijic  Gravity  of  Soils.  —  The 
weight  of  soils  may  be  compared  in 
the  dry  and  pulverulent  state,  or  in 
the  humid  state  ;  or  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  particles  which  enter  into 
their  composition  may  be  determined. 
This  last  information  is  easily  obtain- 
ed by  the  following  method :  Take 
a  common  ground  stopper  bottle  ; 
weigh  it,  stoppered  and  full  of  distil- 
led wafer  ;  let  it  then  be  emptied,  in 
order  that  a  known  quantity  of  the 
soil,  in  the  state  of  powder  and  quite 
dry,  may  be  introduced  into  it.  A 
quantity  of  water  is  now  poured  in, 
and  the  vial  is  shaken  to  secure  the 
disengagement  of  all  air  bubbles  ;  the 
vial  is  then  filled  with  distilled  water, 
and,  when  the  upper  part  has  become 
clear,  the  stopper  is  replaced  ;  the 
vial  is  then  wiped  dry  and  weighed 
again.  The  difference  between  the 
weight  of  the  vial  full  of  water  plus 
that  of  the  matter,  and  the  weight  of 
the  vial  containing  the  matter  and 
the  water  mixed,  gives  the  weight  of 
the  water  displaced  by  this  matter. 
Thus: 

Weight  of  the  vial  full  of  water     .     .     .     60-0 

Weight  of  the  matter       240 

8?0 
Weight  of  the  vial  containing  the  min- 
gled earth  and  water 74'4 

Difference  of  water  displaced   ....       9(5 

which  is  the  weight  of  the  volume  of 
water  equal  to  that  of  the  matter  in- 
troduced into  the  vial ;  we  have,  con- 
sequently, for  the  specilic  gravity  of 
the  earth  f!^  =25,  the  weight  of  the 
water  having  been  taken  as  1. 

This  number  represents  the  mean 
specific  gravity  of  the  isolated  parti- 
cles of  the  powder  which  has  been 
examined  ;  but  we  must  not,  from 
this  density,  pretend  to  deduce  the 
weight  of  a  particular  volume  of  soil 
— a  cubic  foot  or  a  cubic  yard,  for  in- 
stance :  we  should  come  to  far  too 
high  a  number.  The  weight  of  a 
22 


given  volume  of  earth  must  be  deter- 
mined immediately  by  ramming  it 
into  a  mould  or  measure  of  a  known 
capacity. 

From  M.  Schiibler's  experiments 
it  appears,  1st.  That  silicious  and  cal- 
careous sandy  soils  are  the  heaviest 
of  any  ;  2d.  That  clayey  soils  are  of 
least  density  ;  3d.  That  humus  or 
mould  is  of  much  lower  density  than 
clay  ;  4th.  That  a  compound  soil  be- 
ing generally  by  so  much  the  heavier 
as  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  of 
sand,  and  so  much  the  lighter  as  it 
contains  a  larger  quantity  of  clay,  of 
calcareous  earth,  and  of  humus,  it  is 
possible,  from  the  density  of  a  soil, 
to  infer  the  nature  of  the  principles 
which  prevail  in  it.  In  the  course  of 
his  experiments,  M.  Schubler  found 
that  artificial  mixtures  always  gave 
higher  densities  than  those  that  ought 
to  have  resulted  from  the  several  den- 
sities of  each  of  the  sorts  of  substance 
which  formed  the  mixture. 

ANASARCA.  A  dropsy  in  the  cel- 
lular tissue  of  the  limbs. 

ANASTOMOSING.  Growing  to- 
gether, uniting. 

ANASTOMOSIS.  The  interlacing 
and  union  of  small  veins  or  arteries 
proceeding  from  different  parts. 

ANATROPOUS.  A  very  common 
kind  of  embryo,  produced  by  one  side 
of  the  ovule  growing  upon  itself, 
while  the  other  remains  immoveable, 
till,  at  last,  that  part  of  the  ovule 
which  was  originally  next  the  apex 
is  brought  down  to  the  hilum,  the 
base  of  the  nucleus  in  such  cases 
being  at  the  apex  of  the  ovule.  The 
common  apple,  and  the  greater  part 
of  plants,  offer  an  example  of  this. 

ANBURY.  In  farriery,  a  spongy, 
soft  tumour,  commonly  full  of  blood, 
growing  on  any  part  of  an  animal's 
body.  Substances  of  this  kind  may 
be  removed  either  by  means  of  liga- 
tures being  passed  round  their  bases, 
or  by  the  knife,  and  the  subsequent 
application  of  some  caustic,  in  order 
to  effectually  destroy  the  parts  from 
which  they  arise. 

Anbuky,  Amhury,  Club-root :  fingers 
I  and  toes.  A  swelling  formed  on  the 
1  roots  and  ground-stems  of  cabbages, 


ANB 


ANE 


radishes,  turnips,  &c.,  by  the  maggot 
of  a  weevil. 

The  maggot  found  in  the  turnip  an- 
bury is  the  larva  of  Curculio  plcuro- 
stigma  of  Marsham,  and  Rhi/)ich(e>ius 
sulctcollts  of  Gyllenhal.  "  I  live  bred 
this  species  of  weevil,"  says  Mr.  Kir- 
by,  "  from  the  knob-like  galls  on  tur- 
nips, called  the  anbury,  and  I  have 
little  doubt  that  the  same  insects,  or 
a  species  allied  to  them,  cause  the 
clubbing  of  the  roots  of  cabbages." 
Marsham  describes  the  parent  as  a 
coleopterous  insect  of  a  dusky,  black 
colour,  with  the  breast  spotted  with 
white,  and  the  length  of  the  body  one 
line  and  two  thirds. 

The  general  experience  of  farmers 
and  gardeners  upon  the  subject  testi- 
fies that  the  anbury  of  the  turnip  and 
cabbage  usually  attacks  these  crops 
when  grown  for  successive  years  on 
the  same  soil.  This  is  precisely  what 
might  be  expected  ;  for  the  parent  in- 
sect always  deposites  her  eggs  in 
those  situations  where  her  progeny 
will  find  their  appropriate  food  ;  and 
in  the  fragments  of  the  roots,  &c.,  of 
preceding  crops,  some  of  these  em- 
bryo ravagers  are  to  be  expected. 
That  they  never  attack  the  plants 
upon  a  fresh  site  is  not  asserted  : 
Mr.  Marshall's  statement  is  evidence 
to  the  contrary.  But  it  is  advanced 
that  the  obnoxious  weevil  is  most 
frequently  to  be  observed  in  soils 
where  the  turnip  or  cabbage  has  re- 
cently and  repeatedly  been  cultiva- 
ted. Another  general  result  of  ex- 
perience is,  that  the  anbury  is  most 
frequently  observed  in  dry  seasons. 
This  is  also  what  might  be  anticipa- 
ted, for  insects  that  inhabit  the  earth 
just  beneath  its  surface  are  always 
restricted  and  checked  in  their  move- 
ments by  its  abounding  in  moisture. 
Moreover,  the  plants  actually  affected 
by  the  anbury  are  more  able  to  con- 
tend against  the  injury  inflicted  by 
copious  supply.  In  wet  periods,  also, 
the  affected  plants  show  less  the 
extent  of  the  injury  they  have  sus- 
tained, for  their  foliage  does  not 
flag. 

In  considering  the  best  modes  of 
preventing  the  occurrence  of  the  dis- 


'  ease  and  of  palliating  its  attacks,  it 
I  is  apparent  tliat  any  addition  to  the 
soil  that  renders  it  disagreeable  to 
the  weevil  will  prevent  the  visits  of 
this  insect.  The  gardener  has  this 
in  his  power  with  but  little  difficulty, 
for  he  can  keep  the  vicinity  of  his  cab- 
bage, cauliflower,  and  broccoli  plants 
sprinkled  with  soot,  powdered  tobac- 
co, or  other  offensive  matters. 

ANCHUSA.     See  Alkanet. 

ANCHYLOSIS.  A  stiff,  immovea- 
ble joint. 

ANCIPITOUS.  Having  two  edges. 

ANDES  GRASS.  Arena  elatwr. 
Tall  meadow  oat ;  a  perennial  grass  ; 
flowers  in  May,  and  ripens  its  seeds  in 
July.  It  is  hardy,  early,  and  makes 
good  hay.  It  is  difficult  to  root  out, 
and  lasts  a  long  time.  A  clay  loam  is 
the  best  soil.  Sow  two  and  a  half  to 
three  bushels  with  oats. 

ANDROCEUM.  The  male  parts 
of  the  flower. 

ANDROGYNOUS.  Hermaphro- 
dite :  a  union  of  both  sexes. 

ANDROPORUM.  An  elevation  in 
the  middle  of  a  flower,  formed  in  part 
by  the  union  of  the  filaments  of  the 
stamens. 

ANELLIDES,  ANELLATA.  The 
class  of  articulated  animals  formed 
of  ring-like  segments,  as  the  earth- 
worms. 

ANELYTROUS.  Without  elytra 
or  wing  cases. 

ANEMOMETER.  (Gr.  ai'f//of,  the 
2cind,  and  fzcrpov,  measure.)  An  in- 
strument for  measuring  the  force  or 
velocity  of  the  wind  ;  a  wind  gauge. 

Dr.  Lind's  anemometer  consists  of 
a  glass  tube,  bent  into  the  form  of  the 
letter  U,  and  open  at  both  extremi- 
ties. One  of  the  extremities,  A,  is 
also  bent  round  to  the 
horizontal  direction, 
in  order  that  the 
wind  may  blow  into 
it.  The  tube  being 
partially  filled  with 
water  and  exposed 
to  a  current  of  air,  the 
water  in  the  branch 
at  which  the  wind  en- 
ters is  depressed ;  for 
example,  to  B,  and  consequently  ri- 
23 


ANG 


ANN 


ses  in  the  other  branch  to  C;  and 
the  difierence  at  C,  of  the  levels  at 
which  it  stands  in  the  two  branch- 
es, is  ihe  hciffht  of  a  coliiiiin  of  wa- 
ter, tiie  weigiit  of  which  forms  a 
counterpoise  to  the  force  of  the  wind. 
Tlie  relative  velocities  of  the  wind 
are  thus  ascertained,  the  variation  of 
the  velocity  being  nearly  proportion- 
al to  tlie  square  root  of  the  resist- 
ance. The  bore  of  the  tube  is  di- 
minished at  the  bottom  to  check  the 
undulations  of  the  water  caused  by  a 
sudden  gust  of  wind.  Various  other 
contrivances  have  been  proposed,  of 
which  one  of  the  simplest  is  to  ex- 
pose a  flat  board  of  given  dimensions 
to  a  current  of  wind,  and  observe  to 
what  extent  it  will  force  back  a  spring 
attached  to  it,  and  resting  against  an 
immoveable  obstacle. — (Brandc.) 

ANEMOSCOPE.  An  instrument 
showing  the  direction  of  the  wind  ;  a 
weathercock. 

ANEURISM.  In  farriery,  a  throb- 
bing tumour,  produced  by  the  dilata- 
tion of  the  coats  of  an  artery  in  some 
part  of  the  body  of  an  animal  Aneu- 
risms in  the  limbs  may  be  cured  by 
making  an  incision,  exposing  the  ar- 
tery, and  tying  it  above  and  below 
the  tumour  with  a  proper  ligature. 

ANGINA.  In  farriery,  a  name 
sometimes  applied  to  the  quinsy,  or 
what  in  animals  is  termed  anticor ; 
sore  throat. 

ANGIOSPERMOUS.  Having  the 
seeds  enclosed  within  a  covering  or 
pericarp. 

ANGLE  BERRY.  In  farriery,  a 
sort  of  fleshy  excrescence,  to  which 
cattle  and  some  other  animals  are 
subject  under  diflerent  circumstan- 
ces, and  are  supposed  to  proceed 
from  a  rupture  of  t!ie  cutaneous  ves- 
sels, which  give  vent  to  a  matter  ca- 
pable of  forming  a  sarco7na,  or  fleshy 
excrescence.  They  frequently  ap- 
pear upon  the  belly  and  adjacent 
parts,  hanging  down  in  a  pendulous 
maimer. 

AN  GUST  ATE.  Narrow,  dimin- 
ishing rapidlv  in  breadth. 

ANGUSTURA  BARK.     The  bark 
of  the   Ciisparia  fcbrijnga  of  South 
America  :  used  as  a  tonic. 
24 


ANHYDRITE.  Anhydrous  gyp- 
sum. 

ANHYDROUS.  Without  water  ; 
a  chemical  term  to  express  the  en- 
tire absence  of  water  in  a  salt  or  acid 
subslanof. 

ANI^"'VL.  Any  object  capable  of 
voluntary  motion ;  a  function  de- 
pendant on  the  nervous  system, 
which  is  peculiar  to  animals  and  ab- 
sent in  plants. 

ANIMAL  ACIDS.  Acids  existing 
in  animals,  or  produced  froin  their 
tissues.  The  principal  are  the  oily 
acids,  choleic,  lactic,  and  uric,  which 

ANIMALCULES.     Infusorials. 

ANIMAL  MANURES.  See  Urme, 
Miumre. 

ANIMAL  POISONS.  The  bites 
of  venomous  reptiles,  rabid  dogs,  the 
contagious  diseases  produced  by  de- 
caying meat,  cheese,  infected  cattle, 
glanders,  are  all  called  animal  poi- 
sons. They  usually  produce  great 
prostration,  and  call  for  the  use  of 
ammonia  and  stimulants. 

ANIONS.     See  Electrode. 

ANISE  SEED.  PimpincUa  amsvm. 
The  aromatic  seeds  of  a  well-known 
umbelliferous  plant.  The  oil  is  a 
grateful  aromatic  to  the  stomach. 

ANISOTOMID.E.  A  family  of  co- 
leopterous insects,  having  monili- 
form  or  beaded  antennae,  sub-elon- 
gate, slender  at  the  base,  gradually 
increasing  towards  the  apex,  with  a 
terminal  club-shaped  multiarticulate 
joint ;  palpi  various,  generally  fdi- 
form  ;  head  small  and  ovate  ;  body 
convex,  never  linear. 

ANKER.  A  small  wine  barrel  of 
10  gallons,  or  8^  imperial  measure. 

ANNOTTA,  ARNOTTA.  Roucon. 
A  red  dye,  obtained  by  fermenting  the 
pulp  of  the  seeds  of  the  Bixa  orcUana, 
a  tree  of  the  West  Indies.  In  the 
dairy  a  colouring  matter  is  used  un- 
der this  name,  which  is  manufactured 
from  madder  or  carrots. 

ANNUALS.  Plants  which  perfect 
seeds  in  one  year  and  die,  as  wheal, 
rye,  &c. 

ANNULUS.  An  organ  resembling 
a  ring,  as  the  collar  which  surrounds 
the  stem  of  some  mushrooms. 


ANT 


ATR 


ANODE.  The  way  by  which  elec- 
fricity  enters  substances  throui^h 
vvliicii  it  passes:  opposed  to  cathode, 
tlie  road  or  way  by  wliich  it  pocs  out. 

ANODYNE.  A  driia;  which  allays 
pain,  as  opium,  camphor,  henbane, 
ike 

AXON  A.  The  custard  apple-trees. 
The  cherimover  is  of  tliis  i^enus. 

ANTACIDS.  Medicines  which 
neutralize  the  acid  of  the  stomach  in 
disf'asp,  as  chalk,  carbonate  of  soda. 

ANTENNA,  Avtew^e.  The  hair- 
like, jointed  organs  on  the  heads  of 
insects.  They  are  very  moveable, 
and  are  supposed  to  be  organs  of  sen- 
sation. 

ANTEPECTL'S.  In  insects,  the 
under  side  of  the  main  trimk,  in  which 
the  first  pair  of  legs  is  inserted 

ANTS.  The  family  Fonmcida, 
hymenopterous  insects.  They  are 
injurious  to  meadows  by  their  hills, 
and  also  devour  fruits.  The  anthill 
is  readily  destroyed  by  digging  it  up 
in  the  depth  of  winter  and  scattering 
the  earth  ;  the  exposure  will  thus  de- 
stroy the  entire  cidony. 

ANTHELMINTICS.  Drugs  which 
are  used  to  destroy  intestinal  worms. 
Turpentine,  wormseed  oil,  pink-root, 
and  aloes  are  the  most  important. 

ANTHER.  The  bilobate  organ, 
containing  pollen,  situated  at  the 
summit  of  the  filament,  the  two  con- 
stitiitmg  the  male  organ,  or  stamen 
of  [dants. 

ANTHODIUM.  A  head  of  flow- 
ers, as  in  the  thistle  or  sunflower  ; 
a  capitulum. 

ANTHOZANTHU.M.  A  genus  of 
grasses,  of  wliich  A  odoratum  is  the 
sweet-scented  vernal  grass.  See 
Grasses.  It  is  an  annual,  and  of  lit- 
tle importance. 

ANTIDRACHIIJM.    The  forearm. 

ANTICLINAL  AXIS.  The  line 
lying  between  strata  which  dip  in  op- 
posite directions. 

AXTICOR.  An  inflammation  of 
the  throat  and  gullet  in  horses,  at- 
tended with  fever  and  prostration  ;  a 
kind  of  quinsy. 

ANTIDOTE.  A  remedy  against 
Q  poison. 

ANTIMONY.     The  sulphuret ;  a 


black  metallic  drug,  used  in  the  dis- 
eases of  cattle  as  an  alterative  in 
skill  diseases.  An  ounce  is  given  to 
a  horse. 

ANTIMONY  TARTRATE.  See 
Tartar  Emetic. 

ANTIPHLOGISTIC.  Remedies 
opposed  to  an  inflammatory  state. 

ANTISEPTICS.  Substances 
which  prevent  putrefaction. 

ANTISPAS.MODICS.  Remedies 
which  cure  spasms  or  cramps,  as 
opium,  camphor,  asafcetida,  &c. 

A-NTITROPAL.  When  in  a  seed 
the  radicle  of  the  embryo  is  turned 
to  the  end  farthest  away  from  the 
hilum.  This,  although  a  compara- 
tively unusual  position  of  parts,  is 
nevertheless  the  normal  position,  if 
the  e.xact  nature  of  the  development 
of  an  ovule  is  rightly  understood. 

ANTRUM.     A  cavity. 

AORTA.  The  great  arterial  ves- 
sel which  issues  from  the  left  ventri- 
cle of  the  heart,  and  by  its  branches 
distributes  blood  to  every  part  of  the 
body. 

APATITE.  A  greeni.sh,  crystal- 
line mineral  found  in  primary  rocks, 
consisting  of  a  phosphate  and  silicate 
of  lime.  It  is  found  in  the  Eastern 
and  Northern  States,  hut  only  in  small 
quantities.  In  Spain  and  Norway 
large  quantities  are  developed.  It 
has  been  spoken  of  as  a  manure  in 
the  place  of  hones. 

APERIENTS.    Gentle  purgatives. 

APETALOUS.     Without  corolla. 

APEX.     The  summit. 

APHANTPTERA.  An  order  of 
apterous  insects,  with  rudimentary 
elytra,  and  undergoing  a  change  of 
form.  The  flea  {Pulex  irritans)  is  of 
this  kind. 

APHIS,  APHIDES  (pi).  A  fami- 
ly of  hemipterous  insects,  common- 
ly called  "  plant-lice,"  inhabiting  trees 
and  plants,  and  living  on  their  juices ; 
remarkable  for  the  anal  saccharine 
secretion,  but  more  especially  for  a 
peculiarity  of  their  generative  econo- 
my, particularly  described  by  Bonnet, 
and  which  consists  in  the  first  fecun- 
dation of  the  female  influencing  not 
merely  the  ova  immediately  develop- 
ed thereafter,  but  those  of  the  females 
25 


APP 


resulting  from  that  development,  even  I 
to  the  ninth  generation,  which  are  ; 
successively  impregnated  and  pro- 
ductive without  any  intercourse  with 
the  male  insects.  Certain  coleopter- 
ous insects  which  prey  upon  and  keep 
in  check  the  aphides,  are  termed  aph- 
idiphatri  and  aphidivora  (^ayu,  leal, 
voro,  ideroiir).  For  a  figure,  see  In- 
sects. Aphides  are  very  numerous 
in  species,  most  plants  having  a  dif- 
ferent kind.  They  are  readily  de- 
stroyed hy  fumigations  with  tobacco, 
Cayenne  pepper,  or  sulphur,  a  solu- 
tion of  whale-oil  soap,  or  water-slack- 
ed lime  sprinkled  upon  them. 

APHYLLUS.  Leafless,  without 
fully-developed  green  leaves. 

APIARY.     A  bee-house. 

APIS.     The  generic  name  of  the 

bee. 

APOCARPOUS.  When  the  car- 
pels of  a  fruit  do  not  adhere  together. 

APOCRENIC  ACID.    See  Humus. 

APOPLEXY.  The  staggers.  See 
Horse,  Sheep,  Ox. 

APOPHY'SIS.  A  protuberance, 
process,  or  projection.  In  anatomy, 
restricted  to  processes  of  the  osseous 
system. 

APOSEPADINE.  A  white  crys- 
talline body  obtained  from  decayed 
chcGsc  1 

APOTHECIUM.     The   shield  of 

lichens.  ,  j 

APPETITE.  Want  of  appetite  . 
and  voracious  appetite  are  important  1 
symptoms  in  the  di-'eases  of  horses  | 
and  cattle  ;  e.\ercise,  change  ot  sta-  I 
ble.  ventilation,  and  a  new  kind  of  | 
food  and  gentle  purgation  should  be  ' 
tried  for  the  first;  the  second  may 
arise  from  worms,  and  should  be  in- 
vestigated. 

APPLE.  The  cultivated  fruit  of 
the  Pyrus  mains,  or  crab  ;  the  tree  be- 
longs to  the  natural  family  Rosacea. 
The  apple,  like  most  other  hardy 
trees,  may  be  propagated  by  seeds, 
cuttings,  suckers,  layers,  or  ingraft- 
ing ;  by  seeds  for  obtaining  new  va- 
rieties, and  by  the  other  modes  for 
extending  the  number  of  such  as  are 
in  esteem. 

The  following  kinds  are  of  differ- 
ent  values,  but  ripen  at  different 
i6 


APP 

times,  and  represent  the  best  set  in 
cultivation. 

Summer  Apples,  ripening  from  July 
to  September : 
Eaklv  H.\Rvest,  Princes  Yellow 
Harvest,  July  Pippin.— Frmt  medium 
size ;  bright  straw  colour ;  flavour 
fine  :  ripe  in  July  and  August 

E.\kly  Red  Jlne.\ting,  Red  Mar- 
craretle.  Strawberry. —  Rather  small  ; 
very  rich  and  fine  :  ripe  in  August. 

yuM.MER  QuuEN,  Early  Queen.  — j 
Fruit  large  and  oblong  ;  "striped  with 
red  on  a  yellow  ground  ;  high  fla- 
voured and  fine  :  ripe  in  August. 

Summer  Peafmain,  American  Sum- 
mer  Pearmaut,  Early    Summer   Pear- 
jnam.— Too  well  known  to  need  any 
I  description  :  ripe  in  August. 
I      Williams    Apple  —  A    beautiful 
I  fruit,   of  medium   size    and    oblong 
1  form  ;  colour  deep  red  ;  flavour  live- 
I  ly  and  very  pleasant.     First  of  Au- 
gust.    A  native  of  Roxbury,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Maiden's  Blush— One  of  the  hand- 
somest fruits  in  the  country.  Size 
large,  roundish  shape  ;  skin  pale 
greenish-vellow,  tinged  with  a  blush  ; 
excellent"  for  table  use,  drying,  or 
cooking :  ripe  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber. 

Autumn  Apples. 
!  Porter  Apple.— Fruit  large;  ob- 
!  long  shape  ;  skin  bright  yellow,  with 
I  a  red  blush :  ripe  in  October,  and 
I  commands  the  highest  price  in  the 
I  Boston  market. 

I  Fall  Pippi.n,  Gulden  Pippin,  Hol- 
land Prppm,  Col  ben's  Fall  Pippin, 
i  Vandine  —  Of  all  fall  apples,  this 
;  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list.  Fruit 
'  large,  and  of  a  roundish  oblong  form  ; 
i  skin  smooth  and  yellowish  green,  tin- 
ged  with  orange  ;  flesh  tender,  with 
1  rich  juice  :  ripe  in  October,  and  keeps 
i  till  January  and  February. 
I  Seek-no-farther,  Raniho,  or  Ro- 
i  „,aniic.— This  fruit  is  much  cultiva- 
1  ted  about  Philadelphia.  Shape  flat, 
1  resembling  the  Vanderveerc,  but  is  a 
i  better  fruit ;  skin  pale  yellow,  streak- 
ed with  red  ;  flesh  tender  and  spright- 
!  Iv  during  the  fall :  is  both  a  fall  and 
!  winter  apple. 


APPLE. 


Stroat,  Siraut. — A  fine  fall  apple, 
'introduced  by  the  late  Judge  Biiel,  of 
Albany  :  in  use  from  September  to 
December. 

Winter  and  Spring  Apples. 

Esopus  Spitzenburg. — Fruit  large 
and  oval  shape  ;  colour  red,  covered 
with  light  yellow  spots  ;  flesh  of  the 
finest  flavour  for  dessert  or  cooking, 
and  keeps  till  February. 

Baldwin,  Baldwin  Pippin. — In  the 
Boston  market  this  fruit  has  long 
brought  the  highest  prices.  Colour 
bright  red,  tinged  with  yellow  ;  flesh 
juicy,  rich,  sweet,  and  most  agreea-  j 
ble  flavour:  ripe  in  November,  and 
keeps  till  March. 

Bell-flower. -^  A  beautiful  fruit, 
long  celebrated  about  Philadelphia  as 
their  finest  winter  fruit :  ripe  in  Oc- 
tober, and  keeps  till  March. 

Blue  Pearmain. — A  well-known 
fruit  about  Boston.  Large  size  ;  col- 
our red,  covered  with  a  blue  bloom  ; 
flavour  delicious,  and  keeps  till  Jan- 
uary. 

HUBBARDSTON  NoNESUCH. A  mOSt 

popular  new  fruit,  lately  brought  out 
in  Massachusetts,  often  commanding 
$5  per  barrel  in  the  Boston  market : 
ripe  in  November,  and  keeps  till  Feb- 
ruary. 

Ladv  Apple,  Pommc  d'Api. — Fruit 
small ;  of  pale  yellow  colour,  deeply 
tinged  with  red  on  one  side  ;  flesh 
crisp  and  pleasant :  ripe  in  Novem- 
ber, and  keeps  till  April. 

Monstrous  Pippin,  Gloria  Mundi, 
Ox  Apple. — Fruit  of  enormous  size, 
sometimes  weighing  28  ounces  ;  of  a 
pale  yellowish-green  colour  ;  spright- 
ly flavour  :  ripe  in  October,  and  keeps 
till  January. 

Newton  Pippin. — Of  this  most  val- 
uable api)ie  there  are  two  varieties, 
the  yellow  and  the  green  ;  no  differ- 
ence in  quality  ;  keeps  till  May,  and 
retains  its  flavour  ;  the  most  valuable 
variety  tor  shipping  to  Europe. 

Rhode  Island  Greening.  —  Fruit 
large  ;  skin  greenish  yellow ;  flesh 
slightly  acid  and  of  fine  flavour :  keeps 
from  November  till  April. 

RiBsTON  Pippin,  also  called  Formo- 
sa Pippin,  and  Glory  of  York.     In 


England  esteemed  very  highly  ;  me- 
dium size,  and  globular  form  ;  colour 
yellow,  mottled  with  red  next  the 
sun  :  keeps  till  February. 

RoxBURv  Russeting. — A  fine  old 
native  of  .Massachusetts  ;  fruit  large 
and  of  a  slightly  flattened  form  ;  col- 
our brownish-yelhiw  russet,  with  an 
occasional  blush  ne.xt  the  sun  ;  skin 
rough  :  keeps  well  till  June  and  July. 
Raised  in  great  quantities  near  Bos- 
ton for  exportation,  &c. 

SwAAR  Apple. — A  celebrated  win- 
ter fruit  in  some  parts  of  New- York  ; 
of  fine  flavour ;  skin  greenish-yel- 
low, tinged  with  a  blush  :  keeps  till 
March. 

Wine  Apple,  Hay's  Winter,  Large 
Winter  Red,  Fine  Winter. — A  beauti- 
ful fruit,  highly  esteemed  in  the  Phil- 
adelphia market :  keeps  till  February. 

Hollow-core  Pippin. — A  new  va- 
riety raised  in  Jefferson  county,  Ohio. 
It  resembles  the  yellow  Newton  pip- 
pin in  its  fine  flavour  :  keeps  till  April 
and  .May. 

Ohio  Pearmain. — A  new  and  beau- 
tiful variety  in  Ohio  ;  good  size  ;  stri- 
ped red  and  yellow  ;  quality  excel- 
lent :  keeps  till  .May. 

Cider  Apples. 

Harrison  and  Camfield.  —  Both 
long  raised  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Newark,  New-Jersey,  and  Hugh's 
Virginia  Crab,  much  cultivated  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  are  decidedly 
the  most  valuable  varieties  for  cidei 
to  be  found  in  the  country. 

In  the  west  and  other  portions  of 
our  vvidely-e.\tended  country  many 
new  varieties  of  choice  apples  are 
constantly  coming  into  use.  The 
above  are  varieties  found  at  most  of 
the  nurseries  in  the  Eastern  States. 

Besides  these,  there  are  a  large 
quantity  cultivated  throughout  the 
country  of  every  shade  of  merit.  The 
Newton  pippin,  Baldwin,  Rhode  Isl- 
and greening,  and  Roxbury  russet- 
ing are  the  most  valuable  for  expor- 
tation, both  on  account  of  their  fla- 
vour and  hardihood.  They  ccmmand 
from  ©9  to  §15  the  barrel  in  Eu- 
rope. 

Directions  for  ■planting  and  mana- 
27 


APPLE. 


fring  apple  orchards,  chiefly  from  Ken- 
rick  : 

"  The  seeds  of  the  apple  should  be 
sown  in  autumn  in  a  rich  soil.  When 
the  young  plants  appear  in  spring, 
they  should  be  carefully  thinned  to 
the  distance  of  2  inches  asunder,  and 
kept  free  from  weeds  till  of  sutficient 
size  to  be  removed. 

"  At  I  or  2  years  of  age  they  are 
taken  up,  their  tap-roots  shortened, 
that  they  may  throw  out  lateral  roots ; 
they  are  transferred  to  the  nursery, 
set  in  rows  about  4  feet  asunder,  and 
at  1  foot  distance  from  each  other  in 
the  row,  in  a  rich  and  loamy  soil.  In 
the  summer  following  they  are  inoc- 
ulated, or  they  are  ingrafted  or  in- 
oculated the  year  following. 

"Size  and  age  for  transplanting  to 
the  Orchard.  —  An  apple-tree,  when 
finally  transplanted  to  the  orchard, 
ought  to  be  at  least  6  or  7  feet  high, 
with  branches  in  proportion,  and  full 
2  years  from  tiie  bud  or  graft,  and 
thrifty.  Apple-trees  under  this  size 
belong  properly  only  to  the  nursery. 

"  Distance. — The  distance  asunder 
to  which  apple-trees  should  be  finally 
set,  when  transplanted  to  the  orchard, 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and  the  cultivation  to  be  subsequent- 
ly given.  If  the  soil  is  by  nature  ex- 
tremely fertile,  40  feet  distance  may 
be  allowed,  and  even  45  and  50  feet 
in  some  very  extraordinary  situa- 
tions ;  for  before  the  trees  become 
old,  they  will  completely  shade  the 
ground.  If,  however,  the  soil  is  not 
very  extraordinary  by  nature,  or  so 
rendered  by  art,  this  distance  would 
be  too  great :  for  the  trees  would  be- 
come old,  and  their  growth  would  be 
finished  before  the  ground  could  be 
covered  by  their  shadow :  30  feet  only 
may  therefore  be  allowed  in  land  usu- 
ally denominated  of  good  quality,  and 
but  20  to  25  feet  in  land  of  ordinary 
quality.  But  where  economy  of  time, 
of  land,  and  of  all  things  else  is  con- 
sulted, but  one  half  this  distance  will 
answer  for  a  series  of  years. 

"The   quincunx   mode   is  recom- 
mended for  close   arrangement,  and 
short-lived  trees  may  be  set  in  the 
intervals. 
28 


"  The  period  of  growth,  or  the  dura- 
tion of  the  apple-tree,  is  comparative- 
ly limited  ;  this  is  sufficiently  evident 
from  the  perishable  nature  of  its  tim- 
ber. 

"  Soil  and  Situation. — A  rich  soil, 
rather  moist  than  dry,  is  that  adapted 
to  the  apple-tree. 

"  On  such  a  soil,  whether  on  the 
plains,  or  in  the  valley,  or  on  the 
sides  and  summits  of  our  great  hills, 
and  even  in  situations  the  most  ex- 
posed, the  apple-tree  will  flourish. 

"  Management  of  the  Land. — If  the 
ground  intended  for  the  orchard  can- 
not conveniently  be  kept  wholly  in  a 
state  of  cultivation  during  the  first 
years,  a  portion,  at  least,  ought  to  be. 

"  A  strip  of  land  to  each  row  of  8 
or  10  feet  in  width,  well  manured, 
may  be  kept  cultivated,  and  the  vege- 
tables which  may  here  be  raised  will 
amply  repay  the  expense  and  labour 
bestowed  during  the  first  4  or  5  years. 
After  this,  if  Uie  trees  have  grown 
well,  as  they  probably  must  liave 
done,  cultivation  at  a  distance  in  the 
intervals  becomes  even  more  impor- 
tant than  within  the  limited  distance 
of  a  very  few  feet  from  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  ;  for,  on  examination,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  small  fibres  or 
spongelets,  by  which  alone  the  tree 
derives  all  the  nourishment  it  re- 
ceives from  the  earth,  are  now  re- 
mote l>om  the  trunk  of  the  tree ;  they 
are  now  to  be  found  seeking  food  be- 
yond the  limits  of  its  shade,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  that  the  whole 
grouncl  should  be  kept  in  a  high  state 
of  cultivation  for  the  4  or  5  following 
years.  After  tliis  period  it  may  oc- 
casionally be  laid  to  grass,  which, 
however,  should  be  broken  up  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  the  land  being  always 
kept  in  good  heart. 

''Pruning. — if  the  branches  of  a 
young  tree,  issuing  at  and  above  the 
requisite  height,  be  made,  by  pruning, 
to  diverge  from  the  trunk  in  every  di- 
rection above  the  horizontal,  and  the 
interior  of  these  be  carefully  kept 
from  any  interference  with  each  oth- 
er for  a  few  years,  little  pruning  will 
ever  afterward  be  necessary. 

"  Heavy  pruning  is  seldom  neces- 


APPLE. 


sary  or  advisable ;  but  when,  as  in 
the  case  of  grafting,  or  of  heading 
clown  for  a  new  growtii,  it  becomes 
unavoidable,  it  should  always  be  per- 
formed in  that  interval  lietween  the 
time  the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the 
ground  in  sprmg  and  the  opening  of 
the  leaf 

"  For  that  moderate  pruning,  which 
alone  is  generally  needful,  June  and 
July,  and  during  the  longest  days  of 
sunmier,  is  the  very  best  time  ;  for 
wounds  of  all  kinds  heal  admirably  at 
this  period,  the  wood  remaining  sound 
and  bright ;  and  even  a  tree  debarked 
at  this  season  recovers  a  new  bark 
immediately. 

"  Trees  ought  not  to  be  pruned  in 
February  and  March,  at  the  time  the 
frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground. 
This  is  the  season  when  most  trees, 
and  particidarly  the  vine  and  sugar- 
maple,  bleed  most  copiously  and  in- 
juriously. It  causes  mveterate  cank- 
er, the  wounds  turn  black,  and  the 
bark,  for  perhaps  several  feet  below, 
becomes  equally  black,  and  perfectly 
dead  in  consequence  of  the  bleed- 
ing." 

Mr.  Pell,  who  has  an  orchard  of 
20,000  Xewton  pippins,  has  succecd- 
Cvl,  by  the  following  method,  in  indii-  ' 
cing  the  trees  to  bear  crops  every  ' 
year  : 

"  Three    years    ago    in    April,    I  \ 
scraped  all  the  rough  bark  off  from 
several  thousand  trees  in  my  orchani. 
and    waslied   the   trunks    and    limbs 
within  reach  with  soft  soap,  trimmed 
out   all   the    branches   that    crossed  j 
each  other  early  in  June,  and  paint-  i 
ed  the  wounded  part  with  white-lead  i 
to  keep  out  moisture,  then  split  open 
the  bark  by  running  a  sharp-pointed  ■ 
knife  from  the  ground  to  the  first  set 
of  limbs    in    the    latter  part  of  the 
same  month,  wiiich  prevents  tlie  tree  | 
from  becoming  bark-bound,  and  gives  ; 
the  inner  wood  an  opportunity  of  ex-  j 
panding.     In  July  I  placed  one  peck 
of  oyster-shell  lime  around  each  tree, 
and  left  it  piled  about  the  trunk  un- 
til   November,   during    which    three 
montlis  the  drought  was  e.vcessive. 
In  November  the  lime  was  dug  in 
thoroughly.      The     following    year 
C3 


(1842)  I  collected  from  those  trees 
1700  barrels  of  fruit,  some  of  which 
was  sold  in  New-York  for  S4  per 
barrel,  and  others  in  London  for  89. 
After  gathering  the  fruit  in  October, 
I  manured  the  same  trees  with  sta- 
ble manure,  and  covered  it  imme- 
diately with  earth.  Strange  as  it 
may  appear,  this  year  they  are  lit- 
erally bending  to  tiie  ground  with  the 
finest  fruit  I  ever  saw.  The  other 
trees  in  my  orchard,  not  treated  as 
above,  are  barren,  next  year  being 
their  bearing  year." 

Fruit  for  exportation  and  spring 
use  must  be  allowed  to  rij)en  well, 
be  plucked  with  the  hand,  and  care- 
fully exposed  on  the  barn  floor  to  dry 
for  15  to  20  days  ;  they  should  then 
be  placed  in  clean  barrels,  and  stored 
in  a  dry  cellar  not  subject  to  frost. 
In  shipping,  they  should  never  be 
jolted.  They  should  be  placed  be- 
tween decks,  in  an  airy  situation. 
Fruit  grown  in  dry  seasons  always 
keeps  best. 

The  products  of  the  apple-orchard 
are  so  numerous  that  there  is  no  lo- 
cality in  which  it  may  not  be  made 
profitable.  Not  only  does  tiie  Iruit 
ctmimand  a  good  price,  but  ciJer  and 
vinegar  are  easily  obtained,  while 
hogs  flourish  on  the  fallen  fruit,  de- 
stroying, at  the  same  time,  the  Iruit 
caterpillar.  The  pomace,  or  refuse 
of  the  cider-mill,  is  very  acceptable 
to  cows  and  swine,  or  contributes  to 
enrich  the  manure  heap.     See  Cuter. 

Indeed,  the  value  of  apples  as  food 
for  hogs  is  little  appreciated  ;  but 
there  is  abundant  evidence  furn.shed 
by  practical  men  that  they  are  almost 
as  valuable  as  potatoes.  The  flesh 
is  very  firm  and  fine  in  swine  thus 
fattened. 

Insects. — Numerous  insects  affect 
the  apple  and  pear  tree,  either  bo- 
liiig  tiie  trunk,  destroying  the  young 
leaves,  or  inhabiting  the  fruit.  The 
fruit  caterpillar  {Torlrix  pomonana) 
causes  the  fall  of  many  apples  before 
the  ripening  season.  The  moth  [Jig-. 
/),  whose  eggs  produce  the  destruc- 
tive worm,  is  to  be  seen  in  the  even- 
ings of  June  and  July  flying  about  the 
trees,  or  on  the  wmdows  of  the  house. 
29 


APPLE 


Its  outer  winjs  are  marked  with 
gray  and  brown  lines  arran<red  in  del- 
icate waves,  with  one  larf,'e  brown 
spot  on  each,  siirrouiulod  with  a  yel- 
low maririn  ;  the  head  and  lliorax  are 
brown ish-<,'ray,  strijjcd  ;  the  under 
wings  and  abdomen  are  of  a  satin 
orange  colour.  Tiiey  deposite  an 
egg  on  several  young  fruit,  and  pre- 
fer early  varieties.  A  worm  is  pro- 
duced in  4  days,  which  enters  the  ap- 
ple, eating  towards  the  core,  and 
finally  through  the  fruit.  In  three 
weeks  or  more  the  caterpillar  (a)  es- 


capes, but  before  this  the  apple  usu- 
ally falls  to  the  groimd,  and  it  seeks 
a  shelter  among  tlie  rough  hark  of 
the  tree  or  oilier  suitable  place  to 
spin  a  cocoon  (c).  Tlie  chrysalis,  or 
grub  (il),  is  of  a  mahogany  colour ;  it 
remains  concealed  until  tlie  next 
spring  before  leaving  its  nest  as  a 
moth.  It  is  stated  by  European  wri- 
ters that  there  is  another  moth,  wliich 
produces  two  generations  annually, 
m  the  spring  and  fall. 

Smoking  the  trees  during  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  moth  with  tobacco, 


pitch,  and  other  pungent  vapours,  is 
used  with  some  success.  The  col- 
lection of  fallen  fruit  once  or  twi.ce  a 
day  secures  the  worm,  which  may 
be  destroyed  ;  but  they  instinctively 
leave  the  apple  soon  after  its  fali. 
Rags,  or  straw  bands  tied  around  the 
stem,  serve  as  a  decoy  to  the  cater- 
pillar to  form  his  cocoon  under  their 
shelter.  The  figures  from  Kollar  rep- 
resent this  troublesome  insect,  which 
infests  pears  and  other  fruits  like- 
wise :  it  is  the  codling  moth  of  Euro- 
pean writers. 

■The  caterpillars  which  exist  in 
such  large  quantities  in  webs  at  the 
junction  of  the  branches,  and  devour 
the  spring  foliage  of  apples  and  most 
trees,  are  the  larva?  of  the  Clissio- 
campa  7icus/ria,  Americana,  and  other 
species  ;  they  are  readdy  destroyed 
by  either  collecting  the  nests  and 
burning  them,  or  by  applying  a  sponge 
dipped  in  strong  hartshorn,  a  solution 
of  sulphuret  of  lime,  or  any  other 
powerful  poison.  They  are  called 
lackey  or  tent  caterpillars  by  Euro- 
pean writers. 

The  Cankerwoem,  green  looper  cat- 
80 


crpillar.  destructive  to  the  buds  of  ap- 
ples and  other  trees,  is  the  larva  of 
the  Geomcira  Irumata  (or  Phalaena), 
the  winter  moth.  The  figure  repre- 
sents (a)  the  male,  and  (i)  the  female 


moth.  The  male  is  winged,  but  the 
female  crawls  only  ;  she  may  be  seen 
ascending  the  trunk  of  trees  in  the 
fall  to  deposite  her  eggs  in  the  au- 
tuinnal  buds  :  and  is  of  an  ash-gray 
colour.  The  caterpillars  are  at  first 
gray,  but  afterward  light  green  ;  tlrey 
devour  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit  ; 
and  when  they  take  up  their  abode 
on  any  part,  construct  a  small  web 


AJ'R 

or  cell  for  protection.     Abont  May  ' 
tliey  bi>gin  lo  Iciivo  the  tree,  desceiul- 
iti;:  liy  a  iliread  to  the  soil ;  here  they 
hiiry  themselves  lo  become  puppa;, 
an  1  reappear  as  moths  from  August 
to    Xoveiiiher.     The   destruction    of 
the   female    moths   is   attempted   by 
fastening    strips    of   paper   smeared  > 
with  tar  round  tlie  trunk,  which  ar-  [ 
rests   their   ascent.      Kollar   rccom-  ' 
mends    the    construction    of   a    box 
around  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk, 
covered  on  all  sides  with  a  projecting 
top,  to  be  kept  smeared  vvitii  tar.  The 
caterpillars  are  also  fumigated  with 
tobacco,  &c.,  sinoke.     Other  geome- 
ters also  infest  fruit  trees. 

Apple-borer.     The   Saperda  bivit- 
cafa.  Say.     See  Boras. 

The  Appi.E-wEEvrL,   Curculio  {An- 
thoiwinus)  pomoiuni,  is  of  a  grayish 


colour,  deposites  her  eggs  in  the 
flower  buds  in  spring;  the  grub  is 
small,  wiiite,  with  a  black  head,  it  be- 
coming yellow.  The  flowers  and  fruit 
are  destroyed  by  them.  The  curcu- 
lio may  he  shaken  from  the  tree  in 
spring,  and  destroyed  by  chickens. 
'1  he  trees  are  also  subject  to  aphides, 
American  blight,  other  caterpillars, 
(Sec. 

APRICOT.  (Armeniaca  vulgaris.) 
The  following  remarks  are  by  Mr. 
Pell: 

"This  fruit  does  exceedingly  well 
when  budded  towards  the  end  of  Ju- 
ly, on  plum  stocks  two  years  old. 
The  peach  answers  very  well  like- 
wise When  three  years  old,  I  set 
them  out  in  a  very  rich  black  mould. 
I  tind  they  do  much  better  under 
glass  than  in  the  open  air.  In  either 
case  they  should  be  disbudded  in  the 
month  of  May,  and  all  the  superflu- 
ous shoots  taken  cff  In  November 
they  should  be  shortened  to  sixteen 
laches  ;  by  so  doing  lue  trees  will  be 


AR..\ 

kept  vigorous  and  healthy.  Their 
principal  enemies  are  the  cur(-uiius, 
wasps,  and  flies,  which  may  he  kept 
off  l)y  means  of  nets."' 

The  Moorpark  and  Turkey  are  both 
esteemed  varieties,  as  also  the  fol- 
lowing :  breda,  gold  blotch,  musk 
Schuylers,  orange,  peach,  and  violet. 
Lindley  recommends  grafting  on  the 
mussel  plum  stock,  'i'he  position  o. 
the  tree  ought  to  be  sheltered  and 
late.  It  answers  admirably  in  the 
South,  where  it  is  grown  as  a  stand- 
ard, but  in  New- York  it  requires  a 
warm  wall. 

APRIL.  This  is  the  great  month 
for  plougiiing  and  seeding  crops  in 
the  North ;  the  land  should  be  pre- 
pared for  potatoes,  beets,  and  root 
crops,  as  well  as  corn.  Tobacco  seed 
is  sown  early,  and  farther  south  the 
young  plants  of  cotton  and  sugar- 
c-ane  are  hoed  and  weeded.  The  gar- 
den and  orchard  are  to  be  closely  at- 
tended to. 

APTERANS,  APTERA.  Wing- 
less insects. 

APYREXIA.  The  cool  or  quiet 
stage  of  intermittent  fevers. 

AQUA  FORTIS.  Nitric  acid,  usu- 
allv  dilute. 

AQUA  REGIA.  A  mixture  of  ni- 
tric and  muriatic  acids. 

AQUA  TIC  PLANTS.  Such  as 
grow  submerged 

AQUEOUS  HUMOUR.  The  fluid 
in  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye 

ARABLE  LAND,  so  called  'from 
the  Latin  word  arare,  '■  to  plough."'  is 
that  part  of  the  land  v.bich  is  chiefly 
cultivated  by  means  of  the  plough. 

Land  in  general  is  divided  into  ara- 
ble, grass  land,  wood  land,  common 
pasture,  and  waste.  1  he  first  of  these 
is  by  far  the  most  important  in  agri- 
culture. In  this  article  we  shall  brief- 
ly explain  the  princ-iples  on  which  are 
founded  the  most  improved  methods 
of  cultivating  arable  land,  by  which 
the  natural  produce  of  the  soil  is  great- 
ly increased,  and  many  productions 
are  obtained  in  perfection  which  are 
foreign  to  the  soil  and  climate. 

1 .  We  shall  consider  the  nature  and 
properties  of  various  soils. 

2.  The  best  modes  of  preparing  and 

81 


ARABLE  LAND. 


improving  the  natural  soil,  so  as  to 
increase  its  produce. 

3.  The  most  advantageous  succes- 
sion of  crops,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  returns  with  the  least  dimi- 
nution of  fertility. 

1.  Soils. — When  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  penetrated,  we  generally  find 
that  the  appearance,  texture,  and  col- 
our vary  at  different  depths.  There 
is  a  layer  of  earth  nearest  the  surface, 
of  greater  or  less  thickness,  which 
covers  the  more  solid  and  uniform 
materials  which  lie  below  it.  This 
may  be  particularly  observed  wherev- 
er there  are  natural  or  artificial  exca- 
vations or  pits.  A  distinct  line,  near- 
ly parallel  to  the  surface,  generally 
marks  the  depth  of  the  upper  soil,  and 
separates  it  from  the  subsoil.  The 
soil  is  more  or  less  composed  of  mi- 
nute parts  of  various  kinds  of  earth, 
mixed  with  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances in  different  states  of  decom- 
position ;  and  to  these,  in  a  great 
measure,  it  owes  its  colour,  w-hich  is 
generally  darker  than  that  of  the  sub- 
soil. Except  where  iron,  peat,  coal, 
or  slate  abound  in  the  soil,  a  dark 
colour  is  an  indication  of  correspond- 
ing fertility.  The  rich  soil  of  gardens 
long  cultivated  and  highly  manured  is 
nearly  black.  As  the  soil  is  the  bed 
in  which  all  vegetable  productions  are 
to  be  reared,  and  in  which  they  are  to 
find  their  proper  nourishment,  its  tex- 
ture and  composition  become  objects 
of  great  importance  to  the  cultivator  ; 
and,  without  a  competent  knowledge 
of  these,  no  practical  rules  can  be  laid 
down  or  depended  upon. 

All  soils  are  composed  of  earthy 
and  metallic  oxides,  saline  substan- 
ces, vegetable  and  animal  matter,  and 
water.  The  earths  are  chiefly  clay 
or  alumina,  flint  or  silica,  and  lime. 

Magnesia,  barytes,  and  other  earths 
are  occasionally  met  with,  but  in  so 
few  instances  that  they  may  be  omit- 
ted in  the  list. 

Of  the  metals,  the  most  abundant 
is  iron  in  the  state  of  peroxide.  The 
other  metals  are  rarely  found  near  the 
surface. 

Saline  substances  form  a  small  part 
of  a  soil,  but  an  important  one. 
8S 


Potassa  exists  in  almost  every  ve- 
getable, soda  in  a  few,  and  ammonia 
is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of 
animal  matter  ;  but,  from  its  volatile 
nature,  it  is  not  long  retamed  in  the 
soil,  except  when  it  forms  a  fixed 
compound  with  other  substances. 

The  vegetable  acids,  as  a  general 
rule,  are  perhaps  limited  to  small  por- 
tions of  acetic  acid  in  combination 
with  some  base,  as  lime  or  potash. 

The  mineral  acids  arc  found  united 
with  earths  and  alkalies,  in  the  statu 
of  neutral  compounds. 

These  saline  substances  have  a 
powerful  effect  on  vegetation  ;  and  a 
knowledge  of  their  proportions  in  the 
soil,  and  of  their  various  qualities,  is 
indispensable  in  order  to  modify  or 
correct  their  action  by  other  substan- 
ces for  which  they  have  an  affinity. 

Water,  in  a  state  of  combination, 
or  of  mere  mechanical  diffusion,  is 
essential  to  the  growth  of  all  plants : 
without  it  and  atmospheric  air  there 
is  no  lite,  either  animal  or  vegetable. 

The  Earths. — Clay  is  called  alumina 
because  it  is  obtained  in  its  purest 
state  from  alum,  in  which  it  is  com- 
bined with  the  sulphuric  acid  :  it  is 
the  basis  of  all  strong  and  heavy  soils. 
When  clay  is  minutely  divided,  it  is 
easily  suspended  in  water  ;  when 
dried  slowly,  and  stirred  while  dry- 
ing, it  becomes  a  fine  powder,  soft 
to  the  feel ;  and  when  kneaded  with 
water,  a  tough,  ductile  mass,  easily 
moulded  into  hollow  vessels  which 
retain  liquids.  This  property  of  being 
impervious  to  water  gives  the  specific 
character  to  clay  as  an  ingredient  of 
the  soil.  In  a  pure  and  unmixed  state 
it  is  absolutely  barren.  When  clay  is 
heated  to  a  great  degree  it  parts  with 
the  water  combined  with  it ;  it  is  then 
said  to  be  baked,  as  we  see  in  bricks. 
It  is  no  longer  diffusible  in  water. 

Silica,  or  the  earth  of  flints,  suffers 
no  change  in  water.  It  consists  of 
crystals,  or  fragments  of  very  hard 
stone,  forming  gravel  or  sand  accord- 
ing to  their  size  ;  and  the  finest  sili- 
cious  sand,  when  examined  with  a 
magnifying  glass,  has  the  appearance 
of  irregular  fragments  of  stone  wjih- 
out  any  cohesion  between  them. 


ARABLE  LAND. 


Silicious  sand  holds  water  in  its  in- 
terstices by  simple  cohesive  attrac- 
tion in  proportion  to  its  fineness.  It 
lets  water  pass  through  it  rapidly,  ei- 
ther by  filtration  or  evaporation.  Its 
use  in  the  soil  is  to  keep  it  open,  to 
let  the  air  and  water,  as  well  as  those 
other  substances  on  which  the  growth 
of  plants  depends,  circulate  through 
it.  Unmixed,  it  dries  so  rapidly  that 
no  vegetation  can  continue  in  it,  un- 
less a  constant  supply  of  moisture  be 
given  by  irrigation.  A  small  addition 
of  clay  much  improves  light  sands. 

Lime  in  its  pure  state  is  familiar 
to  every  one  as  the  basis  of  the  mor- 
tar used  in  building.  It  is  produced 
by  burning  marble,  chalk,  limestone, 
or  shells  with  a  great  heat.  In  the 
stones  which  are  formed  principally 
of  lime  it  is  comi)ined  with  some  acid, 
most  generally  carbonic  acid,  which 
separates  from  it  by  the  operation  of 
burning,  in  the  form  of  an  air  or  gas, 
hence  called  fixed  air,  from  its  being 
thus /an/  in  a  stone.  These  stones, 
of  various  degrees  of  hardness,  are 
now  ail  classed  under  the  name  of 
carbonates  of  lime. 

Lime  unites  readily  with  water, 
which  it  also  absorbs  from  the  atmo- 
sphere. It  then  becomes  slacked.  By 
uniting  with  carbonic  acid,  it  returns 
to  Its  fbrmer  state  of  carbonate,  with 
this  difference,  that,  unless  much  wa- 
ter he  present,  it  remains  a  fine  im- 
palpable powder.  Pure  lime  is  solu- 
ble in  water,  though  sparingly  ;  a  pint 
of  water  cannot  dissolve  more  than 
about  twenty  grains  :  the  carbonate 
is  not  soluble  in  water.  Carbonate  of 
lime  has  a  powerful  effect  on  the  fer- 
tility of  a  soil,  and  no  soil  is  very  pro- 
ductive without  it.  It  is  consequently 
used  extensively  as  an  improver  of 
the  soil,  otherwise  called  a  manure  ; 
but  its  use  in  this  respect,  and  the 
mode  in  which  it  acts,  will  be  given 
in  the  articles  Mwcre  and  Lime. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  as  an  earth,  is 
neither  so  tenacious  as  clay  nor  so 
loose  as  sand.  In  proportion  to  the 
fineness  of  its  particles,  it  approaches 
the  one  or  the  other;  when  the  parts 
are  large  and  hard,  it  takes  the  name 
of  limestone  or  calcareous  gravel. 


Its  distinguishing  feature  is  its  sol. 
ubility  in  acids,  which  it  neutralizes, 
depriving  them  of  their  noxious  qual- 
ities in  the  soil.  A  proper  mixture 
of  these  three  earths,  in  a  due  state 
of  mechanical  division,  forms  a  soil 
well  fitted  to  the  growth  of  every 
species  of  plants,  especially  those 
which  are  cultivated  for  food  ;  and 
nothing  more  is  required  than  a  prop- 
er climate  as  to  heat,  a  proper  degree 
of  moisture,  and  sufficient  nourish- 
ment, to  make  all  the  plants  generally 
cultivated  thrive  most  luxuriantly  in 
such  a  mi.xture.  which  is  usually  call- 
ed a  loam. 

But  there  are  some  soils  which,  be- 
sides a  proper  mechanical  texture  and 
mi.xture  of  earths,  contain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  a  natural  manure,  which 
renders  them  extremely  fertile.  This 
is  a  substance  produced  by  the  slow 
decay  of  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ter. It  can  be  separated  from  the 
other  parts  of  the  soil,  and  has  been 
accurately  analyzed  and  described  by 
many  of  the  most  experienced  chem- 
ists, particularly  by  Fourcroy.  Davy, 
Chaptal.  and  Theodore  de  Saussure. 
(See  Rccherchcs  Chimiqucs  sur  la  Ve- 
gitation,  Paris,  1804,  8vo.)  This 
substance  has  been  called  vegetable 
mould;  but,  as  this  is  not  a  very  dis- 
tinct term,  we  shall,  after  Thacr  and 
other  eminent  writers  on  agriculture, 
adopt  the  name  of  humus  when  speak- 
ing of  it.  Humus  is  a  dark,  unctuous, 
friable  substance,  nearly  uniform  in 
its  appearance.  It  is  a  compound  of 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitro- 
gen, which  are  the  elements  of  all  an- 
imal and  vegetable  substances.  It  is 
the  result  of  the  slow  decomposition 
of  organic  matter  in  the  earth,  and  is 
found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in 
rich  garden  mould,  or  old.  neglected 
dunghills.  It  varies  somewhat  in  its 
qualities  and  composition,  according 
to  the  sub.stances  from  which  it  has 
been  formed  and  the  circumstances 
attending  their  decay. 

Besides  the  four  essential  elements 
in  its  composition,  it  also  contains 
other  substances  in  smaller  quanti- 
ties, viz  ,  phosphoric  and  sulphuric 
acids  combined  with  some  base,  and 
89 


ARABLE  LAND 


also  earths  and  salts.  It  affords  tbod 
to  plants.  It  is  diminished  by  the 
process  of  vegetation,  and  wasted  by 
being  carried  into  the  ocean  by  the 
waters,  or  it  is  carried  into  the  atmo- 
sphere by  the  agency  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  which  converts  it  into  gas- 
eous matter,  chiefly  carbonic  acid. 

Humus,  in  tiie  state  in  wiiicb  it  is 
usually  found  in  the  eartii,  is  not  sol- 
uble in  water,  and  we  might  have 
some  difficulty  in  comprehending  how 
it  enters  into  the  minute  vessels  of 
the  roots  of  plants ;  but  here  the  ad- 
mirable provision  of  nature  may  be 
observed.  Humus  is  insoluble  and 
antiseptic  ;  it  resists  farther  decom- 
position in  itself,  and  in  other  sub- 
stances in  contact  with  it.  It  re- 
mains for  a  long  lime  in  the  eartli  un- 
impaired ;  but  no  sooner  is  it  brought 
into  contact  with  the  atmosphere  by 
the  process  of  cultivation,  than  an 
action  begins.  Part  of  its  carbon, 
uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, produces  carbonic  acid,  wliich 
the  green  parts  of  plants  readily  ab- 
sorb ;  while  its  hydrogen,  with  the 
same,  forms  water,  without  which 
plants  cannot  live  ;  and  in  very  warm 
climates,  where  this  process  goes  on 
more  rapidly,  the  moisture  thus  produ- 
ced keeps  up  vegetable  life  when  rains 
and  dews  fail.  The  residue  becomes 
a  soluble  extract,  and  in  that  stale  is 
taken  up  readily  by  the  fibres  of  the 
roots.  Hence  we  see  the  great  impor- 
tance of  frequently  stirring  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  between  vegeta- 
bles. 

We  can  now  readily  understand 
the  great  importance  of  humus,  and 
of  those  rich  manures  which  are 
readily  converted  into  it,  when  not 
immediately  absorbed  by  plants.  But 
it  has  still  another  property,  highly 
important  to  fertility  :  it  renders  stiflT 
clays  porous,  and  consolidates  loose 
sands.  It  does  so  more  than  lime  or 
any  other  earth.  Hence  a  soil  with 
a  considerable  portion  of  humus  is 
much  more  fertile  than  the  quantity 
of  alumina  or  of  sand  in  its  compo- 
site jn  would  lead  one  to  expect,  as 
we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  the 
analysts  of  soils  of  known  fertility  ; 
8i 


and  we  see  the  great  advantage  of 
animal  and  vegetable  manures,  not 
only  as  nourishment  to  vegetables, 
but  as  mechanical  improvers  of  the 
texture  of  soils. 

The  greatest  enemy  of  humus  is 
stagnant  water :  it  renders  it  inert 
and  astringent,  as  we  see  in  peat ; 
and  soils  abounding  with  vegetable 
matters,  from  which  water  is  not 
properly  drained,  become  sour,  as  is 
very  justly  said,  and  produce  only 
rushes  and  other  useless  and  unpal- 
atable plants.  The  remedy  is  simple 
and  obvious  :  drain  well,  and  neutral- 
ize the  acid  with  lime  or  marl ;  by 
these  means  abundant  fertility  will 
be  restored. 

In  very  light  soils  humus  is  seldom 
found  in  any  quantity,  being  loo  much 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  rapidly  de- 
composed ;  the  extract  is  washed 
through  them  by  the  waters,  and,  as 
they  waste  manure  rapidly,  they  are 
called  hungry.  Such  soils  are  very  un- 
profitable until  they  are  improved  and 
consolidated  by  clay  or  marl,  which 
makes  them  retain  their  moisture. 

With  calcareous  earths  humus  acts 
well,  provided  they  are  pulverized 
and  of  sufficient  depth. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  probable 
fertility  of  a  soil,  it  is  very  useful  to 
analyze  it,  and  find  out  the  propor- 
tion of  its  component  parts.  To  do 
this  with  great  accuracy  requires  the 
knowledge  of  an  experienced  chem- 
ist.    See  Analysis. 

Mr.  Thaer  has  given  a  classifica- 
tion of  soils  of  known  qualities,  which 
we  think  worthy  of  notice.  It  is  as 
follows  : 


^ 

^ 

._      ^ 

-*J 

No. 

jh'  ^ 

|i 

2 1 1 

3  ^ 

1 

'•"  t 

'•^  £ 

s'.^  i 

i.  i_ 

> 

— 

c 

w         C. 

"~r 

1                                         1 

74 

10 

~~*yi 

TTm 

loo 

2 

i  Firsiclass  of  strong  J 

SI 

6 

4 

»y. 

98 

3 

(      wheat  soils    .    .  \ 

79 

10 

4 

6>J 

96 

4 

40 

2-2 

36 

4  " 

90 

S 

(  Rich  light  sanil  ia  I 
\      n:i:ur;il  grass      .  ) 

14 

49 

10 

27 

? 

6 

Rich  barley  land 

•20 

67 

3 

10 

78 

7 

Onod  whe.it  land    ■ 

r,S 

36 

2 

4 

77 

8 

Wheat  land     . 

56 

30 

12 

2 

75 

9 

Do.  . 

HO 

38 

^ 

2 

70 

10 

I>o 

48 

.10 

5 

2 

65 

11 

r>9 

68 

.30 

<c  J 

2 

60 

1-: 

Good  o.nrley  land     . 

.38 

00 

w'^ 

2 

60 

13 

Do.  second  quality 

33     1  fi.T 

'r  C 

•3 

60 

14 

Do 

S8     1   70 

■~    3 

.2 

40 

1.'^ 

Oat  land  . 

irtV.^   T.=i 

'c  ^ 

ll.< 

■    ?/0 

16 

Do.           ... 

18,g|    80 

> 

IM 

20 

ARABLE  LAJN'D. 


Below  this  are  very  poor  rye  lands. 

Ill  all  these  soils  tlie  depth  is  sup- 
posed the  same,  and  the  quality  uni- 
form to  the  depth  of  at  least  6  inch- 
es ;  the  subsoil  sound,  and  neither  i 
too  wet  nor  too  dry. 

Xos.  1,  i.  and  3  are  alluvial  soils, 
and,  from  the  division  and  the  inti- 
mate union  of  the  humus,  are  not  so 
heavy  and  stiffas  the  quantity  of  jlay  J 
would  indicate. 

No.  4  IS  a  ricdi  clay  loam,  neither 
too  heavy  nor  too  loose  :  a  sod  ea- 
sily kept  in  heart  by  judicious  culti-  j 
vation 

Xo.  5  is  very  light  and  rich,  and 
best   adaped   tor   gardens    and   or-  | 
cliards,  hut  not  for  corn  ;  hence  its  ] 
comparative  value   can  scarcely  be 
given. 

rs'os.  6,  7,  and  8  are  good   soils  ; 
the  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  ' 
Xo.  8  compensates   for  the  smaller  i 
portion  of  humus.  Tiiis  land  requires 
manure,  as  well  as  the  others  below.  [ 
In  those  from  No.  9  downward  lime  | 
or  marl  would  he  the  greatest   iin-  ' 
provement.     Xos.  15  and  16  are  poor 
light  soils,  rccpiiring  clay  and  mucii 
manure  ;  but  even  these  lands  will 
repay  the  cost  of  judicious  cultiva- 
tion, and  rise  in  value.  : 

The  last  column,  of  comparative 
value,  is  the  result  of  several  years' 
careful  valuation  ofthe  returns,  after 
labour  and  seed  had  liecn  deducted. 

Few  old  sods  contain  more  than  4 
or  5  per  cent,  of  humus,  even  when 
in  very  good  heart;  and  2  per  cent., 
with  a  good  loamy  texture,  will  ren-  ' 
der  a  sod  lit  for  corn  with  judicious 
cultivation.  The  texture  is  of  most 
importance,  as  may  be  seen  by  com- 
paring Xos.  7  and  8  with  X'o.  6.  If 
this  is  of  good  quality,  dung  will  soon 
give  the  proper  supply  of  humus.         ' 

The  depth  of  the  soil  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  subsoil  greatly  affect  its 
value.  However  rich  it  may  be,  if 
there  is  only  a  thin  layer  of  good  soil 
over  a  sharp  gravel  or  a  wet  clay,  it 
can  never  bo  very  productive  :  in  the 
first  case,  it  will  he  parched  in  dry 
weather :  and  in  the  latter,  convert- 
ed into  mud  by  every  continued  rain. 
If  the  subsoil  be  loam,  six  inches  of, 


good  soil  will  be  sufficient.  With  a 
foot  of  good  soil,  the  subsoil  is  ol' lit- 
tle consequence,  provided  it  be  dry, 
and  the  water  can  find  a  ready  outlet. 
The  exposure,  with  respect  to  the 
sun,  and  the  declivity  ofthe  ground, 
are  very  important  circumstances, 
and  equivalent  to  an  actual  differ- 
ence in  the  climate.  A  gentle  de- 
clivity towards  the  south,  and  a  shel- 
ter against  cold  winds,  may  make  as 
great  a  difference  as  several  degrees 
of  latitude. 

2.   CfLTIV.iTIOV  OF  THE  SoIL. The 

better  the  soil,  the  less  cultivation  it 
requires  to  produce  tolerable  crops ; 
hence,  wliere  the  land  is  very  rich, 
we  find  in  general  a  slovenly  culture  ; 
where  the  ground  is  less  productive, 
more  labour  and  skill  are  applied  to 
compensate  for  the  want  of  natural 
fertility.  The  simplest  cultivation  is 
that  of  the  spade,  the  hoe,  and  the 
rake,  and  on  a  small  scale  it  is  the 
best  ;  but  spade  husbandry  cannot 
be  carried  to  a  great  extent  without 
employing  more  hands  than  can  be 
spared  from  other  occupations.  The 
jjlough,  drawn  l)y  oxen  or  horses,  is 
the  chief  instrument  of  tillage,  and 
has  been  so  in  all  ages  and  nations 
of  which  we  have  any  records.  Its 
general  form  is  familiar  to  every  one, 
and  requires  no  minute  description. 
The  various  kinds  of  ploughs  in  use 
at  difierent  times,  and  the  improve- 
ments which  have  been  made  and 
are  attempted  daily,  will  be  noticed 
in  a  separate  article  (see  Plough). 
Suffice  it  to  say,  at  present,  that  a 
plough  should,  as  much  as  possible, 
imitate  ihe  work  done  with  a  spade. 
It  should  cut  a  slice  from  the  land 
l)y  its  coulter  vertically,  and  by  the 
share  horizontally  lift  it  up,  ami  turn 
it  quite  over  by  means  ofthe  mould- 
board  ;  and  the  art  ofthe  ploughman 
consists  in  doing  this  perfectly,  and 
with  such  a  depth  and  width  as 
suit  the  soil  and  the  intended  pur- 
pose. In  tenacious  soils  the  slice 
will  be  continued  without  breaking, 
especially  if  bound  by  the  fibres  and 
roots  of  plants  ;  the  whole  surface 
will  be  turned  over,  and  the  roots 
exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  of  great 
85 


ARABLE  LAND. 


consequence  that  each  slice  be  of  the 
same  width  ami  thickness,  and  the 
sides  of  it  perfectly  straight  and  par-  , 
allcl.  Tlie  plane  of  the  coulter  must 
be  perfectly  vertical,  and  that  of  the  ; 
share  horizontal,  in  order  that  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  may  be  level, 
without  hollows  or  balks,  which  are 
irregularities  produced  by  the  rising 
or  sinking  of  the  plough,  or  inclining 
it  to  either  side.  There  are  various 
modes  of  ploughing  land,  either  quite 
Hat,  or  in  beds  or  stitches — that  is, 
in  portions  of  greater  or  less  widtli, 
with  a  double  furrow  between  them, 
somewhat  like  beds  in  a  garden. 
Sometimes  two  ridges  are  set  up 
against  each  other,  which  is  called 
ridging  or  banting ;  the  land  then  is 
entirely  laid  in  high  ridges  and  deep 
Jurrows,  by  which  it  is  more  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  the  air,  and  kept 
drier:  this  is  generally  done  before 
winter,  especially  in  stiff,  wet  soils. 
Sometimes  two  or  more  ridges  are 
made  on  each  side,  forming  narrow 
stitches.  When  the  ground  is  to  be 
ploughed  without  being  laid  in  stitch- 
es, and  all  tiie  ridges  inclined  one 
way,  the  mould-board  of  the  plough 
is  shifted  at  each  turn  from  one  side 
to  the  other.  The  double  mould-board 
plough  of  Barnaby  and  Mooers  docs 
this  effectively.  When  gjass  land  or 
stubble  is  ploughed,  care  must  be  ta- 
ken to  bury  tbe  grass  and  weeds  com- 
pletely, and  the  slice  cut  off  by  the 
plough  must  be  turned  over  entirely, 
which  is  best  done  by  making  the 
width  of  the  furrow  greater  than  the 
depth.  When  the  grass  and  weeds 
are  rotten,  and  the  ground  is  plough- 
ed to  pulverize  it,  a  narrow,  deep  fur- 
row is  best ;  the  earth  ploughed  up 
is  laid  against  the  side  of  the  prece- 
ding ridge,  which  forms  a  small  fur- 
row between  the  tops  of  the  ridges, 
well  adapted  for  the  seed  to  lodge  in 
and  to  be  readily  covered  with  the 
harrow. 

Nothing  has  divided  both  practical 
and  theoretical  agriculturists  more 
than  the  question  whether  the  land 
should  be  ploughed  deep  or  shallow; 
but  a  very  slight  attention  to  the  pur- 
puses  for  which  laud  is  ploughed,  and 

as 


to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  will  readily 
reconcile  these  apparently  contradic- 
tory opinions.  A  deep,  ricii,  and  stiff 
soil  can  never  be  moved  too  much 
nor  too  deep  :  deep  ploughing  brings 
up  rich  earth,  admits  tlie  air  and 
water  readily,  and  gives  room  for 
the  roots  to  shoot,  while  the  rich 
compact  soil  affords  moisture  and 
nourishment.  Wherever  trees  are  to 
be  planted  the  ground  should  be  stir- 
red as  deep  as  possible,  even  in  a  poor 
soil :  for  grass  and  corn,  this  is  not 
always  prudent ;  their  roots  seldom 
go  above  three  or  four  inches  deep, 
and  if  they  find  suflicient  moisture 
and  hurnus,  they  require  Utile  more 
depth. 

V\'henever  the  soil  below  a  certain 
depth  is  of  an  inferior  quality,  there 
can  be  no  use  in  bringing  it  up  ;  and 
where  the  soil  is  light  and  porous, 
the  bottom  had  much  better  not  be 
broken. 

The  great  object  in  ploughing  land 
is  to  divide  it,  expose  every  part  of 
it  to  the  influence  of  the  elements, 
and  destroy  every  plant  or  weed  but 
those  which  are  sown  in  it.  To  do 
this  perfectly  requires  several  plough- 
ings. 

Where  the  soil  is  good,  with  a  po- 
rous subsoil,  the  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  go  too  deep  ;  but 
where  the  subsoil  is  compact  and  im- 
pervious to  water,  but  not  wet  for 
want  of  outlet  or  draining,  it  is  use- 
ful to  stir  the  soil  to  a  great  depth, 
but  without  bringing  it  to  the  sur- 
face, which  may  be  done  by  a  plough 
without  a  mould-board  following  a 
common  plough  in  the  same  furrow. 
This  is  an  excellent  mode  of  drain- 
ing, and,  at  the  same  time,  keeping 
a  reservoir  of  moisture,  which  in  dry 
weather  ascends  in  vapours  through 
the  soil  and  refreshes  the  roots. 

The  mode  in  which  the  soil  is  pre- 
pared most  perfectly  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  seed  is  best  shown  by  fol- 
lowing the  usual  operations  on  fal- 
lows :  After  the  harvest,  the  plough 
is  set  to  work  and  the  stubble  plough- 
ed in.  The  winter's  frost  and  snow 
mellow  it,  while  the  stubble  and  weeds 
rot  below'.     lu  spring,  as  soon  as  ths 


ARABLE  LAND 


weather  permits,  it  is  ploughed  again, ' 
the  lirst  ridjjcs  being  turned  over  as 
they  were  belore  ;  tliis  completes  the  i 
decomposition  of  the  roots  and  weeds. 
It  is  then  stirred  with  harrows  or  oth- 
er instruments,  which   tear  up  the 
roots  which  remained,  and  some  of 
these,  not  being  easily  destroyed,  are 
carefully  gathered  and  burned,  or  put 
in  a  heap  to  ferment  and  rot,  a  por- 
tion of  quickhme  being  added.     An-  I 
oVlier  ploughing  and  stirring  follows,  '. 
at  some  interval,  till  the  whole  ground 
is  mellow,  pulverized,  and  free  from 
weeds  ;  manure  is  put  on,  if  required, 
and  immediately  spread  and  ploughed 
in  :  the  land  is  then  prepared  for  the 
seed.  I 

Various  instruments  have  been  in-  ' 
vonted  to  stir  the  earth  and  mix  it 
wiihovit  so  often  using  the  plough, 
and  also  to  loosen  and  separate  roots 
and  weeds  ;  of  these  the  principal 
are  the  cultivator  or  scarifier,  which 
enters  but  a  few  inches  into  the 
ground,  and  moves  a  great  surface 
by  means  of  iron  teeth  of  various 
constructions. 

This  instrument  divides  the  soil, 
but  does  not  turn  it  over  ;  it  is  well 
calculated  to  destroy  roots  and  weeds, 
and  let  in  the  air  ;  but,  evidently,  is 
only  adapted  to  tolerably  loose  and 
mellow  soils,  where  there  are  no 
large  stones. 

AN'hen  the  soil  turned  up  by  the 
plough  is  in  large,  hard  lumps,  a  roll- 
er, sometimes  with  spikes  in  it,  is 
drawn  over  the  land  to  break  the 
clods  ;  but  this  is  seldom  necessary 
except  where  very  stifTsoils  have  been 
ploughed  when  too  wet.  and  the  ridges 
have  dried,  and  been  ploughed  again 
in  dry  weather.  Deep  wet  clay  soils 
should  be  carefully  watched,  to  know 
Avhen  is  the  proper  time  to  plough 
them.  Nothing  pulverizes  them  like 
frost ;  and  if  they  are  kept  from  wet 
by  careful  draining  and  numerous 
water-furrows  in  autumn,  they  will 
be  loose  and  friable  in  spring  ;  tiiey 
had  better  not  be  touched  than  work- 
ed when  too  wet.  On  light  soils  the 
plain  roller  is  used  to  advantage  to 
produce  firmness,  without  which  the 
plough  cannot  so  well  turn  the  ground 


over  completely,  but  merely  pushes 
it  to  the  right  and  left. 

The  iniluence  of  the  atmosphere 
on  the  soil,  and  the  increased  fertili- 
ty produced  by  pulverizing  and  stir- 
ring heavy  lands,  has  led  to  the  no- 
tion adopted  by  Jethro  Tiill,  that  la- 
bour might  entirely  supersede  the 
necessity  of  manure  ;  hence  the  ori- 
gin of  the  horse-hoeing  husbandry, 
which  at  one  time  was  so  highly 
thought  of  as  to  be  called,  by  way  of 
distinctiiui,  the  neio  husbandry. 

There  are  some  soils  which  are 
so  mixed  with  pebbles  and  stones 
that  the  foregoing  observai ions  will 
scarcely  be  applicable,  and  the  in- 
struments must  be  adapted  to  their 
texture.  The  only  inconvenience 
found  from  tiiem  in  good  soils  is  that 
they  occupy  the  room  of  better  earth, 
and  wear  out  the  instruments  used, 
which,  in  consequence,  are  made 
stronger  and  blunter.  When  there 
is  a  crop  to  be  mown  with  the  scythe, 
the  stones  must  be  removed  from  the 
surface. 

"When  the  land  has  been  duly  pre- 
pared, the  seed  is  sown.  This  is 
done  sometimes  before  the  last 
ploughing,  but  then  the  manure 
should  have  been  ploughed  in  be- 
fore ;  for,  except  in  planting  the  po 
tato,  which  is  not  a  seed,  but  a  bull), 
'  the  manure  should  always  be  deeper, 
and  not  in  contact  with  the  seed. 
When  the  seed  is  ploughed  in,  the 
furrow  should  not  be  above  two  or 
three  inches  deep  and  eight  or  nine 
v,-ide ;  and  it  is  only  in  particular 
soils  that  this  mode  is  to  i)e  recom- 
mended. Tlie  most  common  method 
is  to  sow  the  seed  on  the  land  after 
the  last  ploughing,  and  draw  the  har- 
rows over  to  cover  it.  When  the 
land  has  been  well  ploughed,  the  seed 
will  mostly  fall  in  the  small  furrows 
made  by  two  adjoining  ridges,  and 
rise  in  reaiular  rows  ;  but  by  far  the 
most  perfect  way  is  to  sow  it  at  a 
regular  depth,  by  means  of  a  ma- 
chine, and  in  rows  at  regular  distan- 
'  ces.     See  Drill. 

The  proper  season  for  sowing  each 
kind  of  gram,  the  choice  of  seed,  and 
^  other  particulars,  will  be  given  under 
87 


ARABLE  LAND. 


the  name  of  the  difTorent  seeds  usu- 
ally sown.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may 
be  observed,  that  the  smaller  the 
seed,  the  Jess  it  must  he  covered, 
and  clover  or  grass  seed  is  not  usu- 
ally harrowed  in,  but  only  pressed  in 
vviih  ihe  roller. 

3.  Sltckssion  of  Crops,  or  Rot.\- 
TioNs. — It  has  been  found  by  expe- 
rience that,  besides  the  general  ex- 
haustion of  huniu.s,  each  kind  of  crop 
has  a  specific  effect  on  the  sod.  so 
that  no  care  or  manure  can  make  the 
same  ground  produce  equal  crops  .)f 
the  same  kind  of  grain  for  any  length 
of  time  without  the  intervention  of 
other  crops.  Whether  this  be  owing 
to  any  peculiar  nourishment  neces- 
sary to  each  particular  kind  of  plants, 
or  because  plants  not  indigenous  de- 
generate in  a  foreign  soil,  the  fact  is 
certain  with  respect  to  most  crops 
usually  raised,  and  particularly  red 
clover.  This  points  out  the  advan- 
tage of  varying  the  crops,  according 
as  they  are  found  to  succeed  best 
after  each  other.  In  general,  all 
kinds  of  grain  succeed  best  after  a 
crop  which  has  been  cut  before  the 
seed  has  ripened  or  the  stem  is  dried 
up.  Those  plants  which  have  a  na- 
ked s'.em  with  few  leaves  thrive  best 
after  leguminous  plants,  which  have 
more  succulent  stems  and  more 
leaves,  and  which  bear  their  seeds 
in  pods,  as  pease,  beans,  tares,  or 
vetches ;  or  after  esculent  roots, 
which  sirike  deep  into  the  gro:ind.  as 
carrots,  parsnips,  beet-roots,  and  tur- 
nips. Fr(un  this  circumstance,  con- 
firmed by  universal  experience,  the 
different  systems  of  rotation  have 
had  their  origin,  taking  the  nature  of 
the  soil  into  consideration. 

The  Norlolk  rotation  is,  1.  Tur- 
nips, well  manured ;  'Z.  Barley  ;  3. 
Clover  ;  4.  ^^"lleal  :  by  which  a  suf- 
ficiency of  food  for  sheep  and  cattle 
is  obtained  without  natural  pastures, 
and  the  land,  manured  every  fourth 
year  at  least,  is  kept  in  a  regular 
state  of  progressive  improvement 

A  very  comuion  rotation  in  Scot- 
land   is,    fallow,    wheat,    clover,    or 
grass,  fed  one,  two,  or  three  years; 
liien  oats,  pease,  or  beans,  and  w  heat 
38 


again,  if  the  land  is  clean  and  in  good 
heart  ;  for  there  is  no  rule  better  es- 
tablished than  that  of  never  allowing 
the  soil  to  be  exhausted  beyond  a 
certain  point,  where  manure  and  til- 
lage can  readily  recruit  it.  The 
greedy  cultivator  is  sure  to  pay  dear- 
ly in  the  end  for  every  crop  lorced 
from  the  land  unreasonably. 

The  Flemish  husbandry  proceeds 
much  on  this  principle.  The  great- 
est attention  is  paid  to  manuring  and 
weeding.  Much  more  manual  labour 
is  bestowed,  and  tlie  crops  seem 
nuire  certain,  varied,  and  abundant. 
That  it  is  not  unprofitable,  w-e  may 
conclude  from  the  wealtli  of  the  peas- 
ants, the  comfort  of  the  labourers, 
and  the  sleek  appearance  of  the  cat- 
tle. From  the  very  interesting  ac- 
count of  Flemish  agriculture  in  the 
work  of  Mr.  Van  Aeli)roek,  of  Ghent, 
we  learn  with  what  great  care  the 
soil  is  cultivated  in  Flanders.  After 
ploughing  lands,  every  intervening 
furrow  is  deepened  and  cleared  with 
the  spade,  the  earth  being  thrown 
over  the  bed  sow  n.  Liquid  manure, 
chiefly  the  urine  of  animals  and  drain- 
ings  of  dunghills,  is  carefully  col- 
lected, and  is  carried  on  and  distribu- 
ted over  the  poor  light  soils  by  means 
of  water-carts,  before  sowing,  and 
again  when  the  crop  is  come  up.  By 
this  means  such  lands  are  made  to 
yield  crops  of  rape  seed,  clover,  lu- 
cern.  flax,  and  corn,  equal  in  luxu- 
riance to  those  on  the  richest  soils. 
Fallows  are  rendered  unnecessary  by 
the  careful  destrucl.on  of  weeds;  in 
short,  it  is  a  garden  culture  on  an  ex- 
tended scale.  All  the  land  is  in  till- 
age, except  where  rivers  occasion- 
ally overflow,  and  render  the  mead- 
ows rich  and  profitable.  The  cattle 
are  mostly  kept  in  stables,  and  fed 
with  green  food  cut  and  brought  to 
them,,  by  which  means  one  acre  of 
clover,  lucern.or  other  artificial  grass 
will  maintain  five  times  as  many 
beasts,  or  more,  as  an  acre  of  the 
best  pasture.  But  the  greMt  objtct 
is  to  increase  manure,  especially  in  a 
liquid  slate,  which  is  care.ully  pre- 
served in  reservoirs,  without  loss  or 
waste,  till  wanted  for  the  land.  This 


ARB 


AKO 


pvptpm  is  also  followed  in  Switzer- 

l.uul 

In  llolstein,  on  moderately  good 
soil,  they  adopt  the  following  course  : 
1.  Oats,  on  newly  l)roken-i!p  grass 
land  ;  2.  A  fallow  to  destroy  grasses 
and  weeds,  and  aeeeierate  the  de 
composition  of  their  roots ;  3.  Wheat, 
with  or  without  manure,  according 
to  the  state  of  tiie  land  ;  4.  Beans, 
barley,  or  oats  ;  5.  Wheat,  manured, 
unless  it  has  been  done  for  the  beans 
the  year  before  :  6.  Grass  seeds  pas- 
tured for  three  years  or  more,  when 
the  rotation  begins  again. 

We  have  now  given  a  brief  outline 
of  the  manner  in  wliich  aralde  land 
may  be  cultivated  and  improved.  If 
we  should  be  asked  whether  so  much 
attention  and  labour  upon  land  of  a 
proper  quality  will  be  repaid  by  the 
value  of  tlie  produce,  we  shall  an- 
swer, without  any  hesitation,  in  the 
affirmative,  provided  the  cultivator 
is  [)ossessed  of  knowledge,  judgment, 
and  experience,  and  devotes  all  his 
time  to  the  superintendence  of  his 
farm. — (IV.  L.  Rham.) 

ARAC.E,  AROID.E.  The  natural 
family  of  plants,  including  the  arum, 
Indian  turnip,  and  skunk  cabbage. 

AIIACHNIDANS,  ARACHNIDA. 
A  class  of  apterous,  spider-liko  con- 
dylopes,  having  the  head  confluent 
with  the  chest,  and  the  body,  conse- 
quently, consisting  of  but  two  seg- 
ments, with  eight  legs,  smooth  eyes, 
and  the  sexual  orifices  situated  on 
the  thorax,  or  anterior  part  of  the 
abdomen. 

ARATION.     Ploughing. 

ARBOR.  The  principal  spindle  or 
axis  of  a  machine. 

ARBORESCENT.  Inclining  to, 
or  becoming  woody. 

ARBORrCULTURE.  The  culti- 
vation of  trees. 

ARBORETUM.  A  place  for  the 
cultivation  of  trees. 

ARBOR  VIT.E.  rhuja  occidcnta- 
lis.  A  well-known  coniferous  ever- 
green, of  small  size,  but  very  duralde. 
It  abounds  in  the  Northern  States, 
ap'J  has  oeen  much  recommended  as 
a  l'3dge.  Tiie  jilants  are  best  rai.?ed 
fiora  seed.     Tliere  is  a  species  from 


China  mnch  admired  in  the  shrub- 
beries of  Rnrope. 

ARBUSTUM.  An  orchard  or  vine- 
yard. 

ARBUTUS.  A  genus  of  handsome 
evergreen  shrubs  of  the  natural  fam- 
ily Ericaceae.  The  fruit  is  succulent, 
but  austere,  and  in  the  A.  uncdo  a 
beautiful  object.  The  Arlnitus  nn- 
drachnc  is  the  most  admired  of  this 
genus.  Tlie  A.  vra  vrsi  yields  a  use- 
ful medicine.  They  are  much  cul- 
tivated as  shrubbery  plants  in  Eu- 
rope, and  belong  to  the  first  class  for 
beauty. 

ARCESTHIDA.  A  small  succu- 
lent cone,  as  the  juniper  berry. 

ARCHIL.  A  purple  dye-stuff  pro- 
cured from  the  Rocclla  tinclona  and 
fudformis,  lichens  growing  on  the 
rocks  of  the  Canary  Islands. 

ARCHITRAVE.  The  chief  beam 
or  structure  resting  immediately  upon 
the  columns  of  an  edifice,  the  lowest 
member  of  the  entablature  ;  also  call- 
ed the  epistvlium. 

ARCUA'rE.     Bent  like  a  bow. 

ARECA.  An  East  Indian  palm,  the 
nut  of  which  is  chewed  with  the  betel. 

ARENACEOUS.  Sandy,  relating 
to  sand. 

AREOL-E.  In  entomology,  the 
small  spaces  between  the  nervures 
of  the  wings. 

AREOMETER.  An  instrument  for 
taking  specific  gravities.  See  Hi/- 
drometcr. 

ARGIL,  ARGILLACEOUS.  Clay, 
clavey. 

ARILL.^,  ARIL.  ARIEL.  Amem- 
branous  prolongation  of  the  placenta 
over  a  seed,  as  the  mace  of  the  nut- 
meg. 

AR.M  OF  A  HORSE.  The  upper 
part  of  the  fore  legs. 

ARMILLA.  The  coloured  circle 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  fore  leg,  above 
the  tarsus  of  birds. 

ARMY  A^'OR.M.  Sec  CoHun,  Dis- 
eases of. 

ARNOTTO.     See  Annolta. 

AROMA,  AROMATIC.  A  plea.?- 
ant  spicy  odour,  usually  due  to  a  vol- 
atde  oil. 

AROMATIC  HEED.  Acorns  rala- 
mus.  Sweet  Hag,  a  common  indige- 
89 


ARR 


XRT 


nous  wafer  plant,  the  rhizome  of 
which  is  of  a  spicy  odour.  It  is  the 
Calamus  oromaticus  of  the  druggists. 

ARPENT.  The  French  acre  of 
51,691  sqare  feet. 

ARRACACHA.  The  South  Amer- 
ican name  for  an  umbelliferous  plant, 
the  Arracacia  escuknla  of  botanists, 
whose  flcsliy  sweet  roots  are  cultiva- 
ted in  Columbia  and  Jamaica,  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  those  countries, 
in  the  same  way  as  parsnips  and  car- 
rots in  Europe.  The  roots  are  of 
large  size,  and  in  quality  are,  when 
cooked,  between  a  sweet  chestnut 
and  a  parsnip.  Attempts  to  intro- 
duce it  into  common  European  cul- 
tivation have  uniformly  failed.  — 
{Brandc.) 

ARRACK.  A  whiskey  of  unpleas- 
ant odour,  obtained  by  distilling  the 
liquor  of  the  fermented  mush  of  rice. 
It  is  sometimes  applied  to  other  spir- 
ituous liquors. 

A  R  R  O  W-G  R  A  S  S.  The  genus 
Trigluchin.  They  are  small  marsh 
grasses,  perennial,  and  flowering  in 
July ;  some  grow  on  salt  marsh. 
They  are  eaten  bv  cattle. 

ARROW-HEAD.  Sagntaria  sa- 
gittifolia.  A  common  indigenous, 
perennial,  tuberose  plant,  with  ar- 
row-shaped leaves,  growing  in  brooks. 
It  is  cultivated  by  the  Chinese  for  its 
roots,  whicli  are  mealy. 

ARROW-ROOT.  Marnnta  anai- 
dinacea.  A  herbaceous  plant  of  the 
family  Canna;,  with  fleshy  peretmial 
roots,  readily  propagated  by  root-cut- 
tings, which  should  be  set  a  foot  to 
eighteen  inches  apart,  in  drills.  It  is 
cultivated  in  Bermuda,  the  West  In- 
dies, and  Florida.  The  roots  are  dug 
when  a  year  old,  washed,  beaten  into 
a  pulp,  then  mixed  with  water,  and 
agitated  ;  the  struigy  parts  are  then 
se|)aratcd  by  the  hand.  The  starch,  or 
ur'oic-rool,  remains  suspended  in  the 
water  ;  this  is  next  strained  through 
a  linen  cloth,  and  then  allowed  to  set- 
tle, by  which  the  starch  subsides,  and 
the  water  is  removed  :  it  is  washed 
a  second  time,  and  dried.  Arrow- 
root is  a  nearly  pure  starch,  of  agree- 
able flavour,  but  little  nutrition.  Good 
potatoes,  rasped  into  a  pulp  and  treat- , 
40 


ed  the  same  way,  produce  a  starch, 
which  is  often  used  to  adulterate  the 
genuine  article. 

ARROW- WOOD.  Vihirnum  den- 
latum.  A  small  shrub  with  straight, 
stiff  branches  and  blue  berries :  the 
wood  is  said  to  have  been  used  by 
the  Aborigines  for  arrows. 

ARSENIC.  Arsenious  acid,  white 
oxide  of  arsenic. '  A  violent  irritant 
poison,  used  injudiciously  to  destroy 
rats,  and  as  an  application  to  ulcers. 
The  safest  antidote  is  the  recently- 
prepared  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  :  by 
precipitating  a  solution  of  per-nitrate 
of  iron  by  solution  of  potash.  Lime- 
water  is  much  less  certain. 

ARTEMISIA.  The  genus  of 
wormwoods. 

ARTERIOTOMY.  The  opening 
of  an  artery  to  let  blood. 

ARTE  R  Y.  The  vessels  which 
convey  red  blood  are  so  called. 

ARTESIAN  WELLS,  or  fount 
ains,  are  those  springs  or  wells  which 
constantly  overflow  their  summits. 

ARTHRODIC.  An  articulation  of 
bones,  in  which  the  head  of  one  is 
received  into  a  shallow  cavity  of  the 
other,  so  as  to  permit  considerable 
motion.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
upper  arm  and  shoulder. 

ARTICHOKE.  Ci/nara  scolyrmis. 
A  plant  having  the  appearance  of  a 
gigantic  thistle,  cultivated  for  the 
flower-head,  which  is  cut  before  flow- 
ering, boiled,  and  served  with  butter. 
They  are  propagated  by  seed  and  ofT- 
sets.  If  by  the  former,  sow  the  seed 
m  rows,  a  foot  apart,  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  Thin  the 
plants  to  a  foot  apart  in  the  row, 
and,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  put  out 
the  plants  in  clunips  of  four  in  rows, 
three  feet  apart,  and  the  rows  six 
feet  asunder.  They  will  produce 
their  fruit  tlie  next  year.  When 
winter  approaches,  earth  the  roots 
well  up,  and,  before  the  frost  sets  in, 
cover  all  well  over  with  litter  fiom 
the  yard  or  stable.  Open  at  the 
breaking  up  of  the  frost ;  dig  all  the 
ground  well  between  the  rows  ;  lev- 
el the  earth  down  from  the  plants. 
You  will  find  m;iny  young  ones,  or 
offsets,  growing  out  from  the  sides ; 


ART 


ASH 


pull  these  off,  and,  if  you  want  a  ne\r 
plantation,  put  them  out  as  you  did 
tlie  original  plants  :  they  will  bear, 
though  later  than  the  old  ones,  that 
same  year.  By  great  care,  they  may 
be  made  to  bear  three  years. 

ARTICHOKE,  Jkrusai.em.  HcU- 
anthus  iuhcio.ius.  A  small  sunflower, 
with  nutritious  tubers.  It  yields 
from  150  to  200  bushels  of  roots,  less 
in  size  than  potatoes  ;  the  lops,  cut 
before  flowering,  also  produce  abun- 
dant fodder.  Hogs  root  up  the  tu- 
bers greedily,  and  thrive  well  upon 
them.  When  steamed  or  boiled,  they 
are  palatable.  It  is  one  of  the  plants 
found  by  Boussingault  to  draw  its 
nitrogen  almost  entirely  from  the 
air ;  hence  it  is  recommended  as  an 
ameliorating  crop,  when  turned  in 
before  the  tubers  are  formed. 

It  is  usually  propagated  by  sets 
from  the  roots  in  April,  grows  in  any 
moist  soil,  especially  such  as  is  sandy 
and  light :  the  cultivation  is  the  same 
as  for  the  potato.  When  raised  for 
its  tuber,  it  is  liable  to  become 
troublesome,  from  the  germinating 
power  of  even  the  smallest  pieces 
left  in  the  soil.  It  keeps  in  the  ground 
all  winter,  or  may  be  preserved  un- 
der sand.  In  the  .Middle  States  it 
thrives  well.  It  is  extensively  used 
in  France  as  provender  for  cattle, 
hogs,  &.C.,  and  is  equal  to  potatoes  in 
nourishment. 

ARTICULATA,  ARTICULATES. 
A  term  applied  by  Cuvier  to  a  primary 
division  of  the  animal  kingdom,  char- 
acterized by  an  external  skeleton  in 
the  tbrm  of  a  series  of  rings  artic- 
ulated together  and  surrounding  the 
body  ;  by  an  internal  gangliated  ner- 
vous system,  the  ganglions  being  ar- 
ranged symmetrically  along  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  body,  and  by  having 
distinct  respiratory  organs.  Insects 
and  various  worms  are  of  this  order 

ARTICUL.\TED.  Jointed  In 
botany  it  signities  a  slight  connexion, 
such  as  tint  of  the  leal  with  the  stem 
in  exogens,  which  allows  ihera  to  fall 
ortwhen  dead. 

ARTICLLATION.     The  connex- 
ion of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  by 
joints. 
D8 


ARUM.    The  genus  of  the  Indian 

turnip. 

ARUNDO.  The  reed  plants.  Sev- 
eral species,  growing  on  sand,  bind  it 
together  :  aruiidinaceous,  reed-likc. 

ARVICOLA.  The  genus  of  liold- 
mice. 

ASAFCETIDA.  A  fetid  gum  res- 
in obtained  Irom  the  root  of  the  Ferula 
asiiJiE/ida,  whence  it  exudes,  by  in- 
cision, in  the  form  of  a  milky  juice, 
which,  when  dried  by  exposure  to 
the  sun,  acquires  a  mottled  appear- 
ance and  pink  colour.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  south  of  Persia,  and  is  used  in 
medicine  as  a  stimulant  and  antispas- 
modic in  hysteric  and  nervous  disor- 
ders, and  in  spasmodic  cough,  asth- 
ma, and  flatulent  colic. 

ASCARIS,  (pi.)  ASCARIDES.  In- 
testinal worms.     See  Worms. 

ASCI.  Little  membranous  bags 
containing  sporules.  Ascidium,  tlie 
leaf-pitcher. 

ASCITES.     Dropsy  of  the  belly. 

ASH-TREE.  Fraxinus  cxcclawr. 
European  ash,  a  handsome  tree,  with 
valuable  timber.  The  weeping  ash 
is  a  variety.  This  tree  is  a  native 
of  America,  hut  not  very  abundant. 
The  white  ash  (F.  acuminala)  is  a  val- 
uable and  common  tree  of  the  United 
States.  A  sweet  gum  (inaiuta)  exudes 
tVom  many  species,  especially  from 
the  F.  ornus  of  Italy,  and  commands 
a  high  price  at  the  druggists  as  a  lax- 
ative medicine. 

ASHES.  The  incombustible  part 
of  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 
In  agriculture  several  varieties  are 
used,  which  will  be  briefly  described. 

Wood  ashes  are  most  abundant  from 
leaves,  bark,  and  joung  twigs.  The 
composition  differs  wiih  the  tree  and 
soil.  The  following  analyses  from 
Sprengel  will  serve  as  a  general  guide : 


Red 
BeecU. 

Oak. 

.S...U11 

Kir. 

l-Mili  Vme. 
(Hi-rtli.rr.) 

.Silica     . 

^■ii 

■W-JJ 

(jd'J 

7-.<U 

Al.iii.ina  .    . 

2:«  ) 

Ovide  1)1"  Iron   .    . 

3-77  S 

8-14 

17-03 

11-10 

OxiileorMan^nese 

3-,-«) 

2-7."» 

!.,.,«  .    r    . 

2.i-yO 

17-38 

23-18 

13-60 

Magnesia 

5-0l> 

1+1 

alii 

■•-:« 

P..t;i»l.  .        .        . 

ii-ll 

I6-.'0 

•2-iU 

14-10 

Soila      . 

3:JJ 

6-7i 

■2-i-2 

20-75 

Sulphuric  Acid      . 

7-M 

3-36 

2-2:1 

3-4.1 

Plio.pliuric  Acid 

b-Hl 

!•<« 

2-7.'i 

0-<.10 

(.;l,l,.r,,.e         .        . 

184 

3  41 

C-.n 



CarLouic  Acid  .    . 

noo 

i:-37 

.11,  1- 

1 7.r.o 

100 

100 

11)0 

HIM 

41 


ASHES. 


Ashes  are  used  with  advantage  to 
every  crop,  but  t'is[)cc;ially  a^  a  dress- 
in;:  to  that  intended  for  ^namiiicous 
plants  and  llie  cereaiia;  but  turni|)s, 
potatoes, ilie  wiiite  field  carrot. and  ev- 
ery crop,  ha.s  been  beneliled  by  them. 
The  application  should  differ  with 
the  object  in  view  ;  six  bushel-s  are 
enouj;h  to  advance  a  clover  or  lucern 
crop  in  the  spring,  but  15  to  20  bush- 
els are  sown  as  a  dressing  for  an  an- 
nual crop,  as  grain,  barley,  &c.  Large 
doses  should  not  be  applied  to  the 
land  with  seed  or  upon  young  growth, 
as  the  carbonate  of  potash  present 
sometimes  injures  them.  They  tell 
best  on  land  rich  in  vegetable  mat- 
ter, upon  which  the  potash  and  soda 
acts.  On  clayey  soils  ashes  general- 
ly ])roduce  more  rapid  effects  than 
on  lighter  kinds. 

The  action  of  all  ashes  is  twofold, 
partly  due  to  the  solui)le  portions, 
and  partly  to  the  insoluble.  The 
chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt, 
the  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  potash, 
are  soluble,  and  produce  immediate 
effects  on  the  crop;  but  the  phos- 
phates and  silicates,  as  well  as  car- 
bonate of  lime,  require  time  to  dis- 
solve and  benefit  the  crop.  Hence 
it  has  been  observed  that  some  lands 
are  permanently  improved  by  ashes, 
and  some  crops  immediately  benefit- 
ed, as  the  leguminous  plants. — {Sprcn- 
gel.)  In  those  soils  which  already 
contain  much  alkali,  as  the  detritus 
of  primitive  and  transition  coun- 
tries, seashores,  lands  near  salt 
springs,  the  soluble  parts  of  ashes 
will  be  of  little  moment ;  and  the 
leached  remains  may  be  altogether 
superior,  for  few  soils  contain  so 
much  phosphoric  acid  as  not  to  be 
improved  by  an  addition  as  manure. 

Leached,  or  Washed  Wood  Ashes. — 
Where  wood  ashes  are  washed  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  pot  and  pearl 
ash  of  commerce,  this  insoluble  por- 
tion collects  in  large  quantities.  It 
is  also  present  in  the  refuse  of  the 
soap-makers,  where  wood  ash  is  em- 
ployed for  the  manufacture  of  soft 
soap.  The  composition  of  this  insol- 
uble matter  varies  very  much,  not 
only  with  the   kind  of  wood   from 

^9 


which  the  ash  is  made,  but  also  with 

the  icntpentiurc  it  is  allowed  to  attain 
in  burning.  The  former  fact  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  analysis,  made 
by  Berlhier,  of  the  insoluble  matter 
left  by  the  ash  of  five  different  spe- 
cies of  wood  carefully  burned  by  him- 
self: 


i 

_j 

-i    -Z  ^ 

J 

.M 

_i 

fc 

"i 

?£ 

S 

o 

1-2 

C2 

i£ 

CO 

CO 

Silica 

3* 

■i-O 

bb 

130 

4-tj 

ft-8 

Lime 

64-8 

Sl-8 

bi-Z 

•:7-2 

42-3 

42-6 

.M^snesia        . 

OH 

2-2 

3-0 

8-7 

10-5 

7-0 

Oxide  of  Iron 

.—.~ 

01 

0•.^ 

22-:: 

01 

1-5 

Oxide  of  Mans-inese 



0-li 

3-5 

b-:^ 

0-1 

45 

I'liosf.lioric  A>:lJ     . 

0-8 

2S 

4-3 

1-p 

1-0 

n-7 

Carbonic  Acid 

39* 

:irt-8 

31-0 

21-.T 

.3S-0 

32-9 

Carbon    . 









4-S 



'jy-b 

ITO 

itm 

IIJI) 

yy7 

luo 

The  numbers  in  these  several  col- 
umns differ  very  much  from  each 
other  ;  but  the  constitution  of  the  in- 
soluble part  of  the  ash  he  obtained 
probably  differed  in  every  case  from 
that  which  would  have  been  left  by 
the  ash  of  the  same  wood  burned  on 
the  large  scale,  and  in  the  open  air. 
This  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  total 
absence  of  potash  and  soda  in  the 
lixiviated  ash,  while  it  is  well  known 
that  common  li.Kiviated  wood  ash  con- 
tains a  notable  quantity  of  both.  This 
arises  from  the  high  temperature  at 
which  wood  is  commonly  burned, 
causing  a  greater  or  less  portion  of 
the  potash  and  soda  to  combine  with 
the  silica,  and  to  form  insoluble  sili- 
cates, which  remain  behind  along 
with  the  lime  and  other  earthy  matter 
when  the  ash  is  washed  with  water. 
It  is  to  these  silicates,  as  well  as  to 
the  large  quantity  of  lime,  magnesia, 
and  phosplioric  acid  it  contains,  that 
common  wood  ash  owes  the  more 
perma7icnt  effects  upon  the  land,  which 
it  is  known  to  have  produced.  When 
the  rains  have  washed  out,  or  the 
crops  carried  off  the  more  soluble 
part  from  the  soil,  these  insoluble 
compounds  still  remain  to  exercise 
a  more  slow  and  enduring  influence 
upon  the  after-produce. 

Stdl,  from  the  absence  of  this  sol- 
uble portion,  the  action  of  lixiviated 
wood  ash  is  not  so  apparent  and  en- 
ergetic, and  it  may  therefore  be  safe- 
ly added  to  the  land  in  much  larger 
quantity.    Appliea  at  the  rate  of  two 


ASHES. 


tons  an  acre,  its  effects  have  been 
observed  to  cominue  for  rifteeii  or 
twenty  years.  It  is  most  benelicial 
upon  clay  soils,  and  is  said  especial- 
ly to  promote  the  growtli  of  oats. 

Kelp  is  the  name  given  to  the  ash 
left  by  sea-weeds  when  burned.  As 
a  natural  mixture,  which  can  be  ob- 
tained at  a  cheap  rate,  and  has  been 
proved  to  be  useful  to  vegetation  in 
a  high  degree,  it  is  very  desirable 
that  accurate  experiments  should  be 
instituted  with  the  view  of  determin- 
ing the  precise  extent  of  its  action, 
as  well  as  the  crops  and  soils  to  which 
it  can  be  most  advantageously  and 
most  economically  applied. 

Like  wood  ashes,  kelp  varies  in 
composition  with  the  species  and  age 
of  the  sea-weeds  from  which  it  is 
prepared,  and  like  them  also,  it  con- 
sists of  a  soluble  and  insoluble  por- 
tion. Two  samples,  analyzed  by  Dr. 
Ure,  consisted  of 


!  though  the  variable  proportion  of  its 
i  constituents  will  always  cause  a  de- 
gree of  iHH-ertainty  in  regard  to  the 
j  action  of  the  ash  of  marine  plants, 
yet  if  the  quantity  of  chloride  ol  po- 
tassium It  contains  be,  on  an  average, 
nearly  as  great  as  is  stated  above  in 
the  analysis  of  Gay  Lussac,  kelp  will 
I  really  be  the  cheapest  form  in  which 
I  we  can  at  present  apply  potash  to  the 
land. 

StiatL-  Ashes. — The  ashes  obtained 
by  burning  the  straw  of  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  and  rye  contain  a  natural 
mixture  of  saline  substances,  which 
is  exceedingly  valuable  as  a  manure 
to  almost  every  crop.  The  propor- 
tion of  the  several  constituents  of 
this  mixture,  however,  is  diflerent, 
according  as  the  one  or  the  other 
kind  of  straw  is  burned.  Thus,  100 
parts  of  each  variety  of  ash,  in  the 
samples  analyzed  by  Sprengel,  con- 
sisted of 


SolaO:c  FufliuH. 

Carbonate  of  Sod-i,  with 
Sulphuret  of  Sodiun; 
SulpliHte  of  Soda    . 
Common  Salt  . 
CUloride  of  Potassium   ; 

JnsolubU  Portion. 
Carbonate  of  Lime 
Silica       .        .        .        . 
Alumina  and  Oxide  of  < 
Iron      .        .        .        ] 
Gypsum 
SulpUur  and  toss 


Besides  these  constituents,  how- 
ever, the  soluble  portion  contains  io- 
dide of  potassium  or  sodium  in  va- 
riable quantity,  and  the  insoluble 
more  or  less  of  potash  and  soda  in 
the  state  of  silicates  and  phosphates. 

Kelp  may  be  applied  to  the  land  in 
nearly  the  same  circumstances  as 
wood  ash,  but  for  this  purpose  it 
would  probably  be  better  to  burn  the 
sea-weed  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
is  usually  employed.  By  this  means, 
being  prevented  from  melting,  it 
would  be  obtained  at  once  in  the 
state  of  a  fine  powder,  and  would  be 
richer  in  potasU  and  soda. 

It  might  lead  to  important  results 
of  a  practical  nature  were  a  series  of 
preci.\e  experiments  made  with  this 
finely-divided  kelp  as  a  manure,  es- 
pecially   in    inland    situations  ;   for 


Heisker. 

Rona. 

Gay  Lus<ac. 

P(ita«h 

Oats. 

Barley.  [Wheat. 

11)  e. 

tt.pe. 

l.VJ 

:5-4 

06 

1-.' 

8n 

5o 



Soda     . 

trace 

0-9 

08 

0-4 

11-2 

80 

19-0 

Lime    . 

2-« 

10-5 

6-8 

li-4 

16-9 

<  .n«0 

Magnesia     . 

0-4 

1-4 

0-9 

OM 

31 

36-5 

Silica    . 

80-0 

T.'S-S 

SIS 

Hi-: 

2-1 

53  0 
24* 

W-0 
lO-O 

O.xide  of  Iron      . 
0.xiile  of  Manga-  ) 

trace 
trace 

0-J  1 
0-3' 

2'5 

0-9 

2-3 

8-0 





Pliospboric  Acid 

0-2 

3-3 

4-8 

1-8 

9-9 

9-0 

10-0 



Sulphuric  Acid    .  ■ 

1.4 

2-i 

1-0 

61 

l:!-3 

Chlorine       . 

()-l 

1-3 

0-9 

0-h 

11-4 





Carbouic  Acid     . 





. . 



11-0 

C-0 

8-5 

T" 

100 

ii;<i 

The  most  striking  differences  in 
the  above  table  are  the  comparative- 
ly large  quantity  of  potasii  in  the  oat 
straw  ;  of  lime  in  that  of  barley  ;  of 
phosphoric  acid  in  that  of  wheat  ;  of 
sulphuric  acid  in  that  of  rye,  and 
of  all  the  saline  substances  in  rape 
straw.  These  differences  are  not  to 
be  considered  as  constant,  nor  will 
the  numbers  in  any  of  the  above  col- 
unms  represent  correctly  the  com- 
position of  the  ash  of  any  variety  of 
straw  we  may  happen  to  burn,  l)ut 
they  may  be  safely  depended  upon  as 
showing  the  general  composition  of 
such  ashes,  as  well  as  the  general 
differences  which  may  be  expected 
to  prevail  among  them. 

That  such  ashes  should  prove  use- 
ful to  vegetation  might  be  inferred, 
not  only  from  their  containing  many 
43 


ASHES. 


saline  substancps  which  ave  known 
to  act  beneficially  when  applied  to 
the  land,  but  from  the  fact  that  they 
have  actually  been  obtained  from 
vegetable  substances.  If  inorganic 
matter  be  necessary  to  the  growth 
of  wheat,  then  surely  the  mixture  of 
such  matters  contained  in  the  ash  of 
wheat  straw  is  more  likely  than  any 
other  we  can  apply  to  promote  the 
growth  of  the  young  wheat  plant.  A 
question  might  even  be  raised  wheth- 
er or  not,  in  some  soils  rich  in  vege- 
table matter,  the  ash  alone  would  not 
produce  as  visible  an  effect  upon  the 
coming  crop  as  the  direct  application 
of  the  straw,  either  in  the  dry  state, 
or  in  the  form  of  rotted  farmyard 
manure ;  and  this  question  would 
seem  to  be  answered  in  the  affirma- 
tive by  the  result  of  many  trials  of 
straw  ashes  which  have  been  made 
in  England.  In  that  country  the  ash 
of  five  tons  of  straw  has  been  found 
superior  in  efficacy  to  ten  tons  of 
farmyard  manure.  This  is  perfectly 
consistent  with  theory;  yet,  as  vege- 
table matter  appears  really  essential 
to  a  fertile  soil,  and  as  the  quantity 
of  this  vegetable  matter  is  lessened 
in  some  degree  by  every  corn  crop 
we  raise,  it  cannot  be  good  husband- 
ry to  manure  for  a  succes.sion  of  ro- 
tations with  saline  substances  only. 
The  richest  soil  by  this  procedure 
must  ultimately  be  exhausted.  On 
the  other  hand,  where  much  vegeta- 
ble matter  exists,  and  especially  what 
is  usually  called  men  vegetable  mat- 
ter, it  may  be  an  evidence  of  great 
skill  in  the  jiractical  farmer  to  apply, 
for  a  limr,  the  ashes  only  of  his  straw, 
or  soiTie  other  saline  mixture  to  his 
land. 

The  practice  of  burning  the  stubble 
on  a  winoy  day  has  been  found  in 
Yorkshire  to  produce  belter  clover, 
and  to  cause  a  larger  return  of  wheat ; 
for  this  purpose,  however,  the  stub- 
ble must  he  left  of  considerable  length. 
In  Germany,  rape  straw — which  the 
above  tal)le  shows  to  be  so  rich  in 
saline  and  earthy  matter,  and  there- 
fore exhausting  to  the  land — is  spread 
over  the  tield  and  burned  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  destruction  of  weeds 
44 


and  insects  which  attends  this  prac- 
tice is  mentioned  as  one  ol  its  col- 
lateral advantages. 

It  is  not  advisable,  as  I  have  al- 
ready said,  wholly  to  substitute  the 
ash  for  the  straw  in  ordinary  soils, 
or  in  any  soils  for  a  length  of  time  ; 
yet  that  it  may  be  partially  so  sub- 
stituted with  good  effect,  or  that 
straw  ashes  will  alone  give  a  large 
increase  of  the  corn  crop,  and  there- 
fore should  never  be  wasted,  is  shown 
by  the  following  comparative  experi- 
ments, conducted,  as  such  experi- 
ments should  be,  during  an  entire  ro- 
tati(m  of  four  years.  The  quantity 
of  manure  applied,  and  the  produce 
per  imperial  acre  were  as  follows  : 


C   *>!*  C   to 

I8>i  cwt.     ifilg  cwt. 
:iO>£  bush,  riwa^  bush. 
■;0.wt.        21  LWt. 
38  btish.     ]40  bush. 

The  kind  of  soil  on  which  this  ex- 
periment was  made  is  not  stated,  but 
it  appears  to  show,  as  we  should  ex- 
pect, that  the  effects  of  straw  ash 
are  particularly  exerted  in  promoting 
the  growth  of  the  corn  plants  and 
grasses  which  contain  much  siliceous 
matter  in  their  stems  ;  in  short,  of 
plants  similar  to  those  from  which 
the  ash  has  been  derived. 

Theory  nf  Ihe  action  of  Straw  Ash. — 
That  it  should  especially  promote 
the  growth  of  such  plants  appears 
most  natural  if  w'e  consider  only  the 
source  from  which  it  has  been  ob- 
tained, but  it  is  fully  explained  by  a 
farther  chemical  examination  of  the 
ash  itself  The  soluble  matter  of 
wood  ash,  in  general,  contains  but  a 
small  quantity  of  silica,  while  that 
part  of  the  straw  ash  which  is  taken 
up  by  water  contains  very  much. 
Thus  a  wheat  ash,  analyzed  by  Ber- 
thier,  contained  of 

per  cent. 

Soluble  salts  "      .      .     19 

Insoluble  matter      .      •      .81 
100 
and  that  which  was  dissolved  by  wa- 
ter consisted  of 


ASHES. 


per  cent. 

Silica 35 

Chlorine 13 

Potash  and  soda      ...  50 

Sulphuric  acid   ....  2 

Too 

Sn  that  it  was  a  mixture  of  soluble 
silicates  and  chlorides  with  a  little 
sulphate  of  potash  and  soda.  These 
soluble  silicates  will  find  an  easy  ad- 
mission into  the  roots  of  plants,  and 
will  readily  supply  to  the  young  stems 
of  the  corn  plants  and  grasses  the 
silica  which  is  indispensable  to  their 
healthy  growth. 

Turf  or  peat  ashes,  obtained  by  the 
burning  of  peat  of  various  qualities, 
are  also  applied  with  advantage  to 
the  land  in  many  districts.  They  con- 
sist of  a  mixture  in  which  gypsum  is 
usually  the  predominating  useful  in- 
gredient, the  "alkaline  salts  being 
present  in  very  small  proportion. 
Tlie  following  table  exhibits  the  com- 
position of  some  varieties  of  ashes 
from  the  peat  of  Holland  and  from 
the  heath  of  Luneburg,  examined  by 
Sprengel : 


Dutch  Ashes 

Lunebnrs  Ashes 

(gray) 

(reddish). 

^. 

■S  i? 

M  ^ 

-3^ 

Producing  lit- 

S"^ 

£  S 

tle  effect. 

.S  ^ 

>  5 

a  T 

—    C" 

•*  g" 

U  c- 

Silica  . 

471 

55-H 

704 

31-7 

43-3 

Alumina     . 

■Jo 

3-5 

41 

51 

97 

Oxide  of  Iron     . 

6li 

5-4 

41 

17-7 

9-3 

Do  of  Manganese 

1-0 

4-3 

0-2 

o-.-> 

3r, 

Lime  . 

13-rt 

8-fi 

Rl 

31-9 

71 

M  tgnesla    . 

4-H 

1-C 

3-9 

1-0 

4  6 

Potash 

0-2 

0-2 

01 

01 

.^— 

Soda   . 

1-0 

3-9 

0-4 

0-1             

Gypsum 

Sulpliuric  Acid  . 

7-2 

6-4 

3-4 

6-2               0  2 
Pho3.ofLime 

Phosphoric  Acid 

•2-0      0-8 

1-3 

1-2               0  2 
Common  Salt 

riilorine     . 

1-2       3-0 

0-5 

0-1              01 

Carbonic  Acid   . 

41       6-4 

5-5 

4-4              12-0 

Clianed  Turf    . 

li-t;  — - 





lOtlO  1000 

i(MO 

lOO-Oi           IIHJO 

In  the  most  useful  varieties  of 
these  ashes  it  appears,  from  the  above 
analyses,  that  lime  abounds,  partly 
in  combination  with  sulphuric  and 
phosphoric  acids,  forming  gypsum 
and  phosphate  of  lime,  and  partly 
with  carbonic  acid,  forming  carbon- 
ate. These  compounds  of  lime,  there- 
fore, may  be  regarded  as  the  active 
ingredients  of  peat  ashes. 

Yet  the  small  quantity  of  saline 
matter  they  contain  is  not  to  be  con- 


sidered as  wholly  without  effect  ;  for 
the  ashes  are  often  applied  to  the 
land  to  the  extent  of  two  tons  an 
acre,  a  quantity  which,  even  when 
the  proportion  of  alkali  does  not  ex- 
ceed one  per  cent.,  will  contain  45 
lbs.  of  potash  or  soda,  equal  to  twice 
that  weight  of  sulphates  or  of  com- 
mon salt.  To  the  minute  quantity 
of  saline  matters  present  in  them, 
therefore,  peat  ashes  may  owe  a  por- 
tion o)  their  beneficial  influence,  and 
to  the  almost  total  absence  of  such 
compounds  from  the  less  valuable 
sorts  their  inferior  estimation  may 
have  in  part  arisen. 

In  Holland,  when  applied  to  the 
corn  crops,  they  are  either  ploughed 
in,  drilled  with  the  seed,  or  applied 
as  a  top-dressing  to  the  young  shoots 
in  autumn  or  spring.  Lucern,  clo- 
ver, and  meadow  grass  are  dressed 
with  it  in  spring  at  the  rate  of  15  to 
18  cwt.  per  acre,  and  the  latter  a 
second  time  with  an  equal  quantity 
after  the  first  cutting.  In  Belgium 
the  ashes  are  applied  to  clover,  rape, 
potatoes,  flax,  and  pease.  In  Lune- 
burg, the  turf  ash  which  abounds  in 
oxide  of  iron  is  applied  at  the  rate  of 
3  or  4  tons  per  acre,  and  by  this 
means  the  physical  character  of  the 
clay  soils,  as  well  as  their  chemical 
constitution,  is  altered  and  improved. 

In  England  peat  is  in  many  places 
burned  for  the  sake  of  the  ashes  it 
yields.  The  soil  from  beneath  which 
the  turf  is  taken  abounds  in  lime, 
and  the  ashes  are  said  to  contain 
from  one  fourth  to  one  third  of  their 
weight  of  gypsum.  They  are  used 
largely  both  in  Berksliire  and  Hamp- 
shire, and  are  chiefly  applied  to  green 
crops,  and  especially  to  clover,  at  ihc 
rate  of  50  bushels. 

Coal  ashes  are  a  mixture  of  which 
the  composition  is  very  variable  ; 
they  consist,  however,  in  general,  of 
lime,  often  in  the  state  of  gypsum,  of 
silica,  and  of  alumina,  mixed  with  a 
quantity  of  bulky  and  porous  cinders 
or  half-burned  coal.  The  ash  of  a 
coal  from  St.  Etienne,  in  France,  af- 
ter all  the  carbonaceous  matter  had 
been  burned  away,  was  found  by  Ber- 
tUier  to  consist  of 


ASI 


ASP 


per  rent. 

Alumina,  insoluble  in  acids     .  62 

Alumina,  soluble     ....  5 

Lime 6 

Magnesia 8 

Oxide  of  Manganese    ...  3 

Oxide  and  Sulpliuret  of  Iron  16 

ioo 

Such  a  mixture  as  this  would  no 
doubt  benotit  many  soils  by  the  alu- 
mina, as  well  as  by  ihe  lime  and  mag- 
nesia it  contains ;  but  in  coal  ashes 
a  small  quantity  of  alkaline  matter, 
chiefly  soda,  is  generally  present. 
The  constitution  of  the  ash  of  our 
best  coals,  therefore,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  very  nearly  resembling 
that  of  peat  ash,  and  as  susceptible 
of  similar  applications.  When  well 
burned,  it  can,  in  many  cases,  be  ap- 
plied with  good  effects  as  a  top-dress- 
ing to  grass  lands  which  are  over- 
grown with  moss,  while  the  admix- 
ture of  cinders  in  the  ash  of  the  less 
perfectly  burned  coal  produces  a  fa- 
vourable physical  change  upon  strong 
clay  soils. 

Cane  Ashes. — I  may  allude  here  to 
the  advantage  which  in  sugar-grow- 
ing countries  may  be  obtained  from 
the  restoration  of  the  cane  ash  to 
the  fields  in  which  the  canes  have 
grown.  After  the  canes  have  been 
crushed  in  the  mill,  they  are  usually 
employed  as  fuel  in  boiling  down  the 
sirup,  and  the  ash,  which  is  not  un- 
frequently  more  or  less  melted,  is,  I 
believe,  almost  unilormly  neglected  ; 
at  all  events,  is  seldom  applied  again 
to  the  land.  According  to  the  prin- 
ciples I  have  so  often  illustrated  in 
the  present  lectures,  such  procedure 
must  sooner  or  later  exhaust  the  soil 
of  those  saline  substances  which  are 
most  essential  to  the  growth  of  the 
cane  plant.  If  the  ash  were  applied  as 
a  top-dressing  to  the  young  canes,  or 
put  into  the  cane  holes  near  the  roots 
— having  been  previously  mixed  with 
a  quantity  of  wood  ash,  and  crushed  if 
it  happen  to  have  been  melted — this 
exhaustion  would  necessarily  take 
place  much  more  slowly. — (Johnson.) 

ASILL'S.  A  Linnaean  genus  of 
dipterous  insects,  in  which  the  mouth 
is  furnished  with  a  horny,  projecting, 
46 


straight,  two-valved  sucker,  and  gib- 
bous at  the  base  :  antenna;  filiform, 
approximate,  of  two  articulations  ; 
body  oblong  and  conical  in  shape. 
The  insects  of  this  genus  prey  on 
other  insects,  especially  those  of  the 
dipterous  and  lepidopterous  orders. 

ASPARAGIN.  The  white  crys- 
talline principle  found  in  the  juice  of 
the  asparagus,  supposed  to  be  a  di- 
uretic. It  is  resolved,  by  boiling  in 
water  with  magnesia,  into  ammonia 
and  as  par  lie  acid. 

ASPARAGUS.  Asparagus  officina- 
lis. A  perennial  plant  growing  on 
sandy  meadows  near  the  sea.  The 
young  shoots  (torus)  form  an  esteem- 
ed vegetable,  and  are  susceptible  of 
high  cultivation.  They  may  be  raised 
from  roots  or  seed.  The  seed  is  sown 
in  April,  in  rich  soil  an  inch  deep,  in 
rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the 
ground  kept  clean.  In  two  or  three 
seasons  the  roots  will  be  large  enough 
to  transplant  to  permanent  beds.  The 
new  plantation  is  made  in  March  or 
April ;  the  ground  must  be  light,  deep, 
and  rich,  and  well  dug.  The  beds  are 
made  six  feet  wide,  with  alleys  of  two 
feet  between  them  ;  three  rows  of 
root-stools  are  placed  in  each  bed,  at 
the  depth  of  six  inches  and  distance 
of  a  foot.  Every  spring  the  bed  is 
forked  or  loosened,  and  a  dressing 
of  well-rotted  stable  manure  mixed 
with  the  upper  soil.  The  roots  send 
up  abundant  shoots  when  kept  moist 
with  water  during  the  season,  if  suf- 
ficient rain  does  not  fall.  A  sprink- 
ling of  salt  with  the  manure  is  a  very 
great  improvement.  Indeed,  in  Spain, 
asparagus  is  cultivated  in  beds  sub- 
ject to  inundations  of  the  sea.  All 
animal  manures  increase  the  growth. 
To  enlarge  the  size  of  the  shoot,  they 
place,  in  Germany,  small  flower  pots 
or  other  tubular  vessels  over  the  earth 
as  soon  as  the  shoot  appears ;  it  grows 
into  these,  and,  being  deprived  of  light, 
remains  white  and  tender,  attaining 
the  size  of  the  vessel  in  some  cases. 
Sixteen  rods  of  bed  will  yield  200  to 
300  heads  a  day  during  the  season. 
The  beds  last,  with  management,  a 
long  term  of  years  ;  indeed,  some  are 
known  forty  years  old. 


ASP 

To  force  Asparagus. — Such  plants 
must  be  inserted  in  hot-beds  as  are 
five  or  six  years  old,  and  appear  of 
sufficient  strength  to  produce  vigor 
ous  shoots  ;  when,  however,  any  old 
natural  ground  plantations  arc  intend- 
ed to  be  broken  up  at  the  proper  sea- 
son, some  of  the  best  plants  may  be 
selected  to  be  plunged  into  a  hot-bed, 
or  any  spare  corner  of  the  stove  i)ark- 
beds.  The  first  plantation  for  forcing 
should  be  made  about  the  latter  end 
of  September  :  the  bed,  if  it  works 
favourably,  will  begin  to  produce  in 
the  course  of  four  or  five  weeks,  and 
will  continue  to  do  so  for  about  throe, 
each  light  producing  in  that  time  300 
or  400  shoots,  and  atfording  a  gather- 
ing every  two  or  three  days.  To 
have  a  regular  succession,  therefore, 
a  fresh  bed  must  be  formed  every 
three  or  four  weeks,  the  last  crop  to 
be  planted  in  March  or  the  early  part 
of  April :  this  will  continue  in  pro- 
duction until  the  arrival  of  the  nat- 
ural ground  crops.  The  last-made 
beds  will  be  in  production  a  fortnight 
sooner  than  those  made  about  Christ- 
mas. 

The  bed  must  be  substantial,  and 
proportioned  to  the  size  and  [lumber 
of  the  lights,  and  to  the  time  of  year, 
being  constructed  of  stable  dung  or 
other  material.  The  common  mode 
of  making  a  hot-bed  is  usually  follow- 
ed. It  is  the  best  practice  to  plant 
the  asparagus  in  mould  laid  upon  the 
tan,  which,  or  some  other  porous 
matter,  is  indispensable  for  the  easy 
admission  of  the  heat  from  the  linings. 
The  bed  must'be  topped  with  six  or 
eight  inches  of  light,  rich  earth.  If  a 
small  family  is  to  be  supplied,  three 
or  four  lights  will  be  sufficient  at  a 
time  ;  for  a  larger,  six  or  eight  will 
not  be  too  many.  Several  luindred 
plants  may  be  inserted  under  each,  as 
they  may  be  crowded  as  close  as  pos- 
sible together;  from  500  to  900  are 
capable  of  being  inserted  under  a 
Ihree-ligiit  frame,  according  to  their 
size  In  planting,  a  furrow  being 
drawn  the  whole  length  of  the  frame, 
against  one  side  of  it  the  first  row  or 
course  is  to  be  placed,  the  crowns 
upright,  and  a  little  earth  drawn  on 


ASP 

to  the  lower  ends  of  the  roots  ;  then 
more  plants  again  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  so  continued  throughout,  it 
being  carefully  observed  to  keej)  them 
all  regularly  about  an  inch  below  the 
surface  :  all  round  on  the  edge  of  the 
bed  some  moist  earth  must  be  bank- 
ed close  to  the  outside  roots. 

If  the  bed  is  extensive,  it  will 
probably  acquire  a  violent  heat ;  the 
frames  must  therefore  be  continued 
off  until  it  has  become  regular,  oth- 
erwise the  roots  are  liable  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  being,  as  it  is  technical- 
ly termed,  scorched  or  steam- scalded. 
When  the  heat  has  become  regular, 
the  frames  may  be  set  on,  and  more 
earth  be  applied,  by  degrees,  over  the 
crowns  of  the  plants,  until  it  acquires 
a  total  depth  of  five  or  six  inches. 
The  glasses  must  be  kept  open  an 
inah  or  two  as  long  and  as  often  as 
possible,  without  too  great  a  reduc- 
tion of  temperature  occurring,  so  as 
to  admit  air  freely  and  give  vQut  to 
the  vapours,  for  on  this  depends  the 
superiority  in  flavour  and  appearance 
of  the  shoots  The  heat  must  be  kept 
up  by  linings  of  hot  dung,  and  liy  cov- 
ering the  glasses  every  night  with 
mats,  &LC.  The  temperature  at  night 
should  never  be  below  50°,  and  in 
the  day  its  maximum  at  62°.  In 
gathering,  for  which  the  shoots  are 
fit  when  from  two  to  five  inches  in 
height,  the  finger  and  thumb  must  be 
tiirust  down  into  tiie  earth,  and  tiie 
stem  broken  offal  the  bottom.  This 
excellent  vegetable  possesses  some 
diuretic  properties.  Its  juice  contains 
a  peculiar  crystallizable  substance, 
which  was  discovered  by  Vauquelin 
and  Robiquet,  and  named  by  them 
Asparagm. 

ASPARAGUS  STONE.  A  variety 
of  apatite.     Sec  A putite. 

ASPEN.  Populus  trcmula  and 
tremuloides,  species  of  the  great  ge- 
nus of  poplars,  remarkable  for  their 
lightness  and  shade.  The  timlier  is 
white,  soft,  and  readily  decays. 

A  S  P  E  R  G  1  L  L  U  M.  One  of  the 
commonest  mildew  plants.  See  Mil- 
dew. 

ASPIDIOTUS.  A  genus  of  insects 
resembling  the  bark-Iice,  or  scale  in- 
M 


ASS 


AST 


sects,  and  of  the  same  habits  and 
family.  They  are  found  on  the  ole- 
ander, rose,  bay,  cactus,  and  other 
plants. 

ASPHODEI-E.E.  The  family  of 
plants  to  which  the  onion  iiehings. 

ASS.  A  well-known  and  useful  do- 
mestic animal,  whose  services  might 
be  rendered  even  still  more  useful  for 
various  purposes  of  husbandry  if  he 
were  properly  trained  and  taken  care 
of 

He  is  extremely  hardy,  both  with 
regard  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
his  food,  contenting  himself  with  the 
most  harsh  and  disagreeable  herbs, 
which  other  animals  will  scarcely 
touch.  In  the  choice  of  water  he  is, 
however,  very  nice,  drinking  only  of 
that  which  is  perfectly  clear,  and  at 
brooks  with  which  he  is  acquainted. 
Animals  of  this  sort  require  very 
little  looking  after,  and  sustain  lal)()nr, 
hunger,  and  thirst  beyond  most  oth 
ers.  They  are  seldom  or  never  sick, ! 
and  endure  longer  than  most  other 
kinds  of  animals.  They  may  be  made 
useful  in  husbandry  to  plough  light 
lands,  to  carry  burdens,  to  draw  in 
mills,  to  fetch  water,  cut  chaff,  or 
any  other  similar  purposes.  They 
are  also  very  serviceal)le  in  many 
cases  for  their  milk,  which  is  excel- 
lent for  those  who  have  suffered  from 
acute  diseases,  and  are  much  weak- 
ened. They  are  used  for  the  purpose 
of  breeding  mules. 

The  structural  difference  between 
the  horse  and  the  ass  is  trifling :  in 
all  essential  points  the  organization 
is  the  same  ;  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  lengthened  ears  of  the  ass, 
their  form,  size,  and  proportions  in  a 
wild  state,  they  dither  but  little  ;  con- 
sequently, they  possess  conditions 
more  favourable  to  the  multiplication 
of  species  than  those  afforded  by  any 
other  nearly  allied  animals.  The  ass 
is,  properly  speaking,  a  mountain  ani- 
mal ;  his  hoofs  are  long,  and  furnish- 
ed with  extremely  sharp  rims,  leav- 
ing a  hollow  in  the  centre,  by  which 
means  he  is  enabled  to  tread  with 
more  security  on  the  slippery  and 
precipitous  sides  of  hills  and  precipi- 
ces. The  hoof  of  the  horse,  on  the 
4a 


contrary,  is  round,  and  nearly  flat 
underneath,  and  we  accordingly  lind 
that  he  is  most  serviceable  in  level 
countries ;  and,  indeed,  experience 
has  taught  us  that  he  is  altogether 
unfitted  for  crossing  rocky  and  steep 
mountains.  As,  however,  the  more 
diminutive  size  of  the  ass  rendered 
him  comparatively  less  important  as 
i  a  beast  of  burden,  the  ingenuity  of 
mankind  early  devised  a  means  of 
remedying  this  delect,  by  crossing 
the  horse  and  ass,  and  thus  procu- 
ring an  intermediate  animal,  uniting 
the  size  and  strength  of  the  one  with 
the  patience,  intelligence,  and  sure- 
footedness  of  the  other. 

The  varieties  of  the  ass,  in  coun- 
tries favourable  to  their  development, 
are  great.  In  Guinea  the  as^es  are 
large,  and  in  shape  even  excel  the 
native  horses.  The  asses  of  Arabia 
(says  Chardin)  are  perhaps  the  hand- 
somest animals  in  the  world.  Their 
coat  is  smooth  and  clean  ;  they  carry 
the  head  elevated,  and  have  fine  and 
well-formed  legs,  which  they  throw 
out  gracefully  in  walking  or  gallop- 
ing. In  Persia,  also,  they  are  finely 
formed,  some  being  even  stately,  and 
much  used  in  draught  and  carrying 
burdens,  while  others  are  more  light- 
ly proportioned,  and  used  fur  the  sad- 
dle by  persons  of  quality,  frequently 
fetching  the  large  sum  of  400  livres, 
and,  being  taught  a  kind  of  easy,  am- 
bling pace,  are  richly  caparisoned, 
and  used  only  by  the  rich  and  luxu- 
rious nobles.  With  us,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  ass,  unfortunately,  e.xliibits 
a  stunted  growth,  and  appears  rather 
to  vegetate  as  a  sickly  exotic  than  to 
riot  in  the  luxuriant  enjoyment  of  life 
like  the  horse. 

The  diseases  of  the  ass,  as  far  as 
they  are  known,  bear  a  general  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  horse.  As 
he  is  more  exposed,  however,  and  left 
to  live  in  a  state  more  approaching  to 
that  which  nature  intended,  he  has 
few  diseases  — (Jolmson.) 

ASTRINGENT.  In  farriery,  a 
term  applied  to  such  remedies  as 
have  the  property  of  constringing,  or 
binding  the  parts,  as  oak  bark,  sugar 
of  lead,  &c. 


ATO 

ATMOSPHERE.     The  bulk  ot  air  ' 
which  surrounds  our  globe,  supposed 
to  reach  forty-five  miles  above  its  sur-  [ 
face.     It  is  the  receptacle  of  every  | 
volatile   substance   rising   from    the  i 
earth  ;  but,  in  virtue  of  its  peculiar  i 
composition,  vapours  and  gases  dil'- 
fuse  themselves  throughout  the  mass  i 
with  great  rapidity,  so  that  the  com- 
position of  the  whole  is  maintained  ; 
nearly  uniform  at  all  times  and  places,  j 
Its  chemical  composition  is  79  parts 
nitrogen,  20  8  oxygen,  4  to  6  parts  in  , 
ten  thousand  of  carbonic  acid,  about 
one  part  in  sixty  thousand  of  ammo- 
nia, according  to  Liebig,  besides  mi-  j 
nute  quantities  of  various  vapours,  ; 
microscopic  seeds,  and  saline  mat-  j 
ters.     Water,  in  the  form  of  vapour, 
is  also  an  important  constituent,  fluc- 
tuating in  quantity  with  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  and  increasing  as  the  ; 
warmth.  In  the  development  of  plants 
the  air  is  as  important  as  the  earth,  ' 
indeed  more  so,  since  many  vege- 
tables  can   live   suspended,  without 
contact  with  the  earth,  while  none  ! 
can  exist  without  a  full  supply  of  air.  , 
The  loosening  of  soils  is  in  a  great 
measure  beneficial    from  the   intro- 
duction of  air.     The  various  ingre- 
dients enumerated  have  not  an  equal 
importance  in  agriculture  ;  for  the  ni- 
trogen is  almost  inactive ;  the  oxy- 
gen is  the  great  agent  of  destruction 
as  regards  plants,  causing  the  decom- 
position of  all  vegetable  structures ; 
the  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  are 
the  great  sources  of  food,  and  al- 
though they  are  present  in  minute 
proportions,  they  are  abundantly  dis- 
tributed for  the  purposes  of  vegeta- 
tion.   For  the  history  of  these  gases, 
see  them  severally. 

ATOM.  In  chemistry,  the  ultimate 
particle  of  a  body,  which  combines 
with  other  atoms.  Theoretically, 
these  are  of  a  determinate  magni- 
tude in  every  case.  The  figure  of 
the  atom  is  not  worthy  of  consider- 
ation, some  supposing  it  spherical, 
others  elipsoidal.  Atoms  are  simple 
or  elementary  when  they  cannot  be 
separated  by  chemical  forces,  and 
compound  when  they  are  liable  to  de- 
composition. Chemical  compounds 
E 


ATO 

consist  of  a  definite  number  of  atoms, 
bound  together  by  chemical  force  or 
affinity  ;  but  the  value  of  this  force  is 
different  in  different  compounds.  In 
consequence,  however,  of  the  union 
of  atoms  in  invariable  weights,  deter- 
mined by  experiment,  each  chemical 
body  has  attached  to  it  a  distinct  pro- 
portional weight,  termed  its  atomic 
weight,  equivalent,  or  combining  num- 
ber. The  study  of  these  is  the  es- 
sential of  all  chemical  inquiries  :  it  is 
this  remarkable  adherence  to  a  pre- 
cise weight  in  all  cases  of  combina- 
tion which  gives  exactness  to  our  in- 
vestigations, and  forms  the  difference 
between  a  mere  mixture  and  chem- 
ical union.  The  following  are  the 
atomic  weights  or  proportionals  of 
the  various  elementary  bodies  inter- 
esting to  agriculture  : 

Hydrogen  (H.)      .     .     .     .     1- 

Oxygen  (0.) 8- 

Nitrogen  (N.) 14- 

Carbon  (C.) 6- 

Sulphur  (S.) 16- 

Phosphorus (P.)   .     .     .     .31- 

Chlorine  (CI.) 35-5 

Silicon  (Si.) 22- 

Potassium  (K.)     .     .     .     .39- 

Sodium  (Na.) 23- 

Calcium  (Ca.) 20-5 

Magnesium  (Mg.)      .     .     .  12-7 
Aluminium  (Al.)   ....   13-7 

Iron  (Fe.) 27- 

Manganese  (Mn.)       .     .     .  27-7 

These  are  on  the  basis  that  hydro- 
gen is  1-,  and  may  be  understood  by 
the  following  case  :  Water  is  a  com- 
pound of  one  atom  of  hydrogen  and 
one  atom  of  oxygen  ;  and,  supposing 
a  given  quantity  weighs  nine  grains, 
we  know,  by  the  laws  of  chemical 
combinations,  that  it  contains  one 
grain  of  hydrogen  and  eight  grains 
of  oxygen  ;  or,  if  the  weight  of  water 
be  other  than  nine  grains,  these  con- 
stituents are  united  in  the  rigorous 
proportion  of  1  to  8. 

Another  scale  is  constructed  on 
the  basis  of  oxygen  as  100.  In  this 
the  equivalent  numbers  are  altered, 
but  not  their  proportions. 

Chemical  combinations  are  not, 
however,  always  in  the  simple  ratio 
49 


ATO 

of  one  atom  of  each  component,  but 
are  often  in  highei  ratio,  as  1  to  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  or  2  to  3,  5,  7,  &c.  Those 
are,  for  the  most  part,  less  permanent 
than  the  simpler  compounds. 

Tiie  atomic  weight  is  not  only  fixed 
for  the  first  product  of  two  element- 
ary bodies,  but  for  all  other  second- 
ary, tertiary,  or  quaternary  com- 
pounds resulting  therefrom.  Thus, 
ammonia  consists  of  one  atom  nitro- 
gen (14)  and  three  atoms  of  hydrogen 
(3),  and  its  equivalent  is  therefore  17. 
Bemg  a  strong  alkali,  it  combines 
with  many  substances,  and  always  in 
the  proportion  of  17. 

In  the  above  table,  the  letters  in 
parentheses  designate  the  signs  or 
symbols  used  in  chemistry  for  the  va- 
rious bodies  against  which  they  are 
set.  Whenever  any  of  Iheni  are  used 
alone  it  always  means  one  atom  : 
thus,  N,  C,  H,  mean  one  atom  of  ni- 
trogen, carbon,  hydrogen.  In  com- 
plicated bodies,  as  oxalic  acid,  a  for- 
mula is  written  with  the  symbols, 
and  numbers  set  against  each  to  des- 
ignate the  number  of  atoms,  thus  : 
(HO,  C.2  O3) ;  or,  sometimes,  (H-|-0, 
2  C-|-3  O),  the  parentheses  indicating 
an  intimate  union  ;  or  one  of  the 
components  of  a  complex  bodv,  thus  : 
;2  C  +  3  0)  +  (Ca  +  O)  +  2  (H  +0) 
means  a  compound  consisting  of  ox- 
alic acid,  which  is  the  first  term,  uni- 
ted to  lime,  which  is  the  second,  uni- 
ted to  two  atoms  of  water,  which  is 
the  last  term,  the  whole  formula  rep- 
resenting the  exact  composition  of 
oxalate  of  lime.  Whenever  the  pa- 
rentheses enclose  a  formula,  and  any 
figures  are  placed  without  it,  the  fig- 
ure represents  the  number  of  atoms 
of  the  compound,  thus  :  (S-|-3  O)  is 
sulphuric  acid  ;  2  (S-f  3  O)  is  two  at- 
oms of  sulphuric  acid  ;  3  (S-|-3  0) 
three  atoms,  &c.  The  use  of  sym- 
bols greatly  reduces  the  labour  of 
writing  and  reading  chemical  pro- 
cesses. 

ATOMIC  THEORY.  The  theory 
of  Dr.  Dalton,  that  chemical  union 
takes  place  only  in  definite  atoms. 
See  Atom. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHT.    The  equiva- 
lent or  combining  weight.    See  Atom. 
50 


AUG 

ATROPIA  The  poisonous  alka- 
loid of  the  deadly  night-shade. 

ATROPHY.  In  farriery,  a  mor- 
bid wasting  and  emaciation,  attended 
with  a  great  loss  of  streagth  in  ani- 
mals. 

ATTRACTION.  In  physics,  the 
force  which  draws  bodies  together ; 
it  is  usually,  if  not  always,  of  electri- 
cal origin.  Attraction  is  divided  into 
mechanical,  as  gravity  and  cohesion  ; 
and  chemical,  as  alfinity ;  the  first 
being  the  force  tending  to  unite  mass- 
es and  similar  particles,  the  latter  the 
force  producing  chemical  union.  In 
chemistry  it  is  so  far  supposed  to  be 
an  electrical  effect,  that  one  of  the 
atoms  or  groups  of  every  compound 
is  supposed  to  bain  an  opposite  state 
of  electricity  from  the  other,  and  they 
are  respectively  termed  the  electro- 
negative and  electro-positive  ele- 
ments or  components.  Acids,  oxy- 
gen, chlorine,  are  electro-negative 
bodies  ;  metallic  oxides  electro-posi- 
tive. Chemical  attraction  acts  only 
at  insensible  distances,  and  is  assist- 
ed by  heat,  solution,  and  minute  di- 
vision ;  it  is,  indeed,  frequently  de- 
stroyed by  the  hardness  and  insol- 
ubility, as  well  as  gaseous  form,  of 
bodies. 

AUCHEXIA.  The  region  of  the 
neck,^  in  mammals,  below  the  nape. 

AUGER,  BORING.  An  implement 
for  boring  into  the  soil.  An  auger  of 
the  above  kind,  when  made  of  a  large 
size,  and  with  different  pieces  to  fix 
on  to  each  other,  may  be  very  useful- 
ly applied  to  try  the  nature  of  the 
under  soil,  the  discovering  springs, 
and  drawing  off  water  from  lands, 
&c.  In  order  to  accomplish  the  first 
purpose,  three  augers  will  be  neces- 
sary :  the  first  of  them  about  three 
feet  long,  the  second  six,  and  the 
third  ten.  Their  diameters  should  be 
near  an  inch,  and  their  bits  large, 
and  capable  of  bringing  up  part  of 
the  soil  they  pierce.  An  iron  handle 
should  be  fixed  crossways  to  wring  it 
into  the  earth,  from  whence  the  in- 
strument must  be  drawn  up  as  often 
as  it  has  pierced  a  new  depth  of  about 
six  inches,  in  order  to  cleanse  the  bit 
aiid  examine  the  soil. — {Jo.knson.) 


AUG 


AUG 


AUGER.  DRAINING.  An  instru- 
ment employed  fur  the  purpose  of 
boring  into  the  bottoms  of  drains  or 
other  places,  in  order  to  discover  and 
let  off  water.  It  is  nearly  similar  to 
that  made  use  of  in  searching  for 
coal  or  other  subterraneous  minerals. 
Tiie  auger,  shell,  or  wimble,  as  it  is 
variously  called,  for  excavating  the 
earth  or  strata  through  which  it  pass- 
es, is  generally  from  two  and  a  half 
to  three  and  a  half  inches  in  diam- 
eter ;  the  hollow  part  of  it  is  one  foot 
four  inches  in  length,  and  construct- 
ed nearly  in  the  shape  of  the  wimble 
used  by  carpenters,  only  the  sides  of 
the  shell  come  closer  to  one  another. 
The  rods  are  made  in  separate  pieces 
of  four  feet  long  each,  that  screw  into 
one  another  to  any  assignable  length, 
one  after  another,  as  the  depth  of  the 
hole  requires.  The  size  above  the 
auger  is  about  an  inch  square,  unless 
at  the  joints,  where,  for  the  sake  of 
strength,  they  are  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  more. 

There  is  also  a  chisel  and  punch, 
adapted  for  screwing  on,  in  going 
through  hard  gravel  or  other  metal- 
lic substances,  to  accelerate  the  pas- 
sage of  the  auger,  which  could  not 
otherwise  perforate  such  hard  bod- 
ies. The  punch  is  often  used,  when  [ 
the  auger  is  not  applied,  to  prick  or 
open  the  sand  or  gravel,  and  give  a 
more  easy  issue  to  the  water.  The 
chisel  is  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  ! 
inches  broad  at  the  point,  and  made  ; 
very  sharp  for  cutting  stone  ;  and  the 
punch  an  inch  square,  like  the  other 
part  of  the  rods,  with  the  point  sharp- 
ened also. 

As  it  is  remarked  by  Johnstone,  in 
his  account  of  Elkington's  mode  of 
draining,  to  judge  when  to  make  use 
of  the  borer  is  a  difficult  part  of  the 
business  of  draining.  Many  who  have 
not  seen  it  made  use  of  in  draining 
have  been  led  into  a  mistaken  no- 
tion, both  as  to  the  manner  of  using 
it  and  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  ap- 
plied. They  think  that  if,  by  boring 
indiscrimmately  through  the  ground 
to  be  drained,  water  is  found  near 
enough  to  the  surface  to  be  reached 
by  the  depth  of  the  drain,  the  proper 


direction  for  it  is  along  these  holes 
where  water  has  been  found,  and  thus 
make  it  the  first  implement  that  is 
used.  The  contrary,  however,  in 
practice,  is  the  case,  and  the  auger 
IS  never  used  till  after"  the  drain  is 
cut,  and  then  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
forating any  retentive  or  impervious 
stratum  lying  between  the  bottom  of 
the  drain  and  the  reservoir  or  strata 
containing  the  spring.  Thus  it  great- 
ly lessens  the  trouble  and  expense 
that  would  otherwise  be  requisite  in 
cutting  the  trench  to  that  depth  to 
which,  in  many  instances,  the  level 
of  the  outlet  will  not  admit.  The 
manner  of  using  it  is  simply  thus  :  In 
working  it,  two,  or,  rather,  three  men 
are  necessary ;  two  stand  above,  on 
each  side  of  the  drain,  who  turn  it 
round  by  means  of  the  wooden  hin- 
dles,  and  when  the  auger  is  full  they 
draw  it  out  ;  and  the  man  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  trench  clears  out  the  earth, 
assists  in  pulling  it  out,  and  directing 
it  into  the  hole  ;  and  he  can  also  as- 
sist in  turning  with  the  iron  handle 
or  key,  when  the  depth  and  length  of 
rods  require  additional  force  to  per- 
form the  operation.  The  workmen 
should  be  cautious,  in  boring,  not  to 
go  deeper  at  a  time,  without  drawing, 
than  the  exact  length  of  the  shell, 
otherwise  the  earth,  clay,  or  sand 
through  which  it  is  boring,  after  the 
shell  is  full,  makes  it  very  difficult  to 
pull  out.  For  this  purpose,  the  exact 
length  of  the  shell  should  be  regular- 
ly marked  on  the  rods,  from  the  bot- 
tom upward.  Two  flat  boards,  with 
a  hole  cut  into  the  side  of  one  of 
them,  and  laid  alongside  of  one  an- 
other over  the  drain  in  the  time  of 
boring,  are  very  useful  for  directing 
the  rods  in  going  down  perpendicu- 
larly, for  keeping  them  steady  in  bo- 
ring, and  for  the  men  standing  on 
when  performing  the  operation. 

AUGUST.  In  this  month  the 
stacking  of  hay  and  other  crops  har- 
vested is  to  be  attended  to.  Root 
crops  have  been  laid  up,  and  the  land 
cleared  of  weeds.  Turnips  for  an  af- 
ter crop  may  be  sown,  if  the  weather 
be  not  too  dry.  Buddingmay  be  done 
with  advantage.  Preparations  are  to 
51 


AVE 


BAG 


be  made  for  collecting  cotton.  The 
tobacco  crop  begins  to  ripen  i)y  the 
end  of  the  month.     Rice  is  cut. 

AURELIA,  AURELTAN.  The 
pupa  or  nymph  of  the  higher  in- 
sects. 

AURICLE.  The  external  ear. 
The  venous  chambers  of  the  heart. 

AURICULAR.  Appertainmg  to 
the  ear. 

AURICULATE.  When  the  base 
of  a  leaf  is  lobed  on  each  side  the 
midrib. 

AUSCULTATION.  The  exami- 
nation of  the  sounds  within  the  body 
to  detect  diseases,  &,c. 

AUTOPSY.  Examination  by  the 
eye.  It  is  generally  used  to  desig- 
nate examinations  of  the  body  after 
death,  for  the  discovery  of  the  causes 
of  disease. 

AVENA.  The  generic  name  of  a 
family  of  grasses,  of  which  the  A. 
sativa,  oats,  and  A.  elattor,  Andes 
grass,  are  best  known.  Several  spe- 
cies, as  the  A.  flavcsccns  and  pubcs- 
cens,  are  found  in  English  meadows, 
and  the  latter  is  well  worthy  of  cul- 
tivation ;  it  is  the  downy  oat  grass  of 
agriculturists. 

AVENUE.  Any  broad,  gravelled, 
or  properly-made  road,  bordered  by 
trees.  A  side  road,  or  approach  to 
a  house. 

AVERRUNCATOR.  In  arbori- 
culture, an  instrument  for  cutting  off 
the  branches  of  trees,  consisting  of 
two  blades  fixed  on  the  end  of  a  rod, 
one  of  which  has  a  moveable  joint, 
which,  by  means  of  a  line  fixed  to  it, 
operates  like  a  pair  of  scissors.  In 
the  improved  forms  of  tliis  instru- 
ment, the  point  on  which  the  moving 
or  cutting  blade  turns,  instead  of  be- 
ing confined  to  a  circular  opening, 
works  in  a  longitudinal  one  ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  instead  of  a  crush- 
ing cut,  like  that  produced  by  com- 
mon hedge  shears,  a  draw  cut  is  form- 
ed, which  leaves  the  section  from 
which  the  branch  or  shoot  has  been 
amputated  as  clean  as  that  produced 
by  a  pruning  knife. 

AVERSE,  AVERSUS.  Turned 
back. 

AVES.     See  Ornithology. 
53 


AVLVRV.  A  place  to  keep  bird-s 
in.  Green-houses  are  usually  se- 
lected. 

AVOIRDUPOIS.  A  weight  hav- 
ing sixteen  ounces  to  the  pound,  in 
distinction  to  Troy  weight,  which  has 
only  twelve.  The  following  is  a  tab- 
ular view  of  this  weight : 

16  drams  make  1  ounce. 


16  ounces 
28  pounds 

4  quarters 
20  cwt. 
drs.         ozs. 

16= 

256= 

7,168= 


1  pound. 
1  quarter. 
1  cwt. 
1  ton. 


lbs 

I     qrs. 
28=  1=  cwt. 


1  = 

16=r 

448= 

28.672=  1,792=  112=  4=  I  ton. 
573,440=35,840=2240=80=20=1 

5760  Troy  grains  make  1  pound 
Troy,  and  7000  Troy  grains  1  pound 
Avoirdupois  ;  hence  175  pounds  Troy 
are  equal  to  144  pounds  Avoirdupois. 

AWN.  The  stiff  beard  or  bristle 
of  some  grasses,  arista. 

AWNING.  A  covering  of  some 
kind  of  cloth,  to  protect  plants,  dec, 
from  sun  or  rain. 

AXIL,  AXILLA.  The  armpit. 
Tlie  angle  between  a  leaf  and  the 
stem.  Buds  placed  here  are  termed 
axillary. 

AXIS,  AXLE-TREE.  The  spindle 
or  central  rod  around  which  parts  of 
machinery,  &,c.,  revolve  or  are  de- 
veloped. 

AZALEA.  A  genus  of  small  or- 
namental shrubs  with  large,  trumpet- 
shaped  flowers,  of  the  family  of  the 
honeysuckles. 

AZOREAN  FENNEL.  Anethum 
azonc.um.     A  kind  of  fennel 

AZOTE.     Nitrogen. 

B. 

BACCA.     A  berry. 

BACCIFEROUS.  Bearing  berries, 
as  the  currant. 

BACK.  The  spine.  The  back  of 
a  horse  should  be  straight,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  strong  ;  when  it  is  hol- 
low, or  what  is  termed  backed,  the 
animal  is  generally  weak. 

BACK,  SORE.  A  complaint  which 
is  very  common  to  young  horses  when 


BAL 


BAL 


they  first  travel.  To  prevent  it,  their 
hacks  should  be  cooled  every  time 
tliey  are  baited,  and  now  and  then 
washed  with  warm  water  and  wiped 
dry  with  a  linen  cloth.  The  best  cure 
for  a  sore  back  is  a  lotion  of  1  drachm 
of  sugar  of  lead  with  1  pint  of  vinegar 
and  water. 

BACK  SINEWS,  SPRAIN  OF 
THE.  This  is  often  occasioned  by 
the  horse  being  overweighted,  and 
then  ridden  far  and  fast,  especially  if 
his  pasterns  are  long  ;  but  it  may  oc- 
cur from  a  false  step,  or  from  the 
heels  of  the  shoes  being  too  much 
lowered.  Sprain  of  the  back  sinews 
is  detected  by  swelling  and  heat  at 
the  back  of  the  lower  part  of  the  leg, 
puffiness  along  the  course  of  the  sin- 
ews, extreme  tenderness  so  far  as 
the  swelling  and  heat  extend,  and 
very  great  lameness. 

The  first  object  is  to  abate  the  in- 
flammation, and  this  should  be  at- 
tempted by  bleeding  from  the  plate 
vein,  by  means  of  which  blood  is 
drained  from  the  inflamed  part ;  next, 
local  applications  should  be  made  to 
the  back  of  the  leg,  in  the  form  of 
fomentations  of  water,  sufEciently 
hot,  and  tVequenlly  repeated  ;  at  the 
same  time,  as  much  strain  as  possible 
should  be  taken  from  the  sinew,  by 
putting  a  high  calkin  on  the  heel  of 
the  shoe. 

BACK-RAKING.  An  operation 
in  farriery,  by  which  hardened  fa;ces 
are  withdrawn  from  the  rectum. 

BACON.     See  Hog. 

BAGGING.  A  mode  of  reaping 
corn  or  pulse  with  a  hook,  in  which 
the  operator  effects  his  object  by  stri- 
king the  straw,  or  haulm,  mstead  of 
drawing  the  hook  through  it ;  in  oth- 
er words,  it  is  separating  the  straw, 
or  haulm,  from  the  root  by  chopping, 
instead  of  bv  a  drawing  cut. 

BAKING  OF  LAND.  Clayey 
lands,  when  ploughed  wet,  become 
incrusted  or  baked :  seed  cannot 
break  through  the  crust,  and  should 
be  again  sown. 

BALANCE  FOR  ANALYSIS. 
This  important  instrument  may  be 
considered  as  consisting  of  an  inflex- 
ible rod,  or  lever,  called  the  beam, 
E  2 


1  furnished  with  three  axes  ;  one,  the 
I  fulcrum  or  centre  of  motion,  situated 
j  in  the  middle,  upon  which  the  beam 
turns,  and  the  other  two  near  the  ex- 
'  tremities,  and  at  equal  distances  from 
the  middle  ;  these  last  are  called  the 
points  of  support,  and  serve  to  sus- 
!  lain  the  pans  or  scales.     The  points 
of  support  and  the  fulcrum  should  be 
in  the  same  right  line.    The  arms  of 
\  the  lever  being  equal,  it  follows  that, 
I  if  equal  weights  be  put  into  the  scales, 
no  efiect  will  be  produced  on  the  po- 
sition of  the  balance,  and  the  beam 
will  remain  horizontal. 
[      If  a  small  addition  be  made  to  the 
I  weight  in  one  of  the  scales,  the  hori- 
zontality  of  the  beam  wdl  be  disturb- 
ed, and  after  oscillating  for  some  time, 
it  will,  on  attaining  a  state  of  rest, 
fonn  an  angle  with  the  horizon,  the 
extent  of  which  is  a  measure  of  the 
delicacy   or  sensibdity  of  the    bal- 
ance. 

What  we  have  now  stated  will 
serve  to  dlustrate  the  principle  of  the 
balance.  Its  mode  of  construction 
will  be  best  understood  by  a  dia- 
gram : 


One  of  the  best  form  is  here  repre- 
sented. The  parts  are  all  so  arran- 
ged that  it  can,  at  pleasure,  be  lifted 
off  the  points  of  support.  This  is  ef- 
fected by  aid  of  the  two  uprights, 
which  are  elevated  by  a  small  lever 
at  the  bottom.  The  scale  pans  are 
made  of  brass  or  platma. 

In  order  to  try  the  goodness  of  a 
pair  of  scales,  the  scales  should  be 
taken  off  the  beam  to  ascertain  if  the 
53 


DAL 


liAK 


beam  balances  without  them  ;  they 
should  then  be  put  on  agam  and  after- 
ward reversed,  or  each  scale  hung 
on  the  end  of  the  beam  opposite  that 
which  it  before  occupied.  Equal 
weights  should  then  l»c  put  into  the 
opposite  scales,  and  these  should,  in 
like  manner,  be  reversed  or  changed  ; 
and  if  the  beam  maintains  its  hori- 
zontal position  under  all  these  chan- 
ges, it  may  be  relied  on  as  being  good 
and  perfect.  The  pivots  or  fulcrum 
upon  which  the  beam  turns  ought  to 
be  sharp,  or  kuife-edgcd,  as  it  is  term- 
ed, and  they  should  be  of  steel  well 
hardened,  as  well  as  the  interior  of 
the  ring  in  which  they  move  :  this 
confines  the  fulcrum  to  a  minute  line, 
and  prevents  friction.  In  beams  for 
nice  purposes,  the  pivots  ought  not 
to  be  too  much  elevated  above  the 
centre  of  gravity  ;  lor,  althougli  this 
centre  will  generally  be  found  an  inch 
or  two  below  the  pivots  in  strong 
warehouse  beams,  in  order  to  bring 
them  to  a  speedy  equilibrium,  by 
which  time  is  saved,  yet,  for  accurate 
weighing,  the  nearer  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  brought  into  the  straight 
line  that  would  connect  the  tops  of 
the  two  scale  eyes  and  the  under 
side  of  the  pivot  the  better,  although 
such  a  beam  will  occasion  great  loss 
of  time  by  its  vibrating  a  long  time 
before  it  becomes  stationary. 

BALL,  or  BOLUS.  In  farriery,  a 
well-known  form  of  medicine  for 
horses  or  other  animals,  which  may 
be  passed  at  once  into  the  stomach. 
They  should  be  made  of  a  long,  oval 
shape,  and  about  the  size  of  a  small 
egg,  being  best  conveyed  over  the 
root  of  the  tongue  by  the  hand.  This 
method  of  admmistering  medicines  is 
preferable,  in  most  cases,  to  that  of 
drenches.  I  subjoin  the  recipes  for 
a  few  of  those  balls  most  commonly 
used  by  the  farmer  : 

jMild  Physic  Ball. 

Barbadoes  aloes   .     .     6  drachms. 
Powdered  ginger  .     .     2         " 
Castile  soap      ...     2         '* 
Oil  of  cloves     ...  20  drops. 
Sirup   of   buckthorn    sufficient   to 

form  a  ball. 

54 


Strong  Physic  Ball. 
Barbadoes  aloes    .     .     8  drachms. 
Ginger,  powdered  2        " 

Castile  soap  ...  2  " 
Oil  of  cloves  ...  20  drops. 
Sirup   of  buckthorn   sufficient   to 

form  a  ball. 
Calomel  Ball  for  a  Horse. 

Calomel 1  drachm. 

Aloes,  powdered  .     .     6        " 
Ginger,  powdered      .     2        " 
Castile  soap      ...     2        '• 
Oil  of  Cloves    ...  20  drops. 
Sirup  of  buckthorn   sufficient   to 

make  into  a  ball. 

Diuretic  Ball. 

Castile  soap  ....  4  ounces. 
Nitre,  powdered      .     .  2        " 
Spirit  of  turpentine      .  4        " 
Anise  seed  powder  and  treacle  suf- 
ficient to  make  into  eight  balls. 

Cordial  Ball. 
Cummin  seed,  powdered  4  ounces. 
Anise  seed,  powdered     .  4      " 
Caraway  seed,  powdered  4      " 
Ginger,  powdered      .     .  2       " 
Honey  sufficient  to  make  into  balls 
the  size  of  a  hen's  egg. 

BALM.  The  plant  Melissa  offici- 
nalis, of  a  pleasant  aromatic  odour ; 
its  medicinal  virtues  are  trifling. 

BALSAMS.  Exudations  from  cer- 
tain trees  of  a  resinous  nature. 

BANANA.  A  tall  herbaceous,  en- 
dogenous plant,  the  Musa  sapientum 
of  botanists,  having  broad  convex 
lea^'es  with  fine  oblique  veins,  and 
growing  in  a  tuft  from  the  top  of  a 
stem  formed  by  the  union  of  the  broad 
bases  of  the  leaves.  The  fruit  ri- 
pens in  succession  in  large  clusters 
weighing  many  pounds.  It  is  of  the 
same  nature  as  the  plantain.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies,  where  it 
contributes  essentially  to  the  food  of 

ill  dflSSGS 

BANKS  OF  RIVERS.  See  Em- 
bankmcnt. 

BANNER,  \^XILLUM.  The  up- 
per petal  of  pea  flowers. 

BARB.  A  general  name  for  horses 
imported  from  Barbary.  The  barb, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Af- 


BAR 


BAR 


rican  racers,  is  to  be  met  with  through- 
out Barbary,  Morocco,  Fez,  Tripoli, 
and  Bornou.  It  seldom  exceeds  four- 
teen hands  and  a  half  in  height.  The 
countenance  of  the  barb  is  usually 
indicative  of  its  spirit,  and  the  facial 
line,  in  direct  contradiction  to  that  of 
the  Arabian,  is  often  slightly  rounded ; 
the  eyes  are  prominent ;  the  ears, 
though  frequently  small  and  pointed, 
are  occasionally  rather  long  and 
drooping  ;  the  neck  is  of  sufficient 
length  ;  the  crest  is  generally  fine 
and  not  overladen  with  mane  ;  the 
shoulders  are  llat  and  oblique  ;  the 
withers  prominent,  and  the  chest  al- 
most invariably  deep  ;  the  back  is 
usually  straight ;  the  carcass  mod- 
erately rounded  only  ;  the  croup  long, 
and  the  tail  placed  rather  high  ;  the 
arms  and  thighs  being  commonly 
muscular  and  strongly  marked  ;  the 
knee  and  hock  are  broad  and  low- 
placed  ;  the  back  sinews  singularly 
distinct  and  well  marked  from  the 
knee  downward  ;  the  pasterns  rather 
long,  and  the  feet  firm,  and  but  mod- 
erately open. 

The  barb  requires  more  excitement 
to  call  out  his  powers  than  the  Ara- 
bian ;  but  when  sufficiently  stimula- 
ted, his  qualities  of  speed  and  endu- 
rance render  him  a  powerful  antago- 
nist, while  the  superior  strength  of 
Lis  fore  hand  enables  him  to  carry 
tin-  greater  weight  of  the  two.  The 
(Jodolphin  barb,  which  was  imported 
from  France  into  England  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  last  centur\',  about  25 
years  after  the  Darley  Arabian,  w-as 
one  of  those  most  worthy  of  note. 
The  former  appears  to  have  rivalled 
the  latter  in  the  importance  of  his 
get.  He  was  the  sire  of  Lath,  Cade, 
Babraham,  Regulus,  Bajazet,  Tar- 
quin,  Dormouse,  Sultan,  Blank,  Dis- 
mal, and  many  other  horses  of  racing 
note  ;  and,  without  doubt,  the  English 
blood-breeds  were  more  indebted  to 
the  Darley  Arabian  and  the  Godol- 
phin  barb  than  to  all  the  other  East- 
ern horses  which  had  previously  en- 
tered the  country. — {Blame's  Eiicyc. 
Rural  Sports,  p.  243.) 

BARBERRY  BUSH.  Bcrhcris  vul- 
garis.    An  indigenous  thorny  shrub, 


bearing  bunches  of  pale  yellow  droop- 
ing  flowers  in  May,  which  are  suc- 
ceeded by  oblong  scarlet  berries,  ri- 
pening in  September.  Sharp,  three- 
cleft  thorns  rise  at  the  base  of  each 
leaf-bud.  The  barberry  makes  good 
hedges.  It  may  be  propagated  by 
seed,  or  by  layers,  which  should  re- 
main two  years  before  they  are  re- 
moved. The  gross  shoots,  if  the 
shrub  stands  singly,  should  be  pruned 
away,  and  it  will  fruit  better.  The 
berries  are  gratefully  acid,  and  the 
juice,  when  diluted  with  water,  may 
be  used  as  lemonade  in  fevers.  The 
fruit,  made  into  conserve,  is  good. 
It  is  also  excellent  as  a  pickle  and 
preserve. 

There  is  no  good  reason  for  sup- 
posing that  this  bush  produces  mil- 
dew in  wheat.  It  is  very  liable  to 
rubigo,  a  parasitical  fungus,  but  not 
the  uredo  of  grain.  The  root  con- 
tains a  good  yellow  dye,  and  is  emetic. 

BARILLA.  The  ashes  of  sea-shore 
plants,  containing  about  20  per  cent, 
of  soda.  The  cheap  manufacture  of 
soda  has  nearly  destroyed  the  culti- 
vation of  barilla  plants.  It  is  used  to 
manufacture  hard  soaps.     See  Soda. 

BARK.  The  rind  or  covering  of 
the  woody  parts  of  a  tree.  The  bark 
of  trees  is  composed  of  three  distinct 
layers,  of  which  the  outermost  is 
called  the  epidermis,  the  next  the  pa- 
renchyma, and  the  innermost,  or  that 
in  contact  with  the  wood,  the  cortical 
layer.  The  epidermis  is  a  thin,  trans- 
parent, tough  membrane  ;  when  rub- 
bed offit  is  gradually  reproduced,  and 
in  some  trees  it  cracks  and  decays, 
and  a  fresh  epidermis  is  formed,  push- 
ing outward  the  old :  hence  the  rea- 
son why  so  many  aged  trees  have  a 
rough  surface.  The  parenchyma  is 
tender,  succulent,  and  of  a  dark  green. 
The  cortical  layer,  or  Hber,  consists 
of  thin  membranes  encircling  each 
other,  and  these  seem  to  increase 
with  the  age  of  the  plant.  The  liber, 
or  inner  bark,  is  know^n  by  its  white- 
ness, great  flexibility,  toughness,  and 
durai)ility  :  the  fibres  in  its  structure 
are  ligneous  tubes.  It  is  the  part  of 
the  stem  through  which  the  juices 
descend,  and  the  organ  m  which  the 
55 


b.\Jl 

generative  sap,  from  whence  all  the 
other  parts  originate,  is  received  from 
the  leaves.  The  bark  in  its  intersti- 
ces contains  cells,  which  are  filled 
with  juices  of  very  varying  qualities  : 
some,  like  that  of  the  oak,  remarka- 
ble for  their  astringency  ;  others,  like 
the  cinnamon,  abounding  with  an  es- 
sential oil  ;  others,  as  the  Jesuits' 
bark,  containing  an  alkali ;  some  mu- 
cilaginous, many  resinous. 

M.  Saussure  found  in  100  parts  of 
the  ashes  of  the  barks  of  various  trees 
the  following  substances  : 


Soluble  sitlts      . 
Earthy  phosphates 
Eartliy  carbouates 
Silica     .... 
Metallic  oxides  . 


Poplar 


From  this  analysis  the  farmer  will 
see  that  the  earthy  and  saline  ingre- 
dients of  the  bark  of  forest  trees  must 
be  considerable  fertilizers  :  it  is  only 
to  the  slowness  with  which  refuse 
tanner's  bark  undergoes  putrefaction 
that  its  neglect  by  the  cultivator  must 
be  attributed.  It  might  certainly, 
however,  be  mixed  with  farm-yard 
compost  with  very  considerable  ad- 
vantage ;  and  in  its  half  putrefied,  or 
even  fresh  state,  it  produces  on  some 
grass  lands  very  excellent  effects  as  a 
top  dressing  ;  and  in  instances  where 
carriage  is  an  object,  even  its  ashes 
would  be  found,  from  the  quantity  of 
earthy  carbonates  and  phosphates 
which  they  contain,  a  very  valuable 
manure. 

The  different  uses  of  barks  in  tan- 
ning and  dyeing  are  numerous  and 
important.  The  strength  or  fineness 
of  their  fibres  is  also  of  consequence  : 
thus  woody  fibres  are  often  so  tough 
as  to  form  cordage,  as  exemplified  in 
the  bark  of  the  lime,  the  willow,  and 
the  cocoanut ;  the  liber  of  som»trees, 
as,  for  example,  the  lime  and  the  pa- 
per mulberry,  is  manufactured  into 
mats  ;  and  it  is  scarcely  requisite  to 
refer  to  hemp  and  flax  for  spinning 
and  weaving.  The  bark  of  the  oak 
is  used  for  affording  tannic  acid  in  the 
manufacture  of  leather.  The  follow- 
ing table  of  Davy  will  show  the  rela- 
tive value  of  different  kinds  of  bark 
56 


BAR 

to  the  tanner;  it  gives  the  quantity 
of  tannic  acid  afforded  by  480  lbs.  of 
different  barks  in  that  chemist's  ex- 
periments : 

Avcrape  from  the  entire  bark  of  lbs. 

Middle-sized  oak,  cut  in  sprin?  .         .    29 

,  cut  in  autumn       .         .    21 

Elm 13 

Common  willow  (large)      .         .         .        .11 

Ash 16 

Beech 10 

Sycamore H 

Lombardy  poplar 15 

Birch 8 

Blackthorn 16 

White  interior  cortical  layers  of  oak  bark    72 

The  difference  of  seasons  makes  a 
considerable  variation  in  the  produce 
of  tannic  acid  :  it  is  the  least  in  cold 
springs.  The  tannic  acid  most  abounds 
when  the  buds  are  opening,  and  least 
in  the  winter  ;  4  or  5  lbs.  of  good  oak 
bark,  of  average  quality,  are  required 
to  form  1  lb.  of  leather. 

Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  species  of 
oak  ( Quercus  suber)  Which  grows  abun- 
dantly in  the  south  of  Europe. 

The  Quercitron  bark  is  the  produc- 
tion of  black  oak  {Quercus  tincioria). 

BARK  CLEANING.  Fruit-trees 
sometimes  become  infested  with  li- 
chens or  moss  ;  the  rough  bark  offers 
an  asylum  for  grubs,  eggs,  and  cater- 
pillars, all  which  injure,  and  often 
destroy  the  tree.  To  prevent  these, 
the  bark  should  be  scraped  in  the 
spring  with  an  old  hoe  or  cooper's 
knife,  and  afterward  washed  with 
strong  lye,  brine,  whale  oil  soap  dis- 
solved in  water  (1  lb.  to  3  gallons), 
lime-water,  soft  soap,  &c. 

BARK-BOUND.  Trees,  the  bark 
of  which  appears  stretched  over  the 
wood,  and  which  does  not  split  off 
kindly,  are  said  to  be  bark-bound. 
Cutting  a  slit  through  it  from  the 
branches  to  the  root  relieves  the 
tree,  and,  when  the  wound  is  kept 
clean  from  insects,  does  good.  It 
should  be  done  in  March  or  April, 
when  frosts  are  over. 

BARKING  IRONS.  Instruments 
for  removing  the  hprk  of  oak  ana 
other  trees.  They  consist  of  a  blade 
or  knife  for  cutting  the  bark,  while 
yet  on  the  trunk,  across  at  regular 
distances,  and  of  chisels  or  spatulae, 
of  different   lengths    and   breadths. 


BAR 

for  separating  the  bark  from  the 
wood. 

BARKING  OF  TREES.  The  oper- 
ation of  stripping  off  the  bark  or  rind. 
It  is  common  to  perform  the  opera- 
tion of  oak-barking  in  the  spring 
months,  when  the  bark,  by  the  rising 
of  the  sap,  is  easily  separated  from 
the  wood.  This  renders  it  necessa- 
ry to  fell  the  trees  in  these  months. 
The  tool  commonly  made  use  of  in 
most  countries  is  made  of  bone  or 
iron.  If  of  the  former,  the  thigh  or 
shin  bone  is  preferred,  which  is  form- 
ed into  a  two-handed  instrument  for 
the  stem  and  larger  boughs,  with  a 
handle  of  wood  fixed  at  the  end.  The 
edge  being  once  given  by  the  grind- 
ing stone,  or  a  rasp,  it  keeps  itself 
sharp  by  wear. 

The  cutters  should  be  provided  with 
ripping  saws,  widely  set,  with  sharp, 
light  hatchets,  and  with  short-handled 
pruning  hooks.  The  barkers  are  pro- 
vided with  light,  short-handled  ashen 
mallets,  the  head  being  about  eight 
inches  long,  three  inches  diameter  in 
the  face,  and  the  other  end  blunt, 
somewhat  wedge-shaped  ;  with  sharp 
ashen  wedges,  somewhat  spatula- 
shaped,  and  which  may  either  be 
driven  by  the  mallet,  or,  being  formed 
with  a  kind  of  handle,  may  be  pushed 
with  the  hand. 

The  large  pieces  are  set  up  on  end, 
or  they  are  formed  into  small  pyrami- 
dal stacks.  Due  attention  must  be 
paid  to  turning  the  bark  according  to 
the  state  of  the  weather.  Good  hay 
weather  is  good  barking  weather. 
It  is  chiefly  by  the  high  brown  colour 
of  the  inner  rind,  and  by  its  astrin- 
gent effect  upon  the  palate  when 
tasted,  that  the  tanner  or  merchant 
judges  of  its  value.  If  these  proper- 
ties be  lost  through  neglect,  or  by  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  themner 
bark  becomes  blanched,  or  rendered 
white. 

After  it  is  in  a  proper  state,  that 
is,  completely  past  fermentation,  if  it 
cannot  conveniently  be  carried  off 
the  ground  and  housed,  it  must  be 
stacked.  An  experienced  husband- 
man who  can  stack  hay  can  also  stack 
bark  ;  but  it  may  be  proper  to  warn 


BAR 

him  against  building  his  stack  too 
large,  and  to  caution  him  to  cover  it 
well. 

BARK  LICE.  Scale  insects.  In- 
sects of  the  genus  Coccus,  many  of 
which  yield  a  rich  dye,  as  the  C.  cacti, 
or  cochineal  of  Mexico.  They  are  of 
an  oval  or  roundish  form,  and  small  in 
size,  rarely  exceeding  one  fourth  of 
an  inch.  They  infest  the  young  bark 
commonly,  but  are  also  found  on  the 
leaves  and  roots  of  some  plants.  The 
female  undergoes  no  winged  trans- 
formation, but  the  male  does.  In  the 
spring  the  lice  are  found  like  dead 
shields  on  the  young  branches,  ar- 
ranged in  rows  ;  under  these  appa- 
rently inanimate  bodies  the  eggs  of  a 
new  generation  are  concealed,  which 
shortly  put  on  life,  and  come  forth 
of  the  oval  figure  of  the  family  ;  they 
insert  their  slender  beaks  into  the 
young  bark  or  leaves,  and  begin  to 
draw  the  sap  with  such  activity  that 
it  drops  from  them  and  the  punctures 
to  the  ground,  attracting  ants  to  as- 
cend the  tree.  After  a  season,  the 
cocci  attach  themselves  to  some  spot 
on  the  bark,  and  emit  downy  threads 
to  make  fast.  Here  a  transformation 
ensues,  which  gives  wings  to  the 
male,  and  only  a  new  coat  to  the  fe- 
male. After  a  time,  differing  with 
the  species,  the  male  comes  forth  re- 
•duced  in  size,  but  the  female  is  sta- 
tionary. Impregnation  ensues,  her 
body  swells,  the  eggs  are  placed  un- 
der her,  she  dies,  and  the  crust  of  her 
body  forms  their  winter  protection. 
But  in  some  varieties  two  generations 
appear  in  one  year.  The  apple-tree 
louse  hatches  from  the  end  of  May  to 
the  middle  of  June  :  they  are  whitish ; 
in  ten  days  they  fasten  themselves, 
and  begin  to  throw  out  bluish  down  ; 
and  there  appears  two  broods  in  the 
year. 

They  are  destroyed  by  birds  of  the 
icren  genus,  ichneumon  flies,  and  by 
washing  the  bark  early  in  June.  See 
Bark  Cleaning.  When  they  infest  the 
roots,  applications  must  be  made  to 
those  parts. 

BARK  MILL.     See  Mill. 

BARK,  SPENT,  from  the  tanners, 
forms  a  good  manure  whea  rotted 
67 


BAR 

with  farm-yard  manure,  or  made  into 
a  compost  with  lime,  &c.  It  is  also 
used  for  hot-hods. 

BARK  8T(3VE.  A  glazed  house 
for  tropical  plants,  heated  by  bark 
beds. 

BARLEY.  Hordcum  distichum.  It 
is  readily  distinguished  from  other 
grain  by  its  pointed  extremities,  and 
by  the  rough  appearance  of  its  outer 
skin. 

Fig 


BAH 

Botanists  place  barley  in  the  fam- 
ily of  the  (jramiiic(E,a.n(i  Linnaeus  has 
classed  it  in  the  second  order  of  his 
third  class  {Triandria  digijma),  having 
three  stamina  and  two  styles  in  the 
flower. 

Of  all  the  cultivated  grains,  barley 
is  perhaps  that  which  comes  to  per- 
fection in  the  greatest  variety  of  cli- 
mates, and  is,  consequently,  found 
over  the  greatest  extent  of  the  habi- 
1. 


a.  Winter  barley. 

b.  The  same,  witli  part  of  the  seed  pulled  off  the  rachis. 

c.  A  side  view  of  the  last,  to  show  the  shape  of  the  rachis. 

d.  The  three  perfect  grains  adhering  together  by  the  base,  as  pulled  off  the  rachis 
58 


BARLEY. 


table  world.  It  bears  the  heat  and 
drought  of  tropical  regions,  and  ri- 
pens in  the  short  summers  of  those 
which  verge  on  the  frigid  zone.  In 
genial  climates  two  crops  of  barley 
may  be  reaped  in  the  same  year  :  one 
in  spring,  from  seed  sown  the  prece- 
ding autumn,  and  one  in  autumn  from 
a  spring  sowing. 

Agricultural  writers  in  general 
have  distinguished  the  different  spe- 
cies of  barley,  either  from  the  time 
of  sowing  them,  into  winter  barley 
and  spring  barley,  or,  from  the  num- 
ber of  rows  of  grains  in  the  ears,  into 
six-rowed,  four-rowed,  and  two-row- 
ed or  flat  barley.  Another  distinction 
may  be  made  between  those  which 
have  the  corolla  strongly  adhering  to 
the  seed  and  those  in  which  it  separ- 
ates from  it,  leaving  the  seed  naked, 
from  which  circumstance  these  are 
called  naked  barleys.  There  seem, 
in  fact,  to  be  only  two  very  distinct 
species  of  barley  generally  cultiva- 
ted :  one  which  produces  three  per- 
fect flowers,  and  as  many  seeds  uni- 
ted at  the  base,  at  each  joint  of  the 
rachis,  or  middle  of  the  ear,  alternate- 
ly on  each  side  (Fig.  1) ;  and  another, 
in  which  the  middle  flowret  is  perfect 
and  the  two  others  barren,  forming  a 
flat  ear,  with  only  one  row  of  grains 
on  each  side,  as  spring  barley  {Fig. 
2).  The  first  species  has  sometimes 
the  middle  flowret  small  or  abortive, 
and  consequently  only  four  rows  of 
grains,  giving  the  ear  a  square  ap- 
pearance ;  but  that  this  is  only  an 
occasional  deviation  is  proved  by  its 
returning  to  the  perfect  ear  with  six 
rows,  in  rich  soils  and  under  proper 
cultivation. 

In  some  varieties  of  both  kinds  the 
seeds  stand  more  apart  from  each 
other,  and  at  a  greater  angle  with  the 
rachis  ;  the  ear  is  also  shorter,  giv- 
ing it  the  appearance  of  a  bat  or  fan, 
whence  it  has  been  called  Battledore 
barley  ;  it  is  also  known  by  the  name 
of  Sprat  barley.  In  others  the  co- 
rolla separates  from  the  seed  when 
ripe,  and  the  awns  fall  off:  these  are 
the  naked  barleys.  Each  of  these 
has  been  in  repute  at  different  times. 

Winter  barley  is  mostly  sown  in 


Fig.  2. 


a.  An  ear  of  common  spring  barley. 

b.  The  same,  with  the  grain  partly  pulled  off. 
d.  The  single  grain,  with  the  remnant  of  the 

two  abortive  flowers. 

those  countries  where  the  winters 
are  mild  and  the  springs  dry,  as  in 
the  south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Spain, 
or  in  those  where  the  snow  lies  deep 
all  the  winter,  and  where  the  sun  is 
powerful  immediately  after  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow  in  spring.  In  cli- 
mates where  the  winter  consists  of 
alternate  frost  and  thaws,  and  the 
early  part  of  spring  is  usually  wet, 
the  young  barley  is  too  apt  to  suf- 
fer from  these  vicissitudes,  and  the 
spring-sown  barley  gives  the  more 
certaui  prospect  of  a  good  crop  ;  but 
59 


BARLEY. 


the  grain  of  the  latter  is  seldom  so 
heavy  as  that  wliich  has  stood  the 
winter. 

The  Siberian  barley,  a  variety  of 
which,  with  naked  seeds,  has  been 
highly  extolled  by  foreign  agricultural 
writers,  especially  by  Thaer,  under 
the  name  of  Hordeum  coclcste,  seems 
to  be  a  superior  sort  in  rich  soils,  not 
only  for  its  heavy  and  nutritious  grain, 
in  which  particulars  it  is  said  to  ap- 
proach to  the  quality  of  rye,  but  also 
for  its  succulent  stems  and  leaves, 
which  make  it  by  far  the  best  sort  to 
sow  for  the  purpose  of  green  food  for 
cattle  and  sheep  ;  and  if  fed  off  early 
the  roots  will,  in  a  rich  soil,  shoot  out 
an  abundance  of  fresh  stems,  and  pro- 
duce a  good  crop  of  grain  at  harvest. 

The  barley  most  commonly  culti- 
vated is  that  which  has  only  two 
rows.  It  is  almost  universally  sown 
in  spring. 

Particular  varieties  have  been  in 
great  repute  at  different  times,  when 
first  introduced,  and  then  seem  to 
have  degenerated  and  lost  their  su- 
periority. Of  this  kind  is  the  Molda- 
vian barley.  This  barley  was  much 
sought  after  some  years  ago  ;  and 
lately  the  Chevalier  barley  {Fig:  3), 
so  called  from  the  gentleman  who 
first  brought  it  into  notice.  It  is  said 
that,  having  observed  an  ear  of  bar- 
ley in  his  field  greatly  superior  to  the 
rest,  he  carefully  saved  the  seed,  and 
cultivated  it  in  his  garden  till  he  had 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  sow  it  in  a 
field.  It  has  since  been  extremely 
multiplied  and  diffused  through  the 
country.  Some  eminent  maltsters 
and  brewers  have  declared  that  it 
contains  more  saccharine  matter  than 
any  other  sort ;  and  the  trials  hither- 
to made  have  convinced  many  agri- 
culturists that  it  is  not  only  heavier 
in  the  grain,  but  also  more  produc- 
tive. In  1832,  Mr.  Coke,  of  Norfolk, 
who  was  always  foremost  in  all  agri- 
cultural experiments  and  improve- 
ments, sowed  a  considerable  portion 
of  land  with  this  barley,  and  the  re- 
sult is  said  to  have  been  perfectly 
satisfactory.  In  the  j^ear  1833  the 
writer  of  this  article  sowed  two  acres 
of  Chevalier  barley  in  the  same  field 
60 


FHg.3. 


[Chevalier  Barley.] 
with  some  of  the  best  of  the  common 
barley.  The  soil  was  poor,  hght  sand, 
but  in  good  order,  and  very  clean. 
The  produce  of  the  whole  was  nearly 
the  same,  four  quarters  per  acre  ;  but 
the  Chevalier  barley  weighed  57  lbs. 
per  bushel,  while  the  common  weigh- 
ed only  52.  This  gives  the  farmer 
an  advantage  of  nearly  ten  per  cent. 
The  sample  was  very  fine,  and  the 
whole  that  he  could  spare  was  eager- 
ly purchased  by  his  neighbours,  for 
seed,  at  his  own  price.  It  is  long  in 
the  ear  and  very  plump,  and  the  plants 


BAKLEV 


tiller*  30  much,  that  half  a  bushel  may 
be  saved  per  acre  in  the  seed.  This 
is  probably  owing  to  its  grains  being 
all  perfect,  and  vegetating  rapidly. 
The  straw,  like  that  of  the  other  long- 
eared  barleys,  appears  weak  in  pro- 
portion to  the  ear  :  it  is  said  also  to 
be  harder,  and  not  so  palatable  to  cat- 
tle. These  are  circumstances  which 
experience  alone  can  ascertain.  That 
hitherto  it  has  had  a  decided  superi- 
ority over  the  common  sorts,  no  one 
who  has  tried  it  fairly  in  well-pre- 
pared land  seems  to  deny ;  but  un- 
less great  care  be  taken  in  cultiva- 
ting picked  parcels  for  seed,  selecting 
the  finest  ears  and  plumpest  grain,  it 
will  probably  share  the  fate  of  its  pred- 
ecessors—  degenerate,  and  lose  its 
reputation.  Might  not  the  cultivation 
of  the  various  kinds  of  grain  purpose- 
ly for  seed  be  more  generally  prac- 
tised, and  form  a  distinct  branch  of 
agriculture  ?  Thus  the  good  qualities 
of  any  grain  might  be  perpetuated, 
new  varieties  might  be  produced,  and 
the  defects  corrected  by  cultivation, 
as  is  the  case  with  horticultural 
plants. 

The  sprat  or  battledore  barley  ( Fig. 
4),  also  called  Putney  barley,  from 
having  been  once  extensively  cul- 
tivated near  that  place,  is  in  much 
esteem  in  Germany.  It  is  the  Hor- 
dcum  Zeocriton ;  also  called  German 
rice,  or  rice  barley,  not  from  any  re- 
semblance it  bears  to  rice,  but  be- 
cause, when  deprived  of  its  skin  and 
made  into  pot  barley,  it  swells  by 
boiling,  and  makes  a  good  substitute 
for  rice  in  broths  and  puddings. 

All  kinds  of  barley  require  nearly 
the  same  soil,  and,  whether  they  are 
sown  before  winter  or  in  spring,  the 
ground  must  be  well  prepared,  and 
the  soil  pulverized  by  repeated  plough- 
ings  and  harrowings,  or  by  the  opera- 
tion of  those  instruments  which  have 
been  invented  for  this  especial  pur- 
pose, in  order  that  the  fibres  of  the 
roots,  which  are  very  minute  and  del- 
icate, may  penetrate  the  soil  easily  in 
search  of  nourishment. 


Fig.  4. 


'  A  plant  IS  said  to  tiller  when  it  produces 
several  stems  from  the  crown  of  the  root  at  the 
■urface  of  the  (oil. 

F 


[Sprat  (or  Battledore)  Barley.] 

The  soil  can  scarcely  be  too  dry 
on  the  surface  at  the  time  of  sowing  ; 
and,  provided  a  few  showers  supply 
the  moisture  necessary  to  make  the 
seed  vegetate  and  spring  up,  there  is 
DO  great  danger  to  be  apprehended 
from  too  dry  weather.  Barley  has 
been  known  to  grow  and  ripen  when 
not  a  single  shower  refreshed  the  soil 
from  the  day  it  was  sown  to  that  in 
which  it  was  reaped. 

The  quantity  of  barley  sown  for- 
merly was  four  bushels  per  acre  ; 
but  if  the  land  is  duly  prepared  and 
the  seed  good,  from  two  to  three 
bushels  are  an  ample  allowance,  espe- 
cially if  sown  by  the  drilling  machine. 

The  proper  time  for  sowing  barley 
depends  much  on  the  season  and  the 
61 


liAlM.EV 


state  of  the  land.  The  best  practical 
rule  is,  to  sow  as  soon  in  March  as 
the  ground  is  dry.  The  early-sown 
crops  are  in  general  the  heaviest,  es- 
pecially the  sorts  which  ripen  later  : 
they  require  less  seed,  having  more 
time  to  tiller  before  the  hot  weather 
draws  up  the  stems.  There  are,  how- 
ever, seasons  when  the  later-sown 
crops  are  the  best.  A  good  rule  is  to 
sow  a  quick-growing  sort  when  the 
sowing  is  unavoidably  deferred,  and 
in  this  case  more  seed  must  also  be 
allowed. 

The  depth  at  which  the  seed  should 
be  deposited  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  on  the  season.  Win- 
ter barley  need  only  be  slightly  cov- 
ered, and  will  tiller  astonishingly  in 
good  light  soils.  But  in  stiff  soils  the 
seed,  buried  deep,  may  have  much 
difficulty  in  germinating,  the  air  not 
having  sufficient  access,  and  the  first 
shoot  not  being  able  to  pierce  the 
compact  soil  above  it.  As  a  general 
rule,  a  depth  of  one  inch  and  a  half 
is  most  likely  to  enable  the  seed  to 
sprout  well,  and  give  a  sufficient  hold 
of  the  land  by  the  roots  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  lodging.  After  sowing  bar- 
ley it  is  useful  to  pass  a  light  roller 
over  the  land,  across  the  beds,  if 
there  are  any,  to  press  the  earth  on 
the  seed,  and  prevent  too  great  evap- 
oration of  the  moisture.  When  the 
plants  begin  to  tiller,  another  rolling, 
and  in  some  cases  a  slight  harrow- 
ing, to  loosen  the  surface  and  thin 
out  the  plants  where  they  grow  too 
close,  are  very  useful.  This  also  is 
the  best  time  to  sow  clover  and  grass 
seeds,  if  not  done  with  the  first  roll- 
ing. After  this  no  attention  is  re- 
quired to  the  crop  till  harvest,  unless 
some  docks  or  tliistles  should  make 
their  appearance,  which  must  then  be 
carefully  pulled  up. 

The  practice  of  sowing  clover,  rye 
grass,  or  other  seeds  with  the  barley, 
is  almost  universal,  and  is  considered 
as  one  of  the  great  modern  improve- 
ments in  agriculture.  There  is  no 
doubt  a  great  advantage  in  having  a 
profitable  and  improving  crop  to  suc- 
ceed the  barley  without  farther  till- 
age ;  and  clover  prepares  the  land 
63 


admirably  for  wheat.  Still  there  are 
some  doubts  whether  this  be  profita- 
ble in  all  cases.  Tliere  are  seasons 
when  the  clover  materially  injures 
the  barley  by  its  luxuriance  ;  and  in 
wet  seasons  at  harvest  it  is  very  dif- 
ficult to  dry  the  straw  sufficiently, 
mixed  as  it  is  with  the  succulent 
stems  of  the  clover,  or  to  prevent  its 
heating  in  the  stack.  The  clover,  as 
far  as  the  barley  is  concerned,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a  weed,  which,  like 
all  other  weeds,  must  take  a  part  of 
the  nourishment  from  the  crop,  and 
check  its  tillering.  If  the  clover  is 
sown  late  among  the  barley,  the  dan- 
ger is  less.  It  will  not  be  able  to 
grow  so  high  as  to  do  much  injury, 
but  the  fear  of  losing  the  plant  of  clo- 
ver makes  most  farmers  prefer  sow- 
ing it  soon  after  the  barley. 

In  Flanders,  clover  is  seldom  or 
never  sown  with  barley,  but  chiefly 
with  rye  ;  but  they  sow  a  species  of 
white  carrot  instead  in  the  sandy 
soils.  These  push  out  very  little  of 
the  green  top,  but  shoot  their  fibres 
downward,  which  form  the  rudiments 
of  the  carrot.  After  harvest,  the 
ground  is  well  harrowed,  and  water- 
ed with  liquid  manure.  The  carrots, 
which  could  scarcely  be  observed 
above  ground,  soon  spring  up,  and  a 
good  crop  is  secured  before  winter, 
extremely  useful  for  feeding  cattle 
and  swine,  and  greatly  increasing  the 
urine  of  cows  and  bullocks,  the  fa- 
vourite manure  for  light  soils  in  that 
country. 

As  soon  as  the  ears  of  the  barley 
begin  to  droop  and  lose  their  purple 
hue,  acquiring  a  light  straw  colour, 
before  the  grain  is  quite  hard,  it  should 
be  reaped.  This  is  usually  done  by 
mowing  it  with  a  scythe,  having  a 
cradle  fixed  to  it  so  as  to  lay  the 
swathe  regularly  ;  but  where  there  is 
a  sufficient  supply  of  labourers,  at 
reasonable  wages,  it  is  far  more  prof- 
itable to  have  it  reaped  with  the  sick- 
le, or,  what  is  better,  with  the  Hai- 
nault  scythe,  a  short,  broad  scythe, 
used  with  one  hand,  while  a  light 
hook  is  held  in  the  other  to  lay  the 
straw  even,  so  as  to  be  readily  tied 
up  into   sheaves.     A  little  practice 


BARLEY. 


enables  a  man  to  reap  twice  as  much 
corn  in  the  same  time  with  this  in- 
strument as  with  the  reaping  hook. 
Binding  into  sheaves  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage ;  much  less  corn  fs  shed, 
which,  in  the  common  method  of  ra- 
king into  heaps,  often  amounts  to 
more  than  would  fully  sow  the  same 
extent  of  land.  The  sheaves  set  up 
on  end  are  in  less  danger  from  the 
weather,  and  when  the  stack  is  budt 
all  the  ears  may  be  laid  inward  and 
much  grain  saved,  which,  if  on  the 
outside,  would  soon  be  the  prey  of 
birds  :  smaller  stacks  may  be  made, 
and  the  danger  of  heating  entire- 
ly avoided.  The  stacks  should  be 
built  on  frames,  supported  by  stone 
or  cast-iron  pillars,  with  Hat  caps  on 
them  to  keep  out  vermm  ;  and,  in 
large  stacks,  it  is  useful  to  have  a 
kind  of  open  cage  in  the  middle,  to  1 
allow  the  admission  of  air  to  the  cen- 1 
tre.  This  dries  the  grain  better  than  | 
a  kiln,  and  when  the  stack  is  proper-  ■ 
ly  thatched  with  straw,  the  crop  may 
be  considered  as  safe  till  it  is  carried 
into  the  barn  to  be  thrashed. 

Barley  requires  care  in  thrashing, 
to  break  off  all  the  awns  close  to  the 
grain.  A  thrashing  machine  does  not 
accomplish  this  perfectly  by  only  once 
passing  the  straw  through  the  roll- 
ers ;   it  is  consequently  usually  put 


through  a  second  time,  especially  if 
it  has  not  been  tied  into  sheaves.    It 
is  often   necessary,  after  the  barley 
is  thrashed,  to  effect  this  by  another 
operation,  which  is  called  hummeliyig, 
for  which  purpose  several  different 
kinds  of  instruments  are  used.  A  sim- 
ple one  consists  of  a  cylinder  com- 
posed of  small  bars  of  iron,  and  placed 
on  an  axis,  which  is  rolled  backward 
and    forward    over    the    grain  ;   or, 
I  where  a  thrashing  machine  is  used, 
a  plate  of  iron,  perforated  like  a  nut- 
meg grater,  is  fixed  to  the  inside  of 
I  the  drum  in  which  the  beaters  re- 
[  volve,  and  the  awns  are  effectually 
!  broken  off  by  this  rough  surface 

The  diseases  to  which  barley  is  sub- 
ject while  growing  are  those  which 
attack  all  other  grain — the  smut,  the 
burned  ear,  blight,  and  mildew  ;  but 
it  is  less  liable  to  these  than  wheat. 
The  greatest  enemy  is  a  wet  harvest. 
It  is  so  apt  to  germinate  with  the 
least  continuance  of  moisture,  that, 
even  before  it  is  reaped,  it  often  ex- 
hibits an  ear  in  full  vegetation,  every 
grain  having  sprouted  (see  fissure) 
It  is  then  of  little  value,  and  even 
when  this  is  checked  by  dry  weather 
or  in  the  kiln,  the  grain  is  so  impaired 
as  to  be  fit  only  to  feed  fowls  and 
pigs.  A  strong  plant  of  clover,  by 
keeping  the  wet  longer  about  the  bar- 


tPremature  germination  of  an  ear  of  barley.] 


63 


bAii 


BAR 


ley,  often  contributes  to  increase  tliis 
evil,  as  lias  boon  hinted  before. 

The  principal  use  of  barley  in  this 
country  is  to  convert  it  into  malt  for 
brewing  and  distilling.  The  best  and 
heaviest  grain  is  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose, and,  as  it  must  have  its  germi- 
nating power  unimpaired,  the  least 
discoloration,  from  rain  or  heating  in 
the  stack,  renders  it  suspected,  and 
consequently  not  so  saleable.  It  is, 
however,  still  fit  for  being  ground 
into  meal  for  feeding  cattle  and  pigs. 

The  produce  of  barley,  on  land 
well  prepared,  is  from  30  to  50  bush- 
els and  more  per  acre,  weighing  from 
45  to  55  lbs.  per  bushel.  It  is  said 
to  contain  65  per  cent,  of  nutritive 
matter ;  wheat  contains  78  per  cent. 
A  bushel  of  barley  weighing  50  lbs. 
therefore  contains  about  32  lbs.  of 
nutriment,  while  a  bushel  of  wheat 
weighing  60  lbs.  contains  47  lbs. 
Good  oats  weighing  40  lbs.  contain 
about  24  lbs.  of  nutritive  substance, 
so  that  the  comparative  value  of 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  in  feeding 
cattle,  may  be  represented  by  47,  32, 
and  24,  the  measure  being  the  same. 
The  experiments  on  which  this  cal- 
culation is  founded  were  carefully 
made  by  Einhof,  and  confirmed,  on  a 
large  scale,  by  Thaer,  at  his  estab- 
lishment at  Mijgelin,  the  account  of 
the  results  being  accurately  kept. 

On  all  pood  loamy  soils  barley  is  a 
more  profitable  crop  than  oats,  and 
is  supposed  to  exhaust  the  soil  less. 
On  stiff,  cold  clays  it  does  not  thrive 
so  well,  and  there  oats  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. In  some  districts,  where  the 
best  barley  is  grown,  the  farmers  sel- 
dom sow  oats,  and  many  prefer  buy- 
ing them  for  their  own  u.se,  with  the 
additional  expense  of  market  and  car- 
riage. 

Barley  in  its  green  state  makes  ex- 
cellent spring  food  for  milch  cows  ; 
it  comes  in  early,  and  greatly  increas- 
es the  milk.  It  is  also  very  good  for 
horses,  provided  it  be  given  sparing- 
ly at  first,  as  it  purges  them  ;  but  af- 
ter a  little  time,  when  the  stomach 
becomes  accustomed  to  it,  it  increas- 
es their  flesh  and  condition  wonder- 
fully, and  is  much  more  wholesome 


than  the  usual  spring  physic,  as  it  an- 
swers the  purpose  of  gently  clearing 
the  intestines  without  any  risk  of  ir- 
ritation. For  sheep  it  is  more  nour- 
ishing than  rye,  and  comes  earlier  ; 
when  fed  off  quite  close  in  April,  it 
will  spring  up  again,  and,  on  good 
land,  produce  a  fair  crop  of  grain. 

M.  Theodore  de  Saussure  has  care- 
fully analyzed  the  ashes  produced  by 
burning  barley  and  its  straw,  and  we 
shall  close  this  article  with  the  re- 
sult of  his  experiments. — {Recherches 
Chimiqucs  sur  la  Vegetation,  Paris, 
1804.) 

The  grain  reduced  to  ashes  with  its 
skin  gave,  out  of  100  parts,  18  of  ash- 
es, which  contained : 

Potass    .... 

Phosphate  of  potass 

Sulphate  of  potass 

Muriate  of  potass 

Earthy  phosphates 

Earthy  carbonates 

Silica 

Metallic  oxides  . 

Loss 


18 
9-2 
15 
025 

32-5 
0 

35-5 
0-25 
2-8 
100 


1000  parts  of  the  straw  produced  42 
of  ashes,  containing  : 

Potass    . 

Sulphate  of  potass 

Muriate  of  potass 

Earthy  phosphates 

Earthy  carbonates 

Silica 

Metallic  oxides  . 

Loss 


16 
35 
05 

7-75 
125 
57 
0  5 
225 
100 
These  products  no  doubt  vary  in 
different  soils  ;  but  the  proportion  of 
silica  in  the  straw  and  in  the  skin  of 
barley  is   remarkable.     This   barley 
grew  in  a  chalky  soil. — ( W.  L.  Rham.) 
BARLEY,  POT.     Barley  of  which 
the  outer  husk  or  skin  has  been  re- 
moved. 

B  A  R  L  E  Y,  P  E  A  R  L.  The  small 
round  kernel  which  remains  after  the 
skin  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
barley  have  been  ground  off. 

BARLEY  GRASSES.    Grasses  of 
the  genus  Hordcum.  They  are  coarse, 
and  of  little  moment  in  agriculture. 
BARM.     Leaven,  yeast. 


BARN. 


BARN.  A  building  in  wliieh  prod- 
uce is  stored  to  protect  it  from  the 
weather  and  keep  it  in  safety.  In  all 
countries  where  the  climate  does  not 
permit  the  corn  to  be  thrashed  in  thc 
field  and  immediately  put  into  a  gran- 
ary, it  is  necessary  to  protect  it 
from  the  weather  ;  and  the  most  ob- 
vious method  is,  to  hare  capacious 
buildings  for  that  purpose.  Accord- 
ingly, all  well-appointed  farms  hare 
one  or  more  of  these  buildings,  which 
formerly  were  made  of  such  dimen- 
sions as  to  be  capable  of  containing 
the  whole  produce  of  tlie  farm,  wheth- 
er hay,  corn,  or  straw.  A  great  sa- 
ving has  been  effected  by  the  mode 
of  stacking  hay  and  corn  in  the  open 
air,  protected  only  by  a  slight  cover- 
ing of  thatch.  In  consequence  of 
this  improved  practice,  modern  barns 
are  made  of  smaller  dimensions,  and 
their  principal  use  is  to  contain  the 
wheat  in  the  straw  which  is  intended 
to  be  thrashed  out  immediately  ;  so 
that  if  the  barn  is  capable  of  contain- 
ing a  thrashing  floor  and  as  much 
wheat  in  the  sheaf  as  is  usually  put  in 
a  single  stack,  it  answers  all  tiie  pur- 
poses of  a  larger  barn  ;  and  thus  the 
expense  of  the  farm  buildings  is  great- 
ly diminished. 

The  principal  use  of  a  barn  being 
to  thrash  the  corn  in,  its  construction 
must  be  adapted  to  the  mode  in  which 
that  operation  is  performed.  As  many 
smaller  seeds,  such  as  clover  and  the 
grasses,  cannot  so  well  be  thrashed 
by  a  machine,  a  floor,  upon  which 
they  may  be  thrashed  with  the  flail, 
is  an  indispensable  appendage  to  a 
farm ;  and  the  barn  is  the  most  con- 
venient place  to  have  it  in.  This  floor 
is  commonly  placed  in  the  middle, 
with  its  length  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  barn.  It  also  allows  the  wagons 
or  carts,  when  loaded  with  the  prod- 
uce of  the  harvest,  or  of  the  corn 
taken  from  a  stack,  to  be  drawn  over 
it  and  unloaded  immediately  in  the 
barn.  For  this  purpose,  large  double 
gates  are  placed  at  each  end  of  the 
floor,  of  such  dimensions  as  to  allow 
a  loaded  wagon  to  be  drawn  m  on 
one  side,  and,  when  unloaded,  taken 
out  at  the  other.  When  the  width 
F  •: 


of  the  barn  is  not  sufllcienl  for  the 
length  of  the  floor,  a  porch  is  added 
on  one  side,  or  both,  and  in  these  the 
gates  are  placed.  Those  parts  of  the 
barn  which  are  on  one  side  of  the 
thrashing  floor  are  called  the  bays, 
and  in  these  the  corn  is  placed  till  it 
is  thrashed.  Where  there  are  porch- 
es, the  roof  of  the  barn  is  generally 
brought  down  to  the  line  of  the  porch  ; 
and  thus  convenient  sheds  are  formed 
on  each  side.  One  of  the  defects  of 
this  construction  is,  that  the  drawing 
of  loaded  wagons  on  the  floor  mate- 
rially injures  it,  even  where  the  pre- 
caution is  taken  of  spreading  straw 
over  it.  In  consequence  of  this,  many 
barns  have  been  constructed  without 
the  large  gates,  and  the  corn  is  thrown 
from  the  wagon  outside,  through  an 
opening  called  a  pitch  hole,  into  the 
barn.  This  has  the  inconvenience  of 
loss  of  time,  and  the  risk  of  damaging 
the  corn  in  showery  weather.  The 
best  plan,  therefore,  is  to  have  a 
passage  for  the  wagons  under  the 
roof,  at  the  end  of  the  barn,  where 
they  can  with  ease  and  safety  be  un- 
loaded ;  and  if  a  thrashing  machine 
is  used,  a  floor  raised  about  seven 
feet  above  the  ground  will  contain 
the  machine  at  one  end,  and  the  un- 
thrashed  corn  at  the  other  ;  the  low- 
er part  may  be  appropriated  to  va- 
rious useful  purposes ;  that  part  which 
IS  immediately  under  the  machine 
receives  the  corn  and  straw  after 
they  are  separated,  and  contains  the 
winnowing  machine.  (See  Fig.  I.) 
A,  the  place  for  unloading  the  corn  ; 
B,  a  floor  seven  feet  from  the  ground, 
on  wliich  the  wheat  in  the  straw  is 
stored  ;  C,  the  place  of  the  thrash- 
ing-machine at  the  end  of  the  floor ; 

D,  a  chamber  under  the  floor,  into 
which  the  thrashed  corn  and  the 
straw  fall,  and  the  corn  is  winnowed  ; 

E,  the  shed  for  the  horses  to  work 
under ;  F,  a  place  under  the  floor,  in 
which  agricultural  implements  are 
kept :  it  may  be  converted  into  a  sta- 
ble. Double  gates  at  each  end  of  A 
will  shut  the  whole  up  ;  or  the  end  B 
may  be  closed  by  a  partition  with 
double  doors  in  it.  The  windows  are 
latticed. 

65 


In  this  case  the  seeds  may  be 
thrashed  on  the  raised  floor,  which 
must  be  made  stronj^  and  well  joint- 
ed, to  prevent  the  dust  beating 
through,  and  steadied  by  pillars  or  a 
partition  below.  In  small  farms, 
where  there  is  no  thrashing  machine, 
this  construction  is  not  so  advanta- 
geous, the  raised  floor  being  unneces- 
sary ;  still,  it  would  be  better  not  to 
draw  the  wagons  on  the  floor.  The 
thrashing  floor  may  be  placed  at  one 
end  of  the  barn,  the  wagons  unloaded 
at  the  other,  and  the  corn  deposited 
between  them. 

A  common  thrashing  floor  is  usu- 
ally from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet 
long,  and  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
wide  ;  the  size  must  depend  on  the 
number  of  men  who  thrash  at  the 
same  time,  this  operation  being  more 
rapidly  performed  by  three  or  four 
men,  beating  in  regular  time,  than  if 
they  worked  separately. 

Thrashing  floors  are  usually  made 
of  stone,  brick,  oak,  or  tempered 
earth.  The  first  are  the  most  dura- 
ble, and  where  stone  can  be  obtained 
at  a  reasonable  price,  they  are,  in  the 
end,  the  cheapest ;  but  they  are  apt 
to  bruise  the  corn,  and  on  that  ac- 
count are  not  so  generally  adopted. 
Brick  floors  have  tlie  same  inconve- 
nience, besides  that  of  readily  imbi- 
bing moisture,  and  making  the  grain 
feel  cold  and  damp,  which  diminishes 
the  value  of  the  sample.  Earthen 
floors,  when  carefully  laid,  and  the 
materials  well  incorporated,  are  both 
66 


cheap  and  durable,  provided  the  soil 
on  which  they  are  laid  is  dry  natural- 
ly or  made  so  artificially.  But  earth- 
en floors  have  always  the  mconve- 
nience  of  wearing  into  dust  of  a  gritty 
nature,  which,  mixing  with  the  corn, 
deteriorates  it,  and  renders  it  less  fit 
to  be  ground  into  fine  flour.  Hence, 
in  spite  of  the  first  cost  and  frequent 
repairs,  wood  floors  are  preferred. 
Some  nicety  is  required  in  laying 
floors,  that  they  may  not  be  subject 
to  rapid  decay,  owing  to  the  confine- 
ment of  moist  air  below  them.  The 
planks  should  be  two  inches  and  a 
half  thick,  the  edges  well  joined  by 
doicdling,  or  •ploughing  and  tong^ieing. 
Dowells  are  pins  of  half  an  inch  di- 
ameter and  six  inches  long,  driven 
three  inches  deep  into  holes  of  the 
same  diameter  in  the  edge  of  the 
planks,  and  received  into  correspond- 
ing holes  in  the  adjoming  planks,  so 
as  to  keep  them  close  together  and 
their  surfaces  even.  Ploughing  and 
tongueing  is  done  by  means  of  a 
groove  in  each  edge,  into  which  a 
slip  of  lath  is  driven,  half  in  each 
groove.  This  produces  the  same  ef- 
fect of  joining  the  planks  close,  be- 
sides completely  preventing  any  dust 
from  passing  between  the  joints. 
The  planks  are  driven  close  by  means 
of  wedges,  and  are  laid  on  sleepers, 
to  which  they  are  fastened  by  a  few 
iron  spikes  driven  into  each,  and 
which  rest  on  a  foundation  of  brick- 
work, so  that  the  floor  is  eight  or  ten 
inches  from  the  ground.     This  inter- 


BARN. 


val  has  been  sometimes  filled  up  with 
stones  or  gravel,  under  the  idea  of 
preventing  the  nestling  of  rats  ;  but 
this  is  not  a  good  practice.  A  free 
current  of  air  under  the  floor  is  the 
only  method  of  securing  it  from  damp, 
and  consequent  dry  rot.  This  should 
be  provided  by  means  of  openings 
through  the  walls  or  under  the  sills. 
Iron  gratings  will  keep  out  the  rats  ; 
but  even  should  they  find  their  way 
under  the  floor,  they  must  be  huuted 
out  and  destroyed  by  dogs. 

The  outer  walls  of  barns  are  built 
of  stone  or  brick,  or  consist  only  of 
wood. 

The  roof  of  a  barn  should  be  con- 
structed according  to  the  approved  j 
rules  of  carpentry,  so  as  to  produce  I 
the  greatest  strength  with  the  small-  j 
est   quantity  of  timber.     This   is  a  | 
point  seldom  attended  to  by  country 
carpenters,  who  imitate  the  old  roofs, 
in  which  strong  beams,  resting  on 
the  walls  horizontally,  generally  bear 
the  whole  weight  of  the  roof  without 
regard  to   the  advantage  gained  by 
proper  trussing.     Even  in  the  most 
temporary  shed  the  strength  may  be 
greatly  increased  by  using  the  mate- 
rials judiciously.     It  is  usually  shin- 
gled.   The  common  covering  in  Eng- 
land is  thatched  straw,  which  has  the 
great  inconvenience  of  affording  shel-  j 
ter  for  rats,  who  soon  nestle  in  it, 
and  are  not  easily  driven  out. 

The  more  the  air  circulates  the  I 
better  the  corn  is  preserved.     Barns  ! 
should,    therefore,    have    numerous 
openings,  and  the  wheat,  when  put ! 


into  them,  should  not  be  pressed 
down  close  to  the  walls,  as  recom- 
mended in  many  agricultural  works, 
but  so  placed  as  to  allow  the  air, to 
circulate  freely.  In  this  manner,  it 
will  keep  well,  without  acquiring  the 
close  and  musty  smell  which  so  much 
deteriorates  that  long  kept  in  a  barn. 
Hay  is  now  seldom  put  into  a  close 
barn,  experience  having  shown  that 
it  keeps  much  better  in  the  open  air 
in  ricks.  But  where  a  considerable 
quantity  of  hay  is  tied  up  in  trusses 
for  the  market,  it  is  extremely  useful 
to  have  a  building  with  a  roof  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  wet,  and  to  load 
the  carts  under  shelter.  For  this 
purpose,  a  kind  of  barn  is  contrived, 
which  some  call  a  Dutch  barn,  but 
which  may  very  properly  be  called  a 
skeleton  barn,  being  the  frame  of  a 
barn  witliout  the  boarding.  The  an- 
nexed figure  will  convey  a  better  idea 
of  it  than  any  description.  At  the 
time  of  haymaking,  this  barn  is  ex- 
tremely useful  to  draw  a  load  of  hay 
in  suddenly  on  the  appearance  of  a 
shower  ;  and  hay  put  into  either  side 
will  be  preserved  as  well  as  in  a  stack. 
But  for  this  purpose  another  building 
is  in  use  in  Holland,  to  which  the 
name  of  Dutch  barn  is  more  appro- 
priate, and  of  which  we  also  annex  a 
figure.  This  consists  of  a  roof  sup- 
ported by  strong  poles,  like  masts, 
A  A,  on  which  it  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  will.  The  usual  form  is 
that  of  a  pentagon  ;  the  poles  are  at 
the  angles,  and  kept  upright  by  means 
of  a  strong  still  on  a  brick  foundation, 


67 


13AK 


BAR 


30 


S4 


16.  . 


8    - 


and  pieces,  B,  acting  as  spurs,  framed 
into  the  poles.  The  roof  is  light  and 
covered  with  thatch.  At  each  angle 
is  a  strong  block  of  wood,  with  a 
round  hole  in  it,  sufficient  to  let  the 
poles  pass  through  ;  these  blocks  are 
kept  at  any  desired  height  by  means 
of  iron  pins  passed  through 'holes 
made  in  the  poles,  and  on  which  the 
blocks  rest.  To  raise  the  roof,  a 
small  jack  is  used,  an  instrument  well 
known  by  its  use  in  raising  heavy 
wagons  when  the  wheels  are  taken 
oft".  This  is  placed  on  an  iron  pin  at 
some  distance  below  the  roof,  and  the 
corners  are  raised  gradually,  one  after 
the  other,  at  opposite  angles,  the  pins 
being  moved  each  tune  one  hole  high- 
er. The  chief  use  of  this  Dutch  barn 
is  to  contain  hay,  which  may  be  pla- 
ced in  safety,  in  any  small  quantity, 
as  soon  as  made,  the  roof  being  raised 
as  the  quantity  increases,  and  grad- 
ually lowered  as  it  is  taken  off  for  the 
cattle,  which  is  always  from  the  top. 
In  small  dairy  farms  in  Holland,  this 
building  is  found  so  useful  that  few 
68 


are  without  one.  Four  posts  are 
quite  enough. 

BARN  0^yL.  This  bird  is  a  val- 
uable destroyer  of  rats,  mice,  and 
small  vermin. 

BAROMETER.  Of  all  the  mete- 
orological instruments  the  barometer 
is  the  most  useful  to  the  cultivator. 
Although  its  principal  object  is  to  in- 
dicate the  pressure  of  a  column  of  air, 
the  variations  of  this  same  pressure 
are  so  intimately  connected  with  di- 
vers other  atmospheric  phenomena, 
that  one  can  almost  daily  recur  to  its 
indications  with  profit. 

The  barometer  in  its  simplest  form 
is  a  tube  curved  into  a  siphon  {Fig.  1), 
closed  at  the  upper  end,  with  a  pear- 
shaped  enlargement  at  the  lower  end, 
completely  void  of  air,  and  partly  fill- 
ed with  mercury.  When  the  tube  is 
placed  in  a  perpendicular  position,  the 
metal,  after  some  oscillations,  settles 
itself  at  a  height  which  represents  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  which 
varies  more  or  less,  according  as  that 
weight  augments  or  diminishes 


BARUMETEIl. 


Pig.  I. 


Fig.  2. 

A 


By  an  ingenious  mechanism,  Tor- 
ricelli  adapted  to  the  siphon  barome- 
ter a  dial  {Fig.  2),  upon  which  a  nee- 
dle indicates  the  movements  of  the 
mercury.  This  instrument,  which  is 
quite  common,  can  nevertheless  be 
consulted  with  advantage. 

The  barometer  ( Fig.  3)  presents  this 
difference  from  the  preceding,  that 
the  tube,  instead  of  being  recurved, 
plunges  perpendicularly  into  a  basin 
partly  filled  with  mercury.  It  is  fix- 
ed to  a  scale,  graduated  on  one  side 
in  inches  and  tenths. 

The  mercury  in  the  barometer  is 
seldom  to  be  seen  so  low  as  28  inch- 
es, or  higher  than  30^^.  It  indicates 
as  follows : 

31  inches   .  .  Very  dry  weather,  hard  frost. 

30J   .     .     .  .  Settled  fair,  settled  frost. 

30     ...  .  Fair,  frost. 

29i  .     .     .  .  Changeable. 

29     ...  .  Rain,  snow. 

28i  ....  Much  rain,  much  snow. 

28     ...  .  .Stormy  weather. 

The  straight  barometer  is  better 
than  the  weather-glass.  In  mount- 
ains the  mercury  never  reaches  30J^ 
inches,  but  remains  alwavs  at  a  dis- 


tance below,  proportionate  to  the 
height  of  the  place  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  In  foretellmg  changes  of 
weather,  the  act  of  falling  or  rising  in 
the  mercury  is  better  than  an  inspec- 
tion of  its  height.  The  following  rules 
by  Mr.  Walker  are  as  good  as  any 
extant : 

1.  The  barometer  rising,  may  bo 
considered  as  a  general  indication  that 
the  weather,  comparatively  with  the 
state  of  it  at  the  time  of  observation, 
is  becoming  clearer. 

2.  The  atmosphere  apparently  be- 
coming clearer,  and  the  barometer 
above  raui,  and  rising,  show  a  dispo- 
sition in  the  air  for  fair  weather. 

3.  The  atmosphere  becoming  clear, 
and  the  barometer  above  changeable, 
and  rising,  indicate  fair  weather. 

4.  The  atmosphere  clear,  and  the 
barometer  near  fair,  and  rising,  de- 
note continued  fair  weather. 

5.  Our  prognostic  of  the  weather 
is  to  be  guided  relatively,  thus  :  if, 
notwithstanding  the  sinking  of  the 
barometer,  little  or  no  rain  follow,  and 
it  afterward  rise,  we  may  expect  con- 
tinued dry  weather. 

6.  If,  during  a  series  of  cloudy, 
rainy  weather,  the  barometer  rise 
gradually,  though  yet  below  rain,  es- 
pecially if  the  wind  change  from  the 
south  or  west  towards  the  north  or 
east  points,  clear  and  dry  weather 
may  be  expected. 

7.  The  weather  for  a  short  period, 
viz.,  from  morning  until  evening,  may 
commonly  be  foretold  with  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  certainty.  If  the  ba- 
rometer has  risen  during  the  night,  and 
is  still  rising,  the  clouds  are  high  and 
apparently  dispersing,  and  the  wind 
calm,  especially  if  it  be  in  or  about 
the  north  or  east  points,  a  dry  day 
may  be  confidently  expected.  The 
same  rule  applies  for  predicting  the 
weather  from  evening  till  morning. 

8.  The  barometer  should  be  ob- 
served occasionally  thrice  in  the  day, 
or  oftener  when  the  weather  is 
changeable,  in  order  to  notice  wheth- 
er the  mercury  be  stationary,  rising, 
or  sinking ;  for,  from  this  circum- 
stance, together  with  the  direction  of 
the  wind  and  the  apparent  state  of 

69 


BAR 

the  air  at  the  time,  is  information  to 
be  collected,  and  a  continuance  of  the 
same,  or  a  sudden  change  of  the 
weather,  to  be  foreseen. 

Lastly,  observe  always,  the  higher 
the  mercury  shall  stand  in  the  scale 
in  each  instance,  and  the  more  regu- 
larly progressive  its  motion  sliall  be, 
the  stronger  will  be  the  indication  ; 
likewise,  the  more  the  wind  inclines 
towards  the  north  or  east  points,  the 
greater  will  be  the  disposition  in  the 
air  for  fair  w-eather.  The  indications 
of  rainy  weather  will  obviously  be 
the  direct  reverse  of  those  rules  which 
predict  fair  weather.  Frost  is  indi- 
cated in  winter  by  the  same  rules 
that  indicate  fair  weather;  the  wind 
being  in  or  about  the  north  or  east 
points,  and  the  thermometer  sinking 
towards  30.  A  fall  of  snow  seldom 
comes  without  a  previous  frost  of 
some  duration,  and  is  indicated  by 
the  sinking  of  the  barometer,  espe- 
cially if  the  mercury  be  below  change- 
able, and  the  thermometer  at  or  near 
the  freezing  point.  When  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  is  about  35,  snow 
and  rain  sometimes  fall  together  ;  at 
a  warmer  temperature  than  35  it  sel- 
dom snows,  or  rains  at  a  colder  tem- 
perature. Thunder  is  presaged  by 
the  same  rules  which  indicate  rain, 
accompanied  by  sultry  heat,  the  ther- 
mometer being  up  to  75.  Storms, 
hurricanes,  and  high  winds,  are  indi- 
cated by  the  barometer  falling  sud- 
denly, or  sinking  considerably  below 
much  rain.  The  barometer  is  known 
to  be  rising  or  sinking  by  the  mercu- 
ry having  either  a  convex  or  concave 
surface,  or  by  the  perceptible  rise  or 
descent  of  the  mercury,  if  at  the  time 
of  observation  the  barometer  be  gen- 
tly rapped.  If  at  any  time  the  weath- 
er should  differ  widely  from  the  in- 
dications of  the  barometer,  it  maybe 
presumed,  as  it  is  sometimes  known 
to  happen,  that  a  particular  spot  is 
affected  by  local  circumstances.  Af- 
ter a  long-continued  series  of  wet 
weather,  we  may,  when  the  weather 
becomes  fine,  expect  an  uninterrupt- 
ed continuance  of  dry  weather.  If, 
after  a  long  series  of  wet  weather, 
the  barometer  rise  above  changeahlc, 
70 


BAR 

and  the  wind  veer  steady  to  the  north 
or  east  points,  a  continued  duration  of 
fair  weather  may  be  expected.  Slow 
and  progressive  variations  in  the 
barometer,  with  a  fixed  and  steady 
state  of  the  wind,  indicate  permanen- 
cy with  the  change.  The  barometer 
standing  at  or  above  fair,  denotes 
generally  fair  weather,  although  the 
atmosphere  wear  at  the  time  an  un- 
favourable aspect. 

The  greater  coincidence  there  is  of 
the  circumstances  enumerated  in  the 
rules  above  mentioned,  the  stronger 
may  our  confidence  be  in  the  expec- 
tation of  fair  weather  ;  and  in  the 
continuance  of  it  when  present,  by 
the  barometer,  while  high,  remaining 
stationary,  or  varying  but  little,  and 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere  and  di- 
rection of  the  wind  disposed  to  be  set- 
tled. In  this  variable  climate  there  is 
no  reliance  to  be  placed  on  any  rules 
beyond  those  above  mentioned,  for  in- 
dicating the  weather  for  any  length  of 
time  together,  or  for  any  distant  pe- 
riod. Combined  with  a  careful  exam- 
ination of  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
and  the  amount  of  vapour  in  the  air, 
barometrical  observations  become  a 
valuable  means  of  forming  an  opinion 
on  the  state  of  the  weather  a  few 
hours  in  advance. 

BARRAS.  The  resin  which  flows 
from  the  bark  of  fir-trees. 

BARREL.  An  English  beer  meas- 
ure of  thirty-four  gallons.  In  the 
Southern  States,  a  measure  of  corn 
equal  in  the  ear  to  ten  bushels,  or  five 
bushels  shelled.  A  barrel  of  flour  con- 
tains 196  pounds. 

BARREN  FLOWERS.  Those 
which  contain  stamens  only  ;  they 
are  easily  known  by  the  absence  of 
the  swelling  under  the  (orarium)  flow- 
er. By  high  cultivation  flowers  be- 
come barren,  and  contain  no  stamens  : 
when  these  bear  fruit,  it  is  without 
seeds ;  hence  the  well-known  seedless 
varieties  of  orange,  grape,  &c. 

BARREN  LAND.  In  agriculture, 
land  in  which  the  plants  general- 
ly cultivated  do  not  prosper  or  arrive 
at  maturity.  This  barrenness  may 
arise  from  various  causes.  The  tex- 
ture of  the  soil  may  be  such  that  the 


BARREN  LAND. 


moisture  essential  to  vegetation  can- 
not be  retained,  or  that  the  fibres  of 
the  roots  cannot  penetrate  in  search 
of  food.  The  first  is  the  case  in  loose 
silicious  sands,  the  second  in  rocks 
and  indurated  clays.  It  is  seldom 
that  either  of  these  soils  can  be  ren- 
dered productive,  so  as  to  repay  the 
expense  of  cultivation,  unless  under 
particular  circumstances.  The  most 
barren  sands  will  become  productive 
by  irrigation,  and  in  that  case  the  la- 
bour api)licd  to  improve  their  texture, 
by  the  admixture  of  more  tenacious 
earth,  may  be  occasionally  repaid. 
The  vine  may  be  made  to  grow  in  the 
fissures  of  the  hardest  rocks,  where 
the  climate  is  favourable  ;  and  ter- 
races may  be  formed,  by  which  the 
soil  brought  on  may  be  retained  ;  but, 
in  general,  loose  sands  and  rocks  ought 
to  be  left  to  their  natural  state  of  bar- 
renness. 

We  shall  endeavour  to  give,  as 
briefly  as  possible,  an  outline  of  the 
various  means  by  which  even  the 
poorest  soils  may  be  rendered  capa- 
ble of  adding  something  to  the  gen- 
eral stock  of  food.  The  question  as 
to  the  policy  of  cultivating  such  lands 
is  not  here  considered.  Our  object 
is  to  show  how  barren  lands  may  be 
improved  whenever  such  improve- 
ment may  be  deemed  expedient. 

Some  lands  are  barren  in  conse- 
quence of  noxious  ingredients  in  the 
soil,  which,  by  their  chemical  action 
on  the  food  of  plants,  or  on  their  mi- 
nute fibres,  prevent  their  growth  and 
render  them  sickly  and  abortive. 
These,  having  been  ascertained  by 
careful  analysis,  must  be  deprived  of 
their  noxious  qualities  by  chemical 
means,  one  of  the  most  obvious  of 
which  is  liming.  Nature  has  supplied 
a  general  and  complete  antidote  to 
acid  combinations,  in  lime,  one  of  the 
most  abundant  mineral  productions. 
There  are  few  bad  soils  which  lime 
will  not  improve.  The  most  com- 
mon substances  found  in  barren  soils 
are  different  combinations  of  metals, 
principally  iron,  with  sulphur  and 
acids  ;  quicklime  either  decomposes 
all  these  or  renders  them  innocuous. 
Another  substance  is  tannin,  or  the 


astringent  principle,  which  is  of  vege- 
table origin,  and,  by  preventing  the 
solubility  of  vegetable  fibres,  trans- 
forms them  into  an  inflammable  sub- 
stance well  known  by  the  name  of 
peat  or  moss.  This,  likewise,  is 
readily  corrected  by  the  same  means. 
But  the  different  substances  of  which 
a  soil  is  composed  may  be  perfectly 
innocuous  to  vegetation,  and  yet  the 
barrenness  may  not  be  the  less,  if  the 
supply  or  circulation  of  moisture  be 
deficient  or  excessive.  This  must, 
therefore,  be  the  first  consideration, 
before  any  improvement  is  attempt- 
ed ;  and  if  sufficient  moisture  cannot 
be  supplied,  or  superfluous  removed, 
all  other  attempts  will  only  be  lost 
labour.  In  tropical  climates,  irriga- 
tion is  the  chief  source  of  fertility ; 
and  the  most  expensive  works  have 
been  constructed,  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times,  to  supply  the  land  with 
water  as  occasion  requires.  In  north- 
ern and  moister  climates,  the  founda- 
tion of  all  improvements  in  the  soil  is 
a  proper  outlet  to  superfluous  water. 
These  two  subjects  will  l)e  treated 
in  the  articles  Irrigation  and  Drain- 
ing. 

Supposing,  then,  that  the  moisture 
has  been  regulated,  and  that  the  land 
is  to  be  brought  into  cultivation,  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  remove  ob 
structions  and  impediments,  whether 
they  be  rocks,  stones,  trees,  or  shrubs, 
or  only  the  heath  and  coarse  grasses 
which  generally  cover  waste  lands. 
Rocks  may  be  quarried  or  blown,  and 
so  may  stones  too  large  to  be  remo- 
ved whole,  and  the  fragments  will 
often  be  useful  in  building  the  neces- 
sary farm  offices,  or  making  fences  to 
divide  the  land  into  fields  of  conve- 
nient dimensions,  and  especially  to 
keep  ofl"  animals  from  destroying  the 
crops.  A  simple  method  of  getting 
rid  of  large  stones  is  to  dig  a  deep 
hole  by  the  side  of  them,  as  near  as 
possible,  and  roll  them  in,  so  that 
they  may  be  buried  at  least  two  feet 
below  the  surface.  If  the  nature  of 
the  stones  is  lamellated,  and  they 
will  split,  wedges  of  iron  driven  into 
holes  made  in  the  direction  of  the 
layers  readily  divide  them  into  flat 
71 


BAKUEN  LAND. 


pieces  pxtrciricly  (!()nveniont  for  use. 
A  very  powerful  wcd^e  for  tins  pur- 
pose is  an  iron  cylinder  cut  through 
the  axis  into  two  pieces,  between 
which  a  thin  iron  or  steel  wedge  is 
inserted  ;  a  hole  is  bored  in  the  stone 
of  a  diameter  eipial  to  that  of  the 
cylinder,  and  when  this  cylinder  and 
wedge  are  put  into  it,  the  wedge  is 
driven  in  with  repeated  smart  strokes 
of  a  hammer.  Several  such  wedges, 
placed  in  a  line,  will  split  large  mass- 
es of  the  hardest  granite,  and,  next  to 
gunpowder,  are  the  most  efficacious 
instruments  for  that  purpose.    Trees 


must  be  grubbed  up  by  the  roots  ;  and 
it  saves  labour  to  cut  the  roots  below 
the  ground  while  the  tree  is  standing, 
and  draw  the  tree  over  by  means  of 
ropes  fixed  to  the  top  ;  the  stem  be- 
comes a  lever,  by  which  the  roots 
are  more  easily  drawn  out.  Useless 
slirubs  are  readily  cut  down,  and 
serve  for  fuel  ;  their  roots  are  seldom 
difficult  to  grub  up ;  a  simple  and 
powerful  instrument  for  this  purpo.-sc 
is  a  very  strong  iron  three-pronged 
fork,  having  the  prongs  twenty  inches 
long,  and  a  strong  ashen  handle, 
twenty  feet  long,  fixed  firmly  into  it, 


-:^^e3r^^ 


to  the  end  of  which  a  rope  is  fasten- 
ed ;  this  is  driven  obliquely  under  the 
roots,  and,  by  means  of  a  log  as  a 
fulcrum,  it  forms  a  lever  when  pulled 
down  by  the  ropes. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which 
the  heath  and  grass  of  the  surface 
may  be  got  rid  of:  by  mowing  them 
close  to  the  ground  and  ploughing  in 
the  roots,  or  by  paring  the  surface 
and  burning  it.  Each  mode  has  had 
its  strenuous  advocates,  and  has  been 
alternately  praised  and  reprobated. 
A  little  consideration  will  soon  settle 
this  point.  If  the  soil  consists  of  clay 
or  loam  containing  the  yellow  ore  of 
iron,  and  if  the  ashes,  after  the  sods 
have  been  burned  in  heaps,  are  of  a 
72 


bright  red  colour,  the  efiect  of  burn- 
ing the  surface  will  be  generally  ad- 
vantageous, even  where  the  soil  is 
already  deficient  in  vegetable  matter  ; 
for  the  fire  will  do  more  good  in  cor- 
recting the  crude  qualities  of  the  soil 
than  the  small  quantity  of  vegetable 
matter  which  is  dispersed  would  have 
done  had  it  been  decomposed  in  the 
most  favourable  manner  ;  and  the 
tough  roots  which  are  reduced  to 
ashes  would  have  taken  a  very  long 
time  to  decay,  and  would  have  been 
a  constant  impediment  to  the  plough. 
But  if  the  soil  is  a  sharp  sand,  and 
the  ashes  are  white  and  loose,  burn- 
ing destroys  the  small  portion  of  ve- 
getable matter  in  the  soil,  without 


BARREN  LAND. 


compensating  the  loss  by  any  advan- 
tage, and  in  this  case  burning  the  sur- 
face is  inexpedient.  The  grass  must 
be  ploughed  in,  and  not  too  deep  at 
first,  that  it  may  soon  rot  ;  a  coating 
of  lime  ploughed  in  will  accelerate 
the  decay  of  the  grass.  This  kind 
of  soil  requires  the  addition  of  veue- 
table  and  animal  matter  to  supply  the 
humus  in  which  it  is  deficient,  and 


SaB 


the  principal  attention  must  be  direct- 
ed to  this  object. 

When  the  surface  is  very  uneven, 
so  as  to  form  hillocks  and  hollows,  in 
which  water  is  apt  to  stagnate,  lev- 
elling is  a  necessary  process.  If  the 
soil  is  loose  and  sandy,  it  may  be 
very  expeditiously  levelled  by  an  in- 
strument in  use  in  Flanders,  which 
they  call  a  molkbart.     It  is  a  large 


wooden  shovel,  shod  with  iron,  hav- 
ing a  long  handle  ;  about  the  middle 
of  this  shovel,  which  is  convex  at  the 
bottom,  are  two  hooks,  one  on  each 
side,  to  v.hich  chains  are  fixed,  which 
unite  at  the  bar  to  which  the  traces 
of  a  horse  or  horses  are  to  be  attach- 
ed :  a  rope  fixed  to  the  end  of  the 
handle  completes  the  instrument.  A 
man  accustomed  to  the  use  of  it 
raises  the  handle,  and  the  shovel  en- 
ters the  ground,  and  is  filled  by  the 
horse  gomg  on.  By  depressing  the 
handle,  the  load  is  made  to  slide  on 
the  rounded  bottom  of  the  shovel  till 
it  arrives  at  the  place  where  it  is  to 
be  deposited.  By  letting  the  handle 
go,  retaining  the  rope,  the  whole  is 
upset  instantly,  turning  over  on  the 
edge  ;  the  handle  strikes  on  the  bar, 
and  the  load  is  left  behind  in  a  heap. 
By  puhing  the  rope  the  whole  instru- 
ment resumes  its  original  position, 
and  is  brought  back  to  the  place  from 
which  the  earth  is  to  be  taken  again, 
without  any  loss  of  time  or  the  slight- 
est stoppage  of  the  horses.  About 
five  cwts.  of  loose  earth  may  be  thus 
G 


moved  at  each  time.  By  means  of 
this  machine  the  small  fields  in  Flan- 
ders are  raised  about  two  feet  or 
more  in  the  centre,  and  the  ground 
laid  convex,  sloping  in  every  direc- 
tion to  let  the  water  run  off. 

The  land  being  now  enclosed,  fen- 
ced, and  drained  where  requisite,  ob- 
stacles to  the  plough  removed,  and 
in  a  tolerably  level  state,  it  remains 
only  to  consider  how  it  may  be  most 
advantageously  cultivated,  so  as  in 
the  end  to  repay  the  first  and  great 
outlay.  Some  lands  which  have  lain 
waste  for  ages  for  want  of  a  proper 
spirit  of  enterprise  are  found  to  con- 
sist of  a  tolerable  depth  of  moderate- 
ly fertile  earth.  These  must  be  treat- 
ed like  a  garden  newly  formed,  and 
trenched  as  deep  as  possible  ;  mere 
exposure  to  the  air  and  frost  will  oft- 
en make  them  highly  productive,  and 
in  this  case  the  only  caution  neces- 
sary is  not  to  exhaust  them  at  first. 
It  is  too  common  an  error  with  those 
who  have  made  a  great  outlay  to  be 
impatient,  and  expect  too  rapid  a 
replacement  of  the  capital  laid  out. 
73 


BARREN  LAND. 


This  makes  them  sow  grain  crops  in 
preference  to  roots  and  legumes  ;  and 
as  fresh  eartli  is  generally  very  pro- 
ductive, especially  in  straw,  they  im- 
agine the  land  to  be  of  a  better  qual- 
ity than  it  really  is,  and  soon  exhaust 
it,  by  which  they  lose  infinitely  more 
in  the  end  than  if  they  began  with 
roots  and  green  crops,  and  raised  a 
quantity  of  manure  by  the  stock  fed 
on  them.  Lime  excites  new  land 
wonderfully,  and  no  manure  is  more 
active,  provided  there  be  vegetal)Ie 
matter  in  the  soil,  or  added  at  the 
same  time.  Bone-dust  will  raise  a 
better  crop  of  turnips  than  lime  alone, 
and  is  chiefly  of  use  in  raising  the 
first  crop  of  turnips.  It  should  there- 
fore be  used  sparingly,  unless  obtain- 
ed cheap,  and  only  on  light  loams  or 
sands.  Mixed  with  ashes  in  a  heap, 
and  allowed  to  heat,  it  becomes  much 
more  efficacious. 

Nothing  has  so  rapid  an  effect  in 
removing  sterility  as  the  free  use  of 
the  urine  of  cattle,  and  the  draining 
of  dunghills,  collected  and  allowed  to 
ferment  in  covered  tanks  ;  but  this 
can  only  be  obtained  by  keeping  cat- 
tle stalled  and  fed  with  provender 
brought  to  them.  This  is  the  great 
secret  of  the  fertility  of  the  once  poor 
barren  heaths  of  Flanders.  In  differ- 
ent situations  it  may  not  be  practica- 
ble to  procure  sufficient  manure,  at 
least  at  first,  and  the  progress  will  he 
much  slower.  In  this  case  the  seeds 
of  rye,  tares,  beans,  buckwheat,  and 
other  succulent  plants  must  be  sown, 
and  the  crop  ploughed  in  when  in  blos- 
som :  potatoes  and  other  roots  may 
be  raised,  to  be  consumed  by  cattle 
and  swine,  in  sheds  built  for  the  pur- 
pose near  at  hand,  and  every  means 
that  ingenuity  can  devise  must  be  re- 
sorted to  in  order  to  make  as  much 
manure  as  possible.  This  is  not  to  be 
applied  to  the  land  at  once,  but  mixed 
up  in  heaps  with  parings  of  the  sur- 
face, with  the  ashes  of  roots  burned, 
and  with  lime,  and  when  thoroughly 
incorporated  by  frequent  turning,  mix- 
ing, and  repealed  watering  with  li- 
quid manure,  a  good  coat  should  be  put 
on  the  land  at  once,  as  far  as  it  will 
go  ;  for  one  acre  brought  into  a  tol- 
74 


erably  fertile  state  will  repay  the  cost 
better  than  many  imperfectly  impro- 
ved ;  and  by  proceeding  gradually  in 
this  way,  more  land  will  be  brought 
into  a  state  fit  for  cultivation  at  the 
end  of  a  few  years,  and  at  less  ex- 
pense, than  could  have  been  done  by 
beginning  with  too  much  at  first. 

"\Vliat  has  been  said  of  poor  land, 
or  sandy  loam,  is  applicable  to  every 
kind  of  unproductive  soil,  difference 
of  composition  and  texture  being  kept 
in  view.  Poor,  wet,  stiff  lands  must 
be  divided  by  deep  ditches,  ploughed 
in  high  ridges,  and  be  as  much  as  pos- 
sible exposed  to  the  wind  and  frost : 
grasses  must  be  sown  sucii  as  suit 
the  soil.  Paring  and  burning  the  sur- 
face are  here  generally  useful  in  the 
first  instance,  and  may  sometimes  he 
repeated  with  advantage.  Such  soils, 
in  the  end,  are  best  calculated  for  per- 
manent meadows  ;  but  it  is  essential 
to  get  them  into  a  sound  and  fertile 
state  by  tillage  and  manuring,  and  by 
clearing  them  of  all  the  roots  and 
seeds  of  weeds  before  they  be  laid 
down  with  grass  seeds,  which  must 
therefore  be  done  with  a  first  crop 
after  a  clean  fallow,  or,  which  is  still 
better,  without  any  crop  of  corn  at 
all.  and  kept  free  from  coarser  grasses 
by  hand-weeding.  Inoculating  grass 
is  by  far  the  readiest  way  of  produ- 
cing a  permanent  sward.  See  Grass 
Lu7id. 

There  is  another  kind  of  barren  soil, 
which  extends  over  large  tracts,  well 
known  by  the  name  of  peat,  or  moor. 
This,  being  chiefly  composed  of  ve- 
getable matter,  is  too  loose  in  its  tex- 
ture foranyvigorousvegetation  ;  but, 
besides,  it  is  of  an  insoluble,  astrin- 
gent nature,  highly  unfit  for  the  in- 
crease and  nourishment  of  plants. 
Moors  being  generally  situated  in  val- 
leys between  mountains,  draining  off 
the  superfluous  water  is  the  first  and 
indispensable  operation  before  any 
improvement  of  them  can  be  thought 
of.  The  next  thing  is  to  compress 
the  soft  soil  into  a  more  solid  state, 
and  for  this  purpose  any  kind  of  earth 
or  gravel  is  useful  by  its  mere  me- 
chanical pressure.  The  surface  may 
be  burned  in  sods,  and  the  ashes  will 


BAR 


BAR 


groatly  improve  the  remainder.  Lime, 
marl,  and  sliells  are  the  specific  cor- 
rectors of  the  quality  and  texture.  By 
the  help  of  these,  tlie  soft  mass  is 
gradually  condensed,  and  a  more  com- 
pact soil  formed.  Tlie  great  ohject 
is  to  prevent  the  ahsorption  of  too 
much  moisture  by  the  still  unconsol- 
iilated  mass,  which  is  effected  by  cut- 
ting numerous  and  deep  ditches  in 
every  direction,  with  proper  outlets 
kept  carefully  open,  at  the  same  time 
guarding  against  the  opposite  extreme 
of  drying  this  spongy  substance  too 
much.  If  it  is  dry  at  top,  and  moist, 
but  not  boggy,  a  foot  below  the  sur- 
face, it  will  be  in  the  best  state  to  im- 
prove and  consolidate.  It  is  surpri- 
sing how  soon  a  peat  moss,  of  little 
more  solidity  than  a  bog,  can  be  ren- 
dered perfectly  firm,  and  bear  even 
loaded  wagons  on  its  surface.  It 
often  happens,  where  there  is  a  com- 
mand of  good  water  which  can  be 
brought  above  the  level  of  the  old  peat 
moss,  that  it  may  be  converted  into 
a  most  productive  water  meadow. 
All  that  is  required  is,  that  the  upper 
soil,  artificially  produced,  be  not  bro- 
ken through,  and  that  the  bottom  be 
well  drained.  The  great  value  of  the 
peat  and  muck  as  a  manure  is  a  stim- 
ulus to  the  ditching. 

We  have  only  given  brief  hints  and 
outlines  to  those  who  may  be  inclin- 
ed to  render  lands  productive  which 
have  hitherto  been  barren.  The  cer- 
tain cost  and  probable  improvement 
must  be  well  calculated  and  compa- 
red to  avoid  disappointment  and  loss. 
As  these  depend  on  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances of  each  case,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  any  general  idea  of  them  ; 
but,  by  beginning  on  a  small  and  ex- 
perimental scale  at  first,  and  proceed- 
ing cautiously,  new  modes  of  lessen- 
ing the  expense  of  many  of  the  oper- 
ations will  be  suggested,  errors  will 
be  avoided,  and  some  certain  practi- 
cal ground  of  calculation  will  be  ob- 
tained.— {W.  L.  Rh(im.) 

BARROW.  In  agriculture,  a 
mound  of  earth,  sometimes  called 
pies,  or  camps,  under  which  potatoes 
or  other  roots  are  stored  for  protection 
from  frost.     They  are  usually  made 


by  excavating  the  ground,  which 
should  be  high  and  dry,  about  one  foot 
and  a  half  deep,  from  four  to  five 
wide,  and  of  a  length  proportionate 
to  the  number  of  bushels  to  be  stored. 
The  earth  dug  out  is  thrown  evenly 
on  both  sides  the  hole.  Before  sto- 
ring, a  layer  of  straw  is  put  down  by 
some  farmers  ;  but  this  is  unnecessa- 
ry :  the  potatoes,  &c.,  are  next  piled 
up  in  a  rounded  form,  with  the  great- 
est height,  of  three  or  four  feet,  in  the 
middle  of  the  mound ;  straw  is  laid 
over  them,  and  the  dry  earth  of  the 
excavation  piled  on  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  feet,  and  flattened  with  the 
spade.  Round  the  barrow  a  ditch  is 
dug,  deeper  than  the  floor  within,  to 
drain  off  water.  Whatever  is  stored 
should  be  sound,  and  previously  well 
aired.  Where  the  crop  is  large  a 
number  of  barrows  are  made.  They 
should  be  placed  in  a  northeastern 
exposure,  for  it  is  not  frost  that  is 
injurious  to  vegetables  so  much  as 
sudden  thaws,  produced  by  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  In  taking  out  pota- 
toes, &c.,  for  the  market  or  use,  if 
they  be  found  frozen,  thaw  in  spring 
water  before  selling. 

{In  machines.)  Barrows  are  light 
carriages  to  be  moved  by  the  hand. 
When  furnished  with  a  wheel  they 
are  termed  wheelbarrows,  and  are  of 
many  forms. 

BARS.  In  farriery,  those  portions 
of  the  crust  or  hoof  of  horses  that 
are  reflected  inward,  and  form  the 
arches  situated  between  the  heels 
and  the  frog. 

Bars  of  a  Horse's  Mouth.  — The 
fleshy  rows  that  run  across  the  upper 
part  of  the  mouth,  and  reach  almost 
to  the  palate.  They  form  that  part 
of  the  mouth  on  which  the  bit  should 
rest,  and  have  its  effect. 

BAR-SHOE.  A  particular  kind  of 
shoe,  which  is  sometimes  of  necessi- 
ty used  to'  protect  a  tender  frog  from 
injury,  the  hinder  part  of  the  shoe  be- 
ing thickened  and  hollowed  over  the 
frog ;  but  unless  it  is  made  exceed- 
ingly heavy  it  will  soon  be  flattened 
down,  and  in  the  mean  time  it  will 
most  injuriously  press  upon  the  heels. 

BARYTA.  The  oxide  of  barium, 
75 


BAT 


BEA 


an  alkaline  earth  closely  resembling 
lime,  but  not  very  abundant.  Many 
of  its  salts  are  isomorphous  with  those 
of  lime. 

BASALT.  A  rock  of  groat  hard- 
ness and  volcanic  origin,  containing 
iron,  lime,  and  sand.  It  does  not  dif- 
fer from  trSp  except  in  colour,  and 
occasionally  in  putting  on  the  colum- 
nar form.  The  Palisades  of  the 
Hudson  are  a  range  40  miles  long  of 
this  rock. 

BASE.  In  chemistry,  a  term  used 
to  designate  those  substances  which 
readily  combine  with  acids,  as  alka- 
lies, metallic  oxides,  &:c.  In  general 
terms,  all  substances  which  readily 
combine  with  others. 

BASE.  In  architecture,  a  pedes- 
tal. 

BASIL.  A  fragrant,  aromatic,  her- 
baceous plant,  the  Ocymum  hasilicum, 
a  native  of  India,  whose  leaves  are 
much  used  in  cookery  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  a  savoury  flavour  to  dishes. 

Basket,  a  vessel  made  of  in- 
terwoven twigs  of  willow,  osier,  birch, 
splits  of  white  oak,  or  of  straw,  grass, 
or  rushes. 

BASS.  The  inner  bark  of  the  lime 
or  linden  tree  {I'dia  glabra),  used  by 
gardeners  to  bind  plants,  and,  in  the 
form  of  mats,  to  protect  trees,  frames, 
&c. 

BASSORIX.  A  peculiar  gum,  re- 
sembling gum  tragacanth ;  insoluble, 
but  swelling  in  water.  It  is  sometimes 
called  Cekasin. 

BATH.  In  chemistry,  sand,  wa- 
ter, or  oil  heated  in  a  metallic  vessel 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  a 
steady  and  regulated  heat  to  ciiemi- 
cal  vessels  in  distillation,  drying,  or 
evaporation. 

BATRACHIANS,  BATRACHIA. 
(Gr.  (SiiTpaxoc,  a  frog.)  An  order  of 
Reptilia,  including  the  frogs  and  toads, 
and  all  reptiles  which,  like  them,  have 
naked  skins  and  external  bfanchiee  in 
the  early  stage  of  existence  ;  those 
batrachia  which  retain  the  gills  or  gill- 
apertures  throughout  life  are  called 
"  perennibranchiate,"  or  "  amphib- 
ious." 

BATTATAS.  A  name  for  the 
sweet  potato. 


BATTENS.  Slips  of  wood  two  to 
four  inches  broad. 

BAULK.  A  piece  of  whole  timber 
squared.  In  ploughing,  stri[)S  of  un- 
ploushed  land  between  furrows. 

BAI'ME'S  AREOMETER,  or  HY- 
DRO.METER.  A  hydrometer,  the  0 
of  which  is  pure  water  at  68°  Fahr., 
and  the  15°  the  density  of  a  mixture 
of  15  parts  common  salt  and  85  parts 
water,  by  weight.     See  Hydrometer. 

BAY.  The  term  for  a  colour  in- 
clining to  chestnut.  In  reference  to 
a  horse,  this  colour  has  various  shades, 
from  the  very  light  bay  to  the  dark 
bay,  which  approaches  nearly  to  the 
brown  ;  but  it  is  always  more  gay 
and  shining.  There  are  also  coloured 
horses  that  arc  called  dappled  bays. 
Bay  horses  have  black  manes,  which 
distinguish  them  from  the  sorrel,  that 
have  red  or  white  manes.  There  are 
light  bays  and  gilded  bays,  which  are 
somewhat  of  a  yellowish  colour.  The 
chestnut  bay  is  that  which  comes  near- 
est to  the  colour  of  tfie  chestnut. 

BAY.  A  common  name  for  the 
laurels,  especially  Lauras  nobilis. 
Bay-berry  is  the  Ni/rica  cerifera. 

BAY  OF  A  BARN.  The  place 
where  the  mow  is  stored. 

BAY  SALT.  Salt  made  by  evap- 
orating sea  water  in  the  sun.  The 
best  is  from  Turk's  Island.  It  is  pre- 
ferred for  putting  up  pork  and  provis- 
ions. 

BEAGLE.  The  old  hare-hound, 
now  becoming  superseded  by  the  har- 
rier. 

BEAK.  Rostrum,  the  prolonged  or 
sharp  termination  of  a  fruit. 

BEAM.  A  stout,  horizontal  tim- 
ber used  to  resist  or  sustain  weight. 

BEAM  OF  A  PLOUGH.  The  up- 
per shaft  to  which  the  irons  are  fasten- 
ed.    It  should  be  of  good  ash  or  oak. 

BEAM-TREE.  Pyrus  aria.  A 
small  tree  with  tough  wood. 

BEANS.  Plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  family  LcgumhioscE.  Two 
genera  are  commonly  included  under 
this  name,  Vtcia  and  Phascolus,  of 
w'hich  several  species  and  numerous 
varieties  are  cultivated.  The  genus 
Phaseolus  produces  generally  run- 
ners, or  pole  beans,  but  this  depends 


BEANS. 


Early  Mazasjan. 
Broad  Windsor. 
Sword  Loner  Pod. 


much  on  soil,  for  the  Ph.  nanus  is  a 
busli  bean.     Tlie  Vicia  faba  is  the  pa- 
rent of  many  varieties  known  under 
the  general  title  of  English  dwarfs. 
English  dwarfs  :  varieties  : 

I      Green  Nonpareil. 
Horse. 
Heligoland. 

Of  these,  all  but  the  last  two  are 
cultivated  in  the  garden,  and  the 
horse  and  Heligoland  in  the  field. 
They  are  sown  as  soon  as  the  frost 
is  out  of  the  ground,  for  the  late 
plants  are  destroyed  by  heat  before 
they  bear  well. 

AH  the  varieties  thrive  best  on 
strong  clay  soils,  heavy  marls,  and 
deep  loams  of  a  moist  description. 
In  such  soils  the  produce  is  some- 
times 30  to  60  bushels  per  acre,  but 
an  average  crop  on  moderate  land  is 
about  half  that  quantity.  On  very 
rich  land  beans  have  produced  extra- 
ordinary crops  by  being  sown  broad- 
cast and  very  thick,  the  stems  being 
brought  up  to  a  great  height  in  fa- 
vourable seasons.  A  small  field  of 
very  rich  land,  in  the  county  of  Sus- 
sex, England,  was  sown  in  the  year 
1832  with  four  bushels  of  the  small 
tick  bean,  which  came  up  so  thick 
that  the  proprietor  thought  of  thin- 
ning out  the  plants  by  hoeing,  but  he 
was  advised  to  see  what  the  produce 
would  be.  and  when  they  were  thrash- 
ed out  there  were  eighty-one  bushels 
of  beans.  He  had  the  ground  accu- 
rately measured,  and  it  was  found  to 
be  one  acre  and  twenty-nine  perches, 
which  makes  the  crop  above  sixty- 
eight  bushels  per  acre. 

Beans  are  propagated  by  seed, 
which  may  be  sown  broadcast,  drill- 
ed, or  dibbled  ;  if  sown  broadcast, 
three  or  four  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre  will  be  required,  which  should 
be  ploughed  or  harrowed  in  ;  if  drill- 
ed, two  or  two  and  a  half  per  acre 
will  be  sufficient.  Beans  are  tolera- 
bly hardy,  and  will  bear  moderate 
dry  frosts,  but  they  suffer  much  from 
alternate  frosts  and  thaws. 

The  following,  from  the  late  Judge 
Buel's  agricultural  tracts,  gives  all  the 
necessary  information  on  the  culture 
and  produce  of  this  valuable  crop  : 


"  Field  Culture,  of  Beans.  — Beans 
may  be  cultivated  in  drills  or  in  hills. 
They  are  a  valuable  crop,  and  with 
good  care  are  as  profitable  as  a  wheat 
crop.  They  leave  the  soil  in  good 
tilth.  The  China  bean,  with  a  red 
eye,  is  to  be  preferred.  They  ripen 
early,  and  are  very  productive.  I 
cultivated  beans  the  last  year  in  three 
different  ways,  viz.,  in  hills,  in  drills, 
and  sowed  broadcast.  I  need  not 
describe  the  first,  which  is  a  well- 
known  process.  I  had  an  acre  in 
drills,  which  was  the  best  crop  I  ever 
saw.  My  management  was  this  :  On 
the  acre  of  light  ground,  where  the 
clover  had  been  frozen  out  the  prece- 
ding winter,  I  spread  eight  loads  of 
long  manure,  and  immediately  plough- 
ed and  harrowed  the  ground.  Drills 
or  furrows  v>ere  then  made  with  a 
light  plough,  at  the  distance  of  two 
and  a  half  feet,  and  the  beans  thrown 
along  the  furrows  about  the  25th  of 
May,  by  the  hand,  at  the  rate  of  at 
least  a  bushel  on  the  acre.  I  then 
gauged  a  double  mould- board  plough, 
which  was  passed  once  between  the 
rows,  and  was  followed  by  a  light, 
one-horse  roller,  which  flattened  the 
ridges.  The  crop  was  twice  cleaned 
of  weeds  by  the  hoe,  but  not  earthed. 
The  product  was  more  than  forty-eight 
bushels  by  actual  measurement." 

A  sprinkling  of  three  or  four  bush- 
els of  gypsum  is  advantageous. 

The  beans  are  collected  with  a 
plain  scythe  or  sickle  before  they  are 
fully  ripe,  but  turned  yellow.  In  this 
way  loss  by  scattering  seed  is  avoid- 
ed. The  whole  is  cured  by  exposure 
in  swarth  and  cock,  and  made  into 
light  stacks,  until  the  time  serves  for 
thrashing.  The  beans  are  obtained 
either  with  the  flail,  treading  out,  or 
passing  through  the  thrashing  ma- 
chine, set  sufficiently  coarse  for  the 
purpose.  If  the  straw,  or  haulm,  be 
well  cured,  it  answers  as  good  coarse 
Ibod  for  cattle  and  pigs  during  the 
winter. 

Beans  are  also  raised  in  Germany 
for  soiling,  and  cut  during  the  sum- 
mer season  when  in  pod.  They  are  an 
exceedingly  acceptable  food,  and  may, 
by  proper  management  in  sowing 
77 


BEANS. 


several  lots  at  difTeicnt  times,  be  kept 
in  cutting  order  for  three  months. 
The  Heligoland,  horse,  and  English 
tick  hcaii  are  the  favourites  for  field 
culture. 

Value  of  Beans. — This  crop  is  not 
so  extensively  cultivated  as  it  de- 
serves. In  common  with  other  legu- 
minous crops,  it  is  of  advantage  in 
opening  the  soil  by  its  long  roots,  in 
absorbing  much  of  its  food  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  leaving  the  soil  in  ad- 
mirable tilth,  iireparatory  to  a  grain  or 
tobacco  crop  ;  but  tlicse  good  points 
are  insignificant  in  comparison  with 
the  great  value  of  beans  and  pease  as 
food  for  horses,  sheep,  and,  indeed, 
all  animals. 

The  proportion  of  nutritive  matter 
in  beans,  compared  wilh  other  grain, 
is,  according  to  Einhof, 

Or  in  a  Bu.-sliel. 
about  47  Its. 
"  39 
"  33 
"  23 
"  45 
"  49 
"     54 

Not  only  is  there  so  great  a  propor- 
tion of  nutritive  matter,  but  that  pres- 
ent is  remarkably  rich  in  the  azotized 
or  flesh-making  ingredients,  often  as 
much  as  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent,  of 
casein  being  present  in  .seeds  grown 
on  a  rich  soil.  Von  Thaer,  as  the 
result  of  his  comparative  estimate, 
obtained  by  feeding  cattle,  gives  to 
field  beans  a  value  equal  to  one  third 
of  rich  wheat  and  two  thirds  of  In- 
dian corn  or  barley.  In  feeding,  it  is 
best  to  crush  or  grind  the  beans  and 
pease. 

Kidney  beans,  or  French  beans 
{Phascolus  vulgaris).  Of  the  dwarf 
kidney,  the  varieties  are 


By  weight. 

Wheat 

74  per  cent. 

Rye 

70 

Barley- 

.  65        " 

Oats 

.  58 

Beans 

.  68 

Pease 

.  75        " 

Kidney 

beans 

.  84 

Early  China. 
Early  Cluster. 
Early  Dun-coloured 
Early  Half  Moon. 
Early  Mohawk. 
Early  Rachel. 
Early  St.  Valentine 
Early       Yellow 
Weeks. 


Red  Cranberry. 

Warrington.or  Marrow. 

Refugee,  or  Thousand 
to  One — good  fur  pick- 
ling or  laying  down  in 
salt. 

Rob  Roy. 
Six  Large    While    Kidney, 
or  Royal  Dwarf. 


The  pole,  or  runners,  are  varieties 
of  the  Fh.  iimeiisis    and    muliijlorus. 
They  are 
78 


Saba,  or  Carolina.  Red  Cranberry. 

Dutch  Case  Knife.  White  Cranberry. 

Largo  White  Lima.        White      Dutch     Run- 
Speckled  Prolific  Lima,      ners. 
Asparagus,    or     Yard  Scarlet  Runners. 
Long.  London  Ilorlicultural. 

A  choice  new  variety,  under  the 
name  of  turtle-soup  bean,  has  been 
recently  cultivated  with  great  suc- 
cess. 

Nearly  all  of  these  are  confined  to 
tlie  garden  except  the  refugee  and 
C'liina,  the  cultivation  of  which  last 
is  similar  to  that  already  detailed  for 
beans.  I  therefore  only  introduce 
such  observations  as  belong  to  garden 
culture. 

The  soil  for  them  may  be  anything 
rather  than  wet  or  tenacious  ;  for  in 
such  the  greater  part  of  the  seed  de- 
cays without  germinating,  while  those 
plants  which  are  produced  are  con- 
tracted in  their  produce.  A  very 
light  mellow  loam,  even  inclining  to 
a  sand,  is  the  best  for  the  earliest 
sowings,  and  one  scarcely  less  sili- 
cious,  though  moister,  is  preferable 
for  the  late  summer  crops ;  but,  for 
the  later  ones,  a  recurrence  must  be 
made  to  a  soil  as  dry  as  for  the  early 
insertions.  For  the  early  and  late 
crops,  a  sheltered  border  must  al- 
ways be  allotted,  or  in  a  single  row 
about  a  foot  from  a  south  fence,  other- 
wise the  situation  cannot  be  too  open. 

Dwarfs. — The  sowing  commences 
with  the  year.  I'hey  may  be  sown 
towards  the  end  of  January,  in  pots, 
and  placed  upon  the  flues  of  the  hot- 
house, or  in  rows  in  the  mould  of  a 
hot-bed,  for  production  in  March  ;  to 
be  repeated  once  every  three  weeks, 
in  similar  situations,  during  Februa- 
ry and  March,  for  supplying  the  table 
during  April,  May,  and  June.  At  the 
end  of  March  and  April  a  small  sow- 
ing may  be  performed,  if  fine  open 
weather,  under  a  frame  without  heat, 
for  removal  into  a  sheltered  border 
early  in  May.  During  May,  and  thence 
until  the  first  week  in  August,  sow- 
ings may  be  made  once  every  three 
weeks.  In  September,  forcing  re- 
commences :  at  first,  merely  under 
frames  without  bottom  heat,  but  in 
October,  and  thence  to  the  close  of 
the  year,  in  hot-beds,  &c.,  as  in  Jan- 


BEANS. 


uary.  Sowings,  when  a  removal  is 
intended,  should  always  be  perform- 
ed in  pots,  the  plants  being  less  re- 
tarded, as  the  roots  are  less  injured, 
than  when  the  seed  is  inserted  in 
patches  or  rows  in  the  earth  of  the 
bed.  It  is  a  good  practice,  likewise, 
to  repeat  each  sowing,  in  the  frames 
Without  heat,  al'ter  the  lapse  of  a  week, 
as  tbe  first  will  often  fail,  when  a  sec- 
ond, although  after  so  short  a  lapse 
of  time,  will  perfectly  succeed.  In 
every  instance,  the  seed  is  buried  one 
and  a  half  or  two  inches  deep.  The 
rows  of  the  main  crops,  if  of  the 
smaller  varieties,  may  be  one  and  a 
half;  if  of  the  larger,  two  feet  apart, 
the  seed  being  inserted,  either  in 
drills  or  by  the  dibble,  four  inches 
apart  ;  the  plants,  however,  to  be 
thinned  to  twice  that  distance. 

If  any  considerable  vacancy  occurs, 
it  may  always  be  filled  by  plants  care- 
fully removed  by  the  trowel  from 
where  they  stood  too  thick.  A  gen- 
eral remark,  however,  may  be  made, 
tliat  the  transplanted  beans  are  nev- 
er so  productive  or  continue  so  long 
in  bearing  (although  sometimes  they 
are  earlier)  as  those  left  where  rais- 
ed. The  rows  of  the  earlier  crops 
ire  best  ranged  north  and  south.  The 
seed  inserted  during  the  hottest  pe- 
riod of  summer  should  be  either 
so  iked  in  water  for  five  or  six  hours, 
htii  in  damp  mould  for  a  day  or  two, 
or  the  drills  be  well  watered  previous 
to  sowing.  The  only  after-cultiva- 
tion required  is  the  destruction  of 
weeds,  and  earth  to  be  drawn  up 
round  the  stems. 

The  pods  of  both  species  are  al- 
ways to  be  gathered  while  young; 
by  thus  doing,  and  care  being  had  not 
to  injure  the  stems  in  detaching  them, 
the  plants  are  rendered  as  prolific  and 
long-lived  as  possible. 

Rmuiers. — As  these  are  more  ten- 
der, and  the  seed  is  more  apt  to  de- 
cay than  those  of  the  dwarfs,  no 
open  ground  crop  must  be  inserted 
before  the  close  of  April,  or  early  in 
May,  to  be  continued  at  iiiter\'als  of 
four  weeks  through  June  and  July, 
which  will  ensure  a  supply  from  the 
middle  of  this  last  month  untd  Oeto- 
G2 


ber.  Some  gardeners  force  them  in 
a  similar  manner  to  the  dwarfs  ;  they 
certainly  require  similar  treatment ; 
but  they  will  endure  a  higher  temper- 
ature by  a  few  degrees.  They  are  so 
prolific,  and  such  permanent  bearers, 
that  three  open-ground  sowings  of  a 
size  proportionate  to  the  consump- 
tion will,  in  almost  every  instance,  be 
sufficient.  , 

The  runners  are  inserted  in  drills, 
either  singly,  three  feet  apart,  or  in 
pairs,  ten  or  twelve  inches  asunder, 
and  each  pair  four  feet  distant  from 
its  neighbour.  The  seed  is  buried 
two  inches  deep  and  four  inches  apart 
in  the  rows,  the  plants  being  thinned 
to  twice  that  distance.  If  grown  in 
single  rows,  a  row  of  poles  must  be 
set  on  the  south  side  of  each,  being 
fixed  firmly  in  the  ground  ;  they  may 
be  kept  together  by  having  a  light 
pole  tied  horizontally  along  their  tops, 
or  a  post  fixed  at  each  end  of  a  row, 
united  by  a  cross-bar  at  their  tops  ;  a 
string  may  be  passed  from  this  to 
each  of  the  plants.  If  the  rows  are 
in  pairs,  a  row  of  poles  must  be  placed 
on  each  side,  so  fixed  in  the  ground 
that  their  summits  cross,  and  are  tied 
together.  They  are  sometimes  sown 
in  a  single  row  down  the  sides  of  bor- 
ders, or  on  each  side  of  a  walk,  hav- 
ing the  su[)port  of  a  trellis-work,  or 
made  to  climb  poles  which  are  turn- 
ed archwise  over  it. 

As  the  plants  advance  to  five  or 
six  inches  in  height,  they  should  have 
the  earth  drawn  about  their  stems. 
Weeds  must  be  constantly  cleared 
away  as  they  appear.  When  they 
throw  up  their  voluble  stems,  those 
that  straggle  away  should  be  brought 
back  to  the  poles,  and  twisted  round 
them  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that 
of  the  sun  :  nothing  will  induce  them 
to  entwine  in  the  contrary  direction, 
or  from  left  to  right. 

For  the  production  of  seed,  forty  or 
fifty  plants  of  the  dwarf  species  will 
be  sulficient  for  a  moderate-sized  fam- 
ily, or  thirty  of  the  runner.  They 
must  be  raised  purposely  in  May,  or 
a  like  number  from  the  crop  in  that 
month  may  be  left  ungathered  from ; 
for  the  first  pods  always  produce  the 
79 


liKA.XS. 


finest  seed,  and  ripen  more  perfect- 
ly. In  autumn,  as  soon  as  the  plants 
decay,  they  must  be  pulled,  and,  when 
thoroughly  dried,  the  seed  beaten  out 
and  stored. — {G.  W.  Jolmso^i's  Kitch- 
en Garden.) 

The  bean,  as  an  esculent  vegeta- 
ble, is  wholesome  and  nutritious  in  a 
fresh  state,  and  may  be  readily  pre- 
served for  winter  store  or  sea  voy- 
ages by  salting  in  casks.  For  this 
purpose,  the  large,  flat-podded,  Dutch 


white  runner  is  preferred.  In  Hol- 
land and  Germany,  where  large  quan- 
tities are  salted  in  almost  every  fam- 
ily, a  machine  is  used  for  cutting  them 
expeditiously,  which  greatly  resem- 
bles a  turnip-slicer,  and  may,  with 
a  slight  alteration,  be  used  also  for 
slicing  cabbages  when  making  the 
national  German  preparation  of  sour 
krout  (sauer  kraut).  It  consists  of  a 
wheel  or  disk  (see  ^^-r^re).  A,  in  which 
two  or  four  knives  are  set  at  a  small 


angle  with  the  plane  of  it,  so  as  to 
shave  otC  a  thin  slice  obliquely  from 
the  beans,  which  are  held  in  a  box,  C, 
with  several  partitions,  in  which  they 
are  kept  upright,  so  as  to  slide  down 
in  proportion  as  they  are  cut  :  thus 
80 


six  or  eight  beans  are  sliced  at  once, 
and  very  rapidly,  merely  by  turning 
the  handle,  13,  and  supplying  the  box 
with  beans  in  succession.  A  much 
more  economical  means  would  be  to 
throw  the  beans  into  a  hopper  hold- 


BEA 


BEE 


ing  two  or  three  pecks.  The  sliced 
heans  fall  on  the  table  below,  and  are 
immediately  put  in  a  cask  with  alter- 
nate layers  of  salt.  "When  the  cask 
is  full  and  well  pressed  down,  a  board 
and  heavy  weight  are  placed  on  them. 
As  the  beans  ferment,  the  liquid  pro- 
duced is  poured  off,  fresh  salt  added 
to  the  surface,  and  a  linen  cloth  press- 
ed close  to  keep  out  air ;  afterward 
the  top  of  the  cask  and  its  weight  are 
returned,  and  the  whole  kept  for  use. 
They  are  washed  in  fresh  water  wlien 
used,  and  form  a  wholesome  vegeta- 
ble dish  in  winter. 

BEAXS,  DISEASES  OF.  The  dis- 
eases are  the  rust,  or  mildew,  which 
is  a  minute  fungus  that  grows  on  the 
stems  of  leaves,  attributed  to  cold 
fogs  and  frequent  sudden  transitions 
of  weather,  and  the  black  dolphin  or 
fly,  also  called  the  collier,  an  aphis  of 
a  bluish  colour  :  it  is  devoured  by 
lady-birds  {Coccinella  septctnpunctata, 
and  other  species).  For  the  mildew 
no  remedy  has  yet  been  found.  "When- 
ever it  has  attacked  the  plants,  gen- 
erally before  the^ods  are  filled,  the 
best  method  is  to  cut  dou-n  the  crop 
in  its  green  state  ;  and  if  it  cannot  be 
consumed  in  the  farm-yard,  to  plough 
it  into  the  ground,  where  it  will  de- 
cay rapidly,  and  be  an  excellent  ma- 
nure for  the  succeeding  crop  of  wheat. 
If  allowed  to  stand,  the  crop  will  not 
only  be  unproductive,  but  the  weeds 
will  infest  the  ground,  and  spoil  the 
wheat  crop  by  their  seeds  and  roots, 
which  will  remain  in  the  soil.  When- 
ever the  tops  of  the  beans  begin  to  be 
moist  and  clammy  to  the  feel,  it  is 
the  forerunner  of  the  aphis.  They 
should  then  be  immediately  cut  off, 
and  this,  if  done  in  time,  may  save 
the  crop  from  the  ravages  of  the  in- 
sects ;  but  the  most  eflectuai  way  to 
prevent  any  disease  from  attacking 
the  plants  in  their  growth  is  to  have 
the  ground  in  good  heart,  and  well 
tilled  ;  to  drill  the  beans  at  a  suffi- 
cient distance  between  the  rows  to 
allow  the  use  of  the  horse-hoe,  and 
thus  to  accelerate  the  growth  of  the 
plants,  and  enable  them  to  outgrow 
the  effect  of  incipient  disease,  which 
seldom  attacks  any  but  weak  plants. 


BEANS,  SOUTHERN.  Several 
varieties  are  cultivated  in  Virginia, 
Georgia,  and  Southern  States,  under 
the  name  of  pease,  as  cow  pea,  corn- 
field pea,  Indian  pea,  <Scc.  They  are 
hardy,  grow  on  stiff  lands,  and  ame- 
liorate their  condition  ;  planted  with 
corn,  they  twine  about  the  stem  with- 
out hinderance  to  it.  On  rich  soils 
they  run  too  much  to  leaf;  but  in 
poorish  clay  may  be  cultivated  as  a 
field-crop  without  support,  if  in  a 
well-drained  situation.  The  yield  is 
large,  and  the  bean  agreeable  to 
horses  and  all  animals.  The  green 
plant  is  occasionally  turned  in  as  a 
fallow  crop. 

BEAR  BERRY.  The  Arctostaph- 
yhis  {arbutus)  uva  ursi.  A  small  ever- 
green shrub  of  northern  America  and 
Canada,  used  as  an  astringent  and 
tonic. 

BEARD.     The  awn  of  barley,  &c. 

BEARER.  In  building,  any  upright 
which  supnorts  timbers. 

BEAR'S  FOOT.     The  hellebore. 

BEASTS.     In  farming,  neat  cattle. 

BEDS.  In  geology,  seams  of  stra- 
ta, as  coal  beds. 

BED  STRAW.  The  Galium  ve- 
rum,  yellow  goose-grass,  a  perennial 
weed,  the  juice  of  which  is  acid,  and 
sometimes  used  to  curdle  milk  in  the 
place  of  rennet. 

BEECH.  Fagus  sylvatica,  var. 
Americana,  white  beech,  and  F.ferru- 
ginea,  red  beech,  are  handsome  Amer- 
ican trees,  especially  the  latter,  which 
is  the  larger,  and  more  like  the  Euro- 
pean tree.  The  wood  is  firm,  but  li- 
able to  insects  ;  the  bark  yields  suffi- 
cient tan  for  leather  ;  but  the  mast, 
or  nut,  is  the  most  valuable,  from  the 
excellent  oil  it  contains,  which  is  ex- 
pressed in  Europe  for  table  use.  Hogs 
fatten  more  rapidly  upon  beech  mast 
than  any  other  common  food  ;  the  fat 
is,  however,  oily.  The  beech  prefers 
rich  alluvial  soils,  and  yields  a  large 
amount  of  potash  in  its  ashes.  The 
timber  cut  in  the  sap  is  said  to  be  the 
most  durable. 

BEER.     The  fermented  infusion 

of  malt,  flavoured  with   hops.     But 

other  sweet  infusions,  treated  in  the 

same  way,  or  without  hops,  are  also 

81 


DEES. 

termed  beers,  as  persimmon  bP(»r,sas- I  and  industry.  Natural  History.— 
safras  liquorice,  and  sarsaparilla  root  There  arc  three  orders  of  bees  in 
5egr.  '  each  hive  ;  the  queen  (u),  drone  (i), 

BEES.     Avis  mcllifica.     A  familiar  j  and  labourint^  bee  (c) ;  there  is  but 
insect,  much  admired  for  its  instinct  !  one  queen,  distinguished  by  a  longer 


body  and  greater  size  than  all  the 
other  inhabitants  ;  she  is  the  only  fe- 
male in  the  hive,  and  is,  therefore, 
watched  with  great  interest  by  the 
others,  who  attend  her  in  her  duties, 
and  live  only  in  peace  while  assured 
of  her  presence.  The  drones  are  the 
males  :  they  are  larger  and  nearer 
spherical  than  the  labourers,  and 
without  stings.  After  their  duty  is 
performed  in  autumn,  the  drones  arc 
expelled  from  the  hive  by  the  labour- 
ers, and  killed  or  driven  abroad  to  die. 
There  are  from  300  to  1000  drones  in 
the  hive.  The  labourers  form  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants,  and  vary  in 
number  from  5000  to  20,000.  They 
are  smaller  than  the  rest,  armed  with 
a  sting,  and  neuter  in  sex,  or,  more 
correctly,  they  are  females  in  which 
the  ovaries  are  undeveloped.  The 
neuters  divide  themselves  in  compa- 
nies to  carry  on  the  business  of  the 
hive ;  some  collecting  honey,  others 
building  the  comb,  and  another  body 
nursing  the  young.  The  bees  which 
go  abroad  seek  for  three  distinct  kinds 
of  matter,  viz.  :  honey,  farina  or  bee 
meat,  and  propolis.  The  first,  which 
also  contains  more  or  less  wax,  is 
obtained  from  flowers,  and  in  part 
converted  into  wax  by  the  insect  it- 
self The  farina  is  stored  up  in  cells 
as  food  for  the  young,  and  is  of  a 
whitish  colour,  altogether  differing 
from  hone*';  propolis  is  a  resinou* 
8«t 


exudation  gathered  from  difTerent 
trees,  as  the  black  gum,  wherewith 
the  bee  closes  crevices  in  the  hive 
and  stops  the  cells  of  the  young.  As 
soon  as  flowers  begin  to  expand,  the 
labourers  and  queen  bee  are  aroused 
from  the  lethargy  of  winter  and  re- 
commence the  labours  of  the  hive. 
The  queen  lays  about  50  eggs  a  day, 
for  six  or  eight  weeks  :  these  are  all 
neuters.  Having  finished  this  depos- 
ite,  she  then  lays  the  eggs  of  drones, 
and  lastly,  those  for  queens.  At  this 
season  she  produces  but  one  egg  a 
day ;  the  number  of  queen  eggs  va- 
ries from  3  to  20  ;  they  are  deposited 
in  large  conical  cells  called  royal 
cells.  The  working  community  in 
the  mean  time  introduce  food  into 
each  cell,  taking  care  to  furnish  the 
future  queens  with  regal  fare,  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  neuters.  In 
three  days  the  eggs  are  hatched  and 
produce  a  worm,  which  feeds  upon 
the  bee  bread  stored-  in  its  cell,  and 
at  the  end  of  a  few  days  spins  itself 
a  web  and  enters  upon  a  series  of 
transformations,  ending,  in  21  days 
from  the  deposite  of  the  egg,  in  the 
production  of  a  young  bee  ;  this  eats 
its  way  through  the  propolis  that  clo- 
ses its  cell,  and  is  nourished  by  the 
nursing  bees  until  it  is  strong  enough 
to  enter  on  the  labours  of  the  hive. 
In  due  time  tiie  queen  eggs  are  con- 
1    Ttftd  into  bees.     As  soon  as  the 


BEES. 


old  queen  perceives  evidence  of  this, 
she  becomes  uneasy,  and  communi- 
cates her  apprehension  to  tiie  neu- 
ters, many  of  which  share  in  her 
anxiety  :  thus  she  collects  many  faith- 
ful followers,  and  leaves  the  hive, 
carrying  ofT  the  Jirst  swarm,  which  is 
always  led  by  the  old  queen.  The 
first  young  queen  now  comes  forth, 
and  quickly  discovers  the  cells  of  her 
sisters,  which  she  attempts  to  de- 
stroy, but  is  hindered  by  the  bees ; 
whereon  she  runs  to  and  fro  among 
the  hive  and  succeeds  in  carrying  off 
another  swarm.  After  this,  the  next 
queen  usually  succeeds  in  destroying 
her  rivals,  and  remains  in  the  old  hive. 
The  first  swarm  may  be  known  by 
the  presence  of  drones  in  June,  soon- 
er or  later,  according  to  the  season. 
This  is  the  swarming  season,  and 
measures  are  now  to  be  taken  to  re- 
cover the  bees  and  form  new  hives. 
The  two  swarms  come  out  at  in- 
tervals of  a  few  days  ;  occasionally 
there  are  more,  but  they  are  not  suf- 
ficiently numerous  to  form  a  new 
hive,  and  should  be  returned.  The 
bees  come  out  in  large  numbers,  and 
make  their  way  to  an  adjoining  bush 
or  tree,  where  they  accumulate  in  a 
dense  cluster,  usually  on  one  branch. 
The  loaded  brancli  is  now  to  be  care- 
fully cut  without  disturbance,  and  the 
whole  swarm  laid  upon  a  white  cloth, 
or  a  table,  on  the  ground,  and  a  hive 
inverted  over  tlie  bees  ;  if  everything 
is  favourable,  the  swarm  enters  the 
new  hive,  and  may  be  removed  in  a 
few  hours  to  the  stands ;  but  this  is 
not  always  the  case,  for  should  there 
be  more  than  one  queen  present,  the 
swarm  is  kept  in  great  turmoil,  and 
battles  ensue  until  the  number  is  re- 
duced to  one  ;  but  in  these  conflicts  it 
sometimes  occurs  that  all  the  queens 
are  killed,  and  the  young  swarm  re- 
turns to  the  parent  hive  to  wait  for  a 
new  sovereign.  The  skUful  apiarian, 
therefore,  always  takes  care,  before 
hiving  a  s%varm,  that  the  queen  is 
present,  and  only  one,  removing  ev- 
ery other  and  putting  her  to  death 
instantly.  In  the  swarming  season, 
certain  ancient  practices  prevail,  of 
beating  iron  pans,  shouting,  blowmg 


trumpets,  and  throwing  sand  into  the 
air,  intended  as  a  means  of  frighten- 
ing the  bees  and  hindering  thern  from 
flying  too  far  from  the  hive  ground ; 
but  it  is  unnecessary  if  sufficient 
shrubs  be  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
hive  in  which  the  new  swarm  is  re- 
ceived should  be  provided  with  cross 
sticks  in  the  upper  part,  to  afford 
them  a  starting  point  for  their  archi- 
tecture ;  it  should  be  without  chinks 
or  crevices,  lor  these  have  to  be  fill- 
ed by  the  colony  with  propolis,  and 
cause  a  waste  of  time  ;  moreover,  to 
give  them  a  fair  start,  they  should  be 
fed  with  sirup  for  a  few  days.  The 
labourers  begin  at  the  roof  with  their 
comb,  arranging  a  number  of  different 
parallel  structures  in  the  direction 
marked  out  by  the  sticks  introduced. 
The  cells  have  an  hexagonal  section 
and  are  prismatic  in  form,  so  arran- 
ged as  to  admit  of  the  introduction  of 
honey  until  full,  when  they  are  sealed 
with  wax:  in  the  lower  division  of 
the  hive,  the  cells  for  eggs  are  arran- 
ged ;  these  are  filled  with  the  farina, 
or  bee  bread.  About  August,  the 
bees  of  the  preceding  year  die,  the 
drones  are  expelled,  and  the  hive  is 
fully  under  the  control  of  the  new 
generation  ;  honey  is  stored  as  long 
as  flowers  are  abundant,  and  where 
buckwheat  and  clover  abound  this 
takes  place  into  October.  As  soon, 
however,  as  flowers  become  scarce, 
the  colony  begins  to  consume  its  own 
sweets,  and  should  be  supplied  with 
sirnp.  The  position  of  the  apiary 
should  be  sheltered  from  the  great 
heat  of  the  day,  and  rapid  alternations 
of  temperature  ;  they  love  plenty  of 
free  air,  but  should  not  be  liable  to 
chilly  winds.  In  the  winter  they 
should  be  removed  to  a  dry  cellar, 
lest,  being  tempted  by  an  occasional 
gleam  of  sunshine,  they  leave  the 
hive  and  suffer  death.  The  temper- 
ature should  be  above  the  freezing 
point.  As  then  they  require  less  food 
to  sustain  life,  it  is  advisable,  also,  to 
keep  the  hives  covered  with  straw, 
&e.,  provided  always  there  be  a  free 
drangiit  of  air,  for  an  entire  colony  is 
frequently  suffocated  by  stopping  up 
the  door  of  tlie  hive.  The  hivea 
83 


BEES 


should  not  be  taken  out  until  the 
wealher  is  becoming  settled  and  flow- 
ers are  expanded. 

The  quality  of  the  honey  made  de- 
pends upon  tlic  food  supplied.  Many 
plants  are  reputed  to  yield  poisonous 
honey,  as  the  dwarf  and  great  laurel 
{Kalmia  anguftlifoHa  and  latifolia),  the 
mountain  laurel  {Rhododendron  7naxi- 
mus),  the  moor  wort  {Andromeda  ma- 
riana),  wild  honeysuckle  {Azalea  niidi- 
flora),  Jamestown  weed  {Datura  stra- 
monium), &c. 

Fruit-trees,  the  linden,  tulip-tree  ; 
varieties  of  clover,  especially  white 
clover;  aromatic  herbs,  as  thyme, 
mint,  and  marjoram ;  turnip,  mustard, 
and  cabbage  blossoms,  are  extremely 
grateful ;  buckwheat  imparts  a  harsh 
taste.  Water  is  also  relished  by  these 
insects,  so  that  they  prefer  a  position 
near  a  limpid  rill.  It  is  also  advised 
by  some  to  place  a  vessel  of  water 
near  their  hive,  into  which  floating 
sticks  should  be  introduced  to  serve 
them  as  standing  places  to  drink  from. 

The  quantity  of  honey  varies  with 
the  season  and  the  size  of  the  swarm. 
Thirty  pounds  is  a  good  yield  where 
the  bees  are  not  destroyed  ;  of  this, 
from  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  half 
will  be  wax. 

The  honey  is  removed  with  or  with- 
out the  destruction  of  the  insects; 
the  latter  method  is  accomplished  by 
suffocating  the  colony  with  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur,  but  is  rarely  prac- 
tised in  the  United  States,  and  is, 
moreover,  without  economy. 

Partial  deprivation  with  tiie  com- 
mon barrel  hive  is  performed  about 
the  beginning  of  September.  Having 
ascertained  the  weight  of  the  hive, 
and,  consequently,  the  quantity  of 
honey-comb  which  is  to  be  extracted, 
begin  the  operation  as  soon  as  even- 
ing sets  in,  by  inverting  the  full  hive 
and  placing  an  empty  one  over  it ; 
particular  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  two  hives  are  of  the  same  diam- 
eter, for  if  they  difler  in  their  dimen- 
sions it  will  not  be  possible  to  effect 
the  driving  of  the  bees.  The  hives 
being  placed  on  each  other,  a  sheet 
or  large  table-cloth  must  be  tied  round 
them  at  their  junction,  in  order  to 
84 


prevent  the  bees  from  molesting  the 
operator.  The  hives  being  thus  ar- 
ranged, beat  the  sides  gently  with  a 
stick  or  the  hand  ;  but  particu.ar  cau- 
tion must  be  used  to  beat  it  on  those 
parts  to  which  the  combs  are  attach- 
ed, and  which  will  be  found  parallel 
with  the  entrance  of  the  hive.  Tlie 
ascent  of  the  bees  into  the  upper  hive 
will  be  known  by  a  loud  humming 
noise  ;  in  a  few  minutes  the  whole 
community  will  have  ascended,  and 
the  hive  with  the  bees  in  it  may  be 
placed  upon  the  pedestal  from  which 
the  full  hive  was  removed.  The  hive 
from  which  the  bees  have  been  driven 
must  then  be  taken  into  the  house, 
and  the  operation  of  cutting  out  the 
honey-comb  commenced.  Having  ex- 
tracted the  requisite  quantity  of  comb, 
this  opportunity  must  be  embraced  of 
inspecting  the  hive,  and  of  cleaning  it 
of  any  noxious  matter.  In  cuttmg 
the  combs,  however,  particular  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  not  to  cut  into  two 
or  three  combs  at  once,  but,  having 
commenced  the  cutting  of  one,  to  pur- 
sue it  to  the  top  of  the  hive  ;  and  this 
caution  is  necessary  for  two  reasons  : 
if  you  begin  the  cutting  of  two  or 
three  combs  at  one  time,  were  you 
to  abstract  the  whole  of  them,  you 
would,  perhaps,  take  too  much  ;  and, 
secondly,  to  stop  in  the  middle  of  a 
comb  would  be  attended  with  very 
pernicious  consequences,  as  the  hon- 
ey would  drop  from  the  cells  which 
have  been  cut  in  two,  and  then  the 
bees,  on  being  returned  to  their  native 
hive,  might  be  drowned  in  their  own 
sweets.  The  bees,  also,  in  their  re- 
turn to  their  natural  domicil,  being 
still  under  the  impression  of  fear, 
would  not  give  so  much  attention  to 
the  honey  which  flows  from  the  divi- 
ded cells  ;  and,  as  it  would  fall  on  the 
board,  and  from  that  on  the  ground, 
the  bees  belonging  to  the  other  hives 
would  immediately  scent  the  wasted 
treasure,  and  a  general  attack  on  the 
deprivated  hive  might  be  the  conse- 
quence. The  deprivation  of  the  hon- 
ey-comb being  effected,  the  hive  may 
be  returned  to  its  former  position, 
and,  reversing  the  hive  which  con- 
tains the  bees,  and  placing  the  depri- 


BEE 

vated  hive  over  it,  they  may  be  left 
in  that  situation  till  morning,  when 
the  bees  will  be  found  to  have  taken 
possession  of  their  native  hive,  and, 
if  the  season  proves  tine,  may  replen- 
ish what  they  have  lost. 

BEES,  DISEASES  OF.  In  the 
spring  they  are  subject  to  a  dysen- 
tery, known  by  the  abundance  of  ref- 
use, and  an  odour  of  putrefaction 
within  the  hive,  which  should  smell 
like  wax.  It  is  said  that  a  little  bran 
dy  added  to  their  sirup  food  cures 
this  complaint.  They  are  also  at- 
tacked by  a  louse,  which  makes  them 
irritable,  but  which  may  be  removed 
from  their  bodies  by  brushing  them 
with  the  feather  of  a  pen. 

BEE  HIVE.  The  dwelling  of 
the  bees.  The  simplest  form  is  a 
small  barrel  of  four  gallons,  or  the 
hollowed  part  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 
or  a  thimble  of  rye  straw  holding 
about  three  pecks,  and  of  a  conical 
figure.  Whatever  the  structure,  it 
should  be  tight,  solid,  and  dry,  and  so 
arranged  as  to  admit  of  inspection. 
There  is  no  subject  on  which  so  much 
ingenuity  has  been  expended  as  the 
construction  of  beehives,  the  object 
being  the  separation  of  honey  with- 
out disturbance  to  the  labourers.  The 
annexed  is  as  good  as  any  of  these 
improved  hives,  as  it  has  the  follow- 
ing recommendations:  1st.  It  is  ca- 
pable of  enlargement  or  contraction  ; 
2d.  May  be  opened  without  disturb- 
ance, for  cleaning,  taking  honey,  &c. 
It  is  known  as  the  section  hive,  and 
consists  of  two,  three,  four,  or  more 
trays  of  similar  size,  fitting  one  above 
the  other,  as  C  C  D  {Fig.  1).  These 
trays  may  be  fourteen  inches  square 
and  five  deep  (Fig.  2),  the  uppermost 
being  provided  with  a  cover  to  keep 
off  rain.  Through  the  bottom  of  each 
tray  or  box,  slits,  or  holes  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  large,  are  perfora- 
ted, the  number  being  such  that  the 
bees  may  pass  readily  into  an  upper 
compartment  to  manufacture.  The 
apertures,  C  C,  repre.sent  doors  for 
the  bees,  as  well  as  windows  through 
which  to  examine  their  work,  and 
should  be  covered  when  not  used.  D 
is  the  entrance  first  used,  until  the 
IT 


BEE 


bees  are  settled  in  the  upper  divis- 
ions. The  compartments  are  fasten- 
ed together  temporarily  by  buttons, 
and  should  be  made  tight  by  cement 
or  coarse  wax.  To  use  this  hive,  the 
doors  are  all  closed  but  the  lower- 
most, into  which  the  bees  enter  ;  they 
ascend  from  tray  to  tray,  until  they 
reach  the  uppermost,  and  here  begin 
their  work  upon  sticks  properly  pla- 
ced ;  or,  instead  of  making  this  divis- 
ion open,  there  are  placed  over  the 
chinks  jars,  small  boxes,  or  other  re- 
ceptacles, into  which  the  honey  is  to 
be  collected  :  the  bees  work  in  these 
As  soon  as  they  are  engaged,  an  upper 
door  can  be  opened  for  their  accom- 
modation, and  the  progress  of  the 
work  can  be  watched  through  proper 
openings  of  glass,  and  byremoviPEf  the 
top.  As  soon  as  these  boxes  are  filled, 
they  can  be  taken  out  by  passing  a 
sharp  knife  between  the  lowest  edge 
85 


BEE 

Biid  the  bottom  of  the  division.  The 
hccs  arc  now  occupit'd  in  the  com- 
partment brhiw,  and,  should  the  sea- 
son be  propitious,  may  also  fill  that 
with  honey.  Under  tiiese  circum- 
stances, it  will  be  advisable  to  lift  up 
the  hive,  after  closing  the  doors,  and 
add  another  tray  beneath.  If  this 
hive  be  sufficiently  enlarged  in  spring, 
the  young  bees  can  be  prevented  from 
swarming,  or  the  fresh  swarm  can 
be  separated  with  the  upper  divisif)ns, 
and  carried  to  a  new  stand.  The 
hive  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean, 
and  free  from  insects,  and  every  crev- 
ice tight. 

BEES,  INSECTS  THAT  INJURE. 
They  are  troubled  with  a  louse  (Brau- 
la  ccera)  of  the  size  of  a  flea,  and  re- 
sembling the  Hippobosca.  These  pro- 
duce great  uneasiness.  They  may  be 
removed  by  brushing  a  feather  over 
the  bees  infested.  The  most  impor- 
tant enemy  is,  however,  the  Miller, 
or  Honey-comb  Moth  (Galleria  cereana), 
the  caterpillar  of  which,  of  a  dirty 
white  colour  {Fig.  1)  and  brown  head, 
Fig.  1. 


Caterpillar  on  a  piece  of  lionej-comb. 

eats  the  honey-comb.  The  caterpillar 
grows  to  twelve  lines'  length,  protects 
itself  from  the  stings  of  the  bees  by  a 
tubular  web,  and  eats  only  at  night. 
It  is  changed  to  a  brown  grub  in  ten 
to  twenty-eight  day^,  and  the  moth  in 
fourteen  more  days,  two  generations 
occurring  in  the  year.  One  moth 
appears  in  the  spring,  the  other  gen- 
eration in  July.  The  male  {Fig.  2)  is 
Bnialler  than  the  female  {Fig.'i);  he 


BEE 
Fig.  3. 


is  of  a  clay  yellow  above,  and  yellow- 
ish brown  on  the  abdomen  ;  the  col- 
our of  the  upper  wings  ash-gray  ;  the 
under  wings  lighter,  and  of  a  brown- 
ish tint.  The  female  has  a  rusty 
brown  back  and  head ;  the  under 
wings  almost  white  ;  she  lays  her 
eggs  in  the  dirt,  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  hive,  and  in  chinks,  from  whence 
the  young  crawl  into  the  hive.  The 
miller  and  its  caterpillars  are  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  repeatedly  inspecting  the 
hives  in  spring,  and  clearing  them 
out.  Hives  are  also  constructed  with 
inclined  or  wire  gauze  bottoms,  from 
which  all  the  feculent  matters  of 
the  bees  fall,  so  that  the  miller  can- 
not lay  her  eggs ;  for  she  will  not  ven- 
ture within  the  hive.  Ants,  spiders, 
and  wasps  are  also  very  destructive 
to  hives. 

BEE-STING.  The  bee  leaves  its 
sting  in  the  wound.  It  should  be  ex- 
tracted, and  the  part  rubbed  with  soap 
and  a  little  dilute  spirit  of  hartshorn 
(ammonia). 

BEET.  A  plant  of  the  genus  Beta, 
in  the  natural  order  Chenopodea  of 
Jussieu. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of 
beet  commonly  cultivated,  each  con- 
taining several  varieties  ;  the  one  call- 
ed Beta  cicia  or  hortensis,  producing 
succulent  leaves  only  ;  the  other,  the 
Beta  vulgaris,  distinguished  by  its 
large  root.  The  cicla  is  chiefly  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  as  a  culinary  ve- 
getable, and  forms  one  of  the  princi- 
pal vegetaides  used  by  agricullural  la- 
bourers and  small  occupiers  of  land  in 
many  parts  of  Germany.  France,  and 
Switzerland.  A  variety  known  by  the 
name  of  Swiss  chard  i)r()duccs  numer- 
ous large,  succulent  leaves,  which 
have  a  very  solid  rib  running  along 
the  middle.  The  leafy  part,  being 
stripped  off  and  boiled,  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  greens  and  spinach,  and 


86 


BEET 


the  rib  and  stalk  are  dressed  like  as- 
paragus ;  they  have  a  pleasant,  sweet 
taste,  and  arc  more  wholesome  than 
the  cabbage  tribe.  In  a  good  soil  the 
produce  is  very  abundant ;  and  if  cul- 
tivated on  a  large  scale  in  the  field, 
this  species  of  beet  would  prove  a  val- 
uable addition  to  the  plants  raised  for 
cattle. 

The  second  species,  the  Beta  vul- 
garis, or  beet-root,  has  been  long  cul- 
tivated in  gardens,  especially  that  va- 
riety called  the  red  beet.  It  thrives 
best  in  a  rich,  light,  dry  soil,  and,  from 
the  length  of  its  tap-root,  requires  a 
considerable  depth.  The  white  beet 
is  an  excellent  root,  and  is  preferred 
by  many  to  the  larger  and  more  com- 
mon intermediate  varieties.  It  has 
been  lately  in  great  repute  in  France 
and  Belgmm  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar. 

The  common  field  beet  for  cattle 
has  been  long  known  in  Germany. 
The  German  name  is  mangold  u-urzcl, 
or  mangold  root,  but  it  is  commonly 
pronounced  mangel  icurzcl. 

The  improved  variety  of  this  beet, 
which  grows  to  a  very  large  size  in 
good  soil,  has  a  red  skin,  and,  when 
cut  through,  appears  veined  with  red 
in  concentric  circles.  The  principal 
part  of  the  root  rises  often  a  foot ! 
and  more  above  the  ground,  and  the 
leaves,  which  are  large  and  succulent, 
spring  from  the  crown  of  the  root. 
There  is  a  limit,  however,  beyond 
which  the  root  does  not  improve  in 
quality  as  it  increases,  and  the  roots 
of  a  moderate  size  contain  more  sac- 
charine and  nutritive  matter  in  the 
same  bulk  than  the  larger.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  those  vari- 
eties from  which  sugar  is  extracted. 
The  soil  best  adapted  for  the  beet- 
root is  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  naturally 
rich.  The  application  of  liquid  ma- 
nure during  the  growth  of  the  plant 
greatly  increases  the  roots  ;  but  it  is 
also  said  to  make  them  more  watery, 
and  for  the  sugar  beet  it  is  not  recom- 
mended. It  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated that  azotized  manures  dimm- 
ish the  sugar  of  beets.  The  seed, 
which  should  be  ch(jsen  from  the 
most  perfect  plants,  is  sown  ia  May, 


at  four  to  five  pounds  the  acre ;  it 
should  be  steeped  three  or  more  days 
in  water  before  planting.  It  is  found 
by  experience  that  those  plants  of 
beet  which  grow  from  seed  sown 
where  they  are  to  remain  have  larger 
roots,  in  general,  than  those  which 
are  transplanted ;  the  seed  is  there- 
fore usually  drilled,  or  dibbled,  in 
rows,  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inch- 
es distant ;  the  seeds  are  put  in  about 
an  inch  deep,  and  when  they  are  dib- 
bled the  holes  are  about  four  inches 
asunder,  and  two  or  three  seeds  are 
put  in  a  hole.  After  they  come  up 
and  are  out  of  danger  of  frost  or  in- 
sects, they  are  thinned  out  so  as  to 
leave  the  plants  a  foot  asunder.  If 
the  ground  be  well  prepared  there  is 
little  fear  of  the  plants  not  coming  up, 
or  of  their  being  destroyed  by  the  fly, 
as  is  too  often  the  case  with  turnips. 
A  sprinkling  of  liquid  manure  along 
the  rows,  about  the  time  that  the 
plants  first  appear  above  ground,  will, 
in  general,  secure  an  abundance  of 
them ;  and  this  may  be  done  with 
much  less  trouble  than  would  be  im- 
agined by  those  who  have  never  prac- 
tised it.  It  requires  only  a  water-cart, 
with  a  large  cask  and  two  leathern 
hose,  kept  at  a  proper  distance  from 
each  other  by  a  stick  between  them, 
so  that  they  may  pour  the  liquid  ma- 
nure over  two  rows  at  once.  If  the 
field  be  not  above  a  mile  from  the 
tank,  a  man  and  horse  will  water  two 
acres  in  a  day  ;  and  if  the  distance  is 
half  a  mile,  four  acres  ;  the  expense 
will  be  amply  repaid  in  the  crop. 

On  a  very  large  scale  this  may  not 
be  so  practicable  ;  but  wherever  a 
field  of  beets  is  nqar  the  home-stall,  it 
should  never  be  omitted  ;  the  evident 
advantage  of  it  will  soon  remove  any 
objection  arising  from  trouble  or  ex- 
pense. When  the  plants  are  three 
inches  above  ground,  and  thinned, 
tiie  intervals  between  the  rows  may 
be  stirred  with  the  plough,  grubber, 
or  horse-hoe,  and  the  intervals  from 
plant  to  plant  in  the  row  with  the 
hand-hoe.  The  ground  cannot  be 
kept  too  fine  and  open,  provided  the 
soil  be  not  extremely  porous,  and  the 
weather  very  dry.  It  is  a  common 
87 


BEET. 


practice  to  throw  the  earth  from  the 
rows  against  tlie  roots  ;  but  the  most 
experienced  cuUivaiors  do  not  ap- 
prove the  method  ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  recommend  drawing  the  earth 
from  the  plants,  or  at  least  laying  the 
whole  ground  level,  ^\'here  the  soil 
is  naturally  rich  and  deep,  the  drills 
may  be  made  on  the  level  ground  ; 
but  if  the  sod  is  shallow,  or  the  sub- 
soil of  a  barren  nature,  it  is  best  to 
raise  small  ridges,  as  is  done  for  tur- 
nips, and  bury  the  dung  under  them, 
by  which  means  the  roots  have  more 
room  to  strike  downward.  As  soon 
as  the  outer  leaves  begin  to  droop, 
they  may  be  gathered  and  given  to 
cattle,  but  a  tuft  should  be  left  in  the 
centre  to  carry  on  the  vegetation,  or 
else  the  roots  will  not  increase.  This 
practice  of  gathering  the  leaves  is 
strongly  recommended  by  some,  and 
they  assert  that  the  root  does  not  suf- 
fer in  the  least,  although  the  leaves 
are  reproduced  ;  but  here  we  would 
give  this  caution,  founded  on  experi- 
ence and  observation.  The  drooping 
leaves,  if  not  gathered,  will  decay  and 
fall  off;  they  have  performed  their 
office,  and  therefore  to  gather  them 
before  they  wither  is  a  real  economy  ; 
but  to  strip  off  fresh  and  growing 
leaves  must  injure  the  plant,  and  the 
juices  required  to  replace  them  are  so 
much  taken  from  the  growth  of  the 
roots.  "When  fodder  is  very  scarce, 
this  may  be  a  sacrifice  worth  making ; 
but  if  the  object  is  to  reserve  the  roots 
for  winter  food,  the  leaves  should  re- 
main on  the  plant  as  long  as  they  look 
fresh  and  growing,  until  near  the  time 
of  taking  uj)  the  whole  crop  ;  the  top 
may  then  be  cut  off  an  inch  above  the 
crown  of  the  root,  and  will  be  excel- 
lent food  for  the  cows  and  pigs. 

The  roots  are  generally  taken  up 
and  stored  for  winter  some  time  be- 
fore there  is  any  danger  of  consider- 
able frost,  the  top  having  been  remo- 
ved. The  roots  are  then  either  stack- 
ed in  a  barn  or  root-house,  with  al- 
ternate layers  of  straw,  and  the  sides 
and  top  protected  from  the  frost  by 
straw  placed  all  round,  in  which  way 
they  wdl  keep  well  and  fresh  till 
spring  ;  or  they  are  placed  in  trench- 
88 


es  two  feet  deep  and  six  feet  wide, 
with  a  layer  of  straw  at  the  bottom 
and  against  the  sides  :  they  are  heap- 
ed up  in  these  trenches  to  the  height 
of  three  feel  above  the  ground,  form- 
ing a  ridge  at  top,  and  then  covered 
all  over  with  straw,  over  which  the 
earth  taken  out  of  the  trench  is  spread 
and  made  smooth,  sloping  like  the 
roof  of  a  house.  A  small  trench  is 
dug  all  round  this  heap,  with  a  prop- 
er outlet  to  prevent, any  water  from 
soaking  in;  the  heaps. are  made  of 
any  length,  according  to  the  quantity 
of  roots  to  be  stored,  and  the  two  ends 
are  secured  with  straw  and  covered 
with  earth  like  the  sides.  When  it 
is  required  to  take  out  the  roots  for 
use,  an  opening  is  made  at  the  end, 
a  sufficient  quantity  is  taken  out,  and 
the  end  is  secured  again  with  straw 
and  earth  as  before.  When  the  roots 
have  been  put  in  dry,  and  some  time 
has  been  allowed  for  a  slight  fermen- 
tation, and  the  steam  produced  has 
been  allowed  to  escape  before  the 
heap  was  finally  covered  in,  they  will 
come  out  quite  fresh  and  juicy  till  late 
in  spring  ;  but  if  the  proper  precau- 
tions are  neglected,  they  will  often  rot 
or  become  musty,  and  then  the  cattle 
will  not  readily  eat  them.  There  are 
few  crops  so  valuable  for  winter  food 
for  cattle  as  the  beet. 

"  Expense  of  an  Acre  of  Sugar  Beets. 
Use  of  an  acre  of  land  well  prepared  for 
beets,  and  manured  or  managed  in  the 

previous  crop $12  00 

Ploutjhing 4  00 

Cnliivating,  horse  cultivator  and  hand, 

2  hours 50 

Twice  more  before  sowing  .  .  .  1  GO 
Seed,  S2  25 ;  sowing  with  a  machine, 

73  cents 3  00 

First  hoeing 4  00 

Second  hoeing,  thinniug,  and  transplant- 
ing, to  supply  deficiencies        .         .       4  90 
Ilneing  again,  and  loosening  the  ground 

with  machines  .  .  .  .  .  2  00 
Harvesting 9  00 

$39  50 

"  Make  the  rows  two  feet  four  inch- 
es apart,  and  then  a  cultivator  can  be 
used  in  hoeing.  If  the  beets  stand  one 
foot  apart  in  the  rows,  and  weigh  two 
and  a  quarter  pounds  each,  the  yield 
will  be  twenty  tons.  In  rich  ground, 
at  that  distance,  a  great  number  will 


BEE 


BEE 


weigh  loar  or  five  pounds  each  ;  twen- 
ty tons  is  a  good  crop,  probably  a  large 
crop,  but  not  extremely  large,  for  in 
some  cases  twenty-five  or  thirty  tons 
to  the  acre  have  been  raised  in  this 
country.  At  the  above  expense  of 
$39  50  to  the  acre,  with  a  yield  of 
twenty  tons,  the  cost  would  be  two 
dollars  per  ton.  We  make  this  esti- 
mate to  show  how  cheap  beets  may 
be  raised  under  favourable  circum- 
stances, such  as  good  land  at  a  fair 
price,  convenient  machinery  and  im- 
plements, and  the  most  prudential 
management  in  the  culture,  with  la- 
bour at  a  moderate  price,  and  a  fa- 
vourable season." — ( Cultivator.) 

It  is  said  that  cows  fed  entirely 
on  beets  become  too  fat,  and  give 
less  milk  ;  but  this  would  be  no  objec- 
tion with  the  cow-keepers,  who  unite 
the  fattening  of  their  cows  with  the 
milking,  and  like  to  have  tliem  ready 
for  the  butcher  as  soon  as  they  are 
nearly  dry.  For  bullocks  they  are 
excellent  :  for  horses,  Swedish  tur- 
nips are  preferable.  The  proportion- 
al value  of  hay,  potatoes,  Swedish  tur- 
nips, and  beets,  in  feeding  cattle,  ac- 
cording to  Einhof,  whose  statements 
Tnaer  has  found  to  agree  with  his  ex- 
periments, is  as  follows  :  18  tons  of 
mangel  wurzel  are  equal  to  15  tons 
of  ruta  baga,  or  7\  tons  of  potatoes, 
or  3|  tons  of  good  meadow  hay,  each 
quantity  containing  the  same  nourish- 
ment ;  but  the  roots  may  be  grown 
upon  less  than  an  acre,  whereas  it 
will  take  two  or  three  acres  of  good 
meadow  land  to  produce  the  equiva- 
lent quantity  of  hay  ;  and  of  all  these 
root  crops,  the  least  exhausting  for 
the  land  is  the  beet.  The  white  beet 
has  been  chiefly  cultivated  for  the  ex- 
traction of  sugar  from  its  juice.  It 
is  smaller  than  the  mangel  wurzel, 
and  more  compact.  We  have  given 
it  to  cattle,  and  are  satisfied  with  the 
result ;  but  we  have  not  made  suffi- 
ciently accurate  experiments  to  de- 
cide which  sort  is  the  most  advanta- 
geous. The  crops  vary  from  GOO  to 
1200  bushels.  The  beet,  especially 
the  white  Sicilian,  is  better  than  man- 
gel wurzel.  They  are  improved  l)y 
steaming,  but  must  be  fed  up  in  two 
H  2 


or  three  days,  or  they  ferment.  Seed 
plants  are  set  out  in  May  and  gatlier- 
ed  in  September.  It  will  probably  be 
found  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  will 
make  the  scale  turn  in  favour  of  the 
one  or  the  other  ;  but  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar,  the  smaller  beet,  of 
which  the  roots  weigh  only  one  or 
two  pounds,  are  preferred  by  Chap- 
tal,  who,  besides  being  a  celebrated 
chemist,  was  also  a  practical  agricul- 
turist, and  a  manufacturer  of  sugar 
from  beet  root. 

BEET  SUGAR.  This  manufac- 
ture sprung  up  in  France,  it  having 
been  found  that  from  the  juice  of  the 
beet  root  a  crystallizable  sugar  could 
be  obtained.  We  here  give  a  brief 
account  of  the  process  :  The  first  op- 
eration is  to  clean  the  roots  ;  some 
effect  this  by  washing,  but  Chaptal 
prefers  scraping  and  paring  them 
with  a  knife,  although  by  this  means 
one  sixth  part  of  the  root  is  wasted, 
as  the  scrapings  mixed  with  earth 
cannot  be  safely  given  to  cattle,  and 
even  the  pigs  eat  but  little  of  it ;  but 
it  adds  to  the  manure,  and  is  there- 
fore not  altogether  lost.  Six  tons  of 
beet  root  are  thus  reduced  to  five, 
which  are  next  to  be  rasped  and  re- 
duced to  a  pulp.  This  is  done  by  a 
machine  consisting  of  a  cylinder  of 
tinned  iron,  two  feet  in  diameter,  and 
eighteen  inches  in  the  axis,  on  which 
it  is  turned  by  machinery.  On  the 
circumference  of  this  cylinder  are 
fixed,  by  means  of  screws,  ninety 
narrow  plates  of  iron,  rising  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  from  the  surface 
and  parallel  to  the  axis,  at  equal  dis- 
tances all  round  ;  the  outer  or  pro- 
jecting edges  of  these  plates  are  cut 
into  teeth  like  a  saw  ;  a  slanting  bo.x 
is  fixed  to  the  frame  on  which  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder  turns,  so  that  the 
roots  may  be  pressed  against  these 
plates.  The  cylinder  is  made  to  re- 
volve rapidly,  and  the  roots  are  thus 
scraped,  the  pulp  falling  into  a  vessel, 
lined  with  lead,  placed  below.  When 
two  such  cylinders  are  made  to  re- 
volve 400  times  in  a  minute  by  a  suf- 
ficient power,  whether  water,  wind, 
or  horses,  two  and  a  half  tons  of  roots 
are  ground  down  in  two  hours.  It  is 
80 


BEET  SUGAR. 


necessary  that  this  operation  should 
proceed  rapidly,  or  else  iht;  pulp  ac- 
quires a  dark  colour,  and  an  incipient 
fermentation  takes  place,  which  great- 
ly injures  tlio  future  results.  As  the 
pulp  is  ground  it  is  put  into  strong 
canvass  bags,  and  placed  under  a 
powerful  press  to  squeeze  out  the 
juice.  The  residue  is  stirred,  and 
subjected  to  a  second  and  third  jjress- 
ure,  if  necessary,  till  every  particle 
of  juice  is  extracted.  As  the  liquor 
is  pressed  out  it  runs  into  a  copper 
until  it  is  two  thirds  filled.  The 
strength  is  ascertained  by  Bauine, 
which  shows  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  liquid.  The  fire  is  now  lighted, 
and,  by  the  time  the  copper  is  full, 
the  heat  should  be  raised  to  178°  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  but  no 
higher. 

in  the  mean  time,  a  mixture  of  lime 
and  water  has  been  prepared  by  grad- 
ually pouring  as  much  water  upon  10 
pounds  of  quicklime  as  will  make  the 
mixture  of  the  consistency  of  cream. 
This  is  poured  into  the  copper  when 
the  heat  is  steadily  at  178^,  and  is 
well  mixed  with  the  juice  by  stirring 
it.  The  heat  is  then  increased  till 
the  mixture  boils,  when  a  thick  and 
glutinous  scum  rises  to  the  surface. 
As  soon  as  clear  bubbles  rise  through 
this  scum,  the  fire  is  suddenly  put  out 
by  water  poured  on  it,  or  by  a  proper 
damper.  The  scum  hardens  as  it 
cools,  and  the  sediment  being  depos- 
ited, the  liquor  becomes  clear  and  of 
a  light  straw  colour.  The  scum  is 
then  carefully  taken  off  with  a  skim- 
mer having  holes  in  it,  and  is  put  into 
a  vessel  till  such  time  as  the  liquor 
remaining  in  it  can  be  pressed  out. 
A  cock  is  now  opened  about  five  inch- 
es above  the  bottom  of  the  boiler, 
and  all  the  clear  liquor  is  drawn  off. 
Another  cock  lower  down  lets  out  the 
remainder  until  it  begins  to  appear 
cloudy :  what  still  remains  is  after- 
ward boiled  again  with  what  is  ex- 
tracted by  pressure  from  the  scum. 
The  clear  liquor  is  now  subjected  to 
evaporation  in  another  boiler,  which 
IS  wide  and  shallow.  The  bottom  is 
^ut  slightly  covered  with  the  juice  at 
(^rst,  and  it  boils  rapidly.  As  the  wa- 
90 


tor  evaporates,  fresh  juice  is  let  in. 
When  a  certain  degree  of  inspissa- 
tion  or  thickening  has  taken  place,  so 
as  to  show  five  or  six  degrees  of 
strength  on  Baumo,  animal  charcoal 
is  gradually  added  till  the  liquor  ar- 
rives at  20  \  One  hundred  weight  of 
charcoal  is  required  for  the  juice  of 
two  and  a  half  tons  of  beet,  which  is 
now  reduced  to  about  400  gallons. 
The  evaporation  by  boiling  continues 
till  the  saccharometer  marks  2.5 ■-,  and 
a  regular  sirup  is  obtained.  This  is 
now  strained  through  a  linen  bag, 
and  the  liquor  is  kept  flowing  by 
means  of  steam  or  hot  air,  and  assist- 
ed by  pressure.  In  two  or  three  hours 
all  the  clear  sirup  will  have  run 
through. 

The  sirup  thus  prepared  is  again 
boiled  and  skimmed  until  it  is  suffi- 
ciently concentrated,  which  is  known 
in  the  following  manner  :  The  skim- 
mer is  dipped  into  the  sirup  and  drawn 
out ;  some  of  the  thick  sirup  which 
adheres  to  it  is  taken  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger,  and  held  there 
till  the  heat  is  reduced  to  that  of  the 
skin  ;  the  finger  and  thumb  are  sep- 
arated, and  if  the  sirup  is  of  a  proper 
strength,  a  thread  will  be  drawn  out, 
which  snaps,  and  has  the  transparen- 
cy of  horn,  or,  rather,  barley  sugar : 
this  is  called  the  proof.  The  fire  is 
then  put  out  and  the  sirup  is  carried 
to  the  cooler,  which  is  a  vessel  ca- 
pable of  containing  all  the  sirup  pro- 
duced by  four  operations  or  boilings. 
Here  the  sugar  is  to  crystallize  ;  as 
soon  as  this  commences,  the  whole  is 
well  mixed  and  stirred,  and,  before 
it  becomes  too  still",  earthen  moulds, 
of  the  well-known  sugar-loaf  shape, 
and  of  the  size  called  great  banlards, 
are  filled  with  the  crystallizing  mass, 
of  which  a  little  at  a  time  is  poured 
into  each.  When  they  are  full,  they 
are  carried  to  the  coolest  place  on 
the  premises.  As  the  crystallization 
goes  on,  the  crust  formed  on  the  top 
is  repeatedly  broken,  and  the  whole 
is  stirred  till  the  crystals  are  collected 
in  the  centre  :  it  is  then  allowed  to  go 
on  without  farther  disturbance,  in 
three  days  it  is  so  far  advanced,  that 
the  pegs  which  were  put  into   the 


BEE 


BEN 


holes  at  the  point  of  the  moulds  may 
be  removed  and  the  molasses  al- 
lowed  to  run  out.  In  a  week  this  is 
mostly  ran  off  White  sirup  is  now 
pull  red  on  the  top  of  the  moulds, 
wlitch  filters  through  the  mass  and 
carries  part  of  the  colouring  matter 
with  it.  The  process  that  follows  is 
exactly  that  in  common  use  in  refi-  ; 
ning  West  India  sugars.  . 

Although  most  of  the  operations 
are  nearly  the  same  as  those  by  which 
the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane  is  pre- 
pared for  use,  much  greater  skill  and 
nicety  are  required  in  rendering  the 
juice  of  the  beet  root  crystallizable, 
on  account  of  the  smaller  quantity  ; 
of  sugar  that  it  contains.  But  when 
this  sugar  is  refined,  it  is  impossible  : 
for  the  most  experienced  judge  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  other  either 
by  the  taste  or  appearance.  Five 
tons  of  clean  roots  produce  about  4ir 
cwt.  of  coarse  sugar,  which  give 
about  160  lbs.  of  double-retined  su-  i 
gar,  and  60  lbs.  of  inferior  lump  sugar : 
the  rest  is  molasses.  The  dry  resi-  , 
due  of  the  roots,  after  expressing  the 
juice,  consists  chiefly  of  fibre  and  mu- 
cilage, and  amounts  to  about  one 
fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  clean  roots 
used.  It  contains  nearly  all  the  nu- 
tritive part  of  the  root,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  4^  per  cent,  of  sugar,  which 
has  been  extracted  from  the  juice.  | 
Two  pounds  of  this  dry  residue  and 
half  a  pound  of  good  hay  are  consid- 
ered as  sufficient  food  for  a  moderate- 
sized  sheep  for  a  day,  and  will  keep 
it  in  good  condition,  and  cattle  in 
proportion.  | 

By  allowing  the  juice  of  the  beet 
root  to  undergo  the  vinous  fermenta-  . 
tion,  and  by  distilling  it,  a  more  prof- 
itable result  will  be  obtained  in  a  very  ' 
good  spirit.  A  kmd  of  beer  may  also 
be  made  of  it,  which  is  said  to  be 
pleasant  in  warm  weather  and  whole- 
some. ! 

Another  mode  of  making  sugar 
from  beet  root,  practised  in  some 
parts  of  Germany,  is  as  follows,  and 
is  said  to  make  better  sugar  than  the 
other  process.  The  roots,  having 
oeen  washed,  are  sliced  lengthways, 
Btrung  on  packthread,  and  hung  up 


to  dry.  The  object  of  this  is  to  let 
the  watery  juice  evaporate,  and  the 
sweet  juice,  being  concentrated,  is 
taken  up  by  macerating  the  dry  sli- 
ces in  water.  It  is  managed  so  that 
all  the  juice  shall  be  extracted  by  a 
very  small  quantity  of  water,  which 
saves  much  of  the  trouble  of  evapo- 
ration. Professor  Lanipadius  obtain- 
ed from  1 10  pounds  of  roots  4  pounds 
of  well-grained  white  powder  sugar, 
and  the  residuum  afforded  7  pints  of 
spirit.  Achard  says  that  about  a  ton 
of  roots  produced  100  pounds  of  raw 
sugar,  which  gave  55  pounds  of  re- 
fined sugar  and  25  pounds  of  treacle. 
This  result  is  not  very  different  from 
that  of  Chaptal. 

The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  in 
the  United  States  cannot  be  made 
profitable,  but  may  be  useful  in  fami- 
lies, as  the  remaining  mush  is  so  val- 
uable for  cattle  and  pigs.  They  may 
be  cultivated  between  39  and  44  de- 
grees north  advantageously. 

BEETLE.  A  common  term  used 
to  designate  the  larger  CoUoptcra, 
with  hard  wing  cases.     See  Insects. 

BEETLE.  A  large  mallet  used  to 
drive  stakes,  &c.  ;  it  is  furnished 
with  two  or  more  handles,  so  as  to 
be  driven  by  several  persons. 

BELLADONNA.  The  deadly  night 
shade,  Atropa  belladonna. 

BELT.  Trees  arranged  for  shel- 
ter. Belting  in  the  West  is  the  prac- 
tice of  chopping  away  the  bark  of  a 
tree  around  the  stem  to  the  extent  of 
some  inches.  The  wound  should 
pass  freely  into  the  sap  wood,  other- 
wise the  tree  will  not  be  killed. 

BELVIDERE.  A  small  place  at 
the  top  of  a  house  for  a  lookout. 

BEN  NUTS.  The  seeds  of  an 
Arabian  plant  called  Moringa  aptera  ; 
they  yield  an  oil  called  oil  of  ben, 
and  have  been  employed  m  syphilitic 
diseases. 

BEN,  OIL  OF.  The  expressed 
oil  of  the  nut  of  the  Moringa  aptera. 
This  oil  is  remarkable  for  not  becom- 
ing rancid  by  age  ;  and  as  it  is  per- 
fectly insipid  and  inodorous,  it  is  used 
for  extracting  the  fragrance  of  cer- 
tain flowers,  such  as  jessamin,  or- 
ange, &.C.  The  same  tree  furnishes 
91 


BEN 


BET 


the  Lignum  ncphriticum,  supposed  to 
be  useful  in  certain  affections  of  the 
kidneys. 

BENE.      The  Sesasum   orientale. 


An  annual  plant  of  the  family  Big- 
noniacccB.  It  is  successfully  cultiva- 
ted south  of  Pennsylvania.  The  seeds 
abound  in  oil,  which  is  readily  ex- 
pressed. They  are  very  nutritious, 
and  eaten  by  the  Italians  roasted, 
boiled,  and  made  into  flour  resem- 
bling buckwheat.  The  oil  is  good, 
and  may  be  substituted  for  common 
olive  oil.  The  seed  is  sown  in  drills 
three  or  four  feet  apart,  in  April.  The 
plant  grows  like  cotton,  and  attains 
the  height  of  four  or  tive  feet,  bearing 
numerous  seed-vessels,  full  of  the 
small  seed,  which  is  not  larger  than 
flaxseed.  The  crop  ripens  gradually, 
and  is  taken  in  September;  15  to  20 
bushels  are  given  per  acre,  from  which 
40  to  50  gallons  of  oil  maybe  obtain- 
ed. The  oil  may  be  sold  for  81  to 
$1  25  the  gallon.  Negroes  are  fond 
of  the  seeds  in  any  form.  The  ex- 
pressed oil-cake  would  be  admirable 
food  for  fattening  boss  and  cattle. 

BENOT.  A  double  mould-board 
plough. 

BENT  GRASS.  The  genus  Je'os- 
tis,  the  stem  of  which  is  much  bent, 
and  inclined  to  become  creeping  and 
subterranean.  Creeping  grasses  are 
best  exterminated  from  arable  lands 
by  heavy  liming  and  the  introduction 
of  two  or  three  crops  of  corn,  or  such 
other  plants  as  are  frequently  tilled,    i 

9i 


BENTS.  Withered  grass  stems 
remaining  in  the  pasture  after  the 
seeds  have  dropped. 

BENZAMIDE.  A  compound  of 
benzoyl  and  amidogene. 

BENZOIC  ACID.  A  vegetable  acid 
found  in  balsams  and  some  grasses. 

BENZOIN.  The  concrete  exuda- 
tion of  the  Styrax  benzoin  of  the  East. 
It  is  a  resin  combined  with  benzoic 
acid. 

BENZULE,  BENZOYL.  The  hy- 
pothetical radical  of  benzoic  acid  and 
other  compounds,  formula  Ch  Hj  O^ 
=Bz. 

BERBERRY.     See  Barberry. 

BERGAMOT.  The  Ckrus  berga- 
viia.  Cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe 
for  the  fragrant  oil  of  the  rind  of  its 
fruit.  The  oil  is  volatile,  and  consists 
of  IOC  8H.  It  is  a  species  of  lemon, 
and  might  be  introduced  into  Flori- 
da. 

The  Mentha  citrata,  a  common  spe- 
cies of  mint,  easily  cultivated,  yields 
an  oil  nearly  as  fragrant  as  the  ber- 
gamot. 

BERMUDA  GRASS,  DOUB 
GRASS.  Cynodon  dactylon.  Atall, re- 
pent grass,  flourishing  on  sandy  lands, 
and  an  object  of  cultivation  in  the 
South.  It  affords  abundant  pasturage 
for  sheep, and  binds  together  the  loose 
soil.  The  levees  of  the  Mississippi  are 
planted  with  it.  Many  distinguished 
farmers  on  the  south  shores  of  the 
Mississippi  speakhighly  of  this  grass; 
it  is,  however,  difficult  to  eradicate. 
Mr.  Afileck  considers  it  most  nutri- 
tious, and  in  his  latitude  (Washing- 
ton, Miss.)  it  yields  three  cuttings,  or 
from  "five  to  eight  tons  of  hay  per 
acre  from  a  moderately  good  mead- 
ow." It  is  destroyed  by  frost  and 
propagated  by  roots,  as  it  does  not 
ripen  seeds  in  his  localitv. 

BERRY,  or  BACCA.'  In  botany, 
a  fruit  filled  with  pulp,  in  which  the 
seeds  are  imbedded,  as  the  currant, 
gooseberry,  &c. 

BETEL.  The  leaf  of  an  acrid  nar- 
cotic pepper,  chew^ed  by  the  natives 
in  the  East  Indies. 

BETULA.  The  generic  name  of 
the  birch  family.  The  populi/uha 
(white),  exceUa  (yellow)  rubra  (red). 


BIL 


BIR 


and  lenta  (black  or  cherry),  are  all 
fine  trees,  especially  the  red,  the  tim- 
ber of  which  is  much  used  for  cabi- 
net purposes  ;  and  the  black  or  cher- 
ry, which  has  the  colour  of  mahog- 
any, and  is  both  used  here  and  ex- 
ported to  Europe.  B.  ■papyracea,  or 
paper  birch,  yielded  the  bark  for  the 
canoes  of  the  Indians.  The  wood  of 
all  is  durable,  and  less  affected  by 
changes  of  temperature  than  most 
timbers.  The  juice  of  the  European 
B.  alba  is  sweet  and  easily  ferment- 
ed •,  it  forms  their  birch  wine.  Va- 
rious parts  of  the  plant  are  ])ut  to  a 
variety  of  economical  uses  ;  the  bark 
forms  paper,  vessels,  &c.  ;  the  twigs, 
brooms  and  rods,  while  the  leaves 
are  considered  good  fodder. 

BEVEL.  An  instrument  to  take 
angles. 

BEVEL  GEER.  In  mechanics, 
a  species  of  wheel- work,  in  which  the 
axles  of  two  wheels  working  into 
each  other  are  neither  parallel  nor 
perpendicular,  but  inclined  to  one  an- 
other in  a  certain  angle.  Wheels  of 
this  kind  are  also  called  conical,  be- 
cause their  teeth  may  be  regarded  as 
cut  in  the  frustum  of  a  cone. 

B  I.  From  biSy  twice,  a  common 
prefix  to  words  meaning  two,  or 
twice,  as  bi-partite,  bin-oxide. 

BIBULOUS.  Absorbent.  In  chem- 
istry, blotting  paper  is  often  termed 
bibulous  paper. 

BIENNIAL.  This  term  is  usual- 
ly applied  to  plants  which  grow  one 
year  and  flower  the  next,  after  which 
they  perish.  Many  biennials,  if  sown 
early  in  the  spring,  will  flower  in  au- 
tumn and  then  perish,  thus  actually 
becoming  annuals. 

BIESTINGS.  The  first  milk  after 
calving. 

BIFURCATE.  Two-pronged,  or 
forked. 

BIGNONIAS.  The  trumpet  flow- 
ers. Bignonta  radicans,  and  other 
shrubby  climbing  plants,  belong  to 
this  handsome  genus. 

BIGG.     A  winter  barley. 

BIIvH.  Acomtum  ferox.  A  very 
poisonous  Eastern  monkhood. 

BILABIATE.  Two-lipped,  or  pe- 
talled,  applied  to  flowers. 


"  BILBERRY.     Whortleberry. 

BILE.  The  secretion  of  the  liver. 
It  is  intended,  according  to  Liebig, 
to  prepare  certain  portions  of  matter 
to  furnish  fuel  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  animal  heat  ;  any  interruption 
in  its  production  is  attended  with 
great  lassitude,  sickness,  fever,  and 
yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  skin. 
Moist,  marshy  places,  and  food  rich 
in  oil,  as  butter  and  fat,  produce  bil- 
ious attacks.  Calomel  is  the  best 
medicine  in  these  cases,  10  grains  at 
first,  and  more  if  it  does  not  quickly 
relieve.  Fall  and  spring  are  the  sea- 
sons most  obnoxious  to  bilious  at- 
tacks in  new  countries.  Sometimes 
biliary  calculi  or  stones  are  form- 
ed. 

The  composition  of  the  bile  is  very 
complex,  according  to  the  analyses  of 
some  physiologists.  Liebig,  howev- 
er, regards  it  as  a  natural  soap,  near- 
ly consisting  of  choleate  of  soda. 

BILL.  A  hatchet  with  a  curved 
point. 

BILLET.  A  small  log  or  block  of 
wood. 

BIN.    A  box  for  corn,  oats,  &c. 

BIND- WEED.  A  common  name 
for  most  climbing  plants,  but  espe- 
cially directed  to  the  convolvulaceous 
species. 

BINES.     Running  stems. 

BiOGELLATE.  When  an  insect's 
wing  is  marked  with  two  eye-like 
dots. 

BIPINNATE.  Leaves  that  are 
doubly  pinnate  ;  in  which  the  second- 
ary stalks  or  petals  are  pinnated. 

BIRCH.     See  Betvla. 

BIRD.  The  preservation  of  birds 
as  a  means  of  destroying  insects  has 
lately  attracted  some  attention.  It 
is  proposed  to  destroy  the  hawk  tribe 
only,  leaving  crows,  ravens,  sparrows, 
wrens,  bluebirds,  and  all  others  ;  for, 
although  many  of  these  occasionally 
take  seed  and  injure  fruit,  they,  for 
the  most  part,  live  on  insects  and 
small  vermin,  and  the  I'armer  is  much 
more  assisted  by  their  labours  than 
injured  by  their  depredations.  Mr. 
Swainson  remarks  that  whereas  nu- 
merous crops  are  devastated  by  in- 
sects, no  one  has  ever  heard  of  such 
93 


BIT 


BLA 


evils  being  brought  about  by  birds. 
To  the  apiarian  the  bee  martin  is, 
however,  an  unquestionable  source  of 
annoyance,  although  the  same  bird 
and  all  the  genus  are  destructive  to 
other  insects. 

BIRDLIME.  A  glutinous  sub- 
stance extracted  by  boiling  the  bark 
of  the  holly-tree  ;  a  similar  substance 
may  be  obtained  from  mistletoe,  from 
the  young  shoots  of  elder,  and  some 
other  plants. 

BIRD  PEPPER.  The  small  pep- 
per, Capsicum  haccatum,  growing  on  a 
shrub  :  it  yields  the  hottest  Cayenne 
pepper.  It  is  cultivated  in  Florida 
and  the  Indies. 

BIRD'S  FOOT  TREFOIL.  A  Eu- 
ropean genus  (Lotus)  of  small  clovers, 
growing  in  pastures,  and  preserving 
their  verdure  in  the  hot  weather  from 
their  long  roots.  They  are  inferior  to 
clover,  and,  with  the  exception  of  L. 
villosus,  which  is  an  object  of  cultiva- 
tion in  France  upon  light  soils,  are  nev- 
er raised  artificially.  There  does  not 
appear  to  be  any  true  species  of  this 
genus  in  the  United  States,  and  its  in- 
feriority to  clover  does  not  make  it 
desirable  to  introduce  them. 

BIRD'S  CHERRY.  The  Prunus 
padus.  A  small,  wild  cherry,  indige- 
nous in  England. 

BIRD'S  MOUTH.  In  building,  an 
interior  angle  or  notch,  cut  across 
the  grain  at  the  extremity  of  a  piece 
of  timber  for  its  reception  on  the 
edge  of  another  piece  ;  as  a  rafter, 
for  instance,  is  received  on  a  pole 
plate.  Bird's  mouth  signifies,  also, 
the  internal  angle  of  a  polygon,  its 
external  angle  being  called  a  bull's 
nose. 

BIRD'S  NEST.  Indian  pipe.  Mo- 
notropa  uniflora. 

BISEXUAL.  In  plants,  having 
stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  flow- 
er. 

BISHOPING.  A  cant  word  for 
disguising  the  age  of  a  horse. 

BISON.     Bee  Buffalo. 

BISTORT.  The  Polygonum  his- 
torta.     An  acrid  plant  when  fresh. 

BISULCATE.  ^^'ith  two  fissures, 
two-hoofed. 

B  I T.  The  iron  part  of  the  bri- 
94 


die,  which  goes  into  the  mouth  of  a 
horse. 

BITTER  AL.MOND.  A  variety  of 
the  almond  of  a  bitter  taste. 

BITTER  PRINCIPLE.  An  obso- 
lete term  in  chemistry,  signifying  that 
the  dried  juice  of  a  plant  contained  a 
bitter  ingredient.  The  bitterness  does 
not  depend  upon  any  general  princi- 
ple, but  upon  a  particular  body,  some- 
times present  in  no  other  plant,  as 
quinine,  strychnine,  &c. 

BITTERN.  The  residue  after 
evaporatmg  sea  water  and  removing 
the  salt.  It  contains  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesia and  chloride  of  magnesia,  as 
well  as  small  quantities  of  soda,  pot- 
ash, and  bromides.  It  would  unques- 
tionably be  a  valuable  manure,  and 
should  be  tried  in  small  quantities 
wherever  the  opportunity  offers. 

BITTER  SPAR.  Crystallized  dol- 
omite. Carbonate  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia. 

BITTER  SWEET.  An  extensive 
genus  (.So/awMm),  the  berries  of  which, 
of  a  red  and  dark  colour,  are  very 
poisonous. 

BITUMEN.  A  mineral  pitch.  Sev- 
eral varieties,  as  petroleum,  asphal- 
tum,  mineral  tar,  and  naphtha,  are  dis- 
tinguished. 

BIXA.  The  genus  yielding  the  B. 
orellana  or  arnotta. 

BLACK.  As  a  colour  for  horses*, 
this  is  not  preferred  :  there  are  said 
to  be  fewer  good  animals  of  this  colour 
than  any  other.  It  is  supposed  that 
those  of  a  high  gloss  and  white  legs 
are  the  best  kind. 

BLACKBERRY,  or  BRAMBLE. 
This  term  is  generally  used  to  indi- 
cate the  Rubrus  villosus,  or  common 
erect,  and  R.  tnvialis,  creeping  dew- 
berry. The  fruit  is  wholesome,  and 
commands  a  good  price  in  cities,  so 
that  near  Boston  they  are  cultivated. 
It  makes  excehent  jain  and  preserves, 
as  well  as  a  good  wine.  The  tall 
bramble  is  a  good  adjunct  to  the  com- 
mon rail  fence  in  arable  land  ;  but  its 
decaying  branches  injure  meadows. 
In  other  parts  of  the  field  they  are  a 
serious  nuisance,  especially  the  creep- 
ing plant,  and  require  grubbing  for  ex- 
termination, followed  by  a  sufficient 


BLA 


BLA 


ploughing  to  break  up   the   smaller 
roots.     The  roots  are  astringent. 

BLACKBIRD.  Notwithstanding 
his  occasional  depredations,  he  is  a 
valuable  friend  to  the  farmer,  by  the 
destruction  he  makes  among  insects. 
The  most  common  species  is  the 
Qiiisralis  rersicoloi-. 

BLACK  CANCER.  The  decayed 
blotches  on  turnips. 

BLACK  DOLPHIN.  The  dark- 
coloured  aphis,  which  injures  beans, 
pease,  cabbages,  and  numerous  garden 
vegetables.  Dusting  with  lime  is  a 
very  valuable  remedy,  as  well  as  cut- 
ting off  the  infested  stems,  when  it  is 
practicable,  and  burning  them. 

BLACK  DYES.  The  substances 
used  in  dyeing  blacks  are  logwood, 
weld  or  woad,  fustic,  suinach,  gall- 
nuts,  and  oak  apples,  with  copperas 
or  sulphate  of  iron  ;  but  any  other 
astringent  may  be  introduced.  The 
finest  blacks  are  first  dyed  of  a  deep 
blue. 

BLACK  FLY.  The  small  black 
beetle  {HalUca  ncmorum)  whicli  infests 
cruciferous  plants,  and  especially  the 
turnip.     See  Insects. 

BLACK  GU.M.  Xyssa  multijlora. 
A  tree  sometimes  attainmg  fifty  to 
seventy  feet,  and  twenty  inches  in  di- 
ameter. It  grows  south  of  Philadel- 
phia. The  wood  is  solid,  and  little 
liable  to  split ;  hence  it  is  used  for 
naves  or  hubs,  and  in  ship-building  for 
the  caps  of  masts.  The  berries  are 
dark,  and  relislied  by  birds.  The  X 
aquatica,  or  tupelo,  is  less  in  size,  and 
grows  as  far  as  New-Hampshire.  It 
is  valuable  as  a  dense  wood,  and  used 
by  carriage-builders. 

BLACK  LEGS  and  BLACK  MUZ- 
ZLE.     See  Shccfi,  Diseases  of. 

BLACK  OATS,  are  more  hardy, 
and  ripen  earlier  than  the  common 
grain.     Thev  are  otherwise  inferior. 

BLACK  THORN.  The  European 
sloe  {Prunus  spinosa).  Sometimes  the 
Crateegus flava  is  called  by  this  name 
in  America. 

BLACK  TWITCH,  or  COUCH.  | 
Agroslis  alba.     Marsh  couch  grass,     j 

BLACK  WALNUT.     See  Walnut. 

BLACK  WASH.  A  lotion  of  cal-  ! 
omel  and  limewater.  I 


BLACK  WATER.     See  Sheep. 
BLADE.    A  shoot  or  spire  of  grass, 
wheat,  &c. 

BLADE  BONE.  The  scapula,  or 
broad  bone  of  the  shoulder. 

BLAIN.  Infan-iery,  inflammation 
of  the  tongue,  a  disease  in  cattle, 
which  frequently  affects  them  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  or  beginning  of 
summer.  The  disease  is  neither  so 
frequent  nor  so  fatal  in  the  horse 
as  it  is  in  cattle  ;  but  it  does  some- 
times occur,  and  the  nature  of  it  is 
frequently  misunderstood.  The  horse 
will  refuse  his  food,  hang  his  head, 
and  a  considerable  quantity  of  ropy 
fluid  will  be  discharged  from  the 
mouth.  On  examining  the  mouth, 
the  tongue  will  be  found  considerably 
enlarged,  and,  running  along  the  side 
of  it,  there  will  be  a  reddish  or  dark- 
ish purple  bladder,  which  sometimes 
protrudes  between  the  teeth.  The 
neighbouring  salivary  glands  are  en- 
larged, and  the  discharge  of  saliva  is 
very  great,  while  the  soreness  of  the 
swelled  and  blistered  part  causes  the 
horse  obstinately  to  resist  every  mo- 
tion of  the  jaws.  The  cure  is  very 
simple  :  the  bladder  must  be  deeply 
lanced  from  end  to  end  ;  there  will 
not  be  any  great  flow  of  blood  This 
will  relieve  or  cure  the  horse  in  twen- 
ty-four hours.  If  he  can  be  spared 
from  his  work,  a  dose  of  physic  will 
remove  the  stomach  affection  and  any 
sliglit  degree  of  fever  that  may  have 
existed.  If  the  disease  is  neglected, 
the  swelling  will  at  length  burst,  and 
corroding  ulcers  will  eat  deeply  into 
the  tongue,  and  prove  very  difficult  to 
heal. — {Clatcr's  Farriery). 

BLANCHING.  In  gardening, 
the  whitening  of  the  stems,  stalks,  or 
leaves  of  plants,  by  tying  them  togeth- 
er, or  earthing  them  up  so  as  to  ex- 
clude the  light,  and  thus  to  diminish 
the  intensity  of  tlieir  native  proper- 
ties and  make  them  sweet. 

BLAST.  A  flatulent  disease  of 
sheep. 

BLASTEMA.     The  embryo. 

BLASTING.    The  art  of  removing 
portions  of  rock  by  the  explosion  of 
gunpowder.     For  this  purpose,  a  cy- 
lindrical hole  is  made  in  the  rock  in  a 
95 


BLE 


BLE 


direction  correspondinfj  with  the  stra- 
ta, and  of  greater  or  less  depth,  ac- 
cording to  the  material.  Tiie  diame- 
ter varies  from  one  to  one  and  a  half 
inches,  as  tlie  rock  is  harder.  Into 
this  is  next  placed  a  charge  of  pow- 
der occupying  ahoiit  one  third  of  the 
depth,  and  furnished  with  a  tin  tuhe 
containing  the  fuse  or  slow  match. 
After  the  powder,  small  pieces  of  rock 
or  paper  are  rammed,  and  then  sand 
is  driven  in,  to  fill  the  hole,  and  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  fuse  lighted  ;  the  work- 
man retires  to  a  place  of  safety,  and 
allows  the  explosion  to  take  place. 
In  this  way  houlders,  which  impede 
cultivation,  and  are  too  large  to  be 
lifted  away,  may  be  broken  up,  and 
the  fragments  removed  for  fences,  «&c. 
Stumps  of  large  trees  may  also  be 
torn  up  by  blasting,  the  charge  being 
contained  in  a  tin  case,  and  inl:rodu- 
ced  beneath  the  stump  ;  or  the  wood 
maybe  bored  with  an  inch  auger,  and 
the  charge  inserted  into  the  wood  it- 
self. 

BLATTA.     The  cockroach  genus. 

BLAZE.     A  white  mark  or  star  in 
the  face  of  a  horse  or  other  animal. 

BLEACHING.  This  process  con- 
sists in  a  series  of  operations,  by 
which  the  natural  colours  of  various 
substances  are  discharged  so  as  to 
Avhiten  them.  It  is  effected  either 
by  the  action  of  various  solvents,  aid- 
ed by  exposure  to  light,  air,  and  moist- 
ure, upon  the  bleaching  ground,  or  by 
the  aid  of  chlorine.  Cotton  is  more 
easily  bleached  than  linen,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  being  originally  whiter, 
and  having  a  less  powerful  attraction 
for  the  colouring  matter.  In  bleach- 
ing these  goods  upon  the  old  princi- 
ple, warm  water  is  first  liberally  ap- 
plied to  remove  the  weaver's  paste 
or  dressing  ;  they  are  then  bucked,  or 
boiled  in  a  weak  alkaline  lye  ;  and 
after  having  been  well  washed,  are 
spread  out  upon  the  grass,  so  as  to  be 
freely  exposed  to  the  joint  agencies 
of  light,  air,  and  moisture  ;  the  buck- 
ing and  exposure  are  alternately  re- 
peated, as  often  as  necessary  ;  the 
goods  are  soured,  that  is,  immersed  in 
water  slightly  acidulated  by  sulphuric 
acid  ;  lastly,  they  are  very  thoroughly 
96 


washed  and  dried.  By  these  opera- 
tions the  texture  of  the  goods  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  impaired,  and  much 
time  is  required  to  complete  the  pro- 
cess, which,  also,  cannot  be  carried 
on  in  the  winter  months.  But  the 
exposure  upon  the  bleaching  ground 
is  now,  to  a  great  extent,  discontinu- 
ed ;  and  the  same  effect  is  obtained, 
after  the  process  of  bucking,  by  the 
action  of  weak  solutions  of  chlorine, 
or  of  chloride  of  lime,  which,  if  skil- 
fully used,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  in- 
jure the  goods  more  than  the  long- 
continued  exposure.  The  theory  of 
bleaching  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
developed ;  but,  from  such  experi- 
ments as  have  been  made  in  refer- 
ence to  it,  it  appears  to  be  a  process 
of  oxidation,  and  to  depend  upon  some 
peculiar  influence  of  nascent  oxygen 
upon  the  colouring  matter. 

The  colour  of  manufactured  wool 
depends  partly  upon  its  own  oil,  and 
partly  upon  the  applications  made  to 
it  in  the  loom.  These  are  got  rid  of 
in  the  fulling-mill  by  the  jonu  action 
of  fullers'  earth  and  soap  ;  the  cloth 
is  then  well  washed  and  dried,  and  is 
tolerably  white  ;  if  the  slight  yellow 
tint  which  it  retains  is  objectionable, 
it  is  prevented  by  adding  a  little  stone 
blue  to  the  washing  water,  or  by  ex- 
posure to  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
phur ;  this  latter  method,  however, 
gives  it  a  harsh  feel,  and  if  afterward 
soaped,  its  yellowishness  returns. 

The  colour  of  raw  silk  depends  up- 
on a  natural  yellow  varnish,  which  is 
got  rid  of  by  boiling  it  in  wliite  soap 
and  water,  and  by  repeated  rinsings. 
Certain  articles  of  wove  cotton,  such 
as  stockings,  are  bleached  as  usual, 
and  finished  by  the  action  of  sulphu- 
rous acid,  or  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
phur. Straw  is  also  whitened  by  a 
similar  operation  ;  and  hence  bleach- 
ed straw  hats  are  apt  to  have  a  disa- 
greeable sulphurous  smell. 

BLEACHING  POWDER.  Chlo- 
ride of  lime. 

BLEEDING.  An  operation  fre- 
quently necessary  in  the  disorders  of 
different  kinds  of  cattle,  particularly 
horses.  Such  horses  as  stand  much 
in  the  stable,  and  are  full-fed,  require 


BLI 


DLI 


bleeding  more  than  those  which  are  |  BLIND,  jMOOX.  Cloudiness  of 
in  constant  exercise  ;  but  especially  ,  the  eye,  ending  in  cataract, 
when  their  eyes  look  heavy  and  dull,  j  BLINDNESS.  A  deprivation  or 
or  red  and  inflamed  ;  and  when  they  |  want  of  sight,  originating  from  vari- 
look  yellow,  and  the  horse  is  inflamed  ous  causes  ;  a  complaint  more  fre- 
in  his  lips  and  the  inside  of  his  mouth  ;  quent  in  horses  than  in  neat  cattle  or 
or  when  he  seems  hotter  than  usu-   sheep. 

al,  and  mangles  his  hay.  These  in-  j  Bli>idness  tn  horses  may  be  discern- 
dications  not  only  show  that  bleed- j  ed  by  the  walk  or  step  "being  uncer- 
ing  is  required,  but  hkewise  lower ;  tain  and  unequal,  so  that  they  dare 
diet.  The  spring  is  the  common  sea- 1  not  set  down  their  feet  boldly;  but 
son  for  bleeding  horses  ;  but  period- ,  when  they  are  mounted  by  an  expert 
ical  bleeding  should  never  be  prac- 1  horseman,  the  fear  of  the  spurs  will 
tised.  In  summer  it  is  often  neces-  frequently  make  them  go  resolutely 
sary,  to  prevent  fevers,  always  choos- !  and  freely,  so  that  their  blindness  can 
ing  the  cool  of  the  morning  for  the  ,  hardly  be  perceived.  Another  mark 
operation,  and  keeping  them  cool  the  by  which  horses  that  have  lo.st  their 
remaining  part  of  the  day.  Some  \  sight  may  be  known  is,  that  when 
farriers  bleed  horses  three  or  four  i  they  hear  anybody  enter  the  stable, 
times  a  year,  or  even  oftener,  by  way  j  they  prick  up  their  ears,  and  move 
of  prevention,  taking  only  a  very  them  backward  and  forward  in  a  par 
small  quantity  at  a  time,  as  a  pint  or   ticular  manner. 

a  pint  and  a  half.  There  is,  howev- 1  Blindness  in  Sheep. — A  complaint 
er,  this  inconvenience  from  frequent  that  sometimes  occurs  in  these  ani- 
bleeding,  that  it  grows  into  a  habit,  mals  from  their  being  much  exposed 
which,  in  some  cases,  cannot  be  easi-  to  either  great  dampness  or  long-coa- 
ly broken  off  without  hazard  ;  and,    tinned  snows. 

besides,  horses  become  weak  from  j  BLINKERS.  The  leathers  attach- 
frequent  bleeding.  The  vein  in  the  ed  to  the  bridle  of  carriage-horses  to 
neck  is  usually  opened,  but  that  un- '  direct  their  sight  forward, 
der  the  eye  or  in  the  leg  is  better,  BLISTERING.  In  farriery,  the 
when  the  inflammation  is  near  those  !  operation  of  stimulating  the  surface 
parts.  I  t'i  some  part  of  the  body  of  an  ani- 

BLEMISH.  In  farriery,  any  kind  '  mal,  by  means  of  acrid  applications, 
of  imperfection  in  a  liorse  or  other  j  so  as  to  raise  small  vesications  upoa 
animal.  it-     It  is  frequently  employed  for  the 

In  horses,  blemishes  consist  of  bro-  j  purpose  of  removing  local  affections 
ken  knees,  loss  of  hair  in  the  cutting  ;  of  different  kinds,  such  as  hard,  indo- 
places,    mallenders    and    sallenders,  j  lent  tumours. 

cracked  heels,  false  quarters,  splents,  {  BLISTER  FLY.  The  bright 
or  excrescences  which  do  not  occa-  green  and  golden  fly  usually  employ- 
sion  lameness ;  and  wind  galls  and  ed  is  the  CaiUhans  vesicatona,  im- 
bog  spavins,  where  they  prevail  to   ported  from  Europe ;  but  there  are 

several  insects  indigenous  which  pos- 


any  great  degree. 

In  forestry,  the  knots  on  the  out- 
side of  trees,  and  shakes  internally, 
are  termed  blemishes. 

BLIGHT.  A  general  term  for  the 
diseases  of  trees  and  crops,  whether 
produced  by  temperature,  moisture, 
insects,  or  parasitic  fungi.  See  Rust, 
Mildcic.  Smut.  Plant  Lice,  &c. 

BLIGHT,  AMERICAN.    The  Eri- 


sess  equal  power,  as  the  potato  flies 
(C.  vitata  and  cincrca)  and  the  black 
cantharis  (C  atrata). 

The  potato  flies  are  seen  in  Au- 
gust, morning  and  evening,  among 
the  foliage  of  the  potatoes  ;  the  head 
is  red,  and  the  back  black,  with  a  yel- 
low stripe  ;  and  in  the  cinerea  the 
whole  is  black,  with  a  gray  hair,  or 


osoma  (aphis)  lanigera,  or  woolly  plant  i  down.     The  wing  cases  (elytra)  are 

lice;  they  infest  the  apple  and  pear  i  hard.    They  are  shaken  off  the  vines, 

tree  occasionally.  :  killed  by  being  thrown  in  hot  water, 

1  97 


BLO 

and  then  dried  in  the  sun.  When 
well  dried,  tliey  keep  for  years  in 
closed  bottles. 

BLISTER  LIQUID.  A  liquid  com- 
posed by  adding  a  gallon  ofspirit  of  tur- 
pentine to  a  pound  of  powdered  flies, 
and  macerating  llie  whole  for  a  month. 
•when  the  clear  liuid  will  form  a  strong 
liquid  blister.  If  so  powerful  an  ex- 
ternal stunulanl  be  not  required,  this 
liquid  may  be  diluted  with  an  equal 
part  of  spermaceti  oil. 

BLISTER  OliNTMENT.  One 
ounce  of  powdered  blistering  flies  ; 
four  ounces  of  lard.  One  ounce  of 
this,  well  rubbed  in,  is  sufficient  to 
blister  a  horse's  leg. 

BLOOD.  The  fluid  which  circu- 
lates through  the  body,  giving  nour- 
ishment to  all  parts.  It  consists  of 
albumen,  fibrin,  red  globules,  fatty 
matters,  water,  and  saline  substan- 
ces. As  a  manure,  its  importance 
depends  on  the  large  quantity  of  am- 
monia it  exhales.  It  is  always  pref- 
erable to  use  it  in  compost,  with  ash- 
es, charcoal,  fine  earth,  and  vegeta- 
ble matters.  Its  effects  are  principal- 
ly stimulant  when  used  alone.  The 
composition  of  blood  is  nearly  identi- 
cal with  that  of  flesh. 

BLOOD-i^OOT.  Sanguinaria  Can- 
adensis.    This  root  is  of  a  red  colour. 

BLOOD-SHOT.  In  farriery,  a  pop- 
ular term  for  that  red  appearance 
which  the  eye  exhibits  when  inlia- 
med.  The  best  treatment  is  to  bathe 
the  eye  with  a  lotion  composed  of  one 
drachm  of  white  vitriol  (sulphate  of 
zinc)  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of  water. 

BLOOD  SPAVIN,  or  BOG  SPAV- 
IN. In  farriery,  a  swelling  of  the 
vein  that  runs  along  the  inside  of  tiie 
hock  of  the  horse,  forming  a  soft  tu- 
mour in  the  hollow  part,  often  attend- 
ed with  weakness  or  lameness  of  the 
hock.  Clater  {Farriery,  p.  272)  says, 
a  blister  is  the  proper  application. 

BLOOM,  or  BLOSSOM.  The  flow- 
er, in  the  most  perfect  state,  consists 
of  an  outer  green  envelope  {the  calyx), 
in  the  interior  of  which  are  the  col- 
oured leaflets  {petals),  surrounding 
a  number  of  thread-like  bodies  {the 
aiamens),  and  containing  a  central 
body  or  pistil.  Of  these  parts,  the 
98 


BLU 

stamens  and  pistils  are  essential,  al- 
though ihey  do  not  always  grow  in 
the  same  flower.  The  calyx  and  pe- 
tals {corolla)  serve  only  to  protect  the 
inner  organs  from  rain,  which  de- 
stroys their  function  when  excessive. 
Other  plants,  however,  have  none  of 
the  envelopes,  but  are  furnished  with 
especial  means  of  preserving  the  sta- 
mens. The  name  of  a  plant  is,  for 
the  most  part,  known  by  the  figure 
of  its  blossoms.  Large  numbers  of 
genera  possess  flowers  of  the  same 
kind,  and  are  constituted  into  Natu- 
ral families  ;  as  the  Caryophyllaceaj, 
with  flowers  like  the  pink ;  Rosaceaj, 
with  flowers  like  the  single  rose  ; 
Crucifera;,  with  flowers  like  the  rad- 
ish ;  Umbelliferag,  with  flowers  like 
the  parsnip,  &c. 

BLOW  FLY.  The  Musca  cama- 
ria.  It  deposites  eggs  upon  meat, 
which  in  a  few  hours  become  mag- 
gots, and  hasten  the  decay  rapidly  ; 
gauze  cloths  are  used  to  keep  them 
off;  salt  or  Cayenne  pepper  serves 
as  a  preventive,  by  indisposing  the 
fly  to  lay  eggs  on  surfaces  smeared 
with  thein. 

BLOWN.  In  farriery,  a  diseased 
slate  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  of 
cattle,  caused  by  the  sudden  extrica- 
tion of  air  in  large  quantities  from 
some  of  the  grosser  kinds  of  green 
food.     See  Horcn. 

BLUBBER.  The  cellular  sub- 
stance in  which  whale  oil  or  fat  is 
stored.  It  is  often  used  with  advan- 
tage in  composts  of  ashes  and  peat, 
and  yields  ammonia  during  decay. 

BLUEBIRD.  Sylva  smlis.  A 
familiar  insectivorous  bird  that  should 
be  encouraged  on  farms. 

BLUE  DYES.  These  are  indigo, 
Prussian  blue,  logwood,  bilberry,  mul- 
berries, elder-berries,  privet-i)erries, 
and  some  other  berries  whose  juice 
becomes  blue  by  adding  a  little  alkali. 
Indigo,  Prussian  blue,  and  logwood 
are  principally  used,  and  are  prepared 
for  the  purpose.  When  the  berries 
are  used,  one  pound  is  boiled  in  water 
and  mixed  witli  one  ounce  of  alum, 
of  copperas,  and  of  blue  vitriol,  and 
the  stuffs  passed  through  sufficiently 
]  often  to  acquire  a  proper  colour. 


13  01 


I]U.\ 


BLUE  GRASS.  The  valuable  per- 
ennial Kentucky  grass,  or  Poa  pra- 
ten.iis,  is  considered  the  best  indige- 
nous grass  of  the  United  States.  It 
forms  a  thick,  dense  sward,  yielding 
a  fair  amount  of  very  nutritious  hay. 
It  is  adapted  especially  for  permanent 
hillside  meadows,  growing  well  in  a 
drained  soil.  Half  a  bushel  of  seed 
is  sown  either  with  a  fall  crop  or  with 
oats  in  spring  :  it  is  customary  to  mix 
clover  or  timothy  with  it,  which  fur- 
nishes grazing  sooner,  and  preserves 
the  young  grass.  In  two  years  it 
takes  entire  possession,  and  forms  a 
close  mat  of  delicate  herbage.  It 
flourishes  well  in  New- York  State  and 
far  to  the  south.  In  Kentucky  they 
sometimes  grow  it  in  wood  land  as 
well  as  in  open  pasture.  The  wood 
blue  grass  is  a  variety  (P.  sylvestris). 

There  is  another  grass  {Poa  com- 
pressa),  also  called  blue  grass,  and 
common  in  the  Northern  States  ;  but 
it  is  scanty,  and  very  inferior  to  the 
rich  Kentuckv  kind. 

BLUE  STONE  and  BLUE  VIT- 
RIOL. The  sulphate  of  copper.  It 
is  used  as  a  caustic  to  sores,  and  as 
a  steep  for  wheat,  to  save  it  from 
smut. 

BOG.  This  term  is  commonly  used 
in  agriculture  to  designate  a  hole  or 
morass  containing  much  vegetable 
mud  or  muck  ;  often  the  deposites  are 
extensive,  and  many  feet  deep.  A 
peat  bog  contains  peat  chiefly. 

When  bogs  become  consolidated 
or  compressed,  they  are  called  peat 
mosses.     See  Peat. 

BOG  EARTH.  This  earth  often 
contains  twenty  or  thirty  per  cent,  of 
vegetable  matter,  and  when  well  bro- 
ken with  lime,  and  by  exposure  to  air, 
forms  a  rich  soil. 

BOIL,  or,  commonly,  BILE.  A 
tumour  containing  matter,  or  pus.  It 
is  the  result  of  local  inflammation. 
It  should  be  brought  to  a  head  by 
poultices  of  flour  or  linseed,  and, 
when  soft  and  fluctuating,  opened 
freely  with  a  lancet.  The  wound 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  closed  with 
sticking  plaster,  or  protected  by  a  rag. 

BOILING  POINT.  The  tempera- 
ture at  which  fluids  boil.    Thus,  wa- 


ter at  212"^,  alcohol  176-,  oil  of  tur- 
pentine 310^,  tuther  'JG^,  mercury 
6G2^  Fahrenheit. 

BOLE,  or  BOLL.  A  Scotch  meas- 
ure of  four  bushels. 

BOLE  OF  TREES.     The  trunk. 

BOLETUS.  Fungi,  forming  fleshy 
masses,  attached  to  the  trunks  of 
trees,  and  filled  with  holes  on  the 
lower  side.  One  species,  B.  bovinus, 
is  said  to  be  eaten  by  cattle.  The  B. 
iff7iarius  and  fomentarius,  dried  and 
prepared  with  saltpetre,  forms  the 
German  tinder,  or  amadou. 

BOLTER.  A  sieve  used  to  sep- 
arate bran  from  flour  or  meal,  urged 
by  machinery  in  grist  mills.  For 
coarse  purposes,  wire-work  is  some- 
times used  ;  but  bolting  cloths  for 
flour  are  of  linen  or  hair,  and  of  sev- 
eral degrees  of  fineness. 

BOLT-HEAD.  A  glass  vessel,  or 
flask,  used  in  the  laboratorv. 

BOLTING  FOOD.  This  is  a  prac- 
tice which  brings  about  indigestion  in 
animals  as  well  as  in  men,  and  must 
be  hindered  by  feeding  the  animal 
separately,  and  at  shorter  intervals, 
and  using  chopped  food  or  meals. 

BOLUS.     See  Ball. 

BO.MB  AX.  A  genus  of  large  trees 
producing  a  short  cotton. 

BON'ES.  The  frame-work  of  the 
higher  animals.  Bones  consist  of 
fifty-six  per  cent,  mineral,  and  the 
rest  gelatinous  and  destructible  mat- 
ter. The  mineral  portion  contains, 
on  an  average,  fifty  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phate of  lime,  or  bone  earth  ;  of  this, 
twenty-four  per  cent,  is  phosphoric 
acid,  and  the  rest  lime.  The  destruc- 
tible animal  matter  is  partly  removed 
by  long  boiling,  and  used  as  a  size. 

The  value  of  bones  as  manure  ari- 
ses from  the  combination  of  animal 
matter  and  phosphate,  but  is  chiefly 
due  to  the  latter.  They  are  applied 
usually  in  coarse  powder,  ground  at 
suitable  bone  mills,  which  are  now 
to  be  found  near  all  our  large  cities. 
The  price  in  Baltimore  and  New- 
York  is  forty  cents  the  bushel.  Some- 
times, pieces,  or  broken  bones,  from 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  long,  are  used 
as  a  permanent  dressing. 

The  amount  of  dust  to  be  applied 
99 


DON 

per  acre  is  ten  or  twenty  bushels  for 
five  years'  rotation,  or,  in  composts, 
two  or  four  bushels  annually.  The 
effects  are  most  remarkable  on  sandy 
and  light  soils  ;  but  all  lands  are  im- 
proved by  it  when  the  addition  is  in- 
dicated. The  test,  when  bones  are 
necessary,  is  easily  discovered  ;  for 
soils  which  produce  defective  grain 
are  always  much  benefited  by  them. 

The  value  of  bone  dust  arises  from 
the  fact  that  all  seeds  contain  a  large 
quantity  in  their  ashes,  and  the  soil 
is  naturally  but  poorly  supplied.  Seed 
crops  are  well  known  to  exhaust 
lands  rapidly,  and  chiefly  because  they 
remove  the  bone  earth  or  phosphates 
of  the  soil.  Those  lands  which  are 
well  furnished  with  this  substance 
naturally  produce  rich  clover  and 
wheat :  such  are  marls,  some  second- 
ary limestones,  and  stiff  clays,  and 
show  less  the  application  of  bones. 

The  dust  is  to  be  scattered  with 
seed,  and  not  ploughed  in  deep  ;  for  it 
has  a  tendency  to  sink  naturally,  and 
as  it  is  very  slowly  dissolved  by  rain 
water,  it  should  not  be  placed  out  of 
the  reach  of  plants.  Compared  with 
farm-yard  manure,  one  bushel  is 
equivalent  to  three  cart  loads,  wher- 
ever it  is  well  applied. 

All  plants,  the  shells  of  lobsters 
and  eggs,  and  the  fine  shell  marl  of 
ponds  contain  bone  earth  ;  and  in 
Spain  a  mineral  is  extensively  found 
consisting  of  nearly  pure  phosphate 
of  lime  ;  but  the  principal  source  is 
from  bones.  Guano  often  contains 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  phosphates. 
The  action  of  this  substance,  in  what- 
ever combination  it  may  exist,  is  al- 
ways the  same. 

Bones  which  have  been  boiled  be- 
fore grinding  are  very  little  mferior 
to  the  recent,  except  when  applied  to 
very  poor  soils,  where  the  putrescent 
animal  matter  is  required.  Recent 
bones  are  best  for  turnips,  cabbages, 
and  similar  crops  ;  but  the  boiled  va- 
riety answers  for  grass,  grains,  pease, 
beans,  &c.,  the  manure  being  adapted 
for  every  crop  cultivated  for  seeds. 

BONES,  DISSOLVED.     For  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  full  action 
of  bone  dust  in  the  shortest  time,  it 
100 


DON 

is  dissolved  in  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric 
acid)  or  in  muriatic  acid.  The  strong 
acids  are  used  for  this  purpose  at  the 
rate  of  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  of  acid 
to  two  bushels  of  dust.  The  acid 
should  be  slightly  diluted  if  it  black- 
ens the  bones.  They  should  be  stir- 
red with  a  wooden  stick,  and  the  op- 
eration conducted  in  a  large  crock 
of  coarse  earthen-ware.  The  great 
causticity  of  the  acid  renders  it  a 
nice  process.  The  solution  should 
be  taken  up  with  fine  soil  or  mould, 
and  one  half  applied  to  an  acre  as  a 
top  dressing,  care  being  always  taken 
that  before  use  it  has  lost  its  acid 
qualities. 

In  this  way  a  soluble  phosphate  of 
lime  and  sulphate  of  lime  are  formed  : 
the  latter  remains  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel,  and  is  a  fine  plaster  of 
Paris ;  it  should  be  stirred  up  with 
the  mixture  when  the  soil  is  added. 
When  fresh  bones  are  used,  the  gel- 
atin also  thickens  the  solution.  This 
preparation  of  bones  is  now  superse- 
ding the  common  application  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  for  turnips.  When 
employed,  it  should  be  sown  with  the 
seed,  or  used  as  a  top  dressing  to 
y»ung  plants.  It  will  be  found  an 
admirable  ingredient  for  composts  in- 
tended to  bring  forward  seed  crops. 

BONE  EARTH.  Phosphate  of 
lime  chiefly. 

BONE  MILL.  The  following  ac- 
count of  a  mill  for  breaking  bones  into 
small  fragments  is  from  Mr.  Rham  : 

The  mill  to  break  and  grind  bones 
consists  of  two  iron  or  steel  cylin- 
ders, with  grooves  running  round 
their  circumference,  the  projections 
being  cut  so  as  to  form  strong  teeth. 
These  turn  upon  one  another  by 
means  of  machinery,  so  that  the 
teeth  of  one  run  in  the  groove  be- 
tween the  teeth  of  the  other,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  annexed  cut. 

The  bones  put  in  the  hopper,  O,  are 
seized  by  the  teeth  of  the  two  upper 
cyUnders,  and  broken  in  pieces,  which 
fall  in  betw-een  the  lower  pair,  where 
they  are  reduced  to  a  smaller  size. 
From  these  they  fall  on  a  slanting 
board,  D,  and  slide  into  the  wire  cyl- 
inder.    AH  the  smaller  pieces  pass 


BONE  MILL 

a! 


Side  elevation. 


through  the  interstices  of  the  wire  ; 
those  which  have  not  been  sufficient- 
ly broken  come  out  at  the  end,  and 
are  returned  into  the  upper  hopper. 
Where  a  machine  of  this  description 
I  2 


can  be  attached  to  a  water  or  wind 
mill,  or  to  a  steam-engine,  the  bones 
are  broken  at  a  small  expense  ;  when 
horses  are  used  the  expense  is  great- 
er ;  and  a  hand  mill  can  only  be  of 
101 


use  where  there  is  a  great  super- 
abundance of  manual  lal)our,  and  only 
a  small  quantity  of  bones  required. 

A  A  is  the  frame  of  a  bone  mill 
strongly  fixed  to  the  floor ;  B,  the 
axis  of  the  machinery,  which  is  turn- 
ed by  the  lever  G  C,  to  which  the 
power  is  applied  ;  E  E  is  a  horizon- 
tal wheel  with  bevelled  teeth  moving 
a  vertical  wheel,  F,  on  the  axis  of 
which  one  of  the  cylinders  with 
grooves  and  teeth  is  fixed.  At  the 
other  end  of  the  axis  is  a  smaller 
wheel,  G,  turning  a  similar  one,  H, 
on  the  axis  of  the  other  cylinder,  ma- 
king the  toothed  surfaces  turn  to- 
wards each  other,  and  thus  crushing 
between  them  the  bones  which  the 
hopper,  O,  supplies.  Another  pair  of 
cylinders,  similar  to  the  first,  but  with 
smaller  teeth,  are  turned  by  means  of 
the  intermediate  wheel,  I,  working  in 
the  wheel,  L,  fixed  to  the  axis,  on 
which  is  a  larger  \\heel,  M,  working 
in  a  pinion  which  turns  the  cylindri- 
cal sieve,  N.  The  arrows  indicate 
the  direction  of  the  motion. 

BONE  SPAVIN.  A  disease  of  the 
hock  joint  in  horses,  brought  on  by 
over  exertion.  While  forming  there 
is  continued  lameness.  Blisters  and 
rest  sometimes  effect  a  perfect  cure. 
Spavined  horses  are  useful  for  slow 
work  ;  they  are  most  inconvenienced 
in  the  act  of  rising. 

BORAGE.  Burago  officinalis.  A 
rough  weed  growing  two  feet  high. 
It  is  used  as  a  fallow  crop  in  Ger- 1 
many,  and,  according  to  Lampadius, 
contains  nitre.  It  seems  to  be  admi- 
rably adapted  for  this  purpose. 

BORAX.  Borate  of  soda,  used  as 
a  flux  in  welding  steel,  &c. 

BORDER.  In  gardening,  the  edg- 
es of  beds.  They  are  frequently  well 
trenched  and  manured,  so  as  to  be 
made  the  richest  parts  of  the  garden  ; 
hence,  when  we  are  directed  to  plant 
in  borders,  it  is  usually  meant  that 
deep,  good  soil,  and  free  space  are  re- 
quired. 

BORECOLE,  or  KALE.  A  species 
of  winter  cabbage  with  divided  leaves 
and  open  heads.  The  principal  varie- 
ties are,  Grcm  Srolch  Kale,  German 
Curled,  Purple,  Jerusalem,  CcEsarean 
108 


BOR 

Kale,  and  Thousand-headed  Callage. 
The  last  two  grow  to  four  feet,  and 
yield  large  numbers  of  sprouts. 

The  seed  is  sown  in  May  :  plants 
are  set  out  in  .July.  'J'hey  will  be 
found  best  after  slight  frost,  and  may 
be  kept  like  cabbages  during  wmter. 
The  stocks,  in  spring,  send  out  abun- 
dant tender  shoots.  An  ounce  of 
prime  seed  will  yield  nearly  four 
thousand  plants.  They  are  so  infe- 
rior to  other  plants  of  the  cabbage 
kind  as  to  be  scarcely  worth  cultiva- 
tion. 

BORERS.  Beetles  and  other  in- 
sects, the  worms  of  which  -burrow 
into  the  bark,  wood,  or  roots  of  trees. 
There  is  a  large  number  of  genera 
and  species,  some  peculiar  to  one  tree 
or  shrub,  others  common  to  several. 
The  perfect  beetle  is  usually  seen  in 
June  and  July,  either  about  the  trunk, 
or  searching  for  food  in  flowers,  iS:c. 
Their  place  while  buried  in  the  tree 
is  known  by  the  holes  they  leave 
through  the  bark.  They  reside  often 
two  years  in  this  way  as  worms  and 
grubs.  'VMiere  woodpeckers  are  en- 
couraged in  orchards,  the  trees  are 
kept  pretty  free  from  their  ravages  ; 
but  in  New-England  they  do  much 
damage,  and  are  sought  for,  and  de- 
stroyed by  iron  wires,  small  augers, 
and  other  direct  means.  Catching 
the  mature  beetle  is  much  more  ad- 
vantageous, and  taking  care  to  have 
the  bark  well  cleaned,  and  washed 
with  whale  oil  soap,  lime-water, 
pitch,  strong  lye,  &c.,  at  the  time 
the  eggs  are  deposited  in  July.  The 
eggs  are  usually  deposited  on  the 
trunk  near  the  ground. 

Many  of  the  borers  belong  to  the 
Capricorn  family,  having  long  anten- 
n£e.  The  fol- 
lowing figures 
represent  two 
common  bo- 
rers. A,  the 
female  apple- 
tree  borer.  B, 
the  peach-tree 
borer. 

The        locust,  ^  Apple  tree  Borer 

and  all  the  vari-        (Supcvda  buuuna). 
eties  of  pine  and  fir  trees,  are  severely 


BOX 


BOT 


B.  Peach  tree  borer  {S:geria  cxitiosa).     1,  female 

infested  with  peculiar  borers.     These 
also  deposite  their  eggs  about  July. 

BORING.  In  draining,  rods  are 
frequently  thrust  into  the  subsoil  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  nature 
of  the  earth,  or  the  existence  of  wa- 
ter or  springs.     See  Auger. 

BOS.  The  generic  name  of  rumi- 
nating quadrupeds,  having  the  char- 
acters of  the  ox  and  buffalo.  The  or- 
igin of  the  domestic  ox  is  unknown. 

BOTANY.  That  department  of 
knowledge  which  investigates  the 
forms,  varieties,  and  functions  of 
plants  in  a  natural  state.  It  is  de- 
rived from  SoTavT},  an  herb. 

Structural  botany,  or  Organogra- 
phy, details  the  figures  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  plants,  both  internal  and 
external.  We  learn  from  this  de- 
partment that  the  interior  of  vegeta- 
bles is  either  made  up  of  small  cells, 
resembling  the  cavities  of  the  honey- 
comb (cellulares),  or  consist  also  of 
tubes  and  veins,  as  the  higher  plants 
(vasculares).  The  cells  are  destined 
either  to  store  up  starch,  wood,  res- 
ins, or  other  products  of  vegetation  ; 
the  tubes  to  convey  sap  and  fluids. 
In  a  complete  system  of  organogra- 
phy, the  minutest  shades  of  difference 
between  leaves,  roots,  &c.,  are  detail- 
ed with  uninteresting  prolixity. 

Physiological  botany  teaches   the 

use  of  the  leaf,  root,  flower,  seed,  &c. 

It  will  be  fully  illustrated  under  the 

various  parts  of  the  plant. 

Descriptive  botany  is  that  portion 


C,  male;  3,  case  in  which  the  pupa  (4)  is  enclosed. 

of  the  science  which  is  devoted  to  de- 
scribing and  recognising  plants.  In 
this  there  are  two  methods  of  proce- 
dure, the  Linnaean  and  Jussieuan  : 
the  former  is  the  simplest,  the  latter 
the  most  perfect,  and  will  be  intro- 
duced in  the  cases  of  the  leading  agri- 
cultural families,  as  the  bean  tribe, 
cabbage  tribe,  &c. 

To  understand  Linnasus's  classifi- 
cation, it  is  necessary  to  state  thai 
perfect  flowers  consist  of  four  parts  : 
1st,  an  external  green  or  coloured 
wrapper  seen  on  the  bud,  called  the 
calyx,  consisting  of  one  or  more  leaf- 
lets ;    2d,   an   inner   similar   system 
of  flower  petals,  called  the  corolla  ; 
3d,  a  number  of  thread-like  bodies 
carrying  a  head ;  these  are  the  sta- 
mens, the  head  being  called  the  an- 
ther ;  4th,  a  central  thread-like  body, 
single,  or  divided  into  several  parts, 
called  the  pistil,  whereof  the  extrem- 
ity is  the  stigma.     The  pistil  is  only 
tlie  upper  part  of  the  young  fruit,  or 
ovarium.     In  all  these  points  there  is 
much  diversity  :    sometimes  neither 
calyx  nor  corolla  is  present ;  again, 
the"  stamens,  which  are  also  consid- 
ered the  male  organs  of  the  flower, 
may  be  in  one  plant,  and  the  pistil, 
[  or  female  organ,  in  another,  or  in  dif- 
I  ferent  parts  of  the  same  plant.     It  is 
'  well  known  that  unless  the  yellowish 
'  dust,  or  pollen,  given  off  by  stamens 
j  can  reach  the  stigma,  no  seeds  are 
!  formed,  and  that  fruit  is  only  produ- 
1  ced  in  female  plants,  or  such  as  con- 
103 


LOTANY. 


tain  the  pistils.  Linncciis  divided  the  I  These  divisions  are  also  called 
vegetable  world  according  to  the  I  classes  and  orders,  the  first  being 
number  of  stamens  and  pistils  in  the  |  constructed  from  the  number  and  po- 
flower;  so  that,  to  know  to  w^tiat  sition  of  the  stamens,  the  orders  by 
tribe  a  specimen  belongs,  we  have  j  the  number,  ttc,  of  the  pistils.  Ev- 
enly to  count  these  parts,  and  search  ]  ery  plant,  therefore,  belongs  to  a 
for  the  name  in  the  proper  works  un-  i  class  and  order,  unless  it  be  diaecious. 
der  the  general  division  ascertained.  |  The  classes  are  as  follows  : 

Class. 
I. 
TI. 


III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIU. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 


Styled. 

1  stamen ...     Monaudria. 

2  stamens Diandria. 


Triandria. 

Tetrandria. 

Penlandna. 

Hexandria. 

Heptaiidria. 

Octandria. 

Enneandria. 

Decandria. 

Dodecandria. 

Icosandria. 

Polyandria 

Didjiiamia. 

Tetradynamia. 


10     "  

12  to  19  stamens 

20  or  more  stamens,  inserted  into  the  calyx 

20  or  more  stamens,  inserted  into  the  receptacle 

2  long  and  2  short  stamens 

4  long  and  2  short  stamens 

stamens  united  into  a  tube Monadelphia. 

stamens  united  into  two  parcels  by  filaments Diadelphia. 

stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  several  parcels        .         .        .     Polyadelphia, 

stamens  united  by  their  anthers  into  a  tube Syiigeuesia. 

stamens  united  with  the  pistil     ........     Gynandria. 

stamens  and  pistils  m  separate  flowers,  but  on  the  same  plant   .        .     Moncecia. 
stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flowers  and  on  separate  plants,  one 

male,  the  other  female       ........ 

stamens  and  pistils,  separate  in  some  flowers  and  united  in  others,  )      p  i 

either  on  one  plant  or  on  two j        olyganna. 

stamens  and  pistils  not  clearly  developed Cryptogamia. 


Diaecia. 


The  orders  are  as  follows  : 


1  style  or  stigma     . 

2  styles  or  stigmas  . 

3  "  " 

4  "  "        . 

5  "  "        . 

6  "  " 

7  "  "       . 

8  "  "        . 

9  "  " 
10  "  " 
12    " 


.  Monogynia. 
.  Digynia. 
.  Trigynia. 
.  Tetragynia. 
.  Peutagynia. 
.  He.\agynia. 
.  Heptagynia. 
.  Octagynia. 
.  Enneagynia. 
.  Decagynia. 
.  Dodecagynia. 
.  Polygynia. 


More  than  12  styles 

Besides  these,  which  are  ascertain- 
ed by  simple  enumeration  of  the 
styles,  Linnaeus  divided  some  of  the 
classes  below  the  thirteenth  into  pe- 
culiar orders.     Thus, 

The  orders  of  the  class  Didynamia 
are  two  :  1st.  Gymnospermia,  in  which 
the  seed  vessel  or  ovary  is  divided 
into  four  lobes,  each  giving  one  style 
or  pistil,  and  containing  one  seed ; 
2d.  Angiospcrma,  with  a  perfect  ovary, 
two-celled,  and  many-seeded. 

In  class  fifteenth,  Tetradynamia, 
the  orders  are  :  1st.  Siliquusa,  plants 
with  long  pods,  as  the  cabbage  ;  2d. 
miiculosa,  Willi  short  pods. 
104 


Class  nineteenth,  Syngenesia,  is 
divided  into  five  orders  :  1st.  Polyga- 
mia  (cgualis,  each  flower  of  the  col- 
lection is  furnished  with  stamen  and 
pistil ;  2d.  Pohjgamia  siiperflua,  the 
florets  round  the  circumference  or 
disc  hermaphrodite,  but  the  central 
female  only ;  3d.  Polygamiafrustranca, 
the  disc  florets  hermaphrodite,  the 
central  steril ;  4th.  Poli^gamia  ncccs- 
sarla,  the  florets  of  the  rays  or  cir- 
cumference male,  those  of  the  centre 
female  ;  5th.  Polyganiia  scgregata  has 
several  florets,  either  simple  or  com- 
pound, but  with  a  proper  calyx,  in- 
cluded within  one  general  calyx. 

Class  twenty-third,  Polygamia,  is 
divided  into  two  orders,  as  the  plants 
are  monaecious  or  diacious. 

In  Cryptogamia  there  are  five  or- 
ders, which  are,  how'ever,  in  no  way 
connected  with  the  female  organs  : 
1st.  Filices,  or  ferns  ;  2d.  Musci,  or 
mosses  ;  3d.  Hcpatica,  or  liverworts ; 
4th.  Alg(e,  or  sea-weeds  ;  and,  5th. 
Fungi,  or  mushrooms. 

To  discover  the  name  of  any  plaut, 


BOT 


BOU 


or  ascertain  if  it  agrees  with  a  par- 
ticular description,  the  first  step  is  to 
learn  how  many  stamens  it  contains ; 
this  gives  us  the  class.  Under  this 
head,  in  the  Flora  {Eaton  s,  Torrafs, 
or  any  other  dictionarij  of  plants),  we 
find  a  certain  number  of'  orders  :  the 
place  of  the  plant  among  these  is 
known  by  examining  the  pistils. 
Thus  we  have  reached  the  class  and 
order  under  which  will  he  arranged 
a  description  of  all  the  known  or  com- 


mon genera ;  these  are  to  be  read 
carefully,  each  point  of  structure  be- 
uig  compared  with  the  specimen ; 
thus  the  genus  is  known,  and  under 
this  the  species  are  found,  which  usu- 
ally differ  in  the  form  of  the  leaf  and 
stem. 

The  following  general  view  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  is  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  natural  ystem  of  Jus- 
sieu,  improved  by  Dr.  Lindley  and 
others : 


According  to  their  Fruits  and  Flowers. 

I.   Having  flowers   and   sexes   (Phaneroga-  \ 
mous)  .....  ( 

(a).  Least  number  of  seed  lobes  (Co-  [ 
ti/ledons)  2         .         .         .  ) 

Class   1 .  Dicotyledons  (2  seed  lubes  always)  or 
2.  Gymnosperms  (seeds  naked)  or 

(i).  Least  number  of  seed  lobes,  1      J  or 

Class  3.  Monocotyledons  (Iseed  lobe)  or 

(c).  Acotyledons  ...  or 

Class  4.   Rhizantks     ....  or 


II.  Having  neither  flowers  nor  sexes      .  ! 

Class  5.  Cryptogamic  plants 

BOTRYOIDAL.  From  .3orpff,  a 
bunch  of  grapes.  In  botany,  any  flow- 
ers, &c.,  clustered  together. 

BOTS.  A  family  ^of  two-winged 
or  dipterous  insects,  the  larvje  or 
maggots  of  which  infest  the  intes- 
tines, wounds,  &c.,  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. The  maggots  are  whitish  and 
conical,  of  half  an  inch  or  more  in 
length,  and  adhere  with  great  force 
to  the  maw  of  horses,  &c.  They  are 
taken  into  the  stomach  in  the  form 
of  eggs,  which  the  insect  lays  on  the 
knees  {Gastcrophilus  egui)  and  other 
parts  of  the  animal,  which,  being  bit- 
ten off,  are  swaUowed,  and  developed 
in  the  body.  The  animal  attacked 
looses  appetite,  becomes  restless, 
bites  his  sides,  coughs,  becomes  stiff 
in  the  neck,  staggers,  breathes  with 
difficulty,  and  may  die  in  the  worst 
stages. 

They  are  to  be  hindered  by  order- 
ing the  groom  to  remove  the  eggs 
in  the  fall,  as  soon  as  they  are  laid. 
It  is  also  advisable,  as  a  preventive, 
to  administer,  in  the  spring,  a  quart 
of  milk  with  a  good  dose  of  molasses, 
and,  shortly  after,  a  quarter  of  a  pound 


According  to  their  Development. 
'  Theirstems  (axis)  increasing  symmetrically 
i  n  density  and  breadth,  as  well  as  in  length 
(Pleurogens). 

Stem  in  concentric  bauds  {Exogens). 

Veins  of  leaves  netted. 

Veins  of  leaves  netted  or  forked. 

j  Stem  a  confused  mass  of  cellular  tissue  and 

(      wood. 
r      Veins  of  leaves  parallel,  and  not  netted. 
T      Vegetation  like  mushrooms. 
r      Fungoid  flowers. 

(  The  stems,  or  axis,  increasing  by  simple 

(      elongation,  or  irregular  expansion. 
r      Acrogens. 

of  Glauber  salts,  by  which  the  bots 
are  pretty  freely  evacuated. 

Sheep  are  pestered  with  a  hot  fly 
{Cephalemyia  oris),  which deposites  its 
eggs  in  the  nostrils  ;  the  worms 
hence  crawl  into  the  upper  parts  of 
the  nose  and  produce  great  irritation. 

BOTTOM.  In  horsemanship,  en- 
durance. 

BOTTOM  HEAT.  In  horticul- 
ture, heat  produced  by  fermenting 
dung,  leaves,  bark,  &c.,  applied  under 
beds  of  earth,  &c.,  for  raising  or 
forcing  plants  requiring  a  temperature 
higher  than  that  of  the  air. 

BOUND.  In  veterinary  medicine, 
a  term  applied  to  the  bowels,  to  indi- 
cate want  of  natural  action ;  to  the 
skin  or  hoof,  to  indicate  tightness  or 
constriction.  A  tree  is  said  to  be 
bark  bound  when  the  bark  cracks 
and  is  constricted. 

BOULDER.  A  massive  rock,  dis- 
similar from  the  adjacent  rocks  in 
mineral  character,  and  supposed  to 
have  been  transported  by  great  floods, 
icebergs,  &c. 

BOUT.  In  ploughing,  one  course 
of  the  plough. 

-^        105 


it  11 A 


BRA 


BOWEL  DISEASF.S.  Tiio  most 
prominent  arc  inflammations.  These 
are  of  two  kinds,  of  the  interior  and 
of  the  outer  membrane  of  the  intes- 
tines. The  first  is  produced  by  bad 
food,  inattention  to  diet,  and  is  at- 
tended with  a  hot  skin  and  purging  ; 
the  animal  is  in  some  degree  weak- 
ened, but  may  be  restored  l)y  the  use 
of  moderate  bleeding ;  gruel  is  also 
administered  with  soothing  medi- 
cines and  astringents  :  it  is  seldom 
fatal.  The  second  kind  (peritonitis) 
is  extremely  violent ;  it  is  brought  on 
by  sudden  application  of  cold,  when 
heated,  to  the  stomach,  as  in  passing 
a  small  stream  in  winter,  &c.  In 
farriery  it  is  called  the  red  colic,  and 
is  often  fatal  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  animal  paws  violently,  is  ex- 
tremely sensitive  over  the  stomach, 
struggles,  groans,  lies  on  his  back,  is 
costive,  the  legs  and  flanks  are  cold, 
he  shivers  involuntarily,  and  sweats. 
These  violent  symptoms  soon  sub- 
side, and  he  becomes  so  weak  and 
anxious  as  scarcely  to  stand.  As 
soon  as  the  disease  appears,  copious 
bleeding  must  be  had  to  produce  al- 
most fainting,  blistering  fluid  must 
be  well  rubbed  over  the  skin  of  the 
stomach,  and  Glauber  salts  given. 
He  should  be  kept  quiet,  and  clothed. 
This  treatment  will  soon  show  its 
good  effects,  after  which  he  must  be 
fed  scantily,  and  kept  warm  and  cpiiet. 

BOX  DRAIN.  A  drain  with  square 
sides,  presenting  the  section  of  a  box : 
it  is  usually  of  tiles  or  bricks. 

BOX-TREE.  The  Buzus  scmpcr- 
virens  and  bukarica  produce  the  dense 
yellow  wood  used  by  engravers,  and 
also  for  making  rules,  combs,  but- 
tons, flutes,  &c.  The  best  wood  is 
obtained  from  Southern  countries,  as 
Spain  and  Turkey.  The  dwarf  box 
is  a  variety  of  B.  scmpcnnrens. 

BOX  OF  WHEELS.  The  iron 
cylinder  in  which  the  axis  turns. 

BRACCATE.  Bracca,  breeches. 
In  ornithology,  when  the  feet  are  con- 
cealed by  long  feathers  descending 
from  the  tibia>. 

BRACHALYTRA  from  (Spaxvc, 
short,  and  e/.vrpov,  shealh).  The  name 
of  an  extensive  group  of  coleopterous 
lOG 


insects,  including  all  such  as  have  the 
elytra  so  short  as  not  to  exceed  one 
third  the  length  of  tlie  abdomen. 

BllACHINUS.  A  genus  of  coleop- 
terous insects,  now  the  type  of  a  fam- 
ily (Brachmidcc),  including  those  sin- 
gular beetles  which,  from  their  defen- 
sive anal  explosions,  are  termed 
"  bombardiers." 

BRACHIUM.  The  lower  portion 
or  forearm  of  the  fore  extremities. 

BRACT.  In  botany,  the  small 
leaflet  situated  under  the  flower. 
The  flowers  of  grasses,  sedges,  &c., 
are  bracts  which  receive  the  names 
of  glumes  and  paleae. 

BRAIRD.  In  Scotch  books,  the 
starting  of  young  seedlings. 

BRAKE.  An  implement  to  bruise 
flax  and  hemp.  The  wooden  pincers 
used  by  coopers  and  others.  The 
snaffle  used  with  horses.  A  large 
harrow. 

BRAMBLE.  The  genus  Rubrus. 
See  Blackberry. 

BRAN.  The  outer  membrane  of 
wheat,  &,c.,  rubbed  off  in  the  mill. 
When  first  used,  bran  produces  a  lax- 
ative effect  on  horses  and  other  ani- 
mals. For  milch  cows  and  calves  it  is 
an  admirable  fodder,  in  consequence 
of  the  large  amount  of  bone  earth  it 
contains  ;  it  is  fattening,  as  it  yields 
four  per  cent,  of  oil.  As  a  general 
article  of  food,  Boussingault  makes 
nine  pounds  equal  ten  pounds  of  prime 
hay.  The  quality  of  bran  will,  how- 
ever, differ  with  the  economy  of  the 
miller.  From  good  wheat,  w  ell  bolt- 
ed, there  should  not  be  more  than 
seven  per  cent,  of  bran. 

BRAND  IN  CORN.  See  Burned 
Ear. 

BRANDY.  Liquor  distilled  from 
the  dregs  of  wine :  it  contains  fifty  per 
cent,  alcohol ;  the  colour  is  fictitious, 
as  the  spirit  is  nearly  transparent. 
Burned  sugar  is  the  usual  colouring 
matter. 

BRASSICA.  The  generic  name 
of  the  cabbage,  rape,  broccoli  family  ; 
they  belong  to  the  Crucifercz  of  Jus- 
sieu,  and  Tetradijnamia  siliquosa  of 
Linnajus. 

BRAWN.  The  salted  and  pre- 
pared flesh  of  the  wild  boar. 


BKE 

BREAD.  There  are  three  varie- 
ties extensively  used  in  the  United 
Stales,  wheat,  corn,  and  brown  or 
Graham  bread.  Wheat  bread  is  leav- 
ened, or  rendered  light  and  spongy  by 
yeast,  which  is  worked  into  the  dough, 
and  connmiinicates  to  the  starch  of 
the  flour,  at  a  temperature  above  60^ 
Fahr.,  a  fermentation  called  the  pan- 
ary  fermentation,  in  which  sugar  and 
alcohol  are  formed  in  small  quantity, 
and  the  gluten  of  the  flour  diminishes 
even  to  two  per  cent.  In  these  chan- 
ges, carbonic  acid  gas  is  given  off, 
and,  rising  through  the  dough,  pro- 
duces the  cellular  texture.  When 
the  process  goes  on  too  long,  vinegar 
is  produced,  and  the  dough  becomes 
sour.  The  heat  of  the  oven  stops  the 
panary  fermentation,  and  hinders  far- 
ther change.  Town  bakers,  by  using 
every  expedient  to  accumulate  gas  in 
their  loaves,  produce  a  spongy,  taste- 
less bread. 

Corn  bread  contains  no  gluten,  and 
will  not  rise  with  yeast.  It  is  mere- 
ly mixed  with  enough  water  to  be  al- 
most as  soft  as  sticking  paste,  and 
baked  at  once. 

Graham  bread  is  commonly  bread 
containing  a  little  bran,  but  some- 
times bi-carbonate  of  soda  and  salt 
are  added. 

BREAD  FRUIT.     Artocarpus  insi- 


aa.  A  tree  of  the  Eastern  Archipel- 
ago, now  cultivated  in  the  W^est  In- 
dies also,  the  fruit  of  which,  cut  into 
slices  and  roasted,  resembles  bread, 
and  is  much  used  as  a  substitute. 


BRE 

BREAD  ROOT.  The  I'soralia  es- 
culcnta,  and  other  species,  indigenous 
in  Missouri  and  throughout  the  West. 
The  roots  are  eaten  boiled  and  raw 
by  the  Indians.  They  are  of  a  tena- 
cious, solid  structure,  and  insipid. 

BREAKING.  The  education  of 
horses  and  other  animals.  It  should 
not  commence  too  young,  or  they 
want  spirit ;  or  too  late,  or  they  be- 
come unmanageable. 

BREAKING  UP.  The  ploughing 
of  leys. 

BREASTING.  Breasting  up  a 
hedge  is  cutting  the  face  of  it  on  one 
side,  so  as  to  lay  bare  the  principal 
upright  stems  of  the  plants. 

BREASTPLATE.  A  strap  run- 
ning across  the  chest  of  the  horse,  to 
hold  the  saddle  tight. 

BREAST  PLOUGH.  A  large 
spade  or  shovel,  the  handle  of  which 
is  furnished  with  a  cross-piece, 
against  which  a  man  presses,  and 
drives  the  implement  forward  through 
peat  or  turf,  cutting  off  long  slices. 
It  is  used  chiefly  in  paring  turf  to  be 
burned  for  improvement. 

BRECCIA.  A  conglomerate  form- 
ed with  angular  fragments  of  stones. 
Some  are  calcareous,  others  silicious. 

BREECH  WOOL.  The  coarse 
short  wool  of  the  breech  of  common 
sheep. 

BREECHING,  or  BREECHIN. 
That  part  of  the  horse's  harness  at- 
tached to  the  saddle,  and  hooked  on 
the  shafts,  which  enables  him  to  push 
back  the  cart  or  other  machine  to 
which  he  is  harnessed. 

BREED.  A  variety  among  ani- 
mals. 

BREEDING.  The  following  is 
from  Mr.  Rham  : 

Breeding  is  the  art  of  multiplying 
the  domestic  animals  rapidly,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  improving  their  quali- 
ties. 

Any  breed  of  animals  will  perpetu- 
ate itself,  provided  there  is  a  suffi- 
ciency of  proper  food  for  them  ;  and 
the  varieties  found  in  a  wild  state 
must  depend  in  some  degree  on  the 
climate  and  the  products  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  they  are  found.  Care 
and  domestication  also  produce  va 
107 


BREEDING. 


rieties  whit-li  arc  much  more  useful 
or  profitable  thcin  the  wild  breeds  ; 
and  in  the  selection  of  the  best  indi- 
viduals to  propagate  a  useful  race, 
and  in  the  rearing  of  the  young,  con- 
sist the  art  of  the  breeder. 

"Without  entering  into  particulars, 
which  vary  with  every  species  of 
animal,  and  with  the  different  varie- 
ties of  the  same  species,  we  shall  lay 
down  certain  principles  which  expe- 
rience has  proved  to  be  correct,  and 
which,  being  attended  to,  will  greatly 
promote  the  improvement  of  all  the 
different  animals  usually  bred  for  the 
use  of  man,  whether  for  his  suste- 
nance or  for  his  pleasure.  The  first 
thing  which  is  to  be  kept  in  view  is  the 
chief  purpose  for  which  the  animal  is 
reared,  whether  for  labour,  strength, 
or  for  speed ;  whether  merely  for  a 
supply  of  animal  food,  or  to  produce 
the  raw  materials  of  manufacture.  In 
each  of  these  cases  distinct  qualities 
are  required,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
two  of  these  objects  can  be  combined 
in  the  greatest  perfection. 

Having  then  determined  the  pui*- 
pose  for  which  any  species  of  domes- 
tic animal  is  designed,  every  quality 
must  be  attended  to  which  furthers 
this  view ;  and,  except  under  very 
peculiar  circumstances,  the  animals 
intended  to  keep  up  the  stock  by  their 
produce  must  be  chosen  with  those 
qualities  in  the  greatest  perfection 
which  are  essential  to  the  end.  In  all 
animals  a  perfect  conformation  of  the 
bodily  frame  is  essential  to  the  due  per- 
formance of  the  vital  functions.  The 
skeleton  of  the  animal  should  there- 
fore be  as  perfect  as  possible.  The 
capacity  of  the  chest,  and  the  healthy 
nature  of  the  lungs,  are  points  which 
must  never  be  overlooked,  whatever 
may  be  the  purpose  for  which  the 
animal  is  bred  ;  for  although  a  defect 
may  be  in  some  measure  counteract- 
ed by  a  judicious  choice  of  the  indi- 
vidual coupled  with  the  defective  an- 
imal, it  is  only  where  there  is  no  al- 
ternative or  choice  that  any  defect  in 
the  bodily  frame  of  an  animal  kept 
for  breeding  should  be  overlooked. 
In  spite  of  every  care,  the  defect  will 
appear  in  the  offspring ;  sometimes 
108 


not  till  after  several  generations.  If 
it  were  possible  to  find  individuals 
without  fault  or  defect,  no  price  would 
be  too  great  for  them  ;  and  for  those 
that  have  been  carefully  selected  for 
several  generations,  it  is  real  econo- 
my to  give  a  very  liberal  price.  In 
horses  bred  for  racing  or  for  the 
chase  experience  has  fully  proved  the 
truth  of  this  rule  ;  and  no  one  who 
pretends  to  breed  race-horses  would 
breed  from  a  mare  which  had  a  nat- 
ural defect,  or  a  horse  whose  whole 
pedigree  was  not  free  from  fault.  For 
mere  swiftness,  the  shape  of  the  ani- 
mal, whether  horse  or  greyhound, 
must  combine  strength  with  great 
activity.  The  chest  must  be  deep, 
the  lungs  free,  and  the  digestive,  or- 
gans sound  but  small,  to  add  as  little 
weight  to  the  body  as  is  consistent 
with  the  healthy  functions  of  nature. 
The  legs  should  be  long  and  slender, 
and  the  bones  compact  and  strong ; 
but  the  principal  thing  to  be  attended 
to  is  the  courage,  and  no  quality  is 
so  hereditary.  A  horse  or  hound  of 
a  good  breed,  if  in  health,  will  die  of 
exertion  sooner  than  give  up  the 
chase.  Any  defect  in  courage  in  an 
animal  intended  for  great  occasional 
exertion  renders  him  unfit  to  be  se- 
lected to  continue  an  improved  breed ; 
and,  whatever  may  be  his  pedigree, 
he  has  degenerated. 

With  respect  to  animals  whose 
strength  and  endurance  are  their 
most  desirable  qualities,  a  greater 
compactness  of  form  is  required,  a 
greater  capacity  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans, and,  according  to  the  climate 
to  which  they  may  be  exposed,  a 
more  suitable  covering.  Whether  it 
be  to  ward  of!'  cold  or  great  heat,  a 
thick  covering  of  hair  is  equally  ser- 
viceable in  both  cases.  Hardiness 
of  constitution  is  hereditary,  like  oth- 
er qualities  ;  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  young  are  reared  tends  greatly  to 
confirm  or  diminish  this.  An  animal 
of  which  the  breed  originally  came 
from  a  warm  climate,  like  a  tender 
exotic  plant,  wants  artificial  warmth 
for  the  healthy  growth  of  its  limbs  ; 
while  the  indigenous  and  more  hardy 
breeds  may  be  left  exposed  to  the 


BREEDIXG. 


elements.  An  abundance  of  whole- 
some food  and  pure  water  is  essen- 
tial to  the  healthy  state  of  every  ani- 
mal, as  well  as  exercise  proportioned 
to  its  strength.  These  are  circum- 
stances which  it  is  obvious  must  be 
carefully  attended  to.  There  are 
others,  the  result  of  long  experience, 
which  are  equally  necessary  to  be 
known,  but  which  are  not  so  obvious. 
These  vary  according  to  the  species 
and  variety  of  the  animals  bred,  and 
it  is  seldom  that  the  same  breeder  is 
equally  successful  in  rearing  different 
species  of  animals. 

In  the  animals  selected  to  breed 
from,  there  are  points,  as  they  are 
called,  which  are  peculiar  conforma- 
tions, some  of  which  are  connected 
with  the  natural  formation  of  the 
skeleton,  and  others  appear  to  be  the 
result  of  an  association  derived  from 
the  known  qualities  of  certain  indi- 
viduals. That  high  withers  and  a 
freely-moving  shoulder-blade  in  a 
horse  are  connected  with  his  speed, 
is  readily  perceived,  and  that  the 
length  of  the  muscles  of  the  quarter, 
and  the  manner  of  their  insertion, 
should  affect  his  power,  is  equally 
evident  ;  but  it  is  not  so  apparent 
that  the  manner  in  which  the  ears 
are  placed  on  the  head,  the  shape  of 
the  nose  or  jaw,  and  the  insertion 
of  the  tail  higher  or  lower,  has  an  im- 
portant effect  on  the  value  of  the  an- 
imal, independently  of  any  arbitrary 
idea  of  beauty.  A  breeder  who  should 
not  attend  to  these  circumstances  in 
the  animals  chosen  to  perpetuate  the 
breed  would  tind,  to  his  cost,  that  it 
is  more  than  mere  taste  which  has 
determined  these  points.  It  is  the 
result  of  observation  and  experience 
that  certain  breeds  are  invariably 
distinguished  by  certain  peculiarities, 
and  that  these  are  almost  as  invaria- 
bly connected  with  good  qualities,  ap- 
parently quite  independent  of  the 
parts  on  which  these  points  appear. 

There  is  an  indication  of  the  dispo- 
sition of  an  animal  in  the  eye,  in  the 
shape  of  the  head,  and  in  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  carried,  which  seldom 
deceives  an  experienced  judge.  He 
will  not  risk  introducing  a  vicious  or 

.  .K 


:  sulky  disposition  into  his  breed,  which 
might  counterbalance  all   the  good 
qualities  the  animal  might  possess, 
and  introduce  a  greater   hereditary 
i  fault  than  any  imperfection  of  form. 
I      But  nothing  is  so  deceitful  as  the 
prejudices  which  exist  with  respect 
I  to  peculiarities  and  colours.    In  some 
'  countries  no   ox   or  cow  would   be 
'  thought  good  of  its  kind  that  was  not 
red  or  brown  without  spots ;  in  oth- 
I  ers  a  certain  portion  of  white  is  es- 
!  sential.  This  is  owing  to  the  common 
'  colour  of  the  breeds  most  esteemed 
I  in  each  country.     Tlie  reason  of  the 
i  prejudice  is  the  association  of  the 
I  colour  with  some  defect,  and  those 
i  who  breed  for  profit  by  sale  must  be 
i  ruled  by  the  taste  of  their  customers. 
'  The  rational  mode  of  proceeding  is 
to  be  well  acquainted  with  the  anat- 
,  omy  of  the  kind  of  animal  which  we 
:  make  the  subject  of  our  attention  ;  to 
learn  by  experience  what  are  the  pe- 
culiar qualities  of  the  different  breeds, 
;  distinguished  by  any  particular  fea- 
i  ture,   and   whether   these    qualities 
have  any  apparent  connexion  with 
I  the  peculiarity  in   make   or  colour. 
'  We  may  then  be  guided  by  the  knowl- 
edge thus  acquired  in  our  choice  of 
individuals  to  perpetuate  the  breed, 
and  not  only  preserve  the  useful  qual- 
;  ities  which  they  already  possess,  but 
gradually  improve  them.     No  greater 
i  mistake  can  be  committed  than  that 
of  making  what  are  called  violent 
crosses,  such  as  coupling  a  very  spir- 
ited male  with  a  sluggish  female,  an 
animal  with  large  bones  with  one  of 
very   slender   make,    a   long-limbed 
I  animal  with  a  compact  one.     By  such 
i  crosses  the  first  produce  has  often 
appeared  much  improved  ;  but  nature 
IS  not  to  be  forced,  and  if  the  breed 
is  continued,   innumerable   deformi- 
:  ties  and  defects  are  certain  to  follow, 
[  The  safe  way  is,  to  choose  the  ani- 
I  mals  as  nearly  alike  in  their  general 
I  qualities  as  possible,  taking  care  that 
j  where  there  is  a  defect  in  one  it  ex- 
i  ist  not  in  the  other,  which  would  in- 
;  fallibly  perpetuate  it.     A  defect  can 
j  never  be  remedied  by  means  of  an- 
j  other  of  an  opposite  kind,  but,  by 
I  great  attention,  it  may  be  diminished 
109 


BREEDING. 


gradually,  and  at  last  disappear  en- 
tirely. This  refers,  however,  to  de- 
fecls,  not  to  peculiar  qualities.  Cows, 
for  example,  may  produce  either  milk 
or  fat  in  abundance  from  similar  food  ; 
and  a  breed  of  cow  which  secretes 
too  much  fat,  so  as  to  be  deficient  in 
the  milk  necessary  to  rear  the  calf, 
may  be  improved  by  selecting  such 
as  give  more  milk,  and  by  crossing 
the  breed  with  these  ;  but  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  choose  individuals 
•which  differ  much  in  sliape  from  the 
breed  to  be  improved.  Every  at- 
tempt to  unite  opposite  qualities  is 
generally  attended  with  a  bad  re- 
sult. If  a  breed  has  too  great  an 
aptitude  to  fatten,  so  as  to  endanger 
the  fecundity  of  the  mother  or  the 
health  of  the  offspring,  the  only  rem- 
edy is  to  diminish  the  oily  nature  of 
the  food  ;  and  if,  on  the  otlier  hand, 
a  difficulty  is  found  in  fattening  cows 
which  are  of  a  peculiarly  good  breed 
for  the  dairy,  the  loss  on  the  old  cow 
sold  half  fat  will  have  been  amply 
repaid  by  the  milk  she  has  given  ; 
and  the  bull-calves  which  are  not 
wanted  to  rear  for  bulls,  if  they  are  not 
profitable  to  fatten  as  oxen,  must  be 
fatted  off  young  and  sold  for  veal. 
But  it  is  not  a  necessary  consequence 
of  an  abundant  produce  of  milk  that 
the  cow,  when  dry,  will  not  fatten 
readily,  although  a  great  propensity 
to  fatten  renders  the  breed  less  fit 
for  the  dairy.  The  Ayrshire,  which 
are  good  milkers,  fatten  well  when 
dry,  and  tiie  oxen  of  that  breed  are 
as  kind  feeders  as  any. 

Many  breeders  have  an  idea  that 
coupling  animals  which  are  nearly 
allied  in  blood  produces  a  weak  race  ; 
others  consider  it  as  a  prejudice,  and 
among  those  who  held  the  latter 
opinion  was  the  famous  breeder 
Bakewell.  Without  deciding  tliis 
point,  we  should  recommend  avoid- 
ing too  near  a  relationship,  provided 
individuals  equally  perfect  can  be 
found  of  the  same  breed  more  dis- 
tantly related.  Every  individual  has 
some  peculiar  defect,  and  his  de- 
scendants have  a  tendency  to  this 
defect.  If  two  immediate  descend- 
ants are  coupled,  this  defect  will 
110 


probably  be  confirmed  ;  whereas  by 
uniting  the  descendants  of  different 
individuals  the  defect  of  either  of  the 
parents  may  never  break  out ;  but 
sooner  than  retrograde  by  coupling 
an  inferior  animal  with  one  in  an  im- 
proved state,  we  should  not  liesitate 
to  risk  the  consequences  supposed  to 
arise  from  what  is  called  breeding  in 
and  in,  that  is,  coupling  animals  near- 
ly related  in  blood,  especially  if  only 
on  one  side,  such  as  the  produce  of 
the  same  male  by  different  females, 
or  of  a  female  by  different  sires. 

The  qualities  which  distinguish 
animals  in  which  the  muscles  and 
bones  are  required  to  be  much  exer- 
cised, as  dogs,  horses,  and  working 
oxen,  are  very  different  from  those 
of  animals  destined  to  accumulate 
mere  tender  flesh  and  fat  for  human 
food.  In  the  former  there  must  be 
spirit,  activity,  and  quick  digestion  ; 
in  the  latter,  indolence  and  proneness 
to  sleep  are  advantageous.  In  the 
first,  the  lungs  must  play  with  ease, 
and  the  muscles  be  strong,  and  not 
encumbered  with  fat.  In  the  second, 
the  lungs  must  be  sound,  as  they  are 
essential  to  all  the  secretions,  and 
the  digestive  power  must  be  good, 
but  slow.  The  food  must  not  be  ac- 
celerated through  the  bowels  by  ex- 
ercise, but  the  absorbent  vessels  of 
the  intestines  must  draw  all  the  nonr- 
isiiment  from  the  digested  food.  The 
more  the  muscles  are  impeded  with 
fat,  the  better  the  animal  will  repay 
the  food  given  him.  To  choose  an 
animal  to  breed  from  whose  produce 
shall  get  fat  readily,  we  must  attend 
to  this  part  of  the  constitution,  and 
care  little  about  spirit  and  activity. 
The  tendency  to  secrete  bone,  and 
those  parts  which  are  called  offal  by 
the  butchers,  as  being  of  inferior  val- 
ue, is  a  defect.  Good  flesh  and  fat 
are  the  great  objects. 

The  manner  in  which  the  more  sol- 
id parts  of  the  body  are  formed,  and 
the  greater  consumption  of  food,  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  of  weight 
which  takes  place  in  young  animals, 
while  bones  and  horns  are  grov^ing, 
prove  that  it  is  much  more  expensive 
to  produce  bone  than  flesh,  and  mus- 


BRLIEDLNG. 


cular  fibre  than  fat.  Hence  it  is  ev-| 
ident  that  the  greater  profit  is  in  fat- 1 
tening  annuals  that  have  finished  their  i 
growth  ;  and  also  that  there  is  a  su- ; 
periority  in  those  breeds  which  have 
small  bones  and  no  horns.  This  is  j 
an  important  point  to  be  attended  to  j 
by  a  breeder,  as  is  also  the  time  when  j 
the  bony  secretion  is  completed.  A  | 
breed  of  animals  that  will  cease  to 
grow,  or  have  attained  their  full  size  . 
of  bone  at  an  early  age,  will  be  much  ■ 
more  profitable  to  the  grazier  than  one 
of  slower  growth.  It  is  in  this  respect 
chiefly  that  certain  breeds  of  sheep 
and  cattle  are  so  far  superior  to  oth- 
ers. The  principles  which  apply  to 
cattle  are  equally  applicable,  mutatis 
mutandis,  to  sheep.  In  no  case  are 
strong  bones  or  horns  of  much  im- 
portance to  the  sheep  in  its  domestic 
state.  The  principal  objects  are  wool 
and  flesh,  which  appear  to  be  depend- 
ant on  distinct  and,  perhaps,  incom- 
patible qualities.  The  attempt  to 
unite  the  two  is  perhaps  the  reason 
why  the  Spanish  breed,  which  has 
been  improved  when  transported  into 
Saxony,  has  degenerated  in  England, 
so  that  even  its  crosses  are  not  in  re- 
pute. It  is  a  matter  of  mere  calcula- 
tion, whether  sheep  kept  for  their 
wool  chiefly  are  more  profitable  than 
those  which  give  an  increase  of  meat 
at  the  expense  of  the  quality  of  the 
wool.  A  breeder  of  sheep  who  at- 
tends only  to  the  quality  of  the  wool 
will  not  have  his  attention  taken  off 
from  the  main  object  by  any  deficien- 
cy in  the  carcass,  or  the  disposition 
of  the  animal  to  increase  in  flesh  and 
fat.  It  is  possible  that  mixed  breeds 
may  be  more  profitable  than  the  pure. 
Fine  wool  may  not  repay  the  breeder 
and  rearer  of  sheep  so  well  as  mod- 
erate wool  and  good  meat.  But  the 
principle  we  contend  for  is  that  of 
producing  the  most  perfect  animal  of 
any  one  variety  existing,  by  correct- 
ing individual  defects  gradually,  and 
avoiding  fanciful  crosses,  which  may 
destroy  in  one  generation  all  the  ad- 
vantages obtained  in  a  great  many. 
Hence  it  is  a  matter  of  great  impor- 
tance to  consider  well  the  qualities  of 
the  individuals  with  which  you  begin 


your  improvement,  and  to  know  that 

these  qualities  have  existed  in  their 
progenitors,  and  are  not  merely  acci- 
dental. If  crossing  appear  necessa- 
ry, let  it  be  done  very  gradually  and 
cautiously.  No  experienced  breeder 
would  ever  expect  to  improve  the 
fleece  of  a  sheep  of  the  Leicester 
breed  or  the  carcass  of  the  Merino  by 
a  direct  cross  between  these  two 
breeds.  The  offspring  would  most 
probably  lose  all  the  good  qualities 
for  which  each  hreed  is  noted,  and 
produce  a  mongrel  breed  worth  little 
in  comparison.  But  a  cross  of  Meri- 
noes  with  South  Downs,  or  Leicester 
with  Costwold,  might  produce  new 
and  useful  breeds,  and  these,  carefully 
selected,  as  has  been  done,  have  pro- 
duced mixed  breeds,  which  by  great 
attention  may  become  very  valuable. 

■\Mien  it  is  determined  what  breed 
of  animals  you  wish  to  perpetuate  and 
improve,  the  individuals  which  are  to 
be  the  parents  of  the  stock  cannot  be 
too  carefully  selected.  The  more 
nearly  they  are  alike  in  form,  colour, 
and  exterior  appearance,  the  more 
likely  they  are  to  produce  a  distinct 
race.  They  should  neither  be  above 
nor  under  the  usual  size.  They  should 
be  of  such  an  age  as  to  have  entirely 
ceased  growing,  and  be  arrived  at 
perfect  maturity  ;  and,  whatever  may 
be  their  good  qualities,  they  should 
not  be  selected,  if  they  are  the  prod- 
uce of  very  aged  parents,  at  least  on 
the  female  side. 

In  horses  and  horned  cattle  many 
breeders  prefer  a  male  rather  less  in 
size  than  the  female,  and  pretend  that 
the  fuetus  has  more  room  to  develop 
its  members  in  what  they  term  a  roomy 
female.  There  may  be  some  truth  in 
this,  but  equality  of  size,  or  rather  the 
due  proportion  established  in  nature, 
seems  most  likely  to  produce  a  well- 
formed  offspring.  Any  considerable 
deviation  from  this  is  generally  at- 
tended with  defect.  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  for  a  country  gentle- 
man who  has  a  useful,  favourite  mare, 
not  particularly  well  bred,  when  any 
accident  has  rendered  her  unfit  for 
work,  to  have  her  covered  by  some 
very  high-bred  stallion,  expecting  to 
111 


BRE 


BRE 


Iiave  a  very  superior  foal.  Sometimes 

lliis  succeeds,  but  in  genera!  it  ends 
in  disappointment,  especially  if  tlie 
mare  be  small.  A  much  more  certain 
way  is  to  choose  a  half-bred  stallion, 
nearly  of  the  size  of  the  mare,  and 
having  those  good  points  which  the 
mare  already  possesses.  In  this  case 
there  is  every  probability  of  rearing  a 
well-proportioned  and  useful  animal, 
instead  of  a  cross-made  one,  as  the 
breeders  call  them,  probably  from  the 
very  circumstance  of  these  crosses  not 
succeeding  in  general.  We  advert  to 
this  as  a  fact  which  many  of  our  read- 
ers may  know  from  experience. 

To  give  in  a  few  words  the  rules 
which  result  from  what  we  have  very 
brietly  stated : 

Choose  the  kind  of  animal  which 
you  wish  to  breed  from,  having  dis- 
tinguishing qualities  ;  keep  these  con- 
stantly in  view,  and  reject  all  individ- 
uals in  which  they  are  not  as  perfect 
at  least  as  in  the  parents.  Select  the 
most  perfect  forms,  and  let  the  de- 
fects be  corrected  gradually.  Have 
patience  and  perseverance,  and  avoid 
all  attempts  at  any  sudden  alteration 
by  bold  crosses.  If  possible,  breed 
two  or  more  famdies  of  the  same 
kind,  keeping  them  distinct,  and  only 
occasionally  crossing  the  one  with  the 
other.  In  this  manner  a  very  impro- 
ved breed  may  be  produced.  The  near- 
er you  approach  to  perfection,  the 
more  ditficult  will  be  the  selection,  | 
and  the  greater  the  danger  of  retro-  j 
grading.  Hence  in  very  highly  bred 
stocks  it  is  often  almost  impossible  to 
keep  up  the  perfection  of  the  breed, 
and  a  fluctuation  in  the  quality  of  the 
produce  will  take  place.  The  more 
improved  the  breed  is,  therefore,  the 
greater  attention  must  be  paid  in  the 
selection  of  those  which  are  to  con- 
tinue it.  And  for  want  of  this,  al- 
most every  breed,  however  reputed 
it  may  have  been  at  one  time,  grad-  J 
ually  degenerates,  and  loses  its  great  i 
superiority.  I 

As  every  farmer  and  occupier  of 
land  is  more  or  less  a  breeder,  if  he 
be  only  a  breeder  of  pigs,  these  ob- 
servations may  be  useful.     In  the  ar-  j 
tides  on  each  particidar  species  of  j 
112 


animal,  these  general  principles  are 
applied,  and  more  particular  direc- 
tions are  given. 

BREEDIXG  IN  AND  IN.  This 
is  very  injurious  ultimately  both  in 
animals  and  man. 

BREEDING  PONDS.  Ponds  for 
raising  j-oung  fish  ;  they  should  have 
shallows  with  reeds  and  sedges.  Pike 
and  pickerel  are  in  the  habit  of  devour- 
ing the  spawn  when  they  can  reach  It. 
BREEZE  FLIES.  The  bot  flies, 
JSslridcB. 

BREWING.  The  making  of  beer. 
This  consists  of  the  following  opera- 
tions :  1st.  The  malt,  properly  ground 
or  crushed,  is  put  into  a  large  tub 
with  a  false  bottom,  perforated  by  nu- 
merous holes,  and  furnished  with  a 
faucet.  Over  the  malt,  water,  heated 
from  170=  to  185°,  is  poured,  and  the 
whole  well  stirred  or  mashed  together 
for  some  time.  It  is  then  allowed  to 
settle,  and  the  infusion  drawn  off  into 
another  tub.  If  two  varieties  of  beer, 
ale  and  small  beer,  be  desired,  this 
first  portion  is  kept  separate,  other- 
wise it  is  mixed  with  the  second 
infusion.  The  second  mash-water 
should  be  nearly  200°  Fahrenheit. 
Four  bushels  of  malt  are  treated  to 
one  and  a  half  barrel,  or  fifty-one  gal- 
lons of  water,  each  mashing.  The 
second  infusion,  after  standing  to  set- 
tle, is  also  drawn  off,  and  the  two  to- 
gether form  the  sweet  wort. 

2d.  The  worts,  mixed  or  separate, 
and  even  mixed  with  a  third  int'usion, 
are  next  transferred  to  the  boiler,  and 
hops  added.  The  amount  of  hops  de- 
pends partly  on  the  taste  and  partly 
on  the  strength  of  the  beer ;  for  com- 
mon beer  four  pounds  to  the  four  bush- 
els will  answer.  For  the  strongest 
ales  as  much  as  twenty-eight  pounds 
are  used.  This  mixture  is  boiled  an 
hour  and  a  half  or  more,  until  the 
fluid  begins  to  assume  a  bright  colour. 
3d.  It  is  then  drawn  oil"  into  cool- 
ers, or  at  once  into  the  fermenting 
tuns.  When  cooled  to  about  60° 
Fahrenheit,  two  pounds  of  fresh  yeast 
are  added  to  every  thirty-four  gallons 
of  wort,  and  the  tun  kept  at  the  same 
temperature.  As  soon  as  fermenta- 
tion is  fairly  established,  and  its  first 


Bill 


BRI 


violence  somewhat  subsided,  the  li- 
quor is  transferred  to  suitable  casks, 
the  bunghole  of  which  is  left  open  as 
long  as  yeast  is  cast  up,  and  afterward 
securely  fastened.  As  soon  as  the 
beer  or  alcoholic  fermentation  ceases, 
vinegar  begins  to  form,  and  the  w'hole 
sours. 

A  wort  may  be  prepared  from  any 
sweet  juice  or  germinated  seed,  and, 
treated  in  the  same  way,  will  make 
beer.  The  strength  of  ales  depends 
on  the  large  quantity  of  sugar  in  the 
wort.  Porters  are  coloured  by  brown 
malt,  molasses,  &c.  Numerous  bit- 
ters, many  very  injurious,  as  Cocculus 
Indicus,  are  used  instead  of  hops. 

BRICKS.  Blocks  of  burned  clay 
eight  inches  long,  four  wide,  by  two 
and  a  half  deep.  Larger  moulds  are 
made  for  particular  purposes.  Build- 
ings have  been  recently  erected  of 
unburned  bricks,  which  appear  to  be 
cheap,  substantial,  and  durable  when 
protected  on  the  outside  by  cement 
or  mortar.  The  following  account 
of  the  method  employed  in  Geneva, 
New- York,  gives  all  the  necessary 
details  : 

The  materials  are  two  parts  clay, 
one  sand,  with  straw  and  water,  as  in 
ordinary  brick-making.  It  is  well 
trodden  or  worked  by  oxen  until 
sticky.  With  the  materials  for  one 
thousand  bricks  three  hundred  pounds 
of  straw  are  mixed.  The  bricks  are 
moulded  with  an  ordinary  wooden 
frame,  of  the  size  intended  for  the 
wall,  so  as  to  form  it  one  brick  deep. 
For  a  building  thirty  feet  in  height, 
bricks  eighteen  inches  square,  and  six 
deep ;  for  lower  cottages,  twelve  inch- 
es square  will  answer.  The  mould  is 
dipped  in  water,  sanded,  and  then  fill- 
ed with  clay,  and  struck  with  a  piece 
of  wood.  The  fresh-made  brick  should 
be  sanded  if  the  day  be  hot.  They  are 
set  flat  on  the  dry  ground  on  boards, 
and  towards  night  the  sets  are  cov- 
ered with  boards.  The  next  day  they 
are  set  on  end,  with  spaces  between 
the  bricks,  and  after  four  days  of  fine 
weather  they  are  piled  up  with  air 
spaces,  and  covered  with  boards.  In 
a  fortnight  they  are  ready  for  use. 

The  foundations  are  set  in  stone  or 

K2 


burned  bricks,  two  feet  above  the 

earth,  and  the  first  course  of  blocks  put 
down  in  water-liine.  Interior  parti- 
tions are  put  up  with  bricks  of  the  ordi- 
nary size.  Windows  and  doors  should 
not  be  fixed  permanently  at  once,  but 
left  until  the  building  is  well  set.  Fix- 
tures to  the  wall  are  fastened  into 
timbers  introduced  during  the  build- 
ing. Fire-places  m.ust  be  of  burned 
brick.  The  roof  must  project  suffi- 
ciently to  keep  water  from  running 
into  the  materials. 

A  coating  of  water-lime  or  cement 
completes  the  building,  which  is  said 
to  be  warm  and  perfectly  free  from 
dampness,  and  very  much  cheaper 
than  wood.  "  A  house  in  Geneva, 
New- York,  twenty-one  by  twenty- 
seven  feet,  and  two  stories  high,  cost 
less,  when  completed,  than  four  hun- 
dred dollars."'  For  a  fuller  account, 
see  the  Home  Missionary  for  Septem- 
ber, 1844. 

BRICK  EARTH.  Any  stiff  clay, 
containing  fifty  to  seventy  per  cent, 
of  real  clay,  and  the  rest  sand :  the 
latter  of  these  answers  also  for  tiles. 
It  is  either  blue  or  red. 

BRIDLE.  A  contrivance  made  of 
straps  or  thongs  of  leather,  and  pie- 
ces of  iron,  in  order  to  keep  a  horse 
in  subjection,  and  direct  him  in  trav- 
elling. The  several  parts  of  a  bridle 
are  the  bit  or  snaffle  ;  the  head-stall, 
or  leather  from  the  top  of  the  head  to 
the  rings  of  the  bit ;  the  fillet,  over 
the  forehead  and  under  the  fore-top  ; 
tlie  throat-band,  which  buckles  from 
the  head-band  under  the  throat  ;  the 
nose-bands,  going  through  the  loops 
at  the  back  of  the  head-stall,  and  buck- 
led under  the  cheeks ;  the  reins,  or 
long  thongs  of  leather  that  come  from 
the  rings  of  the  bit,  and  which,  be- 
ing cast  over  the  horse's  head,  the  ri- 
der holds  in  his  hands. 

BRIMSTONE.  Roll  sulphur,  made 
by  melting  and  casting  common  sul- 
phur.    vSee  Sulphur. 

BRINING  GRAIN.  Grain  and  the 
seeds  of  grasses,  &c.,  are  often  pre- 
pared, before  sowing,  by  being  intro- 
duced into  a  strong  brine,  which  may 
be  heated  to  150°  Fahrenheit,  or  even 
higher.  The  brine  is  made  by  adding 
113 


BKr 


BRO 


common  coarse  or  refuse  salt  to  \va- 1 
ter  until  it  is  strong  enough  to  float  j 
an  egg.  The  brined  seed  is  afterward 
dusted  with  ncwly-slackcd  lime,  and 
sown.  The  great  benefit  is  the  de- 
struction of  the  seeds  of  smut,  rust, 
mildew,  and  other  blights  :  when  heat 
is  added,  the  eggs  of  many  insects 
are  also  killed.  Stale  urine  is  also 
used  with  great  effect  in  the  same 
way,  as  well  as  strong  wood-ash  lye. 
The  plan  of  brining  is  extensively 
resorted  to  throughout  England  and 
Scotland  with  great  success  ;  indeed, 
so  beneficial  does  small  doses  of  salt 
appear,  that  on  the  seashore,  and  on 
farms  where  refuse  salt  is  used,  smut 
is  almost  unknown.  A  solution  of  one 
pound  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water  is 
recommended  as  a  wash  or  sprinkling 
for  plants  infested  by  mildew  and  oth- 
er fungi  by  the  late  Mr.  Cartwright.  It 
is,  however,  injurious  to  some  vege- 
tables. Brining  has  been  often  found 
to  save  a  field  from  rust  and  smut 
when  all  other  grain  was  infested. 

BRISTLES.  The  stiffhair  of  hogs. 
Independently  of  their  economical  val- 
ue, they  constitute  a  manure  as  good 
as  old  woollen  rags,  containing,  in- 
deed, the  same  substances,  and  yield- 
ing ammonia  by  decay.  Wliere  they 
can  be  had  in  sufficient  quantities, 
one  half  to  three  fourths  of  a  ton  is  a 
heavy  manuring  for  five  years  for  hops, 
turnips,  cabbages,  tobacco,  hemp,  flax, 
wheat,  corn,  and  rich  plants  gener- 
ally. The  same  applies  to  all  kinds 
of  waste  hair  or  wool. 

BRITISH  GUM.  Starch  heated  to 
600'  Fahrenheit,  by  which  it  becomes 
brown  and  soluble  in  cold  water. 

BRITTLE  HOOF.  An  aftection 
of  the  horse's  hoof,  very  common,  es- 
pecially in  summer,  in  England,  from 
bad  stable  management.  A  mixture 
of  one  part  of  oil  of  tar  and  two  of 
common  fish  oil,  well  rubbed  into  the 
crust  and  the  hoof,  will  restore  the 
natural  pliancy  and  toughness  of  the 
horn,  and  very  much  contribute  to  the 
quickness  of  its  growth. — {Youatl  on 
the  Horse.) 

BRIZA.      The   generic  name  of 
the  quaking  grass  (B.  media).     It  is  a 
poor  perennial  grass. 
114 


BROAD-CAST  SOAVING.  The 
distribution  of  seed  or  manures  over 
land  by  casting  with  the  hand  or  by 
a  maciiine.  The  sower  carries  a  bas- 
ket on  tlie  left  arm,  and  throws  with 
his  right  hand  as  he  walkes  along  be- 
tween the  lands  or  ridges  of  the  field, 
sowing  one  half  its  width  in  going, 
and  the  other  half  in  returning  on  the 
other  side.  Small  seeds  are  usually 
cast  with  some  earth.  It  requires  ex- 
perience and  good  ploughing  to  seed 
well,  for  unless  the  ridges  between 
each  furrow  are  well  marked,  so  as 
to  present  grooves  to  receive  seed, 
they  will  not  grow  in  rows  ;  but  when 
the  furrows  are  nicely  laid  the  plants 
appear  as  regularly  as  if  drilled.  Of 
late  it  has  been  customary  to  dispar- 
age sowing  by  broad-cast,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  waste  of  seed,  the  ten- 
dency to  weeds  in  the  ground,  and 
the  difficulty  of  exterminating  them. 
To  avoid  these  evils,  drills  are  intro- 
duced. The  broad-cast  method  is  cer- 
tainly altogether  inapplicable  to  tur- 
nips or  any  other  crop  requiring  hoe- 
ing, or  liable  to  destruction  from 
weeds,  and  is  now  seldom  practised  in 
such  cases  ;  but  wheat,  grains,  grass- 
es, fallow  crops,  &c.,  are  thus  sown 
most  readily  and  very  effectively. 
Machines  for  broad-casting  are  of  lit- 
tle utility  where  the  farmer  has  a  lit- 
tle experience. 

BROCCOLI.  An  improved  variety 
of  cabbage,  the  flower  buds  of  which 
are  eaten.  It  differs  from  the  cauli- 
flower only  in  the  looseness  of  the  in- 
florescence. The  varieties  are  nu- 
merous, the  early  white  and  white 
cape  being  best  ;  but  the  purple  cape 
is  the  only  kind  much  cultivated.  The 
seeds  of  the  last  are  sown  towards 
the  end  of  May  in  the  Middle  States, 
and  later  in  the  South ;  for  winter 
supplies  later  sowmg  will  be  neces- 
sary. An  ounce  of  seed  produces 
3000  to  4000  plants.  Transplant  in 
July,  or  when  the  plants  are  large 
enough,  into  very  rich,  dunged,  and 
mellow  earth  ;  plant  18  to  24  inches 
apart  each  way ;  moisten  the  earth 
frequently  with  fluid  manure :  hoe 
and  keep  clean  during  their  growth. 
They  will  be  in  season  in  September 


BRO 


BRO 


and  October.  For  winter  kintls,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  take  plants  up  as 
soon  as  slight  frosts  appear,  lay  them 
in  light  soil,  and  place  them  in  frames, 
to  ripen  during  winter  and  early 
spring.  In  tlie  Southern  -Slates  the 
winters  are  mild  enough  to  allow  of 
their  growth  abroad. 

BROKEN  KNEES.  See  Horse, 
Diseases  of. 

BROKEN  WIND.  Prof.  Youatt 
attributes  this  incurable  nuisance  in 
horses  to  stuffing  them  with  too  much 
coarse  provender,  and  working  soon 
after  meals.  Horses  are  granivor- 
ous,  and  should  rest  at  least  one  hour 
after  food,  be  fed  three  times  daily, 
and  not  once  or  twice. 

BROMINE.  An  elementary  brown 
fluid,  of  a  rile  odour  {Spuuog),  extract- 
ed from  salt-water  and  sea-weeds. 
It  is  very  similar  to  chloriiie  in  its 
properties  ;  hitherto  used  only  by  Da- 
guerrian  artists.  Its  scarcity  makes 
it  very  expensive. 

BROMUS.  A  genus  of  grasses,  of 
which  B.  secalinvs,  common  cheat,  or 
chess,  is  most  famous.  Many  species 
exist  in  America,  but  they  are  not  of 
value  in  permanent  meadows. 

BRONCHIA,  i^poyxo^,  the  throat.) 
The  ramifications  of  the  windpipe  in 
the  lungs. 

BRONCHITIS.  Inflammation  of 
the  bronchia.    See  Horse,  Diseases  of. 

BRONCHOTOMY.  The  operation 
of  openins  the  trachea  low  down. 

BROOD-MARES.  Mares  should 
not  breed  till  three  years  old.  When 
taken  care  of  they  bear  twenty  years. 
They  heat  in  spring,  and  carry  young 
about  eleven  months.  May  is  the 
best  month  for  covering. 

BROOM.  The  European  shrub 
Spartium  scoparium,  which  bears 
bright-yellow  papilionaceous  flowers, 
and  is  hence  cultivated  in  shrubber- 
ies. It  is  used  also  as  a  cover  for 
game  and  shelter  to  young  planta- 
tions. iS.  jnncenm,  Spanish  broom, 
is  prettier,  and  fragrant.  5.  mono- 
spermnm  bears  white  flowers.  These 
are  common,  except  the  last,  through- 
out the  United  States. 

BROOM-CORN.  The  Sorsrhum 
saccharatum.     Another  plant,  the  S. 


dora,  is  the  Indian  millet.  The  cul- 
tivation of  broom-corn  for  the  manu- 
facture of  brooms  and  for  seed  is  of 
great  profit  in  the  Yalley  of  the  Con- 
necticut, Mohawk,  and  in  New-.Jer- 
sey.  It  would  be  still  more  profita- 
ble in  the  South,  as  in  these  localities 
the  frost  sometimes  hurts  the  plants 
before  the  seed  ripens. 

The  best  variety  is  the  New- Jer- 
sey, which  yields  upward  of  1000  lbs. 
of  broom,  and  much  seed,  per  acre. 
The  North  River  yields  720  lbs.  The 
pine-tree  variety  is  earliest,  but  small 
and  thin.  The  seed  crop  averages  from 
50  to  80  bushels.  The  best  alluvial 
soils  are  chosen,  and  well  manured. 
The  seed  is  planted  in  May.  at  the  rate 
of  a  tea-spoonful  to  the  hill,  the  hills 
being  three  feet  by  eighteen  inches 
apart,  so  as  to  allow  the  cultivator  to 
run  between  the  rows.  The  hills  are 
dunged  with  old  compost  immediate- 
ly before  sowing.  It  is  hoed  or  work- 
ed three  times,  like  corn.  Seven  to 
ten  plants  are  left  in  the  hill ;  the 
thinning  takes  place  at  the  first  hoe- 
ing. The  crop  is  harvested  at  the 
first  frost.  The  stems  are  bent,  or 
partly  broken  2.V  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  left  to  dry  for  a  few  days  ;  the 
stalks  are  next  cut.  at  six  or  eight 
inches  from  the  brush.  The  produce 
is  next  dried  in  the  barn  on  scaffolds, 
or  in  any  convenient  way.  The  best 
broom  is  cut  when  of  a  yellowish 
green.  The  seed  is  removed  by  pull- 
ing the  panicles  or  brooms  through  a 
scraper,  which  tears  them  ofl^.  Mr. 
Allen,  of  Massachusetts,  who  has  had 
much  experience  in  this  matter,  rec- 
oiiunends  the  following  contrivance  : 


The  lower  board  rests  on  the  barn 
floor;  the  upper  is  moveable  by  a 
hinge,  and  can  be  set  at  any  height ;  it 
is  intended  to  grasp  the  three  upright 
rods,  B  ;  the  central  is  of  stout  iron, 
the  side  ones  of  elastic  steel.  The 
115 


BllU 

panicles  are  forced  down  between 
these  rods,  and  tlicn  pulled  towards 
A  ;  thus  the  seed  is  torn  ofT,  and  slides 
down  the  ui)pcr  hoard  into  the  barn. 

The  seeds  are  worth  twenty-five  to 
thirty  cents  the  bushel,  and  arc  con- 
sidered equal  to  oats.  The  broom 
sells  at  from  four  to  six  cents  the 
pound.  It  is  a  very  profitable  crop, 
and  will  remain  so,  from  the  large 
exportations  of  brooms.  The  large 
quantity  of  seed  it  produces  consti- 
tutes it  a  very  exhausting  crop. 

BROOM  GRASS,  or  STRAW. 
The  genus  Andropoiron,  so  called  from 
the  little  tufts  of  hair  or  beards  on 
their  flowers.  They  are  not  introdu- 
ced into  culture,  and  have  little  eco- 
nomical value. 

BROWN  DYES.  The  common- 
est are  the  decoctions  of  oak  bark, 
common  bastard  marjoram,  walnut 
peels,  horse-chestnut  peels,  and  cate- 
chu. Oak  bark  and  walnut  (English 
walnut  is  best)  give  dyes  without 
mordants,  but  are  brightened  by  al- 
um. Catechu  (1  lb.)  combined  with 
blue  vitriol  (4  oz.)  gives  a  bronze 
when  used  in  a  boiling  solution.  The 
tints  of  brown  are,  however,  so  nu- 
merous, that  it  is  more  common  to 
use  madder  as  a  basis  for  the  red 
tints,  fustic  for  the  yellows,  and  use 
solution  of  iron  and  copper  as  mor- 
dants, and  even  a  gall-nut  hath  after- 
ward, to  reach  the  proper  shade. 

BROWSE.  The  young  branches 
of  trees,  shrubs,  &c.     {v.)  To  feed. 

BRUCHUS.  A  Linnaean  genus 
of  coleopterous  insects,  of  the  tribe 
Hhyncophora,  now  the  type  of  a  fam- 
ily {Bruchula-),  with  the  following 
characters  :  upper  lip  distinct ;  head 
produced  anteriorly  into  a  broad,  flat- 
tened snout ;  palpi  filiform  ;  antenna 
filiform  or  serrate ;  eyes  notched ; 
wing-sheaths  not  covering  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  body.  The  insects  of 
this  family  deposite  their  eggs  in  the 
young  grains  or  seeds  of  legumin- 
ous plants  ;  the  time  of  the  hatching 
of  the  eggs  is  when  the  seeds  have 
approached  to  maturity,  and  then  the 
larvae  begin  to  feed  voraciously  upon 
them.  One  species,  the  Bruchus  gra- 
narius,  infests  our  pease  ;  and  the  rav- 
IIG 


BUG 

ages  of  this  insect  and  the  Bruchvs 
pisi  have  been  so  extensive  as  to  call 
for  legislative  interference. 

BRUCIA.  A  vegetable  alkaloid, 
simihir  to  strychnine,  and  poisonous. 

BRUMALIS.  (Bruina,ici?t(er.)  Ap- 
pertaining to  winter. 

BRYONY.  Bryonia  dioica.  K  climb- 
ing herb,  of  a  poisonous  nature. 

BUCK.  The  male  of  deer,  rab- 
bits, &c. 

BUCK-BEAN.  Menyanthcs  trifoli- 
ala.  A  swamp  plant,  with  handsome 
flowers  and  bitter  leaves.  The  latter 
are  used  as  a  substitute  for  hops,  and 
are  a  mild  tonic. 

BUCK-EYE.  Two  western  trees 
bear  this  name,  the  Pavia  lutea  and 
Ohiocnsis;  they  belong  to  the  same 
family  as  the  horse-chestnut.  They 
are  wholly  ornamental,  the  wood  be- 
ing of  no  value  as  timber. 

BUCK-THORN.  The  Rhamnus  ca- 
tharticus.  A  prickly  shrub,  suitable  for 
hedges.  It  is  indigenous  in  New- 
York,  and  easily  cultivated  by  seeds, 
slips,  or  suckers.  The  berries  are  ca- 
thartic and  griping.  The  R.  infecto- 
rius,  a  similar  shrub,  produces  the  fa- 
mous French  or  Persian  yellow  ber- 
ries used  in  dyeing.  It  might  be  read- 
ily cultivated  south  of  Maryland,  as  it 
grows  in  Provence. 

BUCKWHEAT.  The  grain  pro- 
duced by  the  Polygonum  fagopyrum 
(rt),  tartaricum  (b),  and  a  few  other 
species.  In  the  United  States  the 
first  only  is  cultivated  ;  but  it  is  said 
a  new  wild  Italian  species  yields  more 
abundantly.  The  seeds  are  small, 
dark,  and  angular.  From  twenty  to 
thirty  bushels  are  obtained  from  the 
common  kind  per  acre.  Buckwheat 
is  usually  sown  on  rocky  places  or 
poor  soils,  of  a  silicious  or  calcare- 
ous nature  ;  but  it  grows  well  nearly 
anywhere.  It  may  be  sown  in  May 
for  a  full  crop  ;  or  immediately  after 
wheat,  rye,  or  oats,  for  a  fall  crop  ;  or 
still  later,  to  be  fallowed  in  the  fall. 
From  1  to  U  bushels  are  necessary  to 
the  acre.  It  soon  starts  in  a  dry, 
warm  soil ;  flowers  in  July  or  earlier, 
and  continues  producing  flowers  for 
some  time.  As  it  is  a  native  of  Per- 
sia, the  least  frost  is  injurious  ;   it 


BUG 


7^y     ,  ~-Ki.- 

should  therefore  be  cut  early  in  Oc 
tober,  or  at  the  end  of  September. 
As  the  seeds  scatter,  some  recom- 
mend pulling  by  the  roots  ;  but  a  cra- 
dle-scythe answers  every  purpose.  In 
consequence  of  the  succulence  of  the 
stems,  it  requires  to  be  sweated  in 
cock  ^vhen  dried  for  fodder,  and 
should  be  threshed  as  early  as  con- 
venient. The  stalk,  well  cured,  is  a 
good  rough  fodder,  and  forms  a  valu- 
able addition  to  the  cattle-yard.  ]\I. 
Antoine  has  shown,  on  the  most  au- 
thentic data,  that  it  is  very  superior 
to  common  straw,  and  of  half  the 
value  of  prime  hay. 

As  a  fallow  crop,  it  is  very  valua- 
ble, from  the  size  (2  feet)  if  attains 
on  poor  sands,  and  the  ease  with 
which  it  ferments  and  yields  food  to 
the  next  crop.  The  flowers  are 
sought  by  bees,  but  form  a  dark,  rath- 
er harsh  honey.  It  is  also  cut  in 
flower  for  soiling  milch  cows,  and  is 
very  good  mixed  with  clover,  but  too 
much  is  apt  to  produce  drowsiness. 
Poultry  and  all  cattle  eat  the  seeds  or 
meal.  It  is  rather  superior  to  oats, 
as  the  following  composition  shows  ; 

Woody  fibre 25 

Starch 50 

Albumen,  &,c 145 

Oil 04 

Salts 1-5 

Water 160 

TocT 


BUD 

Its  ashes  sometimes  contain  an 
exoess  of  potash  salts,  sometimes  of 
lime,  thaee  being  isomorphous. 

The  scods  are  ground  into  meal 
for  making  buckwheat  cakes,  which 
are  highly  relished  throughout  the 
country.  In  Germany  malt  is  made 
with  them,  and  beer  and  spirits. 
Birds,  especially  pheasants,  are  very 
fond  of  them.  The  Maine  farmer 
recommends  the  cultivation  of  buck- 
wheat to  destroy  couch  grass  ;  the 
first  crop  is  to  be  ploughed  in  when 
flowering,  and  another  seeded  upon 
it  at  once  ;  from  the  last,  grain  may 
be  collected. 

Some  species  of  polygonum  yield 
good  yellow  dyes,  as  the  Siberian ; 
others,  as  the  bistorta,  are  acrid  and 
poisonous. 

BUD.  The  growing  point  of  a 
branch,  consisting  of  young  unex- 
panded  leaflets  or  flower  petals. 
Winter  buds  contain  a  small  store  of 
starch  and  albumen  at  their  base  to 
sustain  the  leaflets  in  spring.  Flower 
buds  are  usually  developed  on  spurs  or 
in  the  axils  of  leaves,  while  leaf  buds 
are  seen  on  the  vigorous  shoots.  All 
buds  are  in  contact  with  the  inner 
bark  of  trees,  and  with  the  young 
wood,  from  which  latter  they  derive 
sap  for  development.  Adventitious 
or  latent  buds  are  such  as  break  out 
from  the  bark  of  trees  without  hav- 
ing any  external  sign  or  eye  ;  they 
are,  however,  marked  on  willows  by 
roughnesses  on  the  bark,  in  other 
trees  by  knaurs.  In  all  that  respects 
structure  and  function,  the  eyes  ot 
potatoes,  dahlias,  the  bulbs  of  tulips, 
onions,  and  all  seeds  are  perfect  buds, 
tliese  different  parts  being  modifica- 
tions of  the  same  general  plan. 

The  development  of  lower  buds  in 
trees  or  branches  is  readily  effected 
by  cutting  away  the  upper,  which,  as 
they  are  more  excitable,  usually  take 
the  first  start,  and,  using  all  the  sap, 
hinder  the  growth  of  the  lower  eyes. 

BUDDING.  The  insertion  or  in- 
oculation of  the  buds  of  one  tree  into 
the  branches  or  stock  of  another. 
The  buds  are  to  be  taken  from  the 
year's  shoot  about  midway,  and  from 
a  healiiiy,  full-bearing  "tree.  The 
117 


BUD 


BUF 


time  is  from  July  to  September, 
as  soon  as  buds  are  well  formed. 
The  incision  into  the  slock  is  through 
the  bark  down  to  the  new  wood  and 
in  the  form  of  a  T;  this  can  be  made 
with  any  knife,  but  the  following  is 
called  a  buddinc  knife  : 


The  bark  must  be  raised  at  the  an- 
gles, and  should  separate  readily  from 
the  wood.  The  bud  is  cut  along  with 
a  b  abouthalf  an  inch  of  bark 
(a),  and  slightly  into  the 
wood,  so  that  the  part  im- 
mediately below  the  eye 
may  be  so  furnished,  and 
not  hollow.  The  wood  re- 
moved is  only  to  ensure 
the  heart  of  the  bud,  and  as  little  as 
possible  is  left  in  the  insertion.  The 
part  above  the  eye  is  then  cut  straight 
(i),  and  the  bud  introduced  between 
the  lips  of  the  wound  on  the  stock, 
down  to  the  new  wood,  and  pushed 
in  firmly,  the  upper  cut  part  corre- 
sponding very  nicely  with  the  hori- 
zontal incision.  A  bass  riband,  a 
strip  from  the  shuck  of  corn,  or  any 
other  bandage  that  does  not  hold  wa- 
ter, is  then  cast  round  the  stock  two 
or  three  times  above  the  bud,  and 
gradually  brought  round  so  as  to  bind 
the  insertion  tightly,  except  over  the 
eye.  The  riband  must  be  loosened 
in  two  or  three  weeks  if  the  bud 
swells,  so  as  to  give  room  for  growth. 
Spring  budding  is  also  practised,  the 
winter's  bud  of  a  tree  being  inserted 
at  the  time  of  sap  rise  ;  the  only  dif- 
ference in  this  case  is,  that  the  inci- 
sion is  inverted  thus  J^,  and  care  is  to 
be  taken  that  the  bud  has  been  cut  a 
few  days,  so  as  to  be  rather  behind 
the  vegetation  of  the  stock. 

The  stock  or  branch  after  budding 
is  to  be  lopped  down  by  a  clean  trans- 
verse cut  at  about  three  buds  above 
the  insertion,  all  the  lower  buds  being 
removed.  In  spring,  or  when  the  in- 
sertion starts,  it  is  to  have  full  room, 
and  as  it  gathers  strength,  the  upper 
natural  shoots  from  the  buds  left  are 
to  be  pruned,  and  finally  cut  altogeth- 
er away  towards  midsummer,  if  the 
msertion  has  taken  well. 
118 


Budding  is  practised  to  secure 
choice  varieties  of  fruits,  to  mix  or- 
namental kinds  on  the  same  tree,  and 
to  improve  shrubbery.  But  the  pro- 
cess is  seldom  successful  unless  the 
stock  and  variety  are  of  the  same 
species  or  nearly  allied.  The  only 
difhculty  in  the  way  is  the  entrance 
of  rain  water  into  the  wound  of  the 
stock  ;  to  hinder  this  effectively,  it  is 
well  to  add  a  little  cement  of  tallow 
and  wax  over  the  incision,  or  to  use 
bass  dipped  in  such  a  mixture  while 
warm. 

In  the  dahlia,  orange,  and  some 
other  trees  cultivated  for  dwarfs,  the 
bud  is  inserted  on  a  piece  of  the  root 
instead  of  a  stock  ;  this  is,  however, 
termed  grafting,  as  it  is  introduced  in 
the  cleft  fashion. 

BUFFALO.  The  American  buffa- 
lo or  bison  (Bos  Amcricanus),  once  in- 
habiting the  central  portions  of  the 
United  States,  are  now  driven  be- 
yond the  Mississippi.  They  are  found 
in  immense  flocks,  and  are  very  timid 
and  retired,  except  in  the  rutting  sea- 
son, when  the  bulls  become  fierce  and 
pugnacious.  Tlie  animal  is  remark- 
able for  a  hump  on  the  back  between 
the  shoulders,  for  a  long  mane,  broad 
chest,  and  great  strength  of  head  and 
neck.  The  buffalo  breeds  readily  with 
domestic  oxen,  but  the  young  of  the 
bull  buffalo  is  too  large  for  the  pelvis 
of  the  common  cow  ;  hence  the  mix- 
ture can  only  be  made  by  crossing 
the  wild  cow  by  the  domestic  ox. 
Captain  Jenkins,  of  Missouri,  has  sev- 
eral half-breeds  of  this  kind,  which 
promise  to  be  capital  draught  ani- 
mals, large,  heavy,  hardy,  and  easily 
sustained. 

The  skin  is  handsome,  black,  and 
glossy,  and  a  considerable  article  of 
trade.  The  hide,  tanned,  is  said  to 
be  softer,  thicker,  and  less  pervious 
to  water  than  the  ox  hide. 

BUFFALO  BERRIES.  The  fruit 
of  the  Shcphardia  (or  Hippophcc)  argcn- 
tea,  silver-leafed  shephardia.  A  hand- 
some, thorny,  small  tree  of  Missouri. 
It  is  diaecious,  the  fruit  scarlet,  of  the 
size  of  currants,  in  profuse  clusters. 
It  is  said  to  be  rich  in  flavour,  and  ex- 
cellent for  pies  and  preserves. 


BUR 


BUS 


BUFFALO  GRASS.  A  Western 
indigenous  grass  of  small  size,  form- 
ing a  delicate  mat.  and  growing  on 
dry,  gravelly  soils.  The  s^ama  grass 
is  sometimes  called  by  this  name. 

BUG.  A  common  word,  meaning 
any  insect,  hut  properly  applied  only 
to  the  bedbug  (Cimex  Icctularius), 
which  is  the  upe  of  an  extensive 
family  of  filthy  insects  which  accumu- 
late from  neglect  of  cleanliness  and 
laziness.  Solutions  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate in  water,  ointments  with  the 
same  poison,  and  fumigations  with 
tobacco  are  used  with  success  in  de- 
stroying these  insects.  Boiling  wa- 
ter poured  into  the  crevices  of  beds, 
and  repeated  every  week  during 
spring,  is  very  efficacious. 

BUHR-STONE.  The  mill-stone  for 
flouring  ;  it  possesses  great  hardness 
with  little  brittleness,  is  cellular,  of  a 
bluish  gray,  and  feebly  translucent. 
The  best  kind  has  a  texture  nearly 
half  cellular,  and  is  entirely  silicious  ; 
the  pieces  or  panes  of  rock  are  bound 
together  by  hoops  of  iron  when  set 
up  for  use.  The  great  and  valuable 
supply  of  buhr-stone  is  from  near  Par- 
is in  the  lacustrine  deposite,  above  the 
gypsum.  It  is  the  latest  rock  forma- 
tion known. 

Buhr-stone  has  been  discovered  in 
Georgia,  near  the  South  Carolina 
boundary,  about  forty  miles  from  the 
sea.     It  lies  above  shell  limestone. 

BULB  (from  3o?.6oc).  A  rounded 
body,  having  the  properties  of  a  bud, 
usually  growing  in  the  ground,  but 
sometimes  produced  by  the  flower 
stalk.  Bulbs  are  lumcated,  as  the 
onion,  and  squamous  or  scaly,  like  the 
lily.  Many  bulbs,  when  cut  down 
through  the  centre,  and  planted  in 
pieces,  produce  several  plants.  On- 
ions are  cultivated  in  this  way  in 
Russia.  The  adjectives  bulbous,  hul- 
bosus,  are  formed  from  bulb.  The 
fleshy,  solid  root-stock  of  orchis  is 
not  a  bulb,  hut  cormus. 

BULBODIU.M.  An  underground 
stem  resembling  the  root-stock. 

BULL.  The  excellence  of  the  bull 
should  be  well  considered  in  breedinii. 

BULLACE.  A  wild  plum  of  alight 
colour. 


BURDOCK.  Arctium  lappa,  and 
bordana.  Troublesome,  long-rooted 
weeds,  difficult  to  eradicate.  Their 
medicinal  (pialities  are  imaginary. 
BURNED  CLAY.  See  Clai/. 
BURNED  EAR.  The  disease  pro- 
duced in  grain  by  the  Urcdo  carho.  It 
resembles  smut,  but  does  not  attack 
the  interior  of  the  seed.  It  is  most 
common  on  heavily-dunged  lands  in 
moist  situations.  Bnmng,  especial- 
ly in  a  brine  containing  a  little  blue 
vitriol,  is  efficacious  in  destroying  its 
effects  on  grain. 

BURNET  SALAD.  Potcnum  stni- 
guisorba.  It  grows  on  the  poorest 
calcareous  soils,  and  is  perennial.  It 
may  be  propagated  by  cuttings  or 
seeds.  The  leaves  taste  and  smell 
like  cucumbers  ;  hence  its  use  in 
salads.     It  is  relished  by  sheep. 

BURNS.  A  lotion  of  clear  lime- 
water  and  linseed  oil  applied  with  a 
rag,  and  cautiously  guarding  from  ex- 
posure to  air,  dust,  or  to  injury,  by  a 
bandage,  is  the  best  treatment. 

BURSA  MUCOSA.  Small  bags 
contaming  a  fatty  mucus,  situated  be 
tween  the  joints  in  all  animals. 

BUSH.  Any  shrub  which  natural- 
ly throws  out  branches  near  or  under 
ground.  Wild  bushes  are  destroyed 
by  grubbing,  by  cutting  down  during 
summer,  or  by  tearing  up  with  oxen. 
July  is  the  best  month  for  cutting 
thein  down. 

BUSH  DR.'VINING.  Placing  bush- 
es in  the  water-way  of  drains  :  the 
tops  should  be  against  the  current. 
It  answers  well  enough  for  twelve  or 
more  years,  but  is  not  so  permanent 
as  other  means. 

BUSH  HARROWING.     Drawing 
a  bush  attached  to  a  chain  over  bro- 
ken lands  or  seeded  fields  ;  or,  when 
a  weight  is  used,  and  tborny  branch- 
es, it  is  sometimes  employed  to  scar- 
ify meadows   and   prune   the  grass 
roots.     An  old  gate  may  be  used  as 
a  frame,  or  the  more  substantial  con- 
'  trivance  figured  on  the  next  page. 
!      BUSHEL.     A  measure  containing 
4  pecks,  8  gallons,  or  32  quarts.     It 
should  contain  80  pounds  of  water, 
or  2218192  cubic  inches  of  capacity, 
I  to  constitute  an  imperial  bushel.   Tho 
113 


BUTTER. 


old  Winchester  bushel  contained  only 
2150  42  cubic  inches. 

BUSTARD.  Oils  tarda.  A  large 
gallinaceous  fowl  indigenous  to  Eu- 
rope and  Asia,  often  weighing  twen- 
ty-five to  twenty-seven  pounds,  and 
of  delicious  flavour.  It  has  not  yet 
been  domesticated. 

BUTTER.  The  preparation  of 
butter  is  an  important  part  of  rural 
economy.  Butter  is  the  fat  or  oleagi- 
nous part  of  the  milk  of  various  ani- 
mals, principally  of  the  domestic  cow. 
The  milk  of  the  cow  is  composed  of 
three  distinct  ingredients  :  the  curd, 
the  whey,  and  the  butter  ;  the  two 
first  form  the  largest  portion,  and  the 
last  the  most  valuable.  The  compar- 
ative value  of  the  milk  of  different 
cows,  or  of  the  same  cows  fed  on 
different  pastures,  is  estimated  chief- 
ly by  the  quantity  of  butter  contained 
in  it ;  and  in  this  respect  some  breeds 
of  cows  are  far  superior  to  others. 
The  union  of  the  component  parts  of 
milk  is  chiefly  mechanical,  as  they 
separate  by  subsidence  according  to 
their  specific  gravities,  the  cream  be- 
ing the  lightest,  and  the  curd  the 
heaviest  ;  the  curd,  however,  re- 
quires a  slight  cliemical  change  for 
its  separation  from  the  wliey,  which, 
at  the  same  time,  produces  a  peculiar 
acid,  called  the  lactic  acid.  From  the 
moment  that  milk  is  drawn  from  the 
cow  it  begins  to  be  affected  by  the 
air  and  changes  of  temperature,  and 
circumstances  almost  imperceptible 
to  our  senses  will  materially  affect 
its  quality  ;  hence  the  importance  of 
extreme  care  and  attention  in  every 
step  of  the  process  of  the  dairy,  es- 
pecially in  making  butter. 

The  cows  should  be  milked  in  the 
cool  of  the  morning  and  evening  ; 
120 


they  should  not  be  n)ueh  driven  im- 
mediately before  milking,  and  it  is 
best  to  bring  them  to  tlie  place  of 
milking  some  time  before  the  opera- 
tion begins.  In  some  situations  it  is 
better  to  milk  them  in  the  pastures, 
and  carry  the  milk  home  ;  in  others, 
to  drive  the  cows  gently  to  the  cow- 
stall.  In  mountainous  countries  the 
first  mode  is  generally  adopted,  be- 
cause the  cows  are  apt  to  leap  down 
steep  places,  and  shake  the  milk  in 
their  udder  more  than  is  done  by  car- 
rying it  in  the  pail. 

As  the  slightest  acidity  or  putres- 
cence immediately  causes  an  internal 
chemical  action  in  milk,  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  place 
where  the  cows  are  milked,  and  the 
persons  employed,  should  be  of  the 
greatest  purity  and  cleanliness.  The 
milking  house  should  be  paved  with 
stone  or  brick,  and  no  litter  or  dung 
be  permitted  to  remain  in  it.  It 
should  be  w^ashed  out  twice  a  day, 
immediately  before  each  milking, 
which,  besides  en.suring  cleanhness, 
produces  a  refreshing  coolness  high- 
ly useful  to  the  milk.  The  teats  of 
the  cows  should  be  washed  clean 
with  water  and  a  sponge.  The  ves- 
sels into  which  the  milk  is  drawn 
from  the  cow  should  be  made  of  very 
clean  wood  ;  they  should  be  scalded 
immediately  after  having  been  used, 
and  then  exposed  to  the  air,  so  as  to 
be  perfectly  dry  by  the  next  time  of 
using  them.  Tin  vessels  are  prefer- 
able to  wood,  because  they  are  not 
so  easily  tainted,  and  are  more  easily 
kept  clean.  Where  these  are  used 
they  should  always  be  kept  bright,  by 
which  means  the  least  speck  of  dirt 
is  immediately  discovered. 

The  milk,  as  soon  as  it  is  brought 


BUTTEH. 


into  the  dairy,  is  strained  through  a 
fine  sieve  or  cloth,  in  order  to  remove 
any  extraneous  matter,  and  it  is  then 
poured  into  shallow  pans  or  troughs. 
The  best  pans  are  of  iron,  carefully 
tinned.  Such  pans  are  cool  in  sum- 
mer, and  in  winter  allow  of  the  appli- 
cation of  heat,  which  is  often  very 
useful  to  make  the  cream  rise.  When 
leaden  troughs  are  used,  they  are 
generally  fixed  to  the'wall,  and  have 
a  slight  inclination  towards  one  end, 
where  there  is  a  hole  with  a  plug  in 
it,  by  drawing  which  the  thin  milk  is 
allowed  to  run  off  slowly,  leaving  the 
cream  behind,  which  runs  last  through 
the  hole  into  the  pan  placed  under  to 
receive  it.  The  milk  in  the  pans,  or 
troughs,  is  generally  four  or  five  inch- 
es in  depth,  which  is  found  most  con- 
ducive to  the  separation  of  the  cream. 
The  place  where  the  milk  is  set  should 
have  a  thorough  draught  of  air,  by 
means  of  opposite  windows.  The 
sun  should  be  carefully  excluded  by 
high  buildings  or  trees,  and  the  floor, 
which  should  always  be  of  brick  or 
stone,  should  be  continually  kept 
moist  in  summer,  that  the  evapora- 
tion may  produce  an  equal,  cool  tem- 
perature. A  small  stove  in  winter  is 
a  great  advantage,,  provided  smoke 
and  smell  be  most  carefully  avoided, 
and  the  temperature  be  accurately 
regulated  by  a  thermometer.  All 
these  minutiae  may  appear  superflu- 
ous to  those  who  have  no  practical 
knowledge  of  the  dairy ;  and  many 
dairymen,  who  cannot  deny  the  truth 
of  what  we  have  stated,  may  excuse 
their  deviation  from  these  rules  by 
saving  that  good  butter  is  made  with- 
out so  much  care  and  trouble.  This 
may  be  true  ;  but  they  cannot  ensure 
good  butter  at  all  times  ;  and  when 
cleanliness  and  order  are  brought  to  a 
regular  system  the  trouble  disappears. 
When' the  milk  has  stood  twelve 
hours,  the  finest  parts  of  the  cream 
have  risen  to  the  surface,  and  if  they 
are  then  taken  off  by  a  skimming 
dish,  and  immediately  churned,  a  very 
delicate  butter  is  obtained  ;  but,  in 
general,  it  is  left  twenty-four  hours, 
when  the  cream  is  collected  by  skim- 
ming, or  the  thin  milk  let  off  by  ta- 
L 


'  king  out  the  plug  m  the  trough.  All 
the  cream  is  put  into  a  deep  earthen 
jar.  Stone-ware  is  the  best.  .More 
cream  is  added  every  day,  till  there  is 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  churn,  which, 
in  moderate  dairies,  is  every  two 
days.  It  is  usual  to  stir  the  cream 
often,  to  encourage  a  slight  acidity, 
by  which  the  process  of  churning  is 
accelerated.  This  acidity  is  some- 
times produced  by  the  addition  of 
vineg:ar  or  lemon  juice  ;  but,  howev- 
er this  may  facilitate  the  conversion 
of  the  cream  into  butter,  we  would 
not  recommend  it,  as  the  quality  is 
decidedly  injured  by  it,  especially 
butter  which  is  to  be  salted.  It  has 
been  asserted  by  some  authors  that 
butter  will  not  separate  from  the  but- 
ter-milk until  acidity  is  produced,  and 
no  doubt  there  is  more  or  less  of 
lactic  acid  in  all  butter-milk  ;  but  per- 
fectly fresh  cream,  which  has  stood 
only  one  night,  and  is  churned  early 
next  morning,  will  generally  produce 
excellent  butter  in  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  or  twenty  minutes  in  summer, 
and  no  acid  taste  can  be  discovered 
in  the  butter-milk.  That  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere  with  respect  to 
temperature  has  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  making  of  butter,  is  a  well- 
established  fact. 

The  common  method  employed  to 
separate  the  butter  from  the  thinner 

'  portion  of  the  cream  is  by  strong 
agitation.  The  common  instrument 
is  the  churn,  which  is  a  wooden  cask 
rather  wider  at  bottom  than  at  the 
top,  covered  with  a  round  lid  with  a 
hole  in  the  centre.  Through  this 
hole  passes  a  round  stick,  about  four 
feet  long,  inserted  in  the  centre  of  a 
round,  flat  board  with  holes  in  it ; 
the  diameter  of  this  board  is  a  little 
less  than  that  of  the  top  of  the  churn. 

\  Various  improvements  have  been 
made  on  this  machine.  The  cream 
should  not  fill  above  two  thirds  of  the 
churn.  By  means  of  this  stick,  held 
in  both  hands,  and  moved  up  and 
down,  the  cream  is  violently  agitated, 
passing  through  the  holes  in  the  board 
and  round  its  edge  every  time  the 
stick  is  raised  or  depressed,  and  thus 

,  every  portion  is  brought  into  contact 
121 


BUTTER. 


with  the  air.  In  the  course  of  an 
hour's  churning,  more  or  less  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  small  kernels 
of  butter  appear,  which  are  soon  uni- 
ted by  the  pressure  of  the  board 
against  the  bottom  of  the  churn,  and 
form  a  mass  of  solid  butter.  The 
butter  is  collected  with  the  hand,  and 
placed  in  a  shallow  tub  for  the  next 
operation.  The  butter-milk  is  set 
aside  for  the  pigs,  or  for  domestic 
use.  The  butter  is  still  mixed  with 
some  portion  of  butter-milk;  but  much 
of  its  quality  for  keeping  depends  on 
the  perfect  separation.  The  most 
usual  way  is  to  spread  it  thin  in  a 
shallow  tub,  beating  it  with  a  flat 
•wooden  spoon,  and  washing  it  repeat-  - 
edly  with  clear  spring  water  until  all 
milkiness  disappears  in  the  water 
•which  is  poured  ofT.  Some  experi- 
enced dairymen  pretend  that  the  but- 
ter is  deteriorated  by  much  wash- 
ing, and,  therefore,  express  the  but- 
ter-milk by  simply  beating  the  butter 
•with  the  hand,  kept  cool  by  frequent- 
ly dipping  it  in  cold  water,  or  with  a 
moist  cloth  wrapped  in  the  form  of  a 
hall,  which  soaks  up  all  the  butter- 
milk, and  leaves  the  butter  quite  dry. 
This  operation  requires  the  greatest 
attention,  especially  in  warm  weath- 
er ;  and  no  person  should  work  the 
butter  who  has  not  a  very  cool  hand. 
The  less  it  is  handled  the  better,  and 
therefore  a  wooden  spoon  or  spatula 
is  much  to  he  preferred.  The  pres- 
ence of  any  curd  renders  butter  liable 
to  putrefaction,  and  is,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, the  cause  of  the  unpleasant  taste 
of  that  made  carelessly  in  summer. 

The  greatest  portion  of  the  butter 
that  is  made,  especially  at  a  distance 
from  large  towns,  is  immediately  salt- 
ed and  put  into  casks,  which  usual- 
ly contain  fifty-six  pounds,  and  are 
called  firkins.  The  quality  of  the  salt 
used  is  of  great  importance  ;  if  it  be 
pure,  the  butter  will  keep  its  flavour 
for  a  long  time  ;  but  when  it  is  im- 
pure, and  contains  hitter  and  deliques- 
cent salts,  the  butter  soon  becomes 
rancid.  The  Dutch  are  very  particu- 
lar in  this  point.  They  use  a  kind  of 
salt  which  is  made  by  slow  evapora- 
tion, and  perfectly  crystallized.  The 
122 


salt  is  intimately  mixed  with  the  but- 
ter.    From  three  to  five  pounds  are 
sufficient    for   a    firkin    of   fifty  -  six 
pounds.     The  following  mixture  has 
been  found  superior  to  salt  alone  in 
curing  butter :  half  an  ounce  of  dry 
salt,  pounded  fine,  two  drachms  of  su- 
gar, and  two  drachms  of  saltpetre,  for 
every  pound  of  butter.     It  is  used  in 
Goshen,  Orange  county,  New-York. 
The  casks  are  made  of  clean  white 
wood.     They   are  carefully  washed 
inside  with  strong  brine  made  hot, 
and  rubbed  over  with  salt.     The  but- 
ter, being  quite  dry,  is  pressed  close 
into  the  cask,  a  small  layer  of  salt 
having  been  first  put  on  the  bottom. 
Every  addition  is  carefully  incorpora- 
ted with  the  preceding  portion.     If 
there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  to 
fill  the  cask  at  once,  the  surface  is 
made  smooth,  some  salt  is  put  over 
it,  and  a  cloth  is  pressed  close  upon 
it  to  exclude  the  air.     When  the  re- 
mainder is  added  at  tlie  next  churn- 
ing, the  cloth  is  taken  off,  and  the 
salt  which  had  been  put  on  the  sur- 
face carefully  removed  with  a  spoon. 
The  surface  is  dug  into  with  a  small 
wooden  spade,  and  laid  rough,  and 
the  newly-salted  butter  is  added  and 
incorporated  completely.     This  pre- 
vents a  streak  which  would  other- 
wise appear  at  the  place  where  the 
two  portions  are  joined.     When  the 
cask  is  full,  some  salt  is  put  over  it, 
and  the  head  is  put  in.     If  the  butter 
is  well  freed  from  all  the  butter-milk, 
and  the  salt  mixed  with  it  quite  dry, 
it  will  not  shrink  in  the  cask,  and  it 
will  keep  its  flavour  for  a  long  time. 
Should   there   be  an  appearance  of 
shrinking,  the  cask  must  be  opened 
and  melted  butter  poured  round  it,  so 
as  to  rill  up  the  interstices  between 
the  butter  and  the  cask  ;  in  this  w-ay 
it  will  not  suffer  in  its  quality.    There 
is  a  mode  of  preserving  butter  for  do- 
mestic use  without  salt,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  the  butter  is  set  in  a 
clean  pan  over  the  fire  and  melted 
very  gently  ;  it  is  not  allowed  to  boil, 
but  is  heated  very  nearly  to  the  boil- 
ing point.     Experience   has   shown 
this  lieat  to  be  attained  when  the  re- 
.  flection  of  the  white  of  the  eye  is  dis- 


BUTTER. 


tinctly  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  but- 
ter on  looking  down  into  the  pan.  All 
the  watery  particles  are  then  evapo- 
rated, and  the  curd,  of  which  a  por- 
tion always  remains  in  the  butter, 
and  which  is  one  cause  of  its  becom- 
ing rancid,  falls  to  the  bottom.  The 
clear  butter  is  poured  into  an  earthen 
vessel  and  covered  over  with  paper, 
and  a  bladder  or  a  piece  of  leather  is 
tied  over  the  jar  to  exclude  the  air. 
When  it  is  cooled  it  much  resembles 
hog's  lard.  It  has  lost  some  of  its 
flavour,  but  it  is  much  superior  to  salt 
butter  for  culinary  purposes,  and  es- 
pecially for  pastry. 

The  Devonshire  method  of  making 
butter  differs  materially  from  the 
common  process  which  we  have  de- 
scribed, and  is  peculiar  to  that  coun- 
ty. The  milk,  instead  of  being  set 
for  the  cream  to  rise,  is  placed  in  tin 
or  earthen  pans  holding  about  eleven 
or  twelve  quarts  each.  Twelve  hours 
after  milking,  these  pans  are  placed 
on  a  broad  iron  plate,  heated  by  a 
small  furnace.  The  milk  is  not  al- 
lowed to  boil,  but  a  thick  scum  rises 
to  the  surface.  As  soon  as  small 
bubbles  begin  to  appear  where  a  por- 
tion of  this  is  removed  with  a  spoon, 
the  milk  is  taken  off  and  allowed  to 
cool.  The  thick  part  is  taken  off  the 
surface,  and  this  is  called  clouted 
cream.  It  is  a  sweet,  pleasant  sub- 
stance, more  solid  than  cream,  but 
not  so  solid  as  butter,  and  is  consid- 
ered as  a  dainty  by  all  those  who  have 
been  early  accustomed  to  it.  A  very 
slight  agitation  converts  it  into  real 
butter,  after  which  it  is  treated  ex- 
actly as  we  have  before  described.  It 
does  not  keep  well.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear that  there  is  any  peculiar  advan- 
tage in  the  Devonshire  method. 

Another  method  of  making  butter, 
which  is  more  generally  adopted,  is 
to  churn  the  milk  and  cream  together. 
In  the  Dutch  method  the  milk  is  put 
into  deep  jars  in  a  cool  place,  each 
meal,  or  portion  milked  at  one  time, 
being  kept  separate.  As  soon  as 
there  is  a  slight  appearance  of  acidi- 
ty, the  whole  is  churned  in  an  upright 
churn,  which,  from  the  quantity  of 
milk,  is  of  very  large  dimensions. 


The  plunger  is  therefore  worked  by 
machinery  moved  by  ahorse,  or  some- 
times by  a  dog  walking  in  a  wheel, 
which  he  turns  by  his  weight.  When 
the  butter  begins  to  form  into  small 
kernels,  the  contents  of  the  churn  are 
em[)tied  on  a  sieve,  which  lets  the 
butter-milk  pass  through.  The  but- 
ter is  then  formed  into  a  mass,  as  de- 
scribed before.  This,  from  Professor 
Trail's  experiments,  is  the  most  eco- 
nomical method,  as  the  quantity  of  but- 
ter is  great  and  the  butter-milk  rich. 

In  Scotland  the  following  method 
is  pursued  :  the  milk  is  allowed  to 
cool  for  six  hours,  and  then  put  into 
a  clean  vat.  As  long  as  it  remains 
sweet,  more  milk  may  be  added,  but 
not  after  any  acidity  is  produced.  It 
is  then  covered  and  allowed  to  get 
sour,  till  it  coagulates  at  the  top  ;  this 
coagulum  is  called  the  lappa;  Avhich 
must  not  be  broken  till  the  butter  is 
churned.  When  the  clotted  milk  is 
put  into  the  churn,  warm  w^ater  is 
added  so  as  to  raise  the  temperature 
to  70^  or  80=,  the  whole  being  grad- 
ually stirred  in.  When  this  is  prop- 
erly conducted,  the  butter-milk  will 
be  very  pleasant  and  wholesome,  with 
a  sub-acid  taste,  the  whey  and  curd 
not  being  separated  from  each  other 
for  some  time  after.  The  butter  is 
said  to  be  fully  equal  to  that  made 
from  cream  alone. — (Quarterly  Jour- 
nal of  Agriculture,  Dec.,  1834.) 

The  quality  of  the  butter  depends 
on  some  very  minute  circumstances, 
which  escape  the  notice  of  all  super- 
ficial observers.  The  smallest  parti- 
cle of  putrescent  matter  accidentally 
added,  and  even  mere  effluvia,  give 
a  turn  to  the  chemical  action  going 
on  from  the  moment  the  milk  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  and  they  taint  the 
cream  more  or  less.  The  quantity 
of  pure  cream  which  rises  when  the 
milk  is  set  in  the  pans,  as  well  as  its 
quality,  is  infhienced  by  these  circum- 
stances. When  the  milk  curdles  be- 
fore the  cream  is  separated,  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  prevent  some  por- 
tion of  the  curd  being  mixed  with  the 
butter.  In  its  perfectly  fresh  state 
the  taste  is  not  affected  by  this  ;  but 
the  butter  will  not  keep  fresh  above 
123 


BUT 

twenty-four  hours,  and  when  salted 
soon  becomes  rancid.  Thus  a  great- 
er quantity  is  produced,  but  of  inferior 
quality.  When  cheese  is  made  of 
the  milii  from  which  the  cream  has 
been  taken,  it  will  be  found  most 
profitable  not  to  attempt  to  take  off 
all  the  cream  by  repeated  skimming  ; 
for  more  will  be  gained  in  the  better 
quality  of  the  cheese  than  by  an  in- 
crease in  the  quantity  of  the  butter 
at  the  expense  of  the  quality. 

It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that, 
such  are  the  niceties  of  the  dairy, 
great  experience  alone  can  ensure  a 
produce  of  superior  quahty,  and  this  , 
experience   would   be   more   readily 
acquired  if  the  circumstances  were  | 
accurately  observed  and  noted.     We  i 
would  recommend  to  those  who  have  | 
extensive  dairies  to  mark  by  the  ther- 
mometer the  temperature  of  the  milk 
and  cream  in  the  different  stages  of  j 
the  process,  occasionally  to  test  the 
acidity  of  the  butter-milk  by  means  of  i 
alkalies,  and  to  note  any  peculiarity  ] 
in  the  atmosphere  by  an  electronic-  j 
ter.     A   few  observations   carefully  : 
noted,  repeated,  and  compared  would 
throw  more  light  on  the  true  causes  [ 
which  favour  or  oppose  the  produc-  ; 
tion  of  good  butter  than  all  the  guess- 
es that  have  hitherto  been  made. 

The  quality  of  the  butter  depends 
materially  on  the  nature  of  the  pas- 
ture. The  best  is  made  from  cows 
fed  in  rich,  natural  meadows.  Cer- 
tain plants  which  grow  in  poor  and 
marshy  soils  give  a  disagreeable  taste 
to  the  butter.  When  cows  are  fed 
with  cut  grass  in  the  stable,  the  but- 
ter is  inferior,  except  in  the  case  of 
some  artificial  grasses,  such  as  lu- 
cerne. Turnips  and  other  roots  given 
to  cows  in  winter  communicate  more 
or  less  of  a  bad  taste  to  butter,  which 
is  corrected  in  some  degree  by  means 
of  a  small  quantity  of  water  and  salt- 
petre added  to  the  milk  ;  and  also,  it 
is  said,  by  giving  salt  to  the  cows 
with  their  food.  But  there  is  no  but- 
ter made  in  winter  equal  to  that  which 
is  made  where  the  cows  are  fed  en- 
tirely with  good  meadow  hay,  especial- 
ly of  the  second  crop,  called  after-math 
hay,  which  contains  few  seed  stalks. 
121 


BUT 

According  to  the  accounts  of  the 
produce  of  butter  from  different  coun- 
tries and  various  breeds  of  cows,  we 
may  state  that,  on  an  average,  four 
gallons  of  milk  produce  sixteen  oun- 
ces of  butter  ;  and  to  make  the  feed- 
ing of  cows  for  the  dairy  a  profitable 
employment,  a  good  cow  should  pro- 
duce six  pounds  of  butter  per  week 
in  summer,  and  half  that  quantity  in 
winter,  allowing  from  six  weeks  to 
two  months  for  her  being  dry  before 
calving ;  that  is,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pounds  in  twenty  weeks  after 
calving,  and  eighty  pounds  in  the  re- 
mainder of  the  time  till  she  goes  dry ; 
in  all,  about  two  hundred  pounds  in 
the  year.  If  she  produces  more,  she 
may  be  considered  as  a  superior  cow ; 
if  less,  she  is  below  par.  To  produce 
this  quantity  the  pasture  must  be 
good,  and  we  must  allow  three  acres 
to  keep  a  cow  in  grass  and  hay  for  a 
year,  which  is  not  very  far  from  the 
mark. 

An  inferior  kind  of  butter  is  made 
in  some  cheese  dairies  from  the  oily 
portion  of  the  milk  skimmed  from  the 
whey,  which  is  set  in  pans,  like  milk, 
after  the  cheese  has  been  made.  It 
is  totally  unfit  for  salting  and  keeping. 
It  is  known  by  the  name  of  whey  but- 
ter.—{W.  C.  Kham.) 

BUTTERFLY.    Insects  of  the  ge- 
j  nus  Papilio  (Lin.)  in  the  imago  state, 
i  Many  of  them  are  produced  from  the 
j  caterpillars  most  injurious  to  culti- 
I  vated  plants  and  trees,  as  the  goose- 
berry and  cabbage  butterflies. 
1      BUTTERNUT.   A  tree  of  the  wal- 
j  nut  genus,  Juglans  cinerca.     It  is  dif- 
!  fused  throughout  the  United  States. 
The  wood  is  of  a   reddish   colour, 
1  light,  soft,  but  very  durable,  and  not 
liable  to  attacks  from  insects.     It  is 
highly  esteemed  for  turnings  in  the 
Eastern   States,   and  is   abundantly 
used  for  panelling  for  carriages,  and 
;  building  generally.     The  inner  bark 
is  cathartic,  and  a  decoction  is  used 
}  by  housewives. 
■  BUTTERS,  VEGETABLE.     The 
solid  oils  of  the  cocoa,  nutmeg,  palm, 
chocolate.  &c.,  are  so  called. 
:      B  U  T  T  0  N-\\'  O  O  D.     False  syca- 
more. The  Platanus  occidenlalts,  west- 


CAB 


CAB 


em  plane-tree,  the  largest,  and  one  of 
the  handsomest  trees  of  America.  It 
reaches  its  full  dimensions  only  in  the 
rich  alluvion  of  the  middle  Western 
States,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio. 
The  wood  is  soft,  and  decays  rapidly 
when  exposed,  but  is  serviceable  for 
sheltered  carpentry.  The  tree  in  the 
Northern  Slates  has  been  much  in- 
jured by  early  frosts  and  insects. 

BUTTS.  The  short  ridges  which 
are  made  by  the  plough  in  the  cor- 
ners of  irregular  fields. 

BUTYRIC  ACID.  An  oily  vola- 
tile acid  found  in  rancid  butter,  and 
having  a  rancid  smell ;  it  is  soluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether  :  boils  at 
212  .  It  consists  of  Cs  Hju  On  HO 
(ch).  It  is  formed  by  the  oxidation 
of  the  component  of  butter  called 
butyrine,  and  yields  by  distillation 
from  lime  butryone,  a  neutral  vola- 
tile liquid. 

BUXUS.  The  generic  name  of  the 
box  plants.     See  Box-tree. 

BYRE.  A  cow-shed  for  feeding, 
&c. 

BYSLINS.  The  first  milk  of  the 
cow  after  calving. 

BYSSUS.  A  general  name  for  the 
thread-like  mould  of  cellars  and  cav- 
erns of  vegetable  origin.  They  be- 
long to  many  genera,  and  to  the  fami- 
ly of  fungi. 

C. 

CABBAGE.  The  varieties  of 
cabbage,  coleworts,  broccoli,  are  all 
derived,  by  cultivation,  from  the 
Brassica  olcracea,  a  sea-shore  plant, 
indigenous  to  Europe.  It  belongs 
to  the  cruciferous  family  of  Jussieu, 
and  Tetradynamia  siliqunsa  of  Lin- 
naeus. 

In  agriculture,  they  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  :  1st.  Those  that 
form  heads.  2d.  Those  that  grow 
erect  without  forming  heads.  3d. 
Those  that  are  napiform,  as  KoJd 
rabe. 

Of  Cabbages  which  form  Heads. — 
These  may  be  divided  into  early, 
midsummer,  and  autumn  kinds.  Of 
the  first,  the  early  dwarf,  early  York, 
early  sugar  loaf,  early  imperial  are 
the  best.  The  midsummer  kind  are 
L2 


the  large  York,  large  sugar-loaf,  Ber- 
gen, drumhead,  flat  Dutch,  and  the 
autumn,  the  late  glazed  red,  and  the 
varieties  of  Savoy.  The  seeds,  in 
ordinary  culture,  are  sown  in  April ; 
but  for  early  crops  they  are  sown  in 
September,  and  covered  by  a  frame 
during  winter  ;  or  in  a  frame  in  Feb- 
ruary, care  being  taken  to  supply 
light  and  air  without  admitting  frost. 
An  ounce  of  seed  yields  from  3000  to 
4000  plants.  In  the  garden,  where  a 
succession  is  required,  seeds  must  be 
sown  every  two  weeks  from  Februa- 
ry to  May.  The  seeds  start  in  a 
week,  and  are  fit  to  transplant  in  six 
or  seven  weeks.  There  is,  however, 
no  advantage  in  transplanting  too 
soon,  as  the  young  plants  are  very 
liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  cutworm 
and  insects  during  June  and  early  in 
July.  They  are  set  in  rows  16  inch- 
es to  2  feet  apart,  allowing  sutficient 
room  for  hoeing,  ploughing,  &c.  The 
Bergen  are  set  30  inches  apart.  It 
is  economical  to  place  an  extra  plant 
between  each,  to  be  cut  for  collards. 
At  this  rate,  the  acre  contains  about 
6000  plants.  The  soil  must  be  very 
fine,  and  well  dunged,  for  no  vegeta- 
ble is  more  improved  by  putrescent 
manures.  In  planting,  it  is  necessa- 
ry to  use  a  trowel  to  open  the  ground, 
and  not  a  stick  to  ram  a  hole.  The 
process  of  dipping  the  roots  in  a  sem- 
ifluid mass  of  fine  earth  and  water, 
with  half  a  pound  in  four  gallons  of 
crude  nitre,  and  of  whale-oU  soap,  is 
highly  recommended  as  ensuring  a 
vigorous  start  for  the  plants,  and  be- 
ing very  serviceable  in  keeping  off 
worms.  A  bucket  with  this  mixture 
can  be  readily  carried  by  the  planter. 
The  ground  must  be  ploughed,  hoed, 
or  thoroughly  stirred  three  tunes  du- 
ring their  growth,  weeds  being  de- 
stroyed, and  the  soil  kept  fine.  Du- 
ring a  dry  season  they  require  water- 
ing, and  will  be  much  benefited  by 
the  use  of  fluid  manures.  The  soil 
they  most  relish  is  a  moistish  loam, 
made  very  rich  with  putrescent  ma- 
I  nures.  Extensive  fields  of  cabbages 
are  cultivated  near  New- York  city  ; 
the  early  kinds  and  large  Bergen, 
\  Savoy,  and  red  being  most  preferred. 
125 


CAB 


CAB 


The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the 
expense,  by  Mr.  Wyckoff,  for  an  acre : 
40  loads  street  manure,  SU) ;  labour 
in  distributing,  83  ;  ploughing,  har- 
rowins,  and  hoeing,  S9  ;  or  in  all,  §28. 
The  field  contained  6000  plants,  and 
3000  heads  sold  in  market  realized 
S66.  As  soon  as  frosts  set  in  the 
cabbages  must  be  put  up  for  protec- 
tion. This  is  done  by  burying  them 
up  to  the  head  in  a  dry,  warm  situa- 
tion, stripping  off  decayed  or  broken 
open  leaves,  and  packing  them  close- 
ly together,  taking  care  that  they  are 
free  from  moisture.  A  low  shed  is 
then  to  be  formed  over  them  with 
straw,  pine  brush,  boards,  <kc.,  so  as 
to  keep  out  the  sun  and  frost,  at  the 
same  time  that  air  circulates  freely. 
In  the  depth  of  winter  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  place  straw  around  the  sides 
of  the  shed  ;  or,  the  cabbages  being 
cut,  may  be  stored  in  a  root  cellar. 

Nutritious  Value.  —  Cabbages  are 
seldom  raised  as  food  for  stock  in 
the  United  States,  although  it  is  com- 
mon enough  to  throw  to  hogs,  &c., 
the  under  leaves  which  have  begun 
to  decay.  In  Germany  and  France 
they  are  extensively  used  as  fodders. 
Two  general  kinds  are  employed, 
the  open-leaved  and  hearted  :  of  the 
first  kind,  according  to  Antoine's  ta- 
bles, 541  pounds  are  equal  to  410  of 
green  clover,  or  100  of  grass  hay ; 
but  the  hearted  cabbage,  according 
lo  Boussingault,  is  much  more  valua- 
ble, 370  pounds  being  equal  to  100 
l)Ounds  of  hay.  The  amount  of  food 
procured  from  some  of  the  cow  cab- 
bages is  immense,  often  amounting 
during  the  year  to  upward  of  100,000 
pounds  of  leaves  the  acre. 

Specific  jSIanures.  —  The  cabbage 
family  are  especially  improved  by 
well-decayed  manures  and  by  gyp- 
sum, or  particularly  by  solutions  of 
crude  nitre  and  Glauber  salts,  one 
pound  in  about  four  gallons  of  wa- 
ter, applied  by  a  flowering-pot,  when 
transplanted  ;  and  subsequently  they 
will  be  found  of  the  greatest  utility. 

Seeds. — To  obtain  fine  seeds,  put 

out  some  of  the  heads  which  have 

been  kept  through  winter  ;  as  soon 

as  the  weather  permits,  thin  down 

126 


the  flower-stems  to  a  few  at  the  sides. 
Take  care  to  keep  the  varieties  sep- 
arate, or  they  become  mixed  and 
spoiled. 

!      It  should  be  remarked  of  the  cab- 
j  bage  stems  kept  over  till  spring,  that, 
if  they  be  set  out,  numerous  eyes  will 
develop,  which  afibrd  early  greens, 
and  may  be  kept  bearing  a  long  time 
by  hindering  them  from  seeding. 
1       2d.    Of  the  open-leaved   Varieties. — 
The  principal  varieties  cultivated  in 
Europe  are   the   tree,  or   thousand- 
headed  ;  the  cow  cabbage,  or  Caesa- 
1  rean  cole  ;  the  Jersey  cole  ;  the  Wo- 
burn  kale,  and  Poiiou  cabbage.    They 
are  sown  in  autumn  in  beds,  planted 
out  from  November  to  February,  are 
ready  for  plucking  in  April,  and  con- 
I  tinue  to  afford  leaves  for  forage  du- 
'  ring  the  summer,  the  stems  running 
j  up  to  six  and  more  feet.     They  stand 
!  the  winters  of  France,  and  might  be 
grown  in  the  .Middle  and  Southern 
:  States.     It  may  be  very  questionable 
— when  the  rich  land  necessarj',  and 
!  the  labour  of  cultivation  are  consider- 
:  ed — whether  they  will  be  ever  grown 
'  in  the  United  States. 
j      3d.  Of  napiformCabhages. — Several 
j  hybrid  varieties  between  the  turnip 
!  and   cabbage  have   been    produced  ; 
I  these  either  have  a  swollen  root  and 
cabbage  head,  as  the  Kohl  rabe,  or  they 
I  produce   a   turnip-like   head.     They 
j  are  little   cultivated,   and  resemble 
turnips,  but  are  much  less  infested 
by  insects. 

CABBAGE,  DISEASES  OF. 
Clubbing  of  the  roots  arises  from 
worms,  and  is  produced  by  growing 
them  too  long  in  one  locality.  See 
Anbury.  Cabbage  lice  are  the  same 
as  bean  lice.  See  Aphis.  They  are 
destroyed  by  infusion  of  tobacco, 
lime  dust,  salt.  Worms  of  various 
kinds  infest  the  leaves  ;  the  leaves 
should  be  stripped  off  and  burned,  or 
soot,  tobacco,  lime,  &.C.,  used  to  de- 
stroy them.  Cutworms  are  caught 
before  sunrise,  and  should  be  de- 
stroyed, or  the  foregoing  noxious 
substances  should  be  worked  in  about 
the  roots  with  a  trowel.  Slugs  are 
to  be  similarly  treated. 

CABBAGE,  PREPARED.    Saucr 


OAC 


CAP 


kraut.  This  is  prepared  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  :  the  cabbages  are 
sliced  thin  by  hand,  or  by  a  machine. 
The  bottom  of  a  cask,  of  which  the 
head  has  boon  taken  out,  is  covered 
with  salt,  and  a  layer  of  thin-sliced 
cabbage,  six  inches  thick,  is  laid  over 
it ;  on  this  a  quantity  of  salt  is  spread, 
and  another  layer  of  cabbage,  mixed 
with  some  juniper  berries  and  whole 
pepper  ;  and  thus  salt  and  cabbage 
alternately  until  the  cask  is  filled.  A 
round  board  is  then  put  into  the  cask, 
so  as  nearly  to  fill  it,  and  on  this  a 
heavy  weight  of  stone  or  metal  is 
laid.  As  the  cabbage  ferments  and 
sinks,  the  cask  is  filled  up  with  fresh 
salt  and  cabbage.  After  some  time 
the  expressed  juice  is  poured  o(f, 
some  water,  with  salt  dissolved  in  it, 
is  poured  over,  and  changed  until  it 
ceases  to  rise  with  a  scum  and  fetid 
smell ;  the  cabbage  is  then  in  a  fit 
state  to  be  kept.  A  cloth  is  laid  over 
it,  and  over  this  the  round  board  and 
weights.  When  any  portion  is  taken 
out  for  use,  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
brine  is  allowed  to  remain  over  the 
mass  to  exclude  the  air,  and  the 
cloth,  board,  and  weights  are  replaced 
as  long  as  any  cabbage  remains. 
This  saucr  kraut,  when  washed  with 
soft  water,  and  stewed  with  bacon 
or  salted  meat,  is  a  very  wholesome 
dish,  and  much  relished  by  those  who 
have  been  early  accustomed  to  it. 
In  long  voyages  it  has  been  found  to 
he  an  admirable  preservative  against 
the  sea-scurvy. 

CABBAGE  TREES  or  PALMS. 
Palm-trees  which,  like  the  palmetto, 
form  edible  buds,  which  are  used  as 
food. 

CACHECTIC.  A  bad  state  of 
body,  bringing  about  boils,  skin  dis- 
eases  &c 

CACHMERE  GOAT.  The  Cach- 
mere  goat  is  a  native  of  Persia. 
There  are  many  varieties,  differing 
in  colour  and  in  the  quality  of  the 
fleece  ;  the  principal  points  of  the 
most  approved  breeds  are  large  ears, 
limbs  slender,  and,  above  all,  the 
wool  or  hair  being  straight,  silky,  and 
white. 

They  have  been  successfully  intro- 


duced into  France  by  M.  Ternoaux, 
and  also  into  England  by  C.  T.  Tow- 
er, of  Essex,  who  purchased  four, 
two  males  and  two  females,  of  M. 
Terneaux,  of  Paris.  The  soil  on 
which  they  were  kept  in  England  was 
moist,  and  the  situation  much  ex- 
posed ;  they  have,  nevertheless,  con- 
tinued in  liealth  and  multiplied  rapid- 
ly, his  flock  increasing  from  four  to 
twenty-seven  in  six  years  ;  the  fe- 
males producing  every  year  a  kid, 
and  sometimes  twins.  They  breed 
very  early,  often  bearing  young  be- 
fore they  are  twelve  months  old. 
They  show  no  impatience  of  the  cold, 
and  are  very  healthy,  requiring  only 
an  occasional  shelter  in  very  rough 
weather.  In  spring,  summer,  and 
autumn  they  graze  like  sheep,  and 
during  winter  are  fed  with  hay  and 
refuse  vegetables.  The  shawls  made 
in  England  from  the  produce  of  Mr. 
Tower's  goats  will,  for  fineness  of 
texture,  vie  with  those  brought  from 
Persia.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it 
may  be  successfully  introduced  into 
this  country.  Being  remarkably  tame, 
they  can  be  kept  in  flocks  at  as  little 
expense  and  trouble  as  the  common 
goat  or  sheep  ;  they  eat  almost  every- 
thing, even  potato  tops,  weeds,  and 
bushes  of  all  kinds,  taking  but  little 
from  the  pastures  that  other  animals 
would  feed  on.  We  hope  some  of 
our  enterprising  farmers  will  turn 
their  attention  to  this  animal  by  im- 
porting it,  as  it  can  be  easily  obtain- 
ed, and,  no  doubt,  wdl  bear  the  trans- 
portation and  change  of  climate  with 
very  little  risk. 

CACTUS.  A  tribe  of  fleshy  plants, 
some  of  which  are  celebrated  for 
their  splendid  flowers  and  pleasant 
acid  fruit  resembling  the  gooseberry. 

CADUCOUS.  Deciduous,  falling 
off,  temporary. 

CESAREAN  OPERATION.  The 
removal  of  a  foetus  from  its  mother 
by  cutting  mto  the  womb. 

C  A  F  FEIN.  A  slightly  bitter, 
white,  silky  principle  obtained  from 
coffee,  tea,  guarana,  and  pauUinia. 
It  is  the  same  as  theme.  Liebig  finds 
it  to  consist  of  Cg  Hs  N:  O  O-HO. 
He  has  shown  that  it  may  act  as  food 
127 


CAL 

in  increasing  the  amount  of  bile  form- 
ed, by  furnishing  nitrogen  thereto. 
To  the  same  end  asparas^mc  and  theo- 
bromine, analogous  principles,  are 
also  destined. 

CALAMINE.  A  powdery  mineral, 
sold  by  druggists  as  an  absorbent  for 
ulcerous  sores  and  extensive  burns. 
It  is  an  impure  carbonate  of  zinc, 
prepared  by  roasting.  An  ointment 
made  with  lard  is  sometimes  used  to 
promote  the  healing  of  sores. 

CALANDRA.  The  genus  of  wheat 
weevils.     See  Wheat. 

CALCARATE  (from  calcar,  a 
spur).  Flowers  having  a  spur  like 
the  larkspur  are  so  called.  The  spur 
is  also  called  a  nectar  htm  by  Linnsus. 

CALCAREOUS.  Containing  car- 
bonate of  lime,  as  calcareous  marl, 
soils,  sand,  &c.     See  Lime. 

CALCINATION.  The  burning  of 
substances  to  ashes. 

CALCIUM.  The  metallic  base  of 
lime,  which  is  an  oxide  of  calcium. 
Its  equivalent  is  20,  and  tlierefore 
lime  is  28.  A  few  electro-negative 
bodies,  as  sulphur,  chlorine,  fluorine, 
form  salts  directly  with  the  metal, 
and  are  called  sulphuret,  chloride, 
fluoride  of  calcium.     See  Lime. 

CALC  SPAR.  Crystallized  car- 
bonate of  lime. 

CALCULUS.  Any  solid,  stony 
concretion  formed  in  the  bladder, 
gall-duct,  (Stc. 

CALEFACIENT.  Medicines  that 
produce  the  sensation  of  warmth,  as 
alcohol,  are  so  called. 

CALENDAR.     A  monthly  record. 

CALF.  The  young  of  the  cow. 
Calves  dropped  in  March  and  April 
are  best  for  raising.  If  they  are  to 
be  kept,  they  should  run  with  the 
cow,  in  a  meadow,  for  three  to  six 
weeks,  and  afterward  be  fed  on  but- 
ter-milk with  meal,  and  separated  into 
a  good  meadow.  Those  which  are 
to  be  slaughtered  are  generally  re- 
moved from  the  cow  at  once,  put  up 
into  a  small  enclosure  and  feeding 
stall,  and  supplied  with  milk  and 
messes  of  meal  until  fat.  The  males 
are  castrated  at  thirty  days  for  steers ; 
the  operation  is  very  simple,  one  inci- 
sion being  made  on  each  side  the  bag. 
128 


CAL 

CALF,  DISEASES  OF.  These 
are  principally  : 

1.  Nnvcl  III. — The  best  treatment 
for  this  dangerous  disease  is,  1st,  to 
administer  two  or  three  doses  (each 
about  a  wine-glassful)  of  castor  oil ; 
and,  2dly,  cordials,  which  may  be 
made  of  two  drachms  of  caraway 
seeds,  two  of  coriander  seeds,  and 
two  of  powdered  gentian  ;  bruise  the 
seeds,  and  simmer  them  in  beer  or 
gruel  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  :  give 
these  once  or  twice  a  day. 

2.  Constipation  of  the  Bowels. — For 
this,  doses  of  castor  oil,  of  two  or 
three  ounces,  are  the  best  remedy. 

3.  Diarrhcca,  or  Scouring.  —  The 
farmer  may  rely  on  the  following  mix- 
ture. Let  him  keep  it  always  by  him  , 
it  will  do  for  all  sucking  animals  : 

Prepared  chalk       .     .     4  ounces. 
Caneha  bark,  powdered  1       " 
Laudanum    ....     1       " 

Water 1  pint. 

Give  two  or  three  table-spoonfuls,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  animal,  two 
or  three  times  a  day. 

4.  Hoose,  or  Catarrh. — Good  nurs- 
ing, bleeding,  and  then  a  dose  of  Ep- 
som salts,  with  half  an  ounce  of  gui- 
ger  in  it. — (Youatt  on  Cattle.) 

CALKERS,  or  CALKINS.  The 
parts  of  a  horseshoe  turned  down- 
ward. 

CALLUS.  AVhen  the  bone  of  an 
animal  is  broken  by  accident,  nature 
restores  the  union  by  depositing  a 
quantity  of  bony  matter  around  the 
loose  extremities,  and  thus  fixing 
them.  This  deposite  is  called  a  cal- 
lus ;  it  is  absorbed  after  the  limb  is 
re-established. 

CALOMEL.  The  sub-chloride  of 
mercury.  An  admirable  medicine, 
producing  an  increased  secretion  of 
bile  and  purgation.  In  bilious  at- 
tacks, a  dose  of  ten  grains  is  one  of 
the  best  medicines.  It  is  a  compo- 
nent of  many  cattle  medicines  (see 
Ball),  in  the  dose  of  one  drachm  for 
a  horse. 

CALORIC.  This  name  is  given 
to  the  cause  of  heat,  which  is  un- 
known. Calorific,  capable  of  produ- 
cing heat,  as  the  calorific  rays  of  the 
sun,  which  are  found  in  the  red  aud 


CAM 


CAN 


orange  parts  of  the  spectrum  lormcd 
by  flint  glass. 

CALVING.  The  act  of  bringing 
forth  a  calf.  Tiie  cow  should  not 
be  disturbed,  and  have  comfortable 
quarters.  A  warm  drink  is  usual- 
ly given  afterward,  containing  meal. 
She  should  be  kept  quiet,  and  rather 
underfed  for  a  few  days. 

CALX.  An  old  term  for  any  earthy 
body  produced  bv  burning. 

CALYCANTHUS  FLORIDUS. 
The  Carolina  allspice  :  a  fragrant 
shrub,  with  moroon-coloured  flowers. 

CALYX  (from  Ka?.v^,  a  cup).  The 
outer  green  case  of  flowers.  It  pro- 
tects the  internal  parts.  It  is  col- 
oured in  plants  like  tulips,  hyacinths, 
&c. 

CAMBIUM.  A  gummy  fluid  form- 
ed in  spring  in  our  forest-trees.  It 
affords  the  materials  out  of  which 
the  new  wood  and  bark  are  partly 
made,  and  disappears  in  a  short  time. 

CAMELLIA.  A  genus  of  ever- 
green shrubs,  of  which  the  C  japon- 
ica  produces  beautiful  flowers,  now- 
diversified  by  cultivation.  It  requires 
a  green-house  for  successful  gi-owth, 
but  may  be  grown  out  of  doors,  near 
a  south  wall,  covered  with  glass  and 
matted  during  severe  weather.  It  is 
propagated  by  cuttings,  layers,  and 
grafts.  Flowers  from  Januar>-  to 
March  in  the  house.  The  C.  oleifera 
is  much  cultivated  by  the  Chinese  for 
its  oil,  obtained  by  pressing  the  seeds. 

CAMOMILE.  The  Anthemis  no- 
bilis  furnishes  the  drug  of  this  name. 
It  is  exotic,  but  grows  readily  in  the 
Middle  States.  The  plant  is  peren- 
nial and  hardy,  yielding  three  or  four 
crops  of  flowers,  which  are  bitter 
and  tonic.  It  grows  on  poor,  dry 
lands  ;  is  propagated  by  seeds,  root 
cuttings,  and  layers.  An  infusion  is 
very  nauseous  to  many  insects. 

CAMP.  A  mould  in  which  to  keep 
potatoes,  roots,  &.C.,  during  winter. 
See  Barrow. 

CAMPANULATE.  Bell-shaped : 
applied  to  flowers  of  that  figure,  as 
the  Canterbury  hell. 

CAMPHOR.  A  solid  essential  oil, 
consisting  of  C^o,  Hn-|-2  HO.  It 
is  a  nervous  sedative,  soothing  pain. 


It  is  obtained  in  the  crude  slate  by 
distilling  the  twigs,  roots,  &c.,  of 
several  plants,  chiefly  the  Laurus 
camphora  and  Dryobalanops  camphora, 
trees  of  tropical  Asia.  It  is  purified 
by  sublimation  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. Michaux  is  disposed  to  believe 
that  the  Laurus  camphora,  a  large 
evergreen,  might  flourish  in  Florida. 
Camphor  is  peculiarly  disagreeable 
to  the  insects  which  infest  cloth  and 
woollen  goods.  The  solution  in  al- 
cohol is  the  commonest  form  of  the 
medicine.  A  solution  in  oil  is  an 
admirable  embrocation  to  painful 
sprains,  rheumatisms,  &:c. 

Camphor  is  found  in  numerous 
herbs,  especially  peppermint,  rose- 
mary, thyme,  lavender,  &c.  The 
quantity  is,  however,  too  minute  to 
yield  a  commercial  supply. 

CANADA  THISTLE.  Carduus  ar- 
ve7isis.  Its  perennial  roots  render  it 
a  great  nuisance.  The  introduction 
of  two-hoed  or  worked  crops,  with 
much  tillage,  is  the  most  eflectual 
remedy.  Large  doses  (thirty  bush- 
els) of  salt,  or  a  heavy  liming  (one 
hundred  bushels),  on 
a  clean  fallow  is 
much  reputed  as  a 
means  of  clearing 
lands  of  weeds  and 
insects. 

CANARY 
GRASS.  Phalaris 
Canariensis.  An  an- 
nual grass,  yielding 
the  canary  seeds  for 
birds.  The  seeds  are 
sown  as  soon  as  the 
frost  is  out  of  the 
ground : they require 
a  good  dry  loam.  In 
September  the  plants 
are  fit  to  cut.  The 
heads  are  exposed  to 
the  air  in  heaps  for 
some  time,  to  assist 
the  thrashing.  The 
yield  is  from  twen- 
ty-five to  forty  bush- 
els ;  the  straw  is 
poor  and  scanty. 

CANCELLATE.  Full  of  cells  ;  as 
the  ends  of  the  long  bones. 

129 


CAP 


CAP 


CANCER.  A  malignant  tumour, 
at  first  hard  and  painful,  afterward 
ulcerous,  attacking  glands  chiefly. 
The  only  remedy  is  extirpation,  which 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  its  nature 
is  discovered.  Cancer  of  the  eye  is 
common  in  cattle. 

CANDLE.  The  best  mixture  for 
dip  and  mould  candles  is  equal  parts 
of  sheep  and  beef  fat.  Lard  must 
be  avoided. 

CANDLEBERRY  MYRTLE. 
Myrica  ccrifera.  Abounds  through 
the  United  States.  The  berries  are 
boiled  in  water,  and  the  wax  rises 
to  the  top :  it  is  excellent  for  can- 
dles. The  labour  is  said  not  to  be 
repaid  by  the  profits  of  their  collec- 
tion. 

CANIS.  The  generic  name  of  the 
dog  species.     See  Dog. 

CANKER.  A  disease  of  the  bark 
of  old  trees,  or  such  as  are  in  a 
bad  situation.  It  is  sometimes  at- 
tended with  an  exudation  of  fluid,  at 
others  not.  The  bark  gradually  dies, 
falls  off,  and  the  wood  becomes  dry 
and  dead.  Judicious  pruning,  an 
application  of  resinous  grafting  ce- 
ment to  all  wounds,  and  tillage  about 
the  roots,  are  necessary.  Young 
trees  planted  in  old,  cankered  or- 
chards, are  soon  infected. 

CANKER  IN  HORSES.  The 
separation  of  the  hoof  from  the  fleshy 
parts  of  the  leg,  attended  with  a  dis- 
eased growth.  Pressure  and  caus- 
tics are  necessary,  with  rest,  for  a 
cure. 

CANKER-\VORM.  The  caterpil- 
lars which  infest  and  devour  the  buds 
of  fruit-trees,  especially  those  of  the 
Gcometra  brumata.  See  Apple  Can- 
ker-icorm. 

CANNABIS  SATIVA.  Hemp, 
which  see. 

CANTER.  An  artificial  pace  to 
which  horses  are  broken.  It  is  con- 
sidered much  less  fatiguing  than  the 
trot. 

CANTHARIDIS.  The  blistering 
fly,  which  see. 

CAOUTCHOUC.     Indian  rubber. 

CAPERS.  A  prickly  shrub  of 
southern  France  and  Italy,  the  Cap- 
paris  spinosa.  The  young  buds  are 
130 


daily  stripped  offand  cast  into  strong 
vinegar  slightly  salted,  to  produce 
the  commercial  capers.  They  re- 
ceive a  greenish  tint  from  the  use  of 
copper  sieves  in  separating  the  dif- 
ferent-sized pickled  buds  for  sale. 
The  plant  would  grow  well  south  of 
Maryland.  It  is  highly  ornamental 
for  green-houses. 

CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION. 
Some  fluids  rise  in  fine  glass  tubes 
much  higher  than  their  level.  This 
elevation  is  said  to  be  owing  to  ca- 
pillary attraction.  It  occurs  to  great- 
er extents  as  the  tubes  are  finer,  and 
is  an  affinity  exerted  by  the  sides  of 
the  glass  upon  the  fluid.  The  cause 
has  been  shown  to  be  electrical,  and 
to  depend  upon  the  electrical  condi- 
tions of  the  tube  and  fluid.  If  there 
be  no  affinity,  the  fluid  sinks.  The 
minute  tubes  of  plants  assist  in  draw- 
ing up  the  sap  by  this  attraction. 

CAPILLARY  VESSELS  (from 
capillus,  a  hair).  The  minute  ves- 
sels which  exist  over  every  part  of 
the  bodies  of  animals  and  plants. 

CAPITUIAJi\I.  That  species  of 
inflorescence  in  which  the  flowers 
are  grouped  together  into  a  head,  as 
in  clovers. 

CAPON.  A  male  bird  that  has 
been  castrated  :  it  is  increased  in 
size  therehv. 

CAPRIFICATION  (from  caprifi- 
cus,  a  inldjig).  The  practice  of  prick- 
ing the  green  fig  with  a  piece  of 
stick  touched  with  olive  oil,  to  hasten 
the  maturity.  It  is  regularly  observ- 
ed in  the  culture  of  the  Levant  figs. 


CAR 


CAR 


CAPROIC  ACID.  One  of  tlic 
rancid  acids  of  butter,  having  the 
smell  of  goats.  Capric  acid  is  very 
similar. 

CAPSICUM.  The  generic  name 
of  the  Red  pepper,  which  sec. 

CAPSULE.  In  botany,  a  dry, 
membranous  seed-vessel,  generally 
splitting  spontaneously  into  several 
parts,  or  valves.  In  chemistry,  a  thin 
porcelain,  Wcdgewood  ware  or  me- 
tallic basin  for  evaporating  lluids. 

CAPUT  MORTUUM.  Anoldterm 
designating  the  dregs  left  in  any 
chemical  process. 

CARAWAYS.  The  seeds  of  Ca- 
rum  cariii.  They  should  be  free  from 
dust,  and  strongly  aromatic.  Are 
used  in  confections  and  medicine. 
They  are  grateful  to  the  stomach, 
and  slightly  stimulant.  The  seeds 
are  sown  in  drills  six  inches  apart, 
in  April.  The  land  must  be  good, 
rich  loam.  The  plants  must  be  weed- 
ed and  hoed  when  young.  They 
flower  in  June,  and  the  seeds  ripen 
in  autumn.  The  roots  are  perennial, 
and  yield  well  for  three  years.  As 
much  as  twenty  hundred  weight  of 
seed  is  taken  from  an  acre  in  good 
tilth.  They  are  an  exhausting  crop. 
Near  London,  coriander,  cara\vays, 
and  teazles  arc  sometimes  sown  to- 
gether, twelve  pounds  of  each  being 
used.  The  coriander  is  cut  in  July, 
the  caraway  in  July  next  year,  and 
the  teazles  in  August. 

CARBON.  An  elementary  body, 
found  pure  in  anthracite  and  the  dia- 
mond, and  nearly  pure  in  lamp-black 
and  charcoal.  It  combines  readily 
with  oxygen,  and  burns,  forming  car- 
bonic acid  when  air  is  abundant.  Its 
ctjuivalent  is  6.  It  forms  about  half 
of  the  dry  substance  of  all  animal  and 
vegetable  bodies,  and  hence  the  char- 
~-al  they  yield  when  heated  in  closed 

ssels. 

CARBONATES.  Minerals  or  salts 

^ntaining  carbonic  acid.  These  are 
all  readily  known  by  the  effervescence 
they  produce  when  thrown  into  strong 
acids.  Tlie  principal  native  carbon- 
ates are  marble,  limestone,  and  chalk, 
which  are  carbonates  of  lime. 

CARBONIC  ACID.  The  gas  form- 


ed by  burning  charcoal  in  the  open  air. 
It  is  also  given  out  from  fermenting 
beer,  &c.,  and  putrefying  bodies.  It 
is  colourless,  heavy,  incapable  of  sus- 
taining combustion,  sufibcating,  and 
solui)lc  in  water.  It  is  formed  of  1 
atom  of  carbon  (6)  and  2  of  oxygen 
(16),  and  unites  with  oxides  in  the 
proportion  of  22.  The  air  contains 
4  to  6  parts  in  10,000.  Fertile  soils 
containing  vegetable  matter  give  it 
off  during  its  decay.  It  is  one  of  the 
principle  articles  of  vegetable  food  : 
from  the  carbonic  acid  they  obtain  the 
carbon  of  their  wood,  sugar,  and  oth- 
er principles.  Light  decomposes  it 
in  plants,  and  a  part  of  its  oxygen  is 
thrown  out  by  the  leaves. 

The  dissolved  carbonic  acid  in  rain 
and  spring  water  is  invaluable  in 
the  sod,  serving  to  disintegrate  hard 
rocks,  and  dissolve  minerals  neces- 
sary for  plants.  It  is  this  gas  that 
gives  sprightliness  to  beer,  soda  wa- 
ter, and  Champagne. 

CARBONIC  OXIDE.  An  inflam- 
mable gas  consisting  of  1  atom  car- 
bon and  1  oxygen. 

CARBONIFEROUS.  Relating  to 
coal.     Coal  bearing. 

CARBURETS.  Compounds  in 
which  carbon  is  united  with  a  metal 
or  other  body.  Plumbago,  cast  iron, 
are  carburets  of  iron. 

CARBURETTED  HYDROGEN. 
Marsh  gas,  and  the  gas  used  for  light- 
ing cities. 

CARCINOMA.  A  cancerous  tu- 
mour. 

CARDAMOMS.  The  seeds  of  the 
Alpinia  cardamomum  of  the  East  In- 
dies.    They  are  aromatic. 

CARDIAC  (from  KapSca,  the  heart). 
Relating  to  the  heart. 

CARDOON.  The  Cynara  cardun- 
cidus.  The  stalks  of  the  blanched 
inner  leaves  are  used  as  salad,  in 
soups,  &c.  The  seed  is  sown  in 
April,  in  rich  earth  ;  it  requires  near- 
ly a  month  to  start ;  the  plants 
must  be  thinned  to  five  inches  apart. 
Transplant  in  June,  and  allow  four 
feet  each  way  ;  dress  each  plant  like 
celery.  As  they  grow,  tie  up  the 
•leaves,  and  earth  up  several  times  ; 
they  may  thus  be  obtained  two  feet 
131 


CAR 

high.  They  are  to  be  taken  up  du- 
ring winter,  like  celery.  They  are 
in  perfection  from  autumn  through 
the  winter.  An  ounce  of  seed  pro- 
duces GOO  young  plants  ;  for  seeds 
protect  the  plant,  without  any  blanch- 
ing, through  the  winter,  and  it  will 
flower  in  the  following  July. 

CARDUUS.  The  generic  name  of 
numerous  thistles. 

CAREX.  The  genus  of  sedges  and 
rushes. 

CARIES.  Mortification  or  ulcera- 
tion of  any  bone.  It  gradually  pro- 
duces the  destruction  of  the  part,  and 
can  only  be  arrested  by  scraping  out 
every  diseasedtportion. 

CARMINATIVE.  Any  medicine 
that  dispels  flatulency  and  relieves 
the  uneasiness  of  the  stomach.  The 
best  are  caraways,  ginger,  anise  seed, 
cardamoms,  especially  as  tinctures, 
or  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

CARNIVORA.  The  race  of  ani- 
mals that  live  on  animal  food. 

CAROB,  A  tree  cultivated  in 
Southern  France  for  the  pods  it  pro- 
duces. These  contain  a  reddish  pulp 
of  a  sweet,  amylaceous  nature,  and 
are  a  foot  long.  They  are  used  as 
food  for  men  and  horses. 

CAROTID  ARTERY.  The  large 
arteries  that  carry  red  blood  to  the 
head.  There  is  one  on  each  side  the 
neck,  known  by  its  strong  pulsa- 
tions. 

CARPEL  (from  Kop-uoc,  fruit). 
Each  division  or  cell  of  a  fruit  is  a 
carpel.  The  number  of  carpels,  or 
carpellary  leaves,  is  as  the  number  of 
divisions  m  the  pistil,  which  is  the 
uppermost  part  of  the  carpel. 

CARROT.  The  Daitcus  carota  im- 
proved by  tillage,  of  the  natural  fam- 
ily UmbellifercB.  The  carrot  requires 
a  deep,  dry,  sandy  loam,  which  should 
be  prepared  by  subsoiling ;  they  are 
also  much  improved  by  humus  in  the 
soil,  and  come  best  after  a  crop  to 
which  a  heavy  manuring  has  been 
given.  The  best  field  kinds  are  the 
white,  the  long  red,  the  Altringham, 
and  the  orange  ;  of  these  the  white 
is  most  prolific  and  valuable.  The 
amount  of  seed  is  three  to  five  pounds 
the  acre  ;  it  must  be  steeped  well,  or 
132 


CAR 

kept  in  moist  mould  until  it  has  ger- 
minated, and  sown  in  drills  one  inch 
deep  and  one  foot  apart.  For  a  full 
crop,  April  is  the  time  of  planting  ; 
but  a  fair  yield  can  be  obtained  by 
sowing  immediately  after  wheat,  or  in 
June.  The  plants  must  be  well  work- 
ed, weeded,  and  thinned  out  to  five 
inches  ;  but  it  is  erroneous  to  pull  the 
leaves  for  fodder.  In  October,  or 
when  the  ground  is  beginning  to 
freeze,  they  can  be  raised  by  turning 
the  earth  from  the  roots  by  a  plough, 
and  drawing  them  b}^  hand.  They 
are  to  be  topped,  and  stored  in  the 
cellar,  or  a  proper  barrow  or  camp  ; 
they  will  keep  well  till  spring.  A 
good  crop  is  600  bushels  ;  but  400  is 
more  common.  There  is  no  peculi- 
arity in  garden  culture,  except  that 
the  early  orange  must  be  sown  soon- 
er ;  the  long  orange  is  the  best  fall 
crop. 

Expeyise  of  Cultivation.  —  Colonel 
Meacham,  who  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing 1000  bushels  of  carrots  per  acre 
for  several  years,  estimates  the  ex- 
pense per  acre  at  S35.  This  culture 
adapts  the  land  admirably  for  wheat 
or  barley. 

Value  as  Food. — It  is  extensively 
used  in  England,  and  to  some  extent 
in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  States, 
as  horse  fodder,  and  is  well  adapted 
to  oxen,  hogs,  &c.  The  carrots  should 
be  boiled  or  steamed,  or,  if  given 
raw,  sliced  with  a  vegetable  cutter. 
According  to  Antoine's  tables,  276 
pounds  equal  100  of  hay  (see  Fod- 
ders) ;  they  make  twice  as  good  fod- 
der as  turnips,  and  nearly  equal  to 
potatoes.  Carrots  and  hay  are  a 
good  fodder  for  horses,  or,  when 
given  alone,  about  fifty  pounds  pre- 
pared will  be  necessary  each  day. 
They  are  very  fattening. 

Special  Manures. — The  ashes  of  the 
carrot  are,  per  cent.,  potash  and  so- 
da, 45  ;  lime,  10  ;  sulphuric  acid,  2-7  ; 
phosphoric  acid,  514.  It  is,  there- 
fore, remarkable  for  its  affinity  for 
alkalies.  Hence,  ashes,  common  salt, 
and  gypsum  are  eminently  useful  as 
manures.  An  abundance  of  well- 
rotted  leaves  and  muck  should  he 
added. 


CAR 

Seeds. — These  are  procured  by  set- 
ting out  fine  roots  in  the  spring. 

CART.  Tlic  one-horse  two-wheel- 
ed carriage  of  husbandmen.  They  are 
considered  superior  to  the  wagon  by 
Scotch  farmers.  A  cart  load  is  gen- 
erally about  thirty  to  thirty-five  bush- 
els of  manure.  Mr.  Rham  remarks  : 
"For  agricultural  purposes,  various 
kinds  of  carts  have  been  invented. 
The  capacious  tumbril  for  carting 
earth  and  dung,  with  broad  wheels  to 
prevent  their  sinking  in  soft  ground, 
is  too  generally  known  to  require  de- 
scription. The  best  constructed  carts 
have  iron  axles  with  the  ends  or  arms 
turned  smooth,  and  very  slightly  con- 
ical. The  boxes  in  the  naves  of  the 
wheels,  which  receive  the  arms,  are 
made  of  cast  iron,  and  ground  smooth, 
so  as  to  require  only  a  small  quantity 
of  grease  or  oil  to  make  the  wheels 
run  easily,  without  allowing  any  play 
or  side  motion.  It  is  usual  to  give 
the  axle  a  bend  at  the  place  where  it 
enters  the  wheel,  by  which  means 
the  planes  of  the  wheels  are  made  to 
diverge  from  each  other,  and  give 
more  room  for  the  body  of  the  cart ; 
but  this  is  decidedly  wrong.  It  is 
clearly  proved  that  the  draught  is 
least  when  the  arms  are  quite  hori- 
zontal ;  and  if  tlle^vheels  are  slightly 
dished,  that  is,  if  the  spokes  are  driv- 
en into  the  nave  obliquely,  so  as  to 
throw  the  rim  a  little  beyond  the  per- 
pendicular, the  lower  part  of  the 
spokes  in  each  wheel  will  slightly  di- 
verge, and  give  greater  steadiness 
to  the  whole.  When  the  axle  is  bent, 
the  rim  of  a  broad-wheeled  cart  must 
be  slightly  conical,  in  order  that  it 
may  rest  ilat  on  the  gi'ound  ;  and  it 
is  easily  proved  that  in  this  case  the 
load  is  dragged  on  the  road  at  every 
revolution,  along  a  space  equal  to  the 
difference  between  the  greater  and 
lesser  circumference  of  the  rim  of 
the  wheel,  giving  unnecessary  work 
to  the  horses,  and  greatly  injuring 
the  roads.  The  light  Scotch  cart, 
drawn  by  one  horse,  is  justly  consid- 
ered as  the  most  advantageous  for 
transporting  earth,  lime,  or  dung,  es- 
pecially in  hilly  countries.  It  is  low 
and  short,  so  that  the  horse  draws 
M 


UAS 

very  near  the  centre  of  gravity,  and 
there  is  little  power  lost  by  obliquity. 
The  loads  may  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
bear  more  or  less  on  the  horse,  ac- 
cording to  the  declivity ;  and  expe- 
rience has  proved  that  more  weight 
can  be  transported  by  a  given  number 
of  horses,  when  each  is  attached  to 
a  single  Scotch  cart,  than  when  three 
or  four  draw  together,  except  it  be  on 
very  level  and  hard  roads,  or  when 
the  horses  move  at  a  quick  pace. 
The  objection  made  to  single-horse 
carts,  tliat  each  requires  a  man  to 
drive  it,  is  obviated  in  .Scotland, 
where  the  horses  are  trained  to  fol- 
low each  other,  and  one  man  can  at- 
tend to  several  carts  and  horses." 

CARTHAMIJS.     See  Saffloiccr. 

CARTILAGE.  The  same  as  gris- 
tle. It  is  almost  identical  in  compo- 
sition with  skin,  and  yields,  when 
perfectly  dry,  eighteen  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen.  Liebig  regards  it  as  pro- 
tein, combined  with  ammonia. 

CARYA.  The  generic  name  of 
the  Hickory. 

CARYOPHILLOUS.  Flowers  like 
the  ■p'mk  and  clove  are  so  called. 

CASCARILLA  BARK.  A  drug 
having  tonic  and  aromatic  quahties. 

CASEOUS.     Relating  to  caseum. 

CASEUM.  Pure  curd  of  milk.  It 
is  also  found  in  beans,  pease,  and  le- 
guminous plants,  and  in  small  quan- 
tity in  most  seeds.  It  differs  from 
albumen  and  fibrin  only  in  not  being 
coagulated  by  heat,  and  containing 
more  sulphur.  Cheese  is  caseum,  for 
the  most  part ;  like  other  protein  bod- 
ies, it  is  capable  of  sustaining  life. 
When  moist,  it  decays  and  putrefies 
like  animal  matter,  but  is  preserved 
when  dry,  or  prepared  with  salt. 

CASSAVA.  The  starch  obtained 
from  the  roots  of  the  Jatrophamanihot 
of  the  West  Indies.     See  Tapioca. 

CASTANEA.  The  generic  name 
of  the  chestnut-tree. 

CASTOR-OIL  PLANT.  The  Ri- 
cinus  communis,  commonly  called  Pal- 
ma  Chrtsli  from  the  leaves.  In  the 
East  Indies  it  is  a  tree,  but  becomes 
an  annual  in  the  United  States,  and 
is  cultivated  as  far  north  as  New- 
Jersey,  and  abundantly  in  the  West. 
133 


Cat 

The  seeds  are  sown  in  hills  like  corn, 
and  hoed  until  they  arc  two  feet  high. 
The  time  of  sowing  is  in  April  and 
May:  the  ground  must  be  rich.  The 
seeds  are  enclosed  in  capsules  at  the 
summits,  and  are  easily  thrashed  out. 
The  crop  is  stated  at  twenty  to  twen- 
ty-five bushels  the  acre.  The  oil  is 
separated  in  two  different  ways  :  1st. 
By  boiling  the  bruised  seeds  enclosed 
in  a  bag.  and  skimming  off  the  oil  as 
it  rises,  and,  finally,  pressing  the  bag. 
2d.  By  heating  the  seeds  in  iron  trays 
slightly,  so  as  not  to  char,  pressing 
under  a  screw,  collecting  the  oil, 
and  boiling  in  water,  taking  care  to 
separate  all  the  white  parts,  and  re- 
serving the  pure  limpid  oil  only.  This 
is  placed  in  barrels.  The  seeds  yield 
about  one  fourth  of  their  weight  of 
good  oil.  The  price  fluctuates  con- 
siderably. 

CASTOR  OIL.  An  admirable 
purge  for  animals,  especially  calves  :  , 
four  to  six  ounces  is  enough  for  a 
strong  ox.  It  is  now  used  for  burn- 
ing and  machinery,  as  well  as  for  can- 
dles, when  prepared  by  the  separa- 
tion of  the  fluid  parts  from  the  stearin. 

CATALPA.  The  Bignoma  calalpa, 
a  middling-sized  tree,  nearly  fifty  feet 
high,  growing  in  the  Middle  States 
and  South,  remarkable  for  its  large 
flowers  and  leaves.  The  wood  is  du-  , 
rable,  and  makes  good  posts  and  fen- 
ces, and  is  said,  by  Dr.  G.  B.  Smith 
and  others,  to  be  more  lasting  than 
locust  or  mulberry.  It  grows  very  i 
rapidly. 

CATARACT.  In  farriery,  a  dis- 
ease in  the  eyes  of  horses,  in  which 
the  crystal!  ne  humour  is  rendered 
opaque,  and  the  vision  impeded  or 
destroyed.  The  only  certain  method 
of  cure  in  these  complaints  is  to  re- 
move the  lens  by  means  of  extract- 
ing or  couching.  By  the  first-men- 
tioned operation,  an  incision  is  made 
into  the  eye  through  the  white  mem- 
brane, and  the  opaque  lens  taken  out ; 
by  the  second,  it  is  depressed  by  the 
point  of  a  couching  needle  thrust  into 
the  eye,  and,  being  carried  to  the  low- 
er part  of  the  chamber  of  the  eye  or 
vitreous  humour,  it  is  left  there  to  be 
absorbed.  The  first  operation  is  the  ^ 
134 


CAT 

more  effective,  but  the  more  hazard- 
ous of  the  two,  owing  to  the  inflam- 
mation which  succeeds.  The  second 
is  tedious  and  sometimes  fails,  but  it 
is  less  free  from  the  risk  of  inflam- 
mation. 

CATARRH.  A  cold.  The  irrita- 
tion of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nostrils. 

CATCH-DRAINS.  The  lower 
Qitches  of  irrigated  lands,  which  re- 
ceive the  water  that  has  flowed  over 
their  surface,  and  return  it  to  the 
stream. 

CATECHU.  A  drug  of  a  very  as- 
tringent or  binding  nature.  It  is  also 
used  in  dj'eing  browns  and  in  tanning. 

CATERPILLAR.  The  worm,  or 
larva,  which  is  hatched  from  the  eggs 
of  butterflies  and  moths.  They  are 
peculiarly  obnoxious,  from  feeding  on 
the  leaves,  fruit,  and  bark  of  trees. 
The  most  effective  method  of  exter- 
minating them  is  to  keep  the  tree 
regularly  cleaned  by  washing  with 
lye,  brine,  soft  soap,  and  removing 
every  appearance  of  cocoon  or  net- 
work about  the  branches.  The  ap- 
plication of  strong  hartshorn  to  the 
caterpillar  nests  is  practised  by  Mr. 
Pell  with  great  success.  Lime  is  also 
very  hurtful  to  them.  Caterpillars, 
after  a  season,  depending  on  their 
species,  either  spin  a  cocoon  and  re- 
tire therein  to  change  into  a  grub,  or 
burrow  into  the  earth  or  trees,  and 
undergo  a  transformation  therein. 
The  grub  changes  in  spring  to  a  but- 
terfly or  moth,  which  lays  some  five 
hundred  eggs,  which  in  a  few  days 
become  caterpillars :  thus,  in  three 
generations,  if  untouched,  thirty  mill- 
ion worms  are  produced. 

CATHARTICS.  Medicines  pro- 
ducing increased  defecation.  Aloes, 
castor  oil,  senna,  jalap,  Glauber 
salts,  Epsom  salts,  calomel,  are  the 
principal  cathartics.  They  should  be 
used  very  sparingly,  as  they  produce 
habitual  costiveness  after  a  time. 

CATKIN.  A  pendulous  spike  of 
flowers,  which  falls  after  a  season,  as 
in  the  willow.  Amcnluin  is  the  more 
common  designation. 

CATSUP.  Mushroom  catsup  is 
readily  made  by  placing  a  bushel  or 


CAT 

more  prime  mushrooms  in  a  tub  with 
sufficient  salt,  to  cover  them  slightly, 
and  adding  water  enough  to  cover  the 
whole.  The  brine  becomes  black  and 
well-liavoured  in  a  week,  when  the 
mushrooms  must  be  thoroughly  press- 
ed, and  the  whole  liquor  bottled  and 
sealed.  It  is  improper  to  add  pepper 
or  spices. 

CATS-TAIL  GRASS.  An  Eng- 
lish name  for  timothy  and  other  grass- 
es of  the  genus  I'licum. 

CATTLE.  In  its  most  extensive 
sense,  the  word  cattle  denotes  all  the 
larger  domestic  quadrupeds  which  are 
used  for  draught  or  food.  In  the  usu- 
al acceptation  of  the  word,  it  is  confi- 
ned to  the  ox,  or  what  are  called  black 
cattle,  or  horned  cattle.  But  as  many 
varieties  are  not  black,  and  several 
have  no  horns,  the  name  of  neat  cat- 
tle is  more  appropriate.  The  rearing 
and  feeding  of  cattle  are  very  impor- 
tant branches  of  agricultural  industry. 
Much  of  the  success  of  a  farmer  de- 
pends on  the  judicious  management 
of  live  stock,  without  which  his  laud 
cannot  be  maintained  in  a  proper  state 
of  fertility.  The  breeding  and  fatten- 
ing of  cattle  are  generally  distinct  oc- 
cupations. It  is  of  tlie  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  breeder,  as  well  as  to 
the  grazier,  to  ascertain  the  qualities 
of  each  different  breed  of  cattle,  to  de- 
termine which  is  best  suited  to  his 
purpose,  and  which  will  bring  him  the 
greatest  profit. 

The  different  British  and  Irish 
breeds  have  been  generally  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  the  length 
of  the  horn.  The  long-horned  breed 
is  supposed  by  many  to  be  indigenous. 
Others  consider  the  middle  horned  as 
the  old  breed.  The  former  was  chief- 
ly found  in  a  district  of  Yorkshire  call- 
ed Craven,  and  was  greatly  improved 
by  the  skill  of  Robert  Bakewell,  of 
Dishley  Farm,  in  liCicestershire,  and 
hence  they  are  called  the  Dishley 
breed.  The  distinguishing  characters 
of  this  breed  are,  Ictng  horns  growing 
downward  from  the  side  of  the  head, 
and  ending  in  straight  points  parallel 
to  the  jaw.  In  order  to  give  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  the  qualities  of  this  im- 
proved breed,  we  must  consider  what 


CAT 

breeders  and  graziers  call  the  fine 
points  of  an  ox.  These  are  certain 
forms  and  appearances,  which  are  ei- 
ther anatomically  connected  with  a 
perfect  conformation  of  the  body,  and 
especially  of  the  organs  of  respiration 
and  of  digestion,  or  which  are  con- 
stantly associated  with  the  peculiar 
qualities  of  certain  breeds,  so  as  to  be 
proofs  of  their  purity.  Of  the  first 
kind  are,  a  wide  chest,  well-formed 
barrel,  strong  and  straight  spine,  hip- 
bones well  separated,  and  length  of 
quarter,  all  which  can  be  proved  to 
be  essential  to  the  perfect  functions 
of  the  body.  Small  and  short  bones 
in  the  legs  give  firmness  without  un- 
necessary weight.  A  thick  skin,  well 
covered  with  hair,  ensures  proper 
warmth,  and  its  soft,  loose  feel  indi- 
cates a  good  coat  of  cellular  substance 
underneath,  which  will  readily  be  fill- 
ed with  deposited  fat.  All  these  are 
indispensable  points  in  an  ox  which 
is  to  be  profitably  fatted,  and,  what- 
ever be  the  breed,  they  will  always 
indicate  superiority.  Other  points, 
such  as  colour,  form  of  the  horns, 
shape  of  the  jaw,  and  setting  on  of 
the  tail,  with  other  particulars,  are 
only  essential  in  so  far  as  experience 
has  observed  them  in  the  best  breeds, 
and  as  they  are  indications  of  pure 
blood.  Tiie  eye  is  of  great  impoi-- 
tance  ;  it  should  be  lively  and  mild, 
indicating  a  healthy  circulation,  with 
a  gentle  and  almost  indolent  temper. 
An  animal  that  is  not  easily  disturbed 
will  fatten  rapidly,  while  one  that  is 
restless  and  impatient  will  never  ac- 
quire flesh.  Among  the  ancients,  a 
deep  dewlap  was  considered  as  a 
great  beauty  in  an  ox.  In  some  of 
our  best  breeds  there  is  scarcely  any. 
The  rump  of  the  Freyburg  cows  rises 
high  towards  the  tail,  while  a  straight 
back,  from  the  neck  to  the  tail,  is  in- 
dispensable in  a  well-bred  British  ox. 
Having  established  a  breed  which 
has  many  superior  qualities,  attention 
is  paid  to  maintain  its  purity  ;  and  to 
those  who  cannot  ascertain  the  pa- 
rentage, certain  marks  are  satisfacto- 
ry proof  of  |)urity  of  blood.  The  new 
Leicester  oxen  were  noted  for  the 
smallness  of  the  bone  and  their  apti- 
135 


CATTLt;. 


tude  to  fatten  {Fig.  1).  Their  flesh 
was  fine-grained,  the  fat  being  well 
intermixed  in  the  muscles.  At  the 
time  when  Bakewell  died,  about  1795, 
no  other  breed  could  be  brought  into 
competition  with  his  improved  long- 
horns.  But  whether  his  successors 
have  not  paid  the  same  attention  to 
keep  up  the  qualities  of  the  breed,  or 
it  has  degenerated  in  comparison, 
they  have  since  lost  much  of  their  rep- 
utation, and  the  short-horned  breed 
has  now  the  superiority.  Good  long- 
horned  cattle  are,  however,  occasion- 
ally seen  in  the  midland  counties. 
One  defect  of  the  breed  was,  that  the 
cows  gave  but  little  milk ;  and  this 
may  be  the  reason  for  now  preferring 
the  short-horns.  The  Teeswater  or 
Holderness  breed  of  cattle  {Fig.  2) 
Fig.  2. 


was  produced  by  the  importation  of 
cows  from  Holstein  or  Holland,  and 
careful  breeding  and  crossing.  They 
now  much  excel  the  original  stock. 
Tlie  principal  improver  of  the  Tees- 
water  breed  was  Mr.  Charles  Collins. 
By  his  care  a  breed  has  been  produ- 
ced which  is  unrivalled  for  the  dairy 
and  for  fattening  readily.  Almost  ev- 
136 


erygood  breed  now  in  existence  tra- 
ces its  pedigree  to  his  bulls,  especial- 
ly one  of  the  fiist  he  used,  called  Hub- 
back.  The  famous  ox  exhibited  thir- 
ty years  ago,  under  the  name  of  the 
Durham  ox,  was  of  this  breed.  By 
careful  crossing  with  a  Galloway  cow, 
an  improved  breed  was  produced, 
which  was  in  such  repute  that,  at  a 
sale  of  Mr.  Collins's  stock  of  short- 
horns, October  11,  1810,  a  famous 
bull,  called  Comet,  sold  for  1000  guin- 
eas, and  48  lots  of  bulls,  cows,  and 
calves  realized  £7115  17^. — {Library 
of  Useful  Knowledge,  "  Cattle,"  page 
233.)  The  short-horned  cattle  {Fig.  3) 
Fig.  3. 


Sliort-liorn  (Diirliam). 

are  mostly  light  coloured,  some  quite 
white,  but  most  are  speckled  with  red 
and  white,  without  any  large,  distinct 
spots.  The  horns  are  very  short.  In 
the  cow,  the  points  turn  inward  to- 
wards each  other.  Some  of  the  finest 
bulls  have  merely  a  tip  of  a  horn 
standing  out  from  each  side  of  the 
forehead.  In  the  carcass  they  have 
every  point  which  we  have  before 
enumerated  as  essential  to  perfection. 
From   numerous    importations   of 


CATTLE. 


Durhams,  this  breed  is  now  diffused 
into  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
especially  New-York,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Kentucky. 

'  Besides  the  two  breeds  above  men- 
tioned, there  are  several  in  great  re- 
pute in  particular  districts,  which  al- 
most dispute  the  superiority  with  the 
short-horns.  Of  these,  the  Devon- 
shire breed  is  the  handsomest.  The 
colour  of  this  breed  is  invariably  red, 
with  a  very  fine  head,  small  bone, 
and  glossy  hide.  The  oxen,  although 
not  so  heavy  as  some,  are  the  best 
for  the  plough  on  light  lands ;  they 
walk  nearly  as  fast  as  horses,  and 
will  work  almost  as  well  in  pairs. 
The  cows  (FiiT-  4)  are  good  milkers, 


any  deficiency  m  quantity  being  made 
up  by  the  richness  of  the  cream.  The 
oxen  fatten  readily,  and  their  flesh  is 
of  the  best  quality. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  fine  oxen 
of  New-England  are  derived  from  this 
breed. 


The  Sussex  breed  is  only  dislin 
guished  from  the  Devon  by  being 
rather  stronger,  and  not  so  fine  in 
the  head  and  horn. 

The  Herefordshire  breed  is  larger 
and  heavier  than  cither  of  the  prece- 
ding, the  horns  longer,  and  more 
turned  outward ;  the  colour  is  red, 
but  the  belly  and  the  face  are  gener- 
ally white,  and  there  is  often  a  white 
stripe  along  the  back.  This  breed  has 
many  excellent  qualities,  and  fattens 
well ;  the  cows  {Fig.  5)  are  of  use  for 


the  dairy,  but  yield  only  a  small  quan- 
tity of  milk.  The  Herefordshire  oxen 
are  i)est  suited  to  the  rich  pastures 
of  their  native  county,  where  they 
grow  to  a  great  size,  and  increase 
fast.  These  are  the  principal  Eng- 
lish breeds. 

The  principal  indigenous  Scotch 
breeds  are  the  "West  Highland,  the 
Galloway,  the  Angus,  and  the  Shet- 
land. There  is  a  doubt  whether  the 
Ayrshire  {Fig.  6)  should  be  classed 


among  the  pure  Scotch  cattle.  Their 
great  resemblance  to  the  short-horn 
in  all  but  the  size  leads  one  to  suppose 
that  they  are  a  cross  of  a  smaller 
breed  by  a  short-horn  bull,  but  they 
M2 


have  very  good  qualities,  and  are  ex 
cellent  for  the  dairy  or  for  stalling. 

A  great  many  cattle  are  bred  it 
the  various  islands  which  lie  on  th( 
western  coast  of  Scotland.    They  arf 
137 


CATTLE. 


mostly  of  a  small,  black  breed,  called 
Kyloes.  They  are  very  hardy,  and, 
when  brought  into  good  pasture,  fat- 
ten rapidly,  and  produce  the  finest 
and  best-flavoured  beef  They  are 
found  in  the  greatest  perfection  in 
the  Isle  of  Skj-e,  and  are  sent  annu- 
ally in  large  droves  from  their  native 
islands,  and  dispersed  through  Scot- 
land and  England.  If  they  do  not 
produce  so  great  a  ■weight  of  beef  as 
many  other  breeds,  they  always  bring 
the  highest  price  in  the  market,  and 
require  but  a  very  short  time  to  get 
fat.  The  Galloway  is  a  peculiar 
breed,  which  has  many  good  quali- 
ties :  it  has  no  horns  ;  the  body  is 
compact,  and  the  legs  short ;  and  few 
breeds  can  vie  with  the  Galloway 
oxen  and  heifers  in  aptitude  to  fatten. 
There  is  a  peculiar  roundness  in  all 
the  parts  of  the  body,  which  makes 
the  animal  look  well  in  flesh  even 
when  he  is  lean.  The  skin  is  loose, 
and  the  hair  soft  and  silky  to  the 
touch.  They  are  mostly  black,  but 
some  are  of  a  dun  colour,  which  shows 
a  connexion  between  this  breed  and 
the  polled  Suffolk  ;  it  is  only  the  col- 
our which  distinguishes  them.  Many 
of  the  Galloway  heifers  are  spayed, 
and  get  very  fat  at  an  early  age.  The 
Galloway  cows  are  not  very  good 
milkers,  in  which  respect  they  differ 
from  the  Suffolk,  but  their  milk  is 
very  rich. 

The  Angus  doddie  is  also  a  polled 
breed,  and  has  been  long  in  repute. 
It  is  probably  a  variety  of  the  Gallo- 
way, to  which  it  bears  a  strong  re- 
semblance, but  it  has  been  found  in 
Angus  from  time  immemorial. 

These  are  the  principal  breeds  of 
cattle  in  Britain.  By  selecting  those 
which  are  best  suited  to  each  situation 
and  pasture,  the  industrious  farm- 
er may  add  considerably  to  his  prof- 
its, and,  at  the  same  time,  enrich  his 
land  with  the  manure.  In  purchas- 
ing cattle,  it  is  very  necessary  that 
the  age  should  be  readily  ascertained: 
the  surest  mode  of  doing  this  is  by 
examming  the  teeth.  A  calf  has 
usually  two  front  teeth  when  he  is 
dropped,  or  they  will  appear  a  day  or 
two  after  his  birth  ;  in  a  fortnight  he 
138 


will  have  four,  in  three  weeks  six, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  month  eight. 
After  this,  these  milk-teeth,  as  they 
are  called,  gradually  wear,  and  fall 
out,  and  are  replaced  by  the  second 
and  permanent  teeth.  At  two  years 
old  the  two  middle  teeth  are  replaced ; 
the  next  year  there  will  be  four  new 
teeth  in  all ;  at  four  years  there  are 
six  permanent  teeth,  and  at  five  the 
whole  eight  are  replaced.  The  milk- 
teeth  do  not  always  fall  out,  but  are 
sometimes  pushed  back  by  the  sec- 
ond set ;  and  in  this  case  they  should 
be  removed  with  an  instrument,  as 
they  impede  ma.stication  and  irritate 
the  mouth.  After  six  years  old  the 
edges  of  the  teeth  begin  to  wear  flat, 
and  as  they  wear  off  the  root  of  the 
tooth  is  pushed  up  in  the  socket,  and 
the  width  of  the  teeth  is  diminished, 
leaving  interstices  between  them  : 
this  begins  in  the  middle  teeth,  and 
extends  gradually  to  the  corners. 
At  ten  years  old  the  four  middle 
teeth  are  considerably  diminished, 
and  the  mark  worn  out  of  them.  Af- 
ter fifteen  years  of  age  few  cows  can 
keep  themselves  in  condition  by  pas- 
turing, but  they  may  continue  to  give 
milk,  or  be  fattened  by  stalling  and 
giving  them  ground  food.  Horned 
cattle  have  rings  at  the  root  of  their 
horns,  by  which  the  age  may  also  be 
known.  The  first  ring  appears  at 
three  years  of  age,  and  a  new  one  is 
formed  between  it  and  the  scull  ev- 
ery year  after.  But  this  mode  of 
ascertaining  the  age  is  not  so  sure 
as  by  the  teeth,  deception  being  much 
easier  by  filing  off  the  rings. 

In  order  to  learn  by  experience 
what  breed  of  cattle  is  most  profita- 
ble, it  is  very  advantageous  to  weigh 
them  occasionally  and  note  their  in- 
crease. Experience  has  shown  the 
proportion  between  the  saleable  quar- 
ters and  the  offal  in  different  states 
of  fatness,  and  tables  have  been  con- 
structed by  which  the  nett  weight 
is  found  by  mere  inspection.  Multi- 
plying the  live  weight  by  0  605  gives 
a  near  approximation  to  the  neat 
dead  weight  in  an  ox  moderately  fat 
and  of  a  good  breed.  When  an  ox 
is  fat,  his  weight  niay  be  very  nearly 


CATTLE. 


guessed  by  measuring:  his  girth  im- 
mediately behind  the  fore  legs,  and 
the  length  from  the  tip  of  the  shoul- 
der to  the  perpendicular  line  which 
touches  the  hinder  parts,  or  to  a  wall 
against  wiiich  the  animal  is  backed. 
The  square  of  the  girth  in  inches  and 
decimals  is  muliipHed  by  the  length, 
and  the  product  multiplied  by  the  de- 
cimal -238.  This  gives  the  weight 
of  the  four  quarters  in  stones  of  four- 
teen pounds.  This  rule  is  founded 
on  the  supposition  that  there  is  a 
certain  proportion  between  the  nett 
weight  of  the  quarters  and  that  of  a 
cylinder,  the  circumference  of  which 
is  the  girth,  and  the  axis  the  length, 
taken  as  above.  The  proportion  has 
been  ascertained  by  observation  and 
repeated  comparison.  The  measure- 
ment will,  at  all  events,  indicate  the 
proportional  increase  during  the  pe- 
riod of  fattening. 

Cattle  are  not  subject  to  many  dis- 
eases if  they  have  plenty  of  food  and 
good  water,  and  are  kept  clean.  Air 
is  essential  to  them  ;  and  although 
cows  will  give  more  milk,  and  oxen 
will  fatten  better  when  kept  in  warm 
stalls  in  winter,  they  are  both  less 
subject  to  diseases  when  tliey  are 
kept  in  open  yards,  with  merely  a 
shelter  from  the  snow  and  rain. 

The  most  economical  mode  of 
feeding  cattle  is  evidently  by  allow- 
ing them  to  seek  their  food  on  com- 
mons and  uncultivated  pastures,  but 
it  is  only  in  particular  situations  that 
it  is  the  most  advantageous.  Cattle 
fed  on  commons  add  little  to  the 
stock  of  manure,  except  when  they 
are  kept  in  the  yards  or  stalls  in  win- 
ter ;  even  then  their  dung  is  of  little 
value  if  they  are  merely  kept  alive 
on  straw  or  coarse  hay,  as  is  gener- 
ally the  case  where  the  stock  is  kept 
on  commons  or  mountains  in  sum- 
mer. When  they  feed  in  enclosed 
and  rich  pastures,  their  dung  falling 
in  heaps  on  the  grass  does  more  harm 
than  good.  The  urine  fertilizes  the 
soil  in  wet  weather  when  it  is  dilu- 
ted, but  in  dry  weather  it  only  burns 
up  the  grass.  If  we  calculate  what 
would  be  the  amount  of  dung  collect- 
ed if  the  cattle  were  kept  in  yards  or 


stables,  and  fed  with  food  cut  for 
them  and  brought  there,  and  also  the 
loss  of  grass  by  treading  on  the  pas- 
tures, we  shall  have  no  doubt  wheth- 
er the  additional  labour  of  cutting  the 
grass  and  bringing  it  home  daily  is 
not  amply  repaid  by  the  saving  ;  but 
if  we  also  take  into  account  tlie  va- 
riety of  artificial  grasses,  pulse,  and 
roots  which  may  be  grown  with  ad- 
vantage on  land  unfit  for  permanent 
grass,  and  the  quantity  of  arable  land 
which  may  thus  be  kept  in  the  high- 
est state  of  cultivation,  we  shall  be 
convinced  ttiat  the  practice  of  those 
countries  where  the  cattle  are  con- 
stantly kept  at  home  is  well  worthy 
of  imitation.  It  may  be  of  use  to  the 
health  of  the  animals  to  be  allowed 
to  take  a  few  hours'  air  and  exercise 
in  a  pasture  near  the  stable,  but  there 
is  no  advantage  in  their  having  any 
grass  crop  there  ;  on  the  contrary, 
the  barer  of  grass  the  surface  is,  the 
better.  They  will  relish  their  food 
better  wiien  they  are  taken  in  after  a 
few  hours'  fasting.  A  bite  of  fresh, 
short  grass  might,  on  the  contrary, 
give  them  a  dislike  to  their  staler 
food.  When  cut  grass  is  given  to 
cattle  in  the  stalls,  it  is  best  to  let  it 
lie  in  a  heap  for  at  least  twelve  hours 
before  it  is  given  to  them.  It  heats 
slightly,  and  the  peculiar  odour  of 
some  of  the  plants,  which  oxen  and 
cows  are  not  fond  of,  being  mixed 
with  that  of  the  more  fragrant,  the 
whole  is  eaten  without  waste.  Ex- 
perience has  shown  that  many  plants 
which  cattle  refuse  in  the  field,  where 
they  have  a  choice,  have  nutritious 
qualities  when  eaten  mixed  with  oth- 
ers in  the  form  of  hay.  There  are 
few  deleterious  plants  in  good  grass 
land  or  meadows,  and  these  are  read- 
ily distingni-shed  and  weeded  out. 

The  amount  of  hay,  or  its  equiva- 
lent, necessary  to  sustain  oxen  is 
about  two  per  cent,  of  their  weight 
daily  ;  when  fattening,  four  per  cent. 
is  often  given.  The  accumulation  is 
seldom  more  than  two  and  a  half 
pounds  daily  in  fattening. 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
dung  of  cattle  which  are  stalled  and 
well  fed  are  so  remarkable,  that  its 
139 


CAT 


CAT 


value  makes  a  considerable  deduc- 
tion from  that  of  the  food  given,  es- 
pecially of  green  food,  such  as  clover, 
lucern,  and  every  kind  of  leguminous 
plant :  we  shall  not  be  far  wrong  if 
we  set  it  at  one  fourth.  This  sup- 
poses a  suflicientquantily  of  straw  for 
litter,  and  an  economical  collection 
of  the  liquid  parts  in  proper  reser- 
voirs or  tanks.  In  order  to  make  the 
feeding  of  cattle  advantageous,  the 
buildings  must  be  conveniently  placed 
with  respect  to  the  fields  from  which 
the  food  is  to  be  brought.  Aloveable 
sheds,  with  temporary  yards,  which 
can  be  erected  in  different  parts  of  a 
large  farm,  according  as  different 
fields  are  in  grass  or  roots,  are  a  great 
saving  of  carriage,  both  in  the  bring- 
ing of  food  to  the  cattle  and  carrying 
the  dung  on  the  land.  A  clay  bottom 
should  be  selected,  in  a  dry  and  rath- 
er high  spot,  if  possible.  But  if  per- 
manent buildings  for  cattle,  con- 
structed of  rough  materials  and 
thatched  with  straw,  were  erected 
in  the  centre  of  about  forty  acres  of 
arable  land,  in  different  parts  of  a 
large  farm,  it  would  probably  be  a 
great  saving  in  the  end. 

Good  water  is  most  essential  to 
the  health  of  cattle,  and  that  which 
has  been  some  time  exposed  to  the 
air  seems  the  best  for  them.  When 
they  are  fatted  in  stalls  on  dry  food, 
they  should  always  have  a  trough  of 
water  within  reach.  A  piece  of  rock- 
salt  to  lick,  or  some  salt  given  with 
their  food,  is  highly  conducive  to 
their  health,  and  will  restore  their 
appetite  when  it  begins  to  flag.  Rub- 
bing the  hide  with  a  wisp  of  straw 
or  a  strong  brush,  as  is  done  to  hor- 
ses, may  appear  a  useless  labour,  but 
it  is  well  known  that  there  is  no  bet- 
ter substitute  for  that  exercise  which 
is  essential  to  health.  Where  labour 
is  not  regarded,  as  is  always  the  case 
when  the  owner  of  the  cattle  attends 
upon  them  himself,  the  curry-comb 
and  the  brush  are  in  regular  use,  and 
the  advantage  derived  from  the  use 
of  them  is  undeniable. 

Where  the  farmer  distils  a  spirit 
from  his  grain,  it  is  a  great  advan- 
tage to  have  a  distillery  attached  to 
140 


his  establishment,  especially  in  a  re- 
mote situation  ;  and  not  only  is  the 
fattening  of  cattle  on  the  refuse  of 
the  distillation  a  source  of  profit,  but 
the  manure  extends  fertility  around. 
The  produce  in  spirits  and  in  cattle 
is  easily  transported  to  a  great  dis- 
tance, and  almost  the  whole  of  what 
is  produced  by  the  land  returns  to  it 
in  the  shape  of  manure.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  beet-root,  which  has  been 
lately  so  much  extended  in  the  north 
of  France. 

CATTLE,  DISEASES  OF.  See 
Ox. 

CATTLE,  NATIVE.  Much  dis- 
cussion exists  as  to  the  propriety  of 
importing  cattle  from  abroad,  or  un- 
dertaking an  improvement  of  the  na- 
tive. The  fine  steers  of  New-Eng- 
land are  said  to  be  descended  from 
the  Devon  stock,  and  retain  many  of 
their  traits,  while  they  are  improved 
in  milking  qualities;  but  most  of  the 
other  native  stock  is  small,  and  infe- 
rior to  the  choice  English  breeds. 
But  the  size  is  probably  due  to  the 
carelessness  with  which  they  are 
treated,  and  argues  no  inherent  de- 
fect, in  proof  of  which  it  may  be  sta- 
ted that  the  New-York  butchers  pre- 
fer native  animals  for  the  shambles  ; 
and  many  instances  may  be  quoted 
of  cows  yielding  as  much  milk  as 
even  the  Durham  breed.  The  estab- 
lished foreign  breeds  are  already 
brought  up  to  a  state  of  excellence, 
while  our  cattle  are  unimproved,  and 
tlie  occasional  existence  of  fine  ani- 
mals is  enough  to  guarantee  high 
perfection  when  they  shall  be  regu- 
larly bred.     See  Breeding. 

Since,  however,  so  many  Durham 
bulls  have  been  introduced  into  New- 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Kentucky, 
it  is  very  useful  to  obtain  a  cross 
with  the  native  cow  to  increase  the 
milking  and  fattening  qualities,  and 
also  to  advance  in  the  process  of 
improvement  by  using  the  best  for- 
eign blood  ;  at  the  same  time,  a  per- 
manent and  extensively  diffused 
choice  breed  cannot  be  expected  un- 
til our  own  stock  are  looked  to  in 
part  at  least :  this  is  the  proper  way 


CAU 

of  securing  a  race  suited  to  our  cli- 
mate and  pasture.  To  attain  this  ob- 
ject, the  prominent  agricultural  so- 
cieties have  ofTered  prizes  at  their 
fairs  for  improved  native  stock. 

CAUDATE    (from   cauda,  a  tail). 
Furnished  with  a  tail-like  appendage. 

CAUDEX.     The  body  of  a  root. 

CAULIFLOWER.  An  improved 
cabbage,  the  flowers  of  which  form 
a  mass  of  great  delicacy.  The  va-  ^ 
rieties  cultivated  in  the  United  States  | 
are  the  early  white,  late  white,  and  pur-  | 
j)le.  Sow  the  seed  in  September  in 
clean,  rich  soil,  prick  out  in  five 
weeks,  and  set  in  another  bed  four 
inches  each  way.  As  soon  as  the  , 
weather  is  cold,  set  a  frame  about 
the  seedlings,  and  in  winter  protect 
with  dung  outside,  &c.,  so  as  to  keep  ■ 
out  frost,  but  let  in  plenty  of  air  and 
light.  Early  in  March  set  out  under 
hand  frames,  or  in  pots  in  the  green- 
house. "When  the  weather  is  set-  ; 
tied,  put  out,  with  balls  of  earth  at- 
tached, in  the  richest  spot,  two  and  a 
half  feet  each  way.  They  must  be 
hoed,  earthed  up.  and  watered,  if  ne- 
cessary. Trim  off  the  outer  leaves 
as  the  cauliflower  forms  ;  they  will 
be  mature  in  June.  This  is  the  best 
way,  but  plants  may  be  sown  in  hot- 
beds in  February,  or  even  in  May,  in 
the  open  air.  They  are,  however,  in- 
tolerant of  cold  and  heat,  and  form 
small  hearts  during  the  summer. 
Those  planted  in  May  flower  in  Oc- 
tober. An  ounce  of  good  seed  yields 
from  three  to  four  thousand  plants. 
Cauliflowers  left  for  seed  must  be 
kept  away  from  any  other  cabbage 
variety,  and  the  seeds  collected  as 
rapidly  as  they  ripen. 

CAULLS  (from  Kav7.or).  A  stem. 
From  this  word  comes  cauliferous. 

CAUSTIC.  Any  application  that 
destroys  the  flesh  or  skin  to  which 
it  is  applied.  The  most  powerful 
caustics  are  lunar  caustic  (nitrate  of 
silver),  red  precipitate  (nitrate  of  mer- 
cury), caustic  potash:  blue  stone  is 
also  used.  Sometimes  a  solution  of 
blue  stone  or  lunar  caustic  is  applied 
to  stimulate  an  ulcer  or  slowly  re- 
move excessive  growth.  Caustics 
are  chiefly  used  to  subdue  irregular 


CED 

growths  of  flesh,  and  to  destroy  ul- 
cers. 

CAUSTIC,  LUNAR.  Nitrate  of 
silver,  sold  in  sticks,  ready  for  use  as 
a  caustic  ;  when  used  in  solution,  ten 
grains  are  mixed  with  an  ounce  of 
water. 

CAUTERY,  or  ACTUAL  CAU- 
TERY. The  application  of  a  red-hot 
iron  to  a  diseased  part,  as  fungous 
growths,  &c.  It  is  too  often  used 
injudiciously. 

CAVIARE.  The  salted  roe  of  the 
sturgeon,  prepared  and  dried.  It  is 
an  unwholesome  food  used  in  Russia. 

CEDAR.  There  are  two  species 
of  Cuprcssus  known  in  the  forests  of 
the  United  States  under  the  names 
of  black  cedar,  or  cypress  (C.  disti- 
cha),  and  the  white  cedar  ( C.  thyoides). 
They  both  yield  good  timber. 

The  C.  disticha  is  abundant  in  the 
swamps  of  Virginia  and  the  South, 
and  forms  the  only  tree  in  immense 
swamps  on  the  Mississippi.  In  these 
localities  it  often  rises  130  feet,  and 
attains  30  to  40  feet  girth  at  the  earth, 
running  up  like  a  cone.  The  wood 
is  extremely  durable,  and  in  high  re- 
pute for  shingles  and  posts.  It  is  fell- 
ed in  winter,  and  allowed  to  dry  thor- 
oughly before  being  split.  The  trees, 
which  grow,  in  a  great  measure,  in 
water,  have  light  barks,  and  are  call- 
ed ichife  cypress,  while  those  of  drier 
soils  are  caUed  black  cypress,  and  yield 
a  firmer  and  more  resinous  wood. 

The  u-hite  cypress,  C.  thyoides,  is  ev- 
ergreen, grows  seldom  70  feet  high, 
and  is  about  three  feet  in  diameter. 
It  is  abundant  in  New-Jersey,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia,  but  not  farther 
south.  It  inhabits  salt  and  other 
marshes  in  dense  forests.  The  wood 
is  light,  soft,  of  a  rosy  colour,  aromat- 
ic, easily  worked,  and  very  durable.  It 
is  used  by  turners,  and  forms  the  most 
valuable  shingles,  sometimes  called 
juniper  shingles,  which  last  35  years. 

CEDAR  OF  LEBANON.  Abies 
cedrus.  A  tree  of  immense  dimen- 
sions, value,  and  beauty,  native  on 
the  Lebanon  Mountains.  It  is  natu- 
,  ralized  in  Europe,  and  is  a  splendid 
ornament  in  English  parks.  The 
wood. is  very  durable.  It  may  be  cul» 
141 


CEL 


CEX 


tivated  with  ease  in  the  United  States 
as  an  ornament. 

CEDAR,  RED.  The  Juni perils  Vir- 
giniana  is  so  called  ;  it  is  found  on 
the  sea-coast  from  Maine  to  ilie  Gulf 
of  Mexico  ;  attainin<r,  in  the  South, 
40  feet,  but  is  small  inland.  It  is  ev- 
ergreen and  ornamental.  The  wood 
is  very  dural)le,  lij,'lit,  and  odorous, 
red  in  colour,  but  scarce  in  quantity  : 
the  best  is  from  Florida. 

CELERY.  The  improved  small- 
age,  or  Apium  frravcolens.  Several 
varieties  are  cultivated ;  the  lohite 
solid  is  the  best  for  the  table,  the  red 
solid  for  cooking  ;  NorlVs  giant,  ncic 
white,  lion\s  paw,  and  cclcriac  {A.  ra- 
paceum)  are  also  raised  ;  the  last  pro- 
duces a  root  like  the  turnip,  which  is 
sliced,  and  eaten  with  vinegar.  Ear- 
ly celery  may  be  raised  from  seeds 
60wn  in  a  cold  bed,  like  cabbages. 
The  general  crop  is  sown  in  March 
or  April,  in  a  rich  border,  protected 
from  great  heat.  The  drill  is  the  best, 
run  six  inches  apart.  Transplant, 
when  three  inches  high,  into  rich 
soil,  and  after  a  month  into  trench- 
es dug  one  spade  deep,  ten  inches 
wide,  and  four  feet  apart.  Place  at 
the  bottom  of  each  trench  three  inch- 
es of  rotten  dung,  and  mix  it  well 
with  the  soil ;  leave  the  earth  taken 
out  piled  up  between  the  trenches,  to 
be  afterward  fdled  in  as  the  plants 
grow.  Trim  the  roots  and  side  leaves 
of  the  celery  before  setting  in  the 
trench,  and  place  them  four  to  six 
inches  apart.  Sometimes  two  or 
more  rows  are  planted  in  one  wide 
trench.  As  the  plants  grow  in  the 
trenches,  hoe  them,  and  when  well 
grown  to  one  foot  high  i)egin  to  earth 
in  ;  this  must  be  done  wlien  the  soil 
is  dry.  Place  a  board  against  the 
plants,  and  throw  in  soil  enough  to 
reach  nearly  to  the  central  b\id  ;  do 
this  on  each  side  and  along  the  row. 
Earth  up  every  two  weeks,  as  the 
celery  grows,  taking  care  to  collect 
together  the  leaves  each  time.  When 
blanched  for  thirty  inches  it  is  fit  for 
Use.  Late  winter  celery  may  be  put 
in  trenches  in  August,  and  earthed  in 
October.  Market  gardeners  plough 
out  their  trenches,  increasing  tlie  dis- 
143 


tance  between  them.  One  ounce  of 
seed  yields  upward  of  ten  thousand 
plants.  The  winter  store  is  kept  in 
sand,  and  covered  with  straw ;  sud- 
den liiawing  destroys  the  celery.  If 
the  wiiole  root  is  taken  up  uncut, 
the  stump,  after  cutting  off  the  head, 
will  again  sprout  in  a  warm  cellar, 
and  yield  a  second  supply  of  small, 
hut  very  sweet  and  tender  celery. 
Seeds  are  readily  obtained  by  leaving 
a  few  plants  in  the  seed-bed,  which 
will  flower  in  July,  and  bear  an  abun- 
dance of  seeds  in  umbels. 

CELL.  In  physiology,  the  mi- 
nute cavities  in  plants  and  mem- 
branes :  the  size  ditlers  from  the  one 
thousandth  to  the  one  hundredth  of 
an  inch.  It  may  contain  air,  or  fluids 
and  solids.  The  cell  is  the  first  struc- 
ture of  all  membranes,  but  subse- 
quently it  may  be  converted  into  a 
tube.  They  are  originally  spherical, 
but  become  changed  by  pressure  into 
cubes,  dodecahedrons,  and  other  fig- 
ures. 

CELLULAR  TISSUE.  The  mem- 
brane or  tissue  in  plants  and  ani- 
mals which  consists  of  cells  contain- 
ing gas  chiefly,  as  the  pith.  It  exists 
between  all  muscles,  and  under  the 
skin  in  animals. 

CEMENT.     A  Mortar,  which  see. 

CEMENTATION.  A  process  of 
making  steel,  by  surrounding  plates 
of  iron  with  charcoal  powder  and 
heating  to  a  high  point. 

CENTIGRADE.  A  division  into 
one  hundredths,  as  the  centigrade 
thermometer. 

CENTIPEDE.  Creeping,  wing- 
less insects  with  many  feet ;  they  at- 
tack the  dead  roots  of  plants. 

CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY.  An 
imaginary  point  in  the  centre  of  any 
mass  which  has  the  same  weight  ot 
matter  arranged  on  at  least  two  sides. 
When  any  substance  is  balanced  on 
a  jioint,  as  the  finger,  the  centre  of 
gravity  lies  immecliately  above  that 
point.  In  falling  to  the  earth,  all  sub- 
stances take  such  a  path  that  the 
centre  of  gravity  descends  in  a 
straight  line.  No  object  can  remain 
firm  except  a  line  drawn  from  the 
centre  of  gravity  to  the  earth   fall 


CHA 


GIIA 


within  its  base  ;  the  instant  it  falls 
on  the  outside  the  body  tumbles  over. 

CENTRIFUGAL  (fVum  ccntnim, 
the  centre,  and/u^;o,  1  retreat).  Used 
in  botany  to  describe  an  inflorescence 
in  which  the  uppermost  or  central 
flowers  bloom  first. 

CENTRIPETAL  (from  centrum 
and  pctro,  I  seek).  That  inflorescence 
in  which  the  outermost  or  lowest 
buds  develop  first ;  it  is  the  most 
common. 

CEPHALIC  (from  /ce^a?.;/,  a  head). 
Relating  to  the  head. 

CERACEOUS  (from  c^ra,  wax).  In 
botany,  waxv. 

CERASIN.  The  gum  of  the  cher- 
ry and  other  trees,  which  does  not 
dissolve,  but  swells  in  water ;  it  is 
the  same  as  bassorin. 

CERATE.  An  ointment  contain- 
ing wax. 

CEREALIA.  A  term  applied  to 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  corn,  millet, 
or  grain  plants. 

C  E  R  I  N.  That  portion  of  wax 
which  dissolves  in  boiling  alcohol. 

CERUMEN.  The  wax  formed  in 
the  ears  of  animals.  An  accumula- 
tion produces  deafness,  that  may  be 
partly  cured  by  syringing  the  ears 
with  tepid  water. 

CERUSE.   White-lead,  which  see. 

CERVICAL  (from  cervix,  the  neck). 
Belonging  to  the  neck. 

CESPITOSE,  CESPITOSUS 
(from  cespcs,  a  turf).  Producing 
many  stems  from  one  root. 

CHAFF.  The  husks  of  grain  or 
straw  cut  in  small  pieces. 

CHAFF  ENGINES.  The  English 
name  for  Straw-cutters,  which  see. 

CHALCEDONY.  A  semi-transpa- 
rent, silicious  mineral,  usually  milky 
and  nodular. 

CHALDRON.  A  measure  of  36 
bushels,  heaped. 

CHALK.  A  geological  formation 
abounding  in  Europe,  but  absent  in 
the  United  States.  It  belongs  to  the 
uppermost  portions  of  the  secondary 
formation,  and  consists  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  carbonate  of  lime. 

CHALYBE.\TE.  Medicines  or 
mineral  waters  containing  iron  :  they 
are  tonic. 


CHAMOMILE.  Anthemis  nobilis. 
The  flowers  are  used  in  medicine  as 
a  bitter ;  or  an  extract  is  made  of 
their  boiled  liquor.     See  Camomile. 

CHAMPIGNION.  The  French 
name  for  mushrooms  ;  also  the  Aga- 
ricas  orcades,  an  English  species, 
tougher,  but  more  highly  flavoured 
than  the  common  mushroom  ;  it  is 
good  when  dried,  and  used  in  powder 
as  a  condiment,  or  made  into  catsup. 

CHANGE  OF  SEED.  Practical 
men  have  discovered  that  highly  im- 
proved seeds,  especially  of  wheat, 
corn,  &c.,  brought  from  a  distance, 
gradually  deteriorate  if  the  soil  is  un- 
suited.  Thus,  the  white  May  wheat 
becomes  red  on  the  red  soils  of  Vir- 
ginia ;  the  delicate  six  weeks'  corn 
of  Canada  becomes  a  three  months' 
hard  corn  in  the  South.  General 
Harmon  has  shown  that  many  of  the 
choicest  English  wheats  produce  im- 
perfect grain  in  New-York  ;  and  it 
must  be  evident  that  whatever  im- 
provement, in  plants  and  seeds  has 
been  attained  by  high  culture,  will  be 
lost  unless  that  culture  is  maintained. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  changing  seed, 
it  is  best  to  improve  our  own,  and 
keep  the  land  up  to  the  proper  tilth ; 
and  if  we  introduce  new  varieties,  to 
take  care  to  introduce,  also,  high  cul- 
ture. Seeds  of  the  same  state,  or  a 
similar  soil  and  climate,  deteriorate 
less  rapidly  than  foreign  grain.  By 
changing  seed  and  always  buying 
choice  kinds,  fine  grain  may  be  ob- 
tained for  one  or  two  seasons,  even 
from  indifferent  lands. 

CHARCOAL.  Vegetable  matter 
burned  in  a  place  without  access  of 
air.  Near  large  cities  a  strong  vine- 
gar (pyroligneous  acid)  is  made  from 
green  wood,  by  distilling  it  in  iron 
vessels  ;  fine  charcoal  remains  in  the 
vessel,  and  is  thus  obtained  for  com- 
bustion. On  the  farm,  the  produc- 
tion of  charcoal  must  be  on  a  cheaper 
and  more  wholesale  scale.  Logs  of 
wood  are  piled  either  horizontally  or 
vertically  into  a  dome-shaped  mass, 
a  chimney  being  left  in  the  centre 
about  four  or  five  inches  square,  and 
the  rest  covered  close  with  sods  and 
earth  a  foot  deep,  so  that  no  smoke  can 
113 


CII.V 

escape  through  it ;  a  small  flue  or  i 
channel  for  air  may  also  be  left  along 
the  ground,  under  the  wood,  on  the 
windward   side,  and  passing  to  the 
central  chimney  :  this  is  the  simplest 
construction.     Sometimes   a   pit   or  | 
walled  space  is  used,  in  which  the  1 
wood  is  laid,  flues  being  sunk  to  con- ! 
vey  air  to  the  bottom,  and  a  central ' 
chimney  left,  the  top  being  covered 
with  earth,  ashes,  or  cinders.     The 
kiln  is  fired  by  placing  in  the  central 
chimney  leaves,  straw,  or  twigs  well 
lighted,  and  allowing  the  draught  to 
remain  open  until  the  upper  logs  of 
wood  are  well  fired,  afterward  closing 
the  under  flue.     As  soon  as  the  flame 
dies  away,  the  wood  being  red-hot  j 
above,  close  the  top  of  the  chimney 
and  let  the  fire  smoulder.     It  requires 
from  six  to  ten  days  to  burn  a  kiln, 
and  constant  attention  must  be  paid. 
Hard  wood  requires  most  time.     The  . 
average  yield  is  16  per  cent,  of  coal, 
but  hard  woods,  well  burned,  some- 
times furnish  25.     Box,  lignum  vitcc, 
mahogany,  chestnut,  and  oak  yield 
most.     In  this  process,  nearly  all  the 
carbon  of  the  wood  is  left,  the  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  uniting  in  combustion 
to  form  water,  and  the  object  in  view 
is  to  keep  out  atmospheric  air,  which 
would  cause  the  combustion  of  the 
carbon  also. 

Properties.  —  Charcoal  possesses 
many  remarkable  properties.  1st.  It 
has  the  power  ofremoving  fetid  smells 
from  water,  meats,  and  manures ; 
hence  it  is  used  in  disinfecting  priv- 
ies and  manures.  2d.  It  removes  the 
colour  of  many  fluids,  and  is  used  in 
clarifying  juices  and  solutions,  espe- 
cially in  refining  sugar.  3d.  It  is  re- 
markably porous,  and  absorbs  from 
the  air  and  other  media,  gases :  1 
cubic  inch  of  fresh  box-wood  was 
found  by  .Saussure  to  absorb  and  con- 
dense 90  of  ammoniacal  gas,  35  of  car- 
bonic acid,  9i  of  oxygen,  and  7^  of 
nitrogen  :  this  property  gives  it  great 
value  in  putrescent  composts,  and  as 
a  manure.  4th.  Charcoal  is  nearly 
unchangeable  in  common  air  at  the 
ordinary  temperature,  but  burns, 
when  heated  to  redness,  into  carbon- 
ic acid,  if  abundance  of  air  be  present. 


CHA 

5th.  Being  a  very  bad  conductor  of 
heat,  it  is  used  to  line  refrigerators 
and  small  ice-houses. 

As  a  Manure. — Charcoal,  in  small 
lumps  or  coarse  powder,  has  been 
highly  recommended  of  late  as  a  top 
drcss"ing.  About  40  bushels  the  acre, 
over  grass  lands,  or  among  young 
plants,  as  turnips,  has  been  known 
to  produce  a  heavy  increase.  Its 
success  will,  however,  depend  upon 
the  goodness  of  the  soil,  and  its 
wants.  Wherever  an  increased  sup- 
ply of  ammonia  from  the  air  is  want- 
ing, the  charcoal  does  good.  The 
fresh -burned  article  also  contains 
much  sahne  matter,  soluble  in  water. 
The  best,  and  perhaps  only  advisable 
way  of  using  it,  is  to  compost  the  pow- 
der with  night  soil,  urine,  blood,  and 
other  putrescent  bodies ;  it  tends  to 
dry  up  the  fluids,  and  retains  the  am- 
monia formed  during  their  decay. 
Such  composts  added  to  the  soil,  re- 
tain their  virtue  much  longer  than 
the  bodies  when  used  alone.  The 
charcoal  yields  to  roots  of  plants  the 
gases  it  has  absorbed.  But  it  has 
been  shown  by  numerous  gardeners 
that  charcoal  powder,  kept  moist  with 
rain  water,  is  a  good  soil  for  many 
flowers,  and  capable  of  sustaining 
vigorous  vegetation,  and  that  slips 
take  root  readily  in  it.  Besides  its 
absorbent  action,  charcoal  will  loosen 
tough  soils  and  increase  their  warmth 
by  its  black  colour :  it  adds  to  the 
tilth  by  giving  greater  porousness. 

Great  dijiculti/  has  been  found  in 
obtaining  powdered  charcoal  ;  this 
is  readily  obviated  by  crushing  the 
lumps  in  a  rough  bark  mill,  which 
every  farmer  can  set  up  with  an  old 
stone,  turning  around  a  post  and 
pressing  on  a  few  flag-stones.  See 
Mill. 

CHARCOAL.  AXIMAL.  BONE 
BLACK,  IVORY  BLACK.  These 
terms  are  used  chiefly  to  indicate 
bones  charred  by  heat.  It  is  prepa- 
red extensively  for  sugar  refiners,  be- 
ing much  more  valuable  in  remo- 
ving colours  than  common  charcoal. 
Sometimes  it  is  made  by  placing 
bones  in  an  open  iron  vessel  and 
heating   until    they   are    sufticientlv 


Giii: 


CUE 


black  ;  hut  the  most  economical  way- 
is  to  introduce  crushed  bones  into 
iron  retorts  and  distillinff ;  l)y  this 
means  a  strong  Iclid  ammonia  is  ol)- 
tained  from  them,  which  is  very  val- 
uable in  the  arts,  and  the  bones  yield 
more  bone  black.  Common  animal 
charcoal  contains  80  to  85  per  cent, 
of  phospliate  of  lime  and  mineral 
matter.  Tiie  refuse  of  the  sugar  re- 
fuiers  is  a  very  valuable  manure,  and, 
mixed  with  composts,  much  superior 
to  the  recent  bone  black,  from  the 
mixture  of  blood  and  other  putres- 
cent matters  used.  In  France  it  is 
so  highly  esteemed,  that  purchases 
are  made  in  New-York  city  for  ex- 
portation to  Havre,  and  the  refuse 
is  imitated  by  artificial  mixtures  of 
powdered  charcoal  and  bullocks' 
blood.  It  is  of  great  service  in  pro- 
ducing vigorous  growth,  strong  plants, 
and  fine  seeds.  From  150  to  200 
pounds,  in  compost,  are  suflicient  for 
an  acre  of  land  in  high  order  :  in  gar- 
dens more  is  used. 

CHARD.  A  variety  of  Beet,  which 
see. 

CHARLOCK.  Several  weeds  of 
the  Cruciferous  family  ;  difficult  to 
extirpate  except  by  mowing  before 
they  llowcr.     They  are  annuals. 

CHARRING.  Burning  so  as  to 
produce  a  crust  of  charcoal.  It  is  a 
good  way  of  preserving  the  butts  of 
posts  inserted  in  the  ground  or  wet 
places. 

CHASE.  A  row  of  trees  or  hedge 
plants. 

CHAT  POTATOES.  A  term  in 
England  for  the  small,  imperfect  po- 
tatoes, fit  onlv  for  liogs. 

CHEAT,  or  CHESS.  The  Bromus 
fccalinus  (see  Bromus).  Supposed  to 
be  degenerate  wheat  by  the  ignorant. 
It  is  a  troublesome  grass,  only  to  be 
extirpated  by  cleaning  the  grain  thor- 
oughly of  the  chess  seeds.  It  is 
called  Darnel  occasionally  in  Eng- 
land. 

CHEESE.  In  making  cheese 
there  are  certain  general  principles 
which  are  essential,  hut  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  process  produce  cheeses 
of  very  different  qualities  ;  and  al- 
though the  most  important  circum- 
N 


stance  is  the  nature  of  the  pasture  on 
which  the  cows  are  fed,  yet  much 
depends  on  the  mode  in  which  tho 
different  stages  of  the  fabrication  are 
managed  ;  and  hence  the  great  supe- 
riority of  the  cheeses  of  particular 
districts  or  dairies  over  those  of  oth- 
ers, without  any  apparent  difference 
in  the  pasture.  By  skill  and  great 
attention  excellent  cheeses  are  made 
in  places  where  the  pastures  are  not 
considered  so  well  adapted  to  pro- 
duce milk  of  a  proper  quality  ;  and  in 
those  countries  where  the  cows  are 
chiefly  kept  tied  up  in  stalls,  and  are 
fed  with  a  variety  of  natural  and  ar- 
tificial grasses,  roots  and  vegetables, 
superior  cheese  is  often  made. 

The  first  process  in  making  cheese 
is  to  separate  the  curd  from  the  whey, 
which  may  be  done  by  allowing  the 
milk  to  become  sour  ;  but  the  cheese 
is  inferior  in  quality,  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  stop  the  acid  fermentation  and 
prevent  its  running  into  the  putrefac- 
tive. Various  substances  added  to 
milk  will  soon  separate  the  curd  from 
the  whey.  All  acids  curdle  milk. 
Muriatic  acid,  or  spirits  of  salt,  is  used 
with  success  for  this  purpose  in  Hol- 
land. Some  vegetables  contain  acids 
which  readily  coagulate  milk,  such  as 
the  juice  of  the  fig-tree,  and  the  flow- 
ers of  the  Galium  verum,  or  yellow 
lady's  bed  straw,  hence  called  cheese- 
rcnnct.  Where  better  rennet  cannot 
be  procured,  they  may  be  substituted 
tor  the  most  natural  curdler  of  milk, 
which  is  the  prepared  stomach  of  a 
sucking  calf  This  rapidly  coagu- 
lates the  milk  ;  and  the  only  difficul- 
ty is  in  keeping  it  from  putrefaction, 
which  begins  from  the  instant  the 
stomach  is  taken  from  the  calf  The 
preparation  of  the  rennet,  as  it  is  call- 
ed, IS  a  most  important  part  of  the 
process  of  cheese-making.  The  fol- 
lowing may  be  considered  as  the  sim- 
plest, and  perhaps  the  best.  As  soon 
as  a  sucking  calf  is  killed  the  stom- 
ach should  be  taken  out,  and  if  the 
calf  has  sucked  lately,  it  is  all  the  bet- 
ter. The  outer  skin  should  be  well 
scraped,  and  all  fat  and  useless  mem- 
branes carefully  removed.  It  is  only 
the  inner  coat  which  must  be  prc- 
115 


CHEESE. 


served.  The  coagulated  milk  should 
be  taken  out  and  examined  ;  and  any 
substance  besides  curd  loiiiid  in  it 
should  bo  carefully  removed.  The 
serum  left  in  it  should  be  pressed  out 
with  a  cloth.  It  should  then  be  re- 
placed in  the  stomach  with  a  large 
quantity  of  the  best  salt.  Some  add 
a  little  alum  and  saltpetre  ;  others 
put  various  herbs  and  spices,  with 
the  view  of  giving  the  cheese  a  pe- 
culiar flavour,  but  the  plain,  simple 
salting  is  sufficient.  The  skins,  or 
veils,  as  they  are  called,  are  then  put 
into  a  pan,  and  (-overed  with  a  satu- 
rated brine,  in  whicli  they  are  soaked 
for  some  hours  ;  but  there  must  be 
no  more  liquor  than  will  well  moisten 
the  veils.  They  are  afterward  hung 
up  to  dry,  a  piece  of  flat  wood  being 
put  crosswise  into  each  to  stretcli 
Ihein  out.  They  should  be  perfectly 
dried,  and  look  like  (jarchment.  In 
this  state  they  may  be  kept  in  a  dry 
place  for  any  length  of  time,  and  are 
always  ready  for  use.  In  some  places, 
at  thi'  time  of  making  cheese,  a  piece 
of  a  veil  is  cut  off  and  soaked  for 
some  hours  in  water  or  whey,  and 
the  whole  is  added  to  ihe  warm  milk. 
In  other  places,  pieces  of  veil  are  put 
into  a  linen  bag  and  staked  in  warm 
water,  until  the  water  has  acquired 
sufficient  strength,  whicli  is  proved 
by  trying  a  portion  of  it  in  warm  milk 
The  methoil  employed  in  Sw  tzerland 
is  as  follows  :  A  dry  veil  is  taken  and 
exammed  ;  it  is  scraped  wiili  a  knite, 
and  where  any  veins  or  pieees  of 
tough  iiiembrdiie  ajjpear  they  are  re- 
moved 1  he  whole  surface  is  exam- 
ined and  w.ished  carelully,  if  any 
dust  or  tiirt  h.is  adhered  to  it  ;  but, 
otherwise  it  is  only  wijied  with  a 
cloth.  -A  haiidl'ul  of  salt  is  then  put 
into  it,  and  the  edges  ol  the  veil  are 
folded  over  and  secured  with  a  wood- 
en skewer  stuck  thnujgh  it.  In  this 
state  it  forms  a  ball  of  about  three 
inches'  diameter,  and  is  laid  to  soak 
twenty-four  hours  in  a  dish  contain- 
ing aliout  a  quart  of  clear  whey,  which 
has  been  boiled,  and  all  the  curd 
taken  out.  The  next  day  the  veil  is 
well  squeezed,  and  pui  into  fresh 
whey,  the  first  infusion  being  put 
146 


into  a  proper  vessel ;  the  second  is 
afterward  mixed  with  it  and  bottled 
for  use.  Half  a  pint  of  this  liquor,  of 
a  proper  strength,  is  sufhcient  to  cur- 
dle forty  gallons  of  milk.  Experience 
alone  enables  the  dairyman  to  judge 
of  the  strength  of  his  rennet ;  for  this 
purpose  he  takes  in  a  Hal  ladle  some 
milk  which  has  been  heated  to  about 
95^  of  Fahrenheit,  and  adds  a  small 
measure  of  rennet  By  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  curdles,  and  the  form 
of  the  flakes  produced,  he  know.-  its 
exact  strength,  and  puts  more  or  less 
into  the  caldron  in  which  the  milk  is 
heated  for  curdling.  A  simple  instru- 
ment might  easily  be  invented  by 
which  the  exact  degree  of  strength 
might  be  ascertained,  and  a  rule  giv 
en  to  guide  the  less  experienced  ;  but 
as  long  as  a  man  feels  a  superiority 
ac()uired  by  exierience  alone,  he  is 
not  likely  to  encourage  any  contri- 
vance which  would  place  others  on  a 
level  with  himstdf  From  this  cause 
even  the  thermometer  has  .lOt  been 
introduced  generally  into  any  great 
dairy,  nor  have  any  certaui  rules  been 
given  to  ascertain  the  exact  heat  le- 
quired  in  the  milk,  when  the  reniiei 
is  added,  to  form  the  best  curd. 

There  are  different  kinlsofrhees*'. 
accor'ling  to  the  mode  of  preparing 
it  ;  soft  and  rich  cheeses  are  not  in- 
tended to  be  kept  long  ;  hard  and  dry 
cheeses  are  adapted  to  be  kept  and 
stored  for  provisions.  Of  the  first 
kind  are  all  cream  cheeses,  and  those 
soft  cheeses  called  Bath  and  Yo.k- 
shire  cheeses,  which  are  s  'Id  as  soon 
as  made,  and  if  kept  too  long  become 
soft  and  putrid.  Stilton  and  Gruyere 
cheeses  are  intermediate;  Parme- 
san, Dutch,  Cheshire,  Gloui-ester- 
shire,  and  snnilar  cheeses  are  in- 
tended for  longer  keeping.  The 
poorer  the  cheese,  the  longer  it  will 
keep ;  and  all  cheese  that  is  well 
cleared  from  whey  and  sufficiently 
salted  will  keep  for  years  The 
small  Dutch  cheeses  called  Edam 
cheeses  are  admirably  adapted  lor 
keeping,  and  form  an  important  arti- 
cle in  the  victualling  of  snips. 

The  Gruycrc  and  Parmesan  cheeses 
only  differ  in  the  nature  of  the  milk, 


CllLLiyE. 


and  in  the  dectree  of  heat  given  to 
tlie  curd  in  diflerent  parts  of  ihe  pro- 
cess. Gniyere  clieese  is  entirely 
made  from  new  milk,  and  Parmesan 
fuom  skinnned  milk.  In  the  first  no- 
thing is  added  to  give  flavour  ;  in  the 
latter  saflYon  gives  both  colour  and 
flavour  :  tiie  process  in  both  is  ex- 
actly similar.  A  large  caldron  in 
the  shape  of  a  bell,  capable  of  hold- 
ing from  60  to  130  gallons  of  milk, 
hangs  from  an  iron  crane  over  a 
hearth  where  a  wood  fire  is  made. 
The  milk,  having  been  strained,  is 
put  into  this  caldron,  and  heated  to 
nearly  blood  heat  (95^  to  100  ).  It 
is  then  turned  off  the  fire,  and  some 
rennet,  prepared  as  stated  above,  is 
intimately  mixed  with  the  warm  milk 
by  stirring  it  with  a  flat  wooden 
skimming  dish,  which  is  turned  round 
in  the  milk.  A  cloth  is  then  laid  over 
the  caldron,  and  in  half  an  hour,  more 
or  less,  the  coagulum  is  formed. 
This  is  ascertained  by  pressing  the 
skimming  dish  on  the  surface,  when 
the  whey  will  appear  on  the  part 
pressed.  If  it  is  longer  than  an  hour 
m  coagulating,  the  milk  has  been  too 
cool,  or  the  rennet  not  strong  enough. 
The  weather  has  a  great  influence  on 
the  process  of  the  dairy,  and  there  is 
much  yet  to  be  learned  by  accurate 
observations  with  meteorological  in- 
struments. When  the  curd  is  prop 
erly  formed,  it  is  cut  horizontally  in 
thin  slices  by  the  same  skimming 
ladle.  Each  slice,  as  it  is  taken  off, 
is  placed  along  the  side  of  the  cal- 
dron which  is  nearest  to  the  opera- 
tor ;  by  this  means  every  portion  of 
the  curd  rises  successively  to  the 
surface,  and  is  sliced  thin.  The 
whole  is  then  well  stirred,  and  the 
caldron  replaced  over  the  fire.  A  long 
staff,  with  a  small  knob  of  hard  wood 
at  the  end,  and  which  has  smaller 
cross  pieces  or  sticks  passed  through 
holes  in  it  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  near  the  end,  is  now  used  to 
stir  and  break  the  curd,  and  the  heat 
is  raised  to  about  135".  The  caldron 
is  again  swung  off  the  fire,  and  the 
curd  is  stirred  with  the  staff,  which 
is  moved  round  with  a  rejiuhir  rota- 
tory motion.     Alter  fatirnng  in  this 


manner  nearly  an  hour,  the  curd  is 
found  divided  into  small  dies  about 
the  size  of  a  pea,  which  fi-el  elastic 
and  rather  tough  under  the  finger. 
The  whey,  of  which  a  portion  is  re- 
moved occasionally,  now  floats  at 
top,  and  the  curd  is  collected  in  the 
bottom  by  giving  a  very  rapid  rota- 
tory motion  to  the  contents  of  the 
caldron  by  means  of  the  staff.  A 
cloth  is  now  introduced  into  the  bot- 
tom, and  all  the  curd  collected  over 
it ;  it  is  raised  by  the  four  corners, 
and  laid  on  an  instrument  like  a  small 
ladder,  which  is  placed  across  the 
mouth  of  the  caldrnn.  The  whey 
runs  out  through  the  cloth,  which  is 
a  common  cheese-cloth  woven  with 
wide  interstices  ;  and  the  curd  in  the 
cloth  is  placed  in  a  shape  or  hoop 
made  of  a  slip  of  wood  four  inches 
and  a  half  wide,  the  two  ends  of 
which  lie  over  each  other,  so  that 
the  diameter  can  he  increased  or 
lessened.  A  cord  fixed  to  one  end 
of  the  hoop  is  passed  with  a  loop  over 
hoops  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 
other  end,  and  prevents  the  ring  from 
opening  more  than  is  required.  The 
curd  is  pressed  into  this  ring  with  the 
hands,  and  the  ends  of  the  cloth  are 
folded  over  it.  A  round  board,  two 
inches  thick,  and  strengthened  by 
cross  pieces  nailed  on  it,  is  placed 
over  the  curd,  and  the  press  let  down 
upon  it. 

The  cheese-press  is  a  simple  long 
board  or  frame  forming  a  lever,  load- 
ed at  one  end  and  moving  in  a  frame 
at  the  other.;  it  is  lifted  up  by  an- 
other lever  connected  with  it,  and  let 
down  on  a  strong  stick,  which  stands 
with  its  end  on  the  centre  of  the 
board  last  mentioned.  The  weight 
is  thus  easily  removed  or  replaced. 
The  hoop  containing  the  cheese  is 
placed  on  a  similar  board,  and  from 
it  the  table  of  the  press  slopes  to- 
wards a  wooden  trough,  which  re- 
ceives the  whey  as  it  runs  out.  In 
an  hour  after  this  the  curd  is  ex- 
amined ;  the  edges,  which  are  press- 
ed over  the  ring,  are  pared  off,  and 
the  parings  are  put  on  the  centre  of 
the  cheese  ;  a  fresh  cloth  is  substi- 
tuted, and  the  whole  cheese  is  turned. 
117 


CHEESE. 


The  ring,  which  opens  readily  by  un- 
hooking the  cord,  allows  tiie  clieesp 
to  come  out,  and  is  put  on  again  and 
tightened.  This  is  repeated  two  or 
three  times  in  the  day.  In  the  even- 
ing, a  small  portion  of  finely  powder- 
ed salt  is  rubbed  on  each  side  of  the 
cheese,  and  it  remains  in  the  press 
till  the  next  morning.  It  is  now 
again  rubbed  with  salt,  and  placed 
on  a  shelf  with  a  loose  board  under 
it.  The  wooden  ring  remains  on  the 
cheese  for  two  or  three  days,  and  is 
Ihen  taken  off.  This  is  the  whole 
process. 

During  the  next  six  or  eight  weeks 
the  cheeses  are  turned  and  wiped 
every  day,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
fine  salt  is  sifted  on  the  surface  and 
rubbed  in  with  the  hand  until  it  will 
take  no  more.  The  cheese-room  is 
always  very  cool,  and  little  light  is 
admitted.  A  free  circulation  of  air 
is  essential.  The  cheeses  are  in  per- 
fection in  about  six  months,  and  will 
keep  two  years.  A  quantity  of  elas- 
tic fluid  is  disengaged  in  the  ripening, 
and  forms  those  round  cells  which 
are  a  peculiar  feature  in  these  chees- 
es. The  smaller  and  rounder  the 
cells,  the  better  the  cheese  is  reck- 
oned. They  should  contain  a  clear 
Bait  liquor,  which  is  called  the  tears  ; 
when  these  dry  up,  the  cheese  loses 
its  flavour.  These  particulars  will 
give  any  one  unacquainted  with  the 
dairy  a  tolerable  notion  of  the  pro- 
cess of  cheese-making  in  general. 

In  Cheshire  the  making  of  cheese 
is  carried  on  in  great  perleclion,  and 
the  greatest  pains  are  taken  to  ex- 
tract every  particle  of  whey.  For 
this  purpose,  the  curd  is  repeatedly 
broken  and  mixed,  the  cheeses  are 
much  pressed,  and  placed  in  wooden 
boxes  which  have  holes  bored  into 
them.  Through  these  holes  sharp 
skewers  are  stuck  into  the  cheese  in 
every  direction,  so  that  no  particle 
of  whey  can  remain  in  the  curd.  The 
elastic  matter  formed  also  escapes 
through  these  channels,  and  the  en- 
tire cheese  is  a  solid  mass  without 
holes,  which  in  this  cheese  would  be 
looked  upon  as  a  great  defect.  The 
salt  is  intimately  mixed  with  the 
118 


curd,  and  not  merely  rubbed  on  the 
outside.  This  checks  internal  fer- 
mentation, and  prevents  the  forma- 
tion of  elastic  matter. 

Gioucestcr  and  Somersetshire  chees- 
es are  similarly  made,  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  the  curd  is  not  so  often 
broken,  or  the  cheese  skewered,  and 
a  portion  of  the  cream  is  generally 
abstracted  to  make  butter.  After 
the  curd  has  been  separated  from  the 
whey  and  is  broken  fine,  warm  water 
is  poured  over  it  for  the  purpose  of 
washing  out  any  remaining  whey,  or 
perhaps  to  dissolve  any  portion  of 
butter  which  may  have  separated  be- 
fore the  rennet  had  coagulated  the 
milk  ;  for  although  cream  adds  to  the 
richness  of  cheese,  butter  tends  to 
make  it  rancid. 

Stil(on  cheese  is  made  by  adding 
the  cream  of  the  preceding  evening's 
milk  to  the  morning's  milking.  The 
cream  should  be  intimately  incorpo- 
rated with  the  new  milk ;  great  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  the  tem- 
perature of  both,  and  much  of  the 
quality  of  the  cheese  depends  on  this 
part  of  the  process.  To  make  this 
cheese  in  perfection,  as  much  de- 
pends on  the  management  of  the 
cheese  after  it  is  made  as  on  the 
richness  of  the  milk.  Each  dairy 
has  some  peculiar  method  which  is 
considered  best ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
there  is  the  greatest  difference  be- 
tween cheeses  made  in  contiguous 
dairies.  The  rennet  should  be  very 
pure  and  sweet.  When  the  milk  is 
coagulated,  the  whole  curd  is  taken 
out,  drained  on  a  sieve,  and  very  mod- 
erately pressed.  It  is  then  put  into 
a  shape  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder, 
eight  or  nine  inches  in  diameter,  the 
axis  of  which  is  longer  than  the  diam- 
eter of  the  base.  When  it  is  suffi- 
ciently firm,  a  cloth  or  tape  is  wound 
round  it  to  prevent  its  breaking,  and 
it  is  set  on  a  shelf  It  is  occasional- 
ly powdered  with  flour,  and  plunged 
into  hot  water.  This  hardens  the 
outer  coat,  and  favours  the  internal 
fermentation,  which  ripens  it.  Stil- 
I  ton  cheese  is  generally  preferred 
I  when  a  green  mould  appears  in  its 
.  texture.     To  accelerate  this,  pieces 


CHEESi:. 


of  a  mouldy  cheese  are  sometimes 
inserted  into  lioles  made  for  the  pur- 
pose by  the  scoop  called  a  tastc7;  and 
wine  or  ale  is  poured  over  for  the 
same  purpose ;  but  the  best  cheeses 
do  not  require  this,  and  are  in  per- 
fection when  the  inside  becomes  soft 
like  butter,  without  any  appearance 
of  moulduiess.  In  making  very  rich 
cheeses,  the  whey  must  be  allowed 
to  run  otf  slowly,  because,  if  it  were 
forced  rapidly,  it  might  carry  otf  a 
great  portion  of  the  fat  of  the  cheese. 
This  happens  more  or  less  in  every 
mode  of  making  cheese.  To  collect 
this  superabundant  butter,  the  whey 
is  set  in  shallow  pans,  as  is  done 
with  milk  when  butter  is  made  ;  and 
an  mferior  kind  of  butter,  called  ichcij 
hiiitei\  is  made  from  the  cream  or  fat 
skimmed  off. 

Cheeses  are  frequently  coloured,  a 
practice  which  probably  arose  from 
the  notion  of  making  the  cheese  look 
richer  ;  but  now  it  deceives  no  one. 
Yet  if  some  cheeses  were  not  colour- 
ed, they  would  not  be  so  marketable, 
owing  to  the  association  that  subsists 
between  the  colour  and  the  qualify 
of  the  cheese.  The  substance  used 
for  colouring  is  most  commonly  ar- 
notto,  which  is  ground  fine  on  a 
stone,  and  mixed  with  the  milk  at 
the  time  the  rennet  is  put  in.  The 
juice  of  the  orange  carrot  and  the 
flower  of  marigold  are  also  used  for 
this  purpose.  This  last  gives  a  more 
natural  tint  than  the  arnotto,  which 
is  too  red. 

Dutch  cheeses  are  made  in  a  very 
similar  manner  to  the  Gloucester 
cheeses,  but  the  milk  is  generally 
curdled  by  means  of  muriatic  acid  or 
sjiirits  of  salt ;  and  great  care  is  ta- 
ken to  prevent  fermentation,  and  to 
extract  the  whole  of  the  whey.  For 
this  purpose,  the  curd  is  repeatedly 
broken  and  pressed ;  and  before  it  is 
made  up  into  the  round  shape  in 
which  it  is  usually  sold,  the  broken 
curd  is  well  soaked  in  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  common  salt  in  \\-atcr.  This 
diffuses  the  salt  throughout  the  whole 
mass,  and  eflectually  checks  ferment- 
ation. When  the  clieeses  are  finally 
pressed,  all  the  whey  which  may  re- 
N  2 


main  is  washed  out  with  the  brine ; 
salt  is  likewise  rubbed  over  the  out- 
side, and  they  are  set  to  dry  on 
shelves  in  a  cool  place.  The  flavour 
of  the  cheese  is  perhaps  impaired  by 
the  stoppage  of  the  fermentation ; 
but  it  never  heaves,  and  it  acquires 
the  valuable  quality  of  keeping  well 
even  in  warm  climates.  From  the 
place  where  this  cheese  is  commonly 
made,  it  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Edam  cheese.  A  finer  cheese  is 
made  at  Gouda  and  other  places,  by 
iinitating  the  process  in  making  Gru- 
yere  cheese  ;  but  this  cheese  is  al- 
ways full  of  small  cavities,  and  will 
not  keep  so  long  as  the  Edam.  The 
little  clieeses  made  from  cream  and 
folded  in  paper,  called  Neufchaicl 
cheeses,  can  be  easily  imitated,  being 
nothing  more  than  cream  thickened 
by  heat,  and  pressed  in  a  small  mould. 
They  undergo  a  rapid  change,  first 
becoming  sour  and  then  mellow,  in 
which  state  they  must  be  eaten. 

The  green  Swiss  cheese,  common- 
ly called  Schabziegcr,  is  made  in  the 
canton  of  Glarus,  and  is  by  many 
persons  highly  esteemed.  The  curd 
is  pressed  in  boxes  with  holes  to  let 
the  whey  run  out  ;  and  when  a  con- 
siderable quantity  has  been  collected, 
and  putrefaction  begins,  it  is  worked 
into  a  paste  with  a  large  proportion 
of  a  certain  dried  herb  reduced  to 
powder.  This  herb,  called  in  the 
country  dialect  Zieger  kraut  (curd 
herb),  is  the  Melilotus  officinalis,  which 
is  very  common  in  most  countries, 
and  has  a  peculiar  aromatic  flavour 
in  the  mountains  of  Switzerland  The 
paste  thus  produced  is  pressed  into 
moulds  of  the  shape  of  a  common 
flower-pot,  and  the  putrefaction  be- 
ing stopped  by  the  aromatic  herb,  it 
dries  into  a  solid  mass,  which  keeps 
unchanged  for  any  length  of  time. 
When  used  it  is  rasped  or  scraped, 
and  the  powder,  mixed  with  fresh 
butter,  is  spread  upon  bread.  It  is 
either  much  relished  or  much  dis- 
liked, like  all  those  substances  which 
have  a  peculiar  taste  and  smell. 

\^'hen  a  cheese  which   has  been 
much  salted  and  kept   very  dry  ig 
;  washed  several  times  in  soft  water, 
149 


CllEtSK. 


and  then  laid  in  a  clolh  moistened 
with  wine  or  vinej^ar,  it  gradually 
loses  its  saltness,  and  from  being 
hard  and  dry  becomes  soft  and  mel- 
low, provided  it  be  a  rich  cheese. 
This  simple  method  of  improving 
cheese  is  worth  knowing.  It  is  gen- 
erally practised  in  Switzerland,  and 
cheeses  are  kept  stored  there  for 
many  years  ;  if  they  were  not  very 
salt  and  dry,  they  would  soon  be  the 
prey  of  worms  and  mites.  A  dry 
Stilton  cheese  may  thus  be  much  im- 
proved. 

CHEESE,  EXPORTATION  OF. 
The  exportation  of  cheese  to  Eng- 
land is  becoming  very  heavy ;  179.389 
cvvt.  were  imported  into  Great  Brit- 
ain in  1844,  nearly  one  third  being 
from  the  United  States.  The  cheese 
to  imitate  is  the  Cheshire,  but  if  Stil- 
ton could  be  produced  it  would  pay 
a  heavy  profit. 

CHEESE-CLOTH.  A  coarse  open 
cloth  or  towel  placed  inside  the  vat ; 
it  should  be  wrung  out  in  boiling  wa- 
ter after  use,  and  dried. 

CHEESE,  CONNECTICUT.  The 
following  account  from  the  American 
AgricuUiLrist  gives  the  process  for 
the  preparation  of  a  very  excellent 
cheese : 

"  On  a  farm  capable  of  supporting 
twelve  cows,  two  cheeses  of  about 
10  lbs.  each  may  daily  be  made,  in 
the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July. 
The  evening's  milk  is  kept  untouched 
till  the  next  morning,  when  the  cream 
is  taken  off  and  put  to  warm  in  a  brass 
kettle,  heated  in  order  to  bring  it  to 
the  temperature  of  new  milk  from  the 
cow.  The  cows  being  milked  early 
in  the  morning,  the  morning's  new 
milk  and  the  night's  milk  prepared 
as  above  are  put  into  a  large  tub  to- 
gether, with  the  cream.  Then  a  por- 
tion of  rennet,  which  has  been  soak- 
ed in  water  milk-warm  the  evenmg 
before,  and  sufficient  to  coagulate  the 
milk,  is  put  into  the  tub,  after  which 
it  is  covered  up  warm  and  left  to 
stand  about  half  an  hour,  or  till  co- 
agulated, at  which  time  it  is  turned 
over  with  a  bowl  to  separate  tlie 
whey  from  the  curd,  and  broken  soon 
after  with  the  hand  and  bowl  in  very 
150 


small  particles  ;  the  whey  being  sep- 
arated by  standing  some  time,  is  ta- 
ken from  the  curd,  which  smks  to  the 
bottom.  The  curd  is  then  collected 
into  a  part  of  the  tub,  and  a  board  is 
placed  thereon  which  weighs  from 
60  to  120  lbs.,  to  press  out  the  whey. 
When  it  is  getting  into  a  more  solid 
state,  it  is  cut  and  turned  over  in  sli- 
ces several  times  to  extract  all  the 
whey,  and  then  weighted  as  before. 
These  operations  may  occupy  about 
an  hour  and  a  half.  It  is  then  taken 
from  the  tub  and  broken  very  small 
by  the  hand,  or  cut  very  fine  by  a 
cheese  knife,  and  put  into  a  cheese 
vat,  enlarged  in  depth  by  a  hoop  to 
hold  the  quantity,  it  being  more  than 
the  bulk  when  finally  put  to  the  press. 
The  side  is  pressed  well  by  hand,  and 
with  a  board  well  weighted  placed  at 
the  top.  The  cheese  is  thus  drained 
of  its  whey,  then  snifted  out  of  the 
vat,  having  a  cloth  first  spread  on  the 
top  of  it,  and  reversed  on  the  cloth 
into  another  vat,  or  even  into  the 
same,  which,  however,  must  be  al- 
ways fresh  scalded,  and  thus  made 
warm  before  the  cheese  is  returned 
into  It.  The  top  part  is  now  broken 
down  to  the  middle,  has  salt  mixed 
with  it,  is  reversed  as  before,  then 
pressed  by  hand,  weighted,  and  has 
the  remaining  whey  extracted.  This 
done,  the  cheese  is  again  reversed 
into  a  scalded  warm  vat,  with  a  cloth 
beneath  the  cheese ;  a  hoop  is  also 
put  round  the  upper  edge  of  the 
cheese  and  within  the  sides  of  the 
vat,  the  cheese  being  first  enclosed 
in  a  cloth,  and  the  edge  of  it  put  with- 
in the  vat.  Finally,  it  is  put  into  a 
press  of  thirteen  p5unds  weight  and 
pressed  very  hard.  In  four  hours  it 
is  shifted  and  turned,  and  after  four 
hours  again  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner. After  this  it  is  taken  out  and 
carried  to  the  drying-room,  and  turn- 
ed every  day  until  it  grows  hard." 

CHEESE-KEEPING.  The  ripen- 
ing of  cheeses  is  all  important  in 
impfoving  their  flavour.  A  constant 
temperature  of  from  50^  to  65°  Fah- 
renheit is  the  proper  degree,  but  this 
can  only  be  attained  in  caverns  and 
cellars  built  for  the  purpose.     Cheea- 


cHn 


CITE 


PS  are  kept  well  when  covered  with 
a  cotton  cloth  and  whitewashed. 

CHEESE  MAGGOT.  Tlie  larva 
of  a  dipterous  fly  {Piophila  casci)  found 
in  decaying  cheese. 

CHEESE  MITES.  Minute,  wing- 
less insects  {Arams  siro)  with  eight 
legs.  Their  introduction  into  chees- 
es is  very  mysterious,  as  they  appear 
when  no  wounds  are  to  be  seen  on 
the  outside. 

CHEESE,  PINE.\PPLE.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  plan  of  Mr.  Davenport, 
of  New-York,  who  received  the  prize 
of  the  Annerican  Institute: 

"  In  all  cases  the  milk  and  rennet 
should  he  sweet.  When  the  curd  is 
properly  produced,  break  it  up  very 
line,  cook  it  well,  but  not  to  overheat. 
Season  w-th  clean  pure  salt.  Put 
the  cheese  or  curd  into  the  press  or 
mould,  which  is  of  pineapple  shape, 
with  a  neck,  and  open  in  the  centre, 
and  fastened  together  by  clamps  or 


'  clasps.  Fill  the  mould  full,  also  the 
neck,  and  |)ress  with  a  round  follow- 
er to  lit  the  neck.  Keep  it  in  the 
press  twenty-four  hours,  take  the 
cheese  out  and  cut  off  the  neck,  and 
sear  it  over ;  then  dip  it  in  hot  whey 
to  form  a  hard  rind,  and  draw  over 
them  tightly  a  net  with  interstices  of 
a  diamond  shape,  which  forms  the 
indenture.  Suspend  them  from  the 
neck,  and  keep  them  so  for  four  weeks ; 
then  take  them  out  of  the  nets,  and 
set  them  on  trenches  on  shelves,  and 
in  three  months  they  are  cured  and 
fit  for  market.  Pack  them  in  cases 
of  ten  each,  with  partitions  between 
them." 

CHEESE  PRESS.  The  most 
common  kind  is  described  in  the  ar- 
ticle Cheese.  Numerous  improved 
machines  occur,  but  the  followmg.  by 
Baird,  is  in  all  respects  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  rest,  and  extensively 
used  in  the  English  cheese  counties. 


151 


CHE 


CHL 


"  The  form  containing  the  curd  is  ] 
put  on  the  bottom  plate,  a,  and  the 
top  phite,  B,  is  made  to  descend  and  ! 
press  on  it.  There  are  two  ways  of 
doing  this  :  one  quick  and  easy,  until 
the  resistance  becomes  great ;  and 
the  other  slower,  but  more  power- 
ful, and  used  for  tlie  conclusion  of 
the  operation.  On  tlie  axis,  c,  of  tlie 
■wheel,  D,  there  is  a  pinion  of  eight 
teeth  (not  seen  in  the  engraving) 
which  works  in  the  rack,  r.  On  the 
axis,  E,  there  is  another  pinion  of 
eight  teeth  (concealed  by  the  other 
parts),  which  acts  in  the  wheel,  d,  of 
twenty-four  teeth.  This  axis,  e,  may 
be  turned  by  the  winch  handle,  h, 
three  turns  of  which  will  make  the 
rack  descend  through  a  space  corre- 
sponding to  eight  of  its  teeth.  In 
this  way  the  plate,  b,  may  be  lower- 
ed to  touch  the  cheese,  and  to  com- 
mence tlie  pressure  ;  but  when  the 
resistance  becomes  considerable,  the 
second  method  of  acting  on  the  rack 
must  be  resorted  to.  On  the  axis,  e, 
besides  the  pinion  before  mentioned, 
there  is  a  fixed  ratchet  wheel,  f  ;  the 
lever,  i,  forked  at  the  end,  which 
embraces  f,  is  also  placed  on  this 
axis,  but  turns  freely  round  it.  In 
the  forked  part  of  f  there  is  a  ratchet 
or  click,  G  (better  seen  at  g  *),  which, 
turning  on  the  pin,  k,  may  be  made 
to  engage  in  the  notches  of  the  ratch- 
et wheel,  F.  By  means  of  this  ar- 
rangement, when  I  is  raised  up,  and 
G  engaged  in  f,  the  axis,  e,  and  its 
pinion  will  be  turned  round  with  great 
power  on  depressing  the  end,  i,  of  the 
lever  ;  and  by  alternately  raising  and 
depressing  i,  any  degree  of  pressure 
required  may  be  given  to  the  cheese  ; 
after  which,  if  it  be  wished  to  con- 
tinue the  pressure,  and  to  follow 
the  gradual  shrinking  of  the  cheese, 
the  lever  is  to  be  raised  above  the 
horizontal  position,  and  the  weight, 
w,  hung  on,  which  will  cause  it  to 
descend  as  the  cheese  yields.  By 
inserting  the  pin,  p,  this  effect  may 
be  discontinued,  and  the  farther  de- 
scent of  B  prevented."  — •  {Highland 
Soc.  Trans.,  vol.  x.,  p.  52.) 

CHEIROPTERA   (from  xeiP>  '^^ 
ha7id,  and  nrepov,  a  wing).   Animals  of 
152 


the  hat  kind,  whose  wings  are  mem- 
branous, stretched  from  the  hand  and 
arm  to  the  hind  legs  and  side  of  the 
body.  Bats  are,  for  the  most  part, 
insectivorous,  and  therefore  worthy 
of  preservation  bv  farmers. 

CHELOXIAN.S  (from  x'^'>-<^vv,  « 
tortoise).  All  tortoises,  turtles,  &c., 
which  are  covered  with  a  double 
shell. 

CHEMISTRY  {Chama,  Arh.,  to 
burn).  The  science  which  investi- 
gates the  nature  of  matter,  and  the 
laws  which  govern  the  movements 
of  its  atoms.  The  inanimate  and  ani- 
mate world  are  the  scenes  of  its  re- 
searches. The  miner,  dyer,  and  man- 
ufacturer owe  their  success  to  chem- 
istry, and  the  farmer  is  destined  to 
be  more  benefited  by  this  science 
than  other  professions.  The  soil, 
plants,  and  manures  are  all  topics  of 
chemical  examination,  and,  without 
knowing  their  nature,  no  person  can 
practice  agriculture  except  by  guess, 
and  in  an  empirical  way. 

It  is  a  subject  of  immense  extent, 
and  in  this  work  I  have  confined  my- 
self to  the  practical  points.  See  An- 
alysis, Affinity,  Atom,  Oxygen,  Carbon, 
Ammonia,  Phosphorus,  &.C. 

CHENOPODIACE/E.  A  family  of 
plants,  of  which  the  Chcnopodmm  is  a 
genus.  They  are  herbaceous,  grow- 
ing on  very  rich  lands,  have  a  solita- 
ry carpel,  stamens  of  the  same  num- 
ber as  the  divisions  of  the  calyx,  with- 
out bracts  or  petals.  The  wormseed 
{Ch.  anthdminticum)  is  the  only  me- 
dicinal species.  Beets,  spinach,  and 
goose  foot  belong  to  this  family  ;  the 
leaves,  and  indeed  the  whole  plant, 
are  mucilaginous,  and  may  be  eaten 
as  food  when  not  unpleasant  to  the 
palate. 

CHERIMOYA.  The  fruit  of  the 
Anond  chcrimolia,  a  tree  of  tropical 
America. 

CHERRY.  Prunus  cerasus.  The 
tree  grows  well  in  the  United  States, 
and  prefers  a  deep  loam  in  a  free  ex- 
posure. The  wood  is  firm,  and  used 
for  cabinet  purposes.  The  stocks 
are  raised  from  seed,  and  budded  or 
grafted  :  for  dwarfs,  the  morello  stock 
is  preferred.    The  stock  may  be  bud- 


CilERKV. 


dedthe  first  year,  and  will  bear  in  the 
fifth.  They  may  be  trained  as  espa- 
liers or  left  as  standards.  The  fol- 
lowing are  select  varieties  : 

D.ivenport's   Early  Bl.^ck,  Neio 
May  Duke. — This  variety  is  consid- 
ered as  one  of  the  finest  and  most 
productive  of  early  cherries  known,  j 
The  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  heart-  | 
shaped,  of  a  dark,  glossy  black  col-  \ 
our :  flesh  firm,  and  of  a  pleasant, 
sub-acid  flavour.     It  ripens  a  week  : 
or  ten   davs  earlier   than   the  May 
Duke. 

May  Dl'ke,  Earhj  Duke,  Holman's 
Duke,  June  Duke. — Fruit  roundish, 
and  grows  in  clusters ;  skin  very 
dark  red  ;  flesh  soft  and  juicy  :  ripe 
in  June. 

American  Amber,  Early  Amher, 
Neio  Honey. — Fruit  beautiful,  and  of 
medium  size  ;  dark  pink  or  amber 
colour ;  flesh  rich,  sweet,  and  fine  ; 
ripe  in  June. 

Elton.— This  excellent  variety  was 
raised  by  Mr.  Knight  in  1806  ;  the 
tree  is  very  vigorous  and  productive  ; 
the  fruit  is  j^elty  large,  heart-shaped ; 
pale  glossy  yellow  in  the  shade,  but 
marbled  with  bright  red  next  the  sun  ; 
flesh  firm,  sweet,  and  rich :  ripens 
soon  after  the  May  Duke. 

F  L  o  R  E  N  c  E. — A  very  fine  heart- 
shaped  cherry,  of  a  yellow  amber  col- 
our, marbled  with  bright  red  in  the 
shade,  bright  red  next  the  sun  ;  flesh 
tolerably  firm,  juicy,  rich,  and  sweet : 
ripe  end  of  June  and  in  July. 

Ambree  de  Choisv. — A  middle- 
sized,  roundish  fruit,  highly  deserving 
of  cultivation  ;  skin  transparent,  red, 
mottled  with  amber  ;  flesh  amber 
coloured,  tender,  and  sweet.  It  bears 
well  as  a  standard,  and  ripens  its  fruit 
in  June. 

Knight's  Early  Black.  —  Colour 
rich,  dark  hue  ;  flesh  firm,  juicy,  and 
sweet :  ripe  in  June. 

0.x  Heart,  i/armo?i's  Heart,  White 
Bigarrcau.  —  Fruit  large,  heart-sha- 
ped ;  colour  pale  yellow  and  white, 
mottled  with  red  ;  flesh  white,  firm, 
and  well  flavoured  :  ripe  in  June. 

Manning's  Black  Bigarreau. — A 
new  variety  from  the  nursery  of  the 
late  R.  Manning,   of  Salem,   Mass. 


Fruit  large,  flesh  sweet,  and  of  pe- 
culiarly fine  flavour  :  ripe  in  July. 

Yellow  Spanish,  Graffion,  Impe- 
rial, White  Orleans,  Turkey  Bigar- 
reau.— Fruit  very  large,  heart-shaped ; 
amber  colour,  red  next  the  sun  ;  flesh 
firm,  sweet,  and  fine  flavoured ;  one 
of  the  very  best  varieties  ;  tree  an 
abundant  bearer  :  ripe  in  July. 

Black  Eagle. — A  handsome  va- 
riety ;  fruit  of  globular  form  ;  skin 
dark  purple  ;  flesh  tender,  rich,  and 
of  fine  flavour  :  ripe  in  July. 

Blatk  Tartarian,  Black  Russian, 
Ronald's  Large  Black  Heart. — Large, 
heart-shaped,  and  of  very  superior 
quality  ;  colour  dark  shining  purple 
or  black  ;  flesh  firm,  purple,  and 
sweet ;  tree  very  productive  :  ripe  in 
June. 

Elkhorn,  Black  Ox  Heart,  Large 
Black  Bigarreau.  —  Fruit  large,  and 
heart-shaped  ;  an  excellent  variety 
for  market :  ripe  second  and  third 
weeks  in  July. 

Archduke,  Royal  Duke,  Portugal 
Duke. — A  large,  globular-formed  red 
cherry  ;  like  the  .May  Duke,  it  grows 
in  clusters,  but  the  tree  grows  more 
vigorously  than  that  variety,  and 
yields  an  abundance  of  fruit,  which 
hangs  a  long  time  on  the  tree,  im- 
proving in  flavour  in  July. 

Napoleon  Bigarreac. — One  of  the 
finest  varieties  ;  fruit  white,  with  red 
spots  ;  size  large,  flesh  white,  solid, 
and  sweet :  ripe  in  July. 

"White  Bigarreac.  —  One  of  the 
largest  and  finest  varieties.  Fruit 
heart-shaped  ;  skin  yellow,  with  a  red 
cheek ;  flesh  firm  and  fine  flavoured ; 
ripe  in  July. 

Late  White  Heart. — Middle  size, 
pleasant  flavour,  valuable  as  a  late 
variety  :  ripe  the  last  of  August. 

White  Tartarian.  —  An  elegant 
fruit ;  pale  yellow,  approaching  to 
amber  next  the  sun  ;  fine  flavour, 
and  a  good  bearer  :  ripe  in  July. 

Downer's  Late  Red,  Downer's  Fa- 
vourite.— Fruit  large  and  round  ;  col- 
our light  red,  flesh  firm  and  fine  :  ripe 
after  most  other  varieties  are  gone 

MoRELLo,  English  Morello. — Fruit 
of  medium  size,  round ;  of  a  dark- 
red  colour,  nearly  black  at  maturity ; 
153 


cur: 

flesh  deep  red,  tender,  juicy,  and 
blended  with  an  agreeable  acid  ;  ri|)c 
in  July,  and  bangs  some  time  on  tlu> 
tree.  This  variety  is  excellent  for 
preserves  and  lor  brandy. 

The  fruit  appears  on  spurs  pro- 
duced on  branches  two  and  three 
years  old  ;  the  spurs  are  formed  year 
by  year  along  the  bearing  branches  : 
the  morello  on  the  last  year's  shoots, 
and  seldom  on  that  three  years  old. 
Ch(?rry-trees,  unless  topped,  become 
very  liigh,  and  require  30  to  40  feet 
between  them. 

Diseases.  —  Exudation  of  gum  is 
cured  by  improving  the  soil,  and  pru- 
ning less  carelessly.  The  aphis,  of  a 
green  colour,  is  often  troublesome, 
causing  the  leaves  to  curl,  and  pro- 
ducing, according  to  some  naturalists, 
hottey  dew.  Fumigations  with  tobac- 
co* sulphur,  and  pepper  are  recom- 
mended, as  well  as  washing  by  a  gar- 
den engine,  and  throwing  up  tobacco 
infusion.  The  red  spider  is  removed 
by  the  same  means.  It  is,  however, 
a  healthy  tree,  and  less  subject  to 
disease  than  many  others.  The  trunk 
is  sometimes  attacked  by  borers. 

CHERRY,  WILD.  Pninus  Vir- 
giniana.  This  tree  is  found  as  far 
north  as  Maine,  but  reaches  perfec- 
tion in  rich  lands  in  the  Middle  States, 
especially  Pennsylvania  ;  and  also  in 
Virginia  and  Ohio.  Trees  have  been 
measured  100  feet  high  and  16  in 
girth.  The  wood  is  brown,  bright, 
and,  near  branches,  well  marked.  Ii 
is  much  used  for  cabinet  purposes, 
and  is  durable.  The  fruit  is  small 
and  bitter,  but  flavoured  like  ratatia, 
from  the  presence  of  oil  of  bitter  al- 
monds, and  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
morello  cherries  for  the  manufacture 
of  cherry  brandy  and  cordials.  The 
young  tree  is  an  excellent  stock  for 
budding  or  grafting.  The  bark,  infu- 
sed in  water,  forms  a  popular  tonic 
and  nervous  remedy.  For  other  va- 
rieties, see  Primus. 

CHERT.  A  silicious  mineral  re- 
sembling flint. 

CHERVIL.     ChccropkyUum  sati- 
vum.     A  pot-herb  resembling  pars- 
ley, used  by  the  French  and  Dutch  in 
soups  and  as  salads.      The  seeds  are 
154 


CUE 

sown  in  spring,  in  drills  eight  inches 
apart,  the  plani.s  thinned  to  eight  inch- 
es apart,  and  ke|)i  free  of  weeds.  It 
flowers  in  the  fall. 

CHES.SEL.  The  cheese  vat.  It 
is  made  of  white  oak,  bound  by  iron 
hoops,  and  perforated  with  holes  to 
allow  the  whev  to  drain  out. 

CHEST  FOrNDER.  An  irrita- 
tion or  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
branes in  the  chest.     See  Horse. 

CHESTNUT.  The  American 
chestnut  {Castanea  Americana)  very 
nearly  resembles  the  famous  Europe- 
an tree  {Castanea  vesca),  except  in  its 
altitude  and  the  size  of  the  fruit.  The 
European,  also  called  the  Spanish  or 
Italian  chestnut,  is  of  immen.se  size 
and  longevity,  trees  being  known 
which  have  a  girth  of  60  feet.  The 
wood,  except  in  very  old  trees,  is  ad- 
mirable, being  more  durable  than  oak 
in  moist  situations.  The  bark  is  also 
used  in  tanning.  It  prefers  a  dry, 
loose  soil,  abounding  in  silicious  mut- 
ter and  potash. 

The  European  variety  is  easily  rais- 
ed from  seed,  grows  rapidly,  and  bears 
in  seven  years.  The  fruit  is  five  limes 
larger  than  that  of  ours,  and  com- 
mands a  good  price  in  the  market. 
Chestnuts  are  used  boiled,  roasted, 
and  raw.  In  Southern  France,  Italy, 
&c.,  they  constitute  the  bread  of  a 
large  population.  Michaux  gives  the 
following  directions  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  chestnut : 

"  After  the  ground  has  been  care- 
fully loosened  with  the  plough  and 
harrow,  lines  are  drawn  six  feet 
apart,  in  which  holes  about  a  foot  in 
depth  and  diameter  are  formed,  at  the 
distances  of  four  feet.  A  che.stnut  is 
placed  in  each  corner  of  the  hole, 
and  covered  with  about  three  inches 
of  earth.  As  the  soil  has  been  thor- 
oughly subdued,  the  nuts  will  spring 
and  strike  root  with  facility.  Early 
in  the  second  year,  three  of  the  young 
plants  are  removed  from  each  hole, 
and  only  the  most  thriving  is  left. 
The  third  or  fourth  year,  when  the 
branches  begin  to  interfere  with  each 
other,  every  second  tree  is  suppress- 
ed. To  ensure  its  success,  the  plan- 
tation should  be  begun  in  March  or 


CHI 

April,  with  nuts  that  have  been  kept 
in  the  cellar  during  the  winter,  in  sand 
or  vegetable  mould,  and  that  have  al- 
ready becrnn  to  germinate."' 

CHEWING  THE  CID.  The  an- 
imals which  chew  the  end  are  term- 
ed by  naturalists  Ruminants,  and  in- 
elu<le  the  ox,  deer,  camel,  and  slie(>p. 
They  are  furnisiied  with  four  pouches 
or  stomachs  ;  the  grass  gathered  on 
the  field  is  swallowed  and  reaches 
the  first  pouch,  is  moistened  by  wa- 
ter from  the  second,  and  afterward 
moulded  into  round  balls,  which  are 
thrown  up  into  the  mouth  and  leis- 
urely chewed,  and  re-swallowed  into 
the  third  stomach,  to  be  digested  in 
the  fourth.  Such  animals  are  essen- 
tially herbivorous,  and  require  rest 
during  rumination.  Any  interference 
with  this  process  is  a  sign  of  disease. 

CHIASTOLITE.  A  mineral  re- 
sembling soap-stone. 

CHICA.  A  red  colour  obtained  by 
boiling  the  leaves  of  the  Bifr/wnia  chi- 
ca,  straining,  and  allowing  to  cool, 
when  it  settles  as  an  insoluble  red 
matter.  It  is  permanent,  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  oils  and  lyes. 
The  Indians  use  it  to  anoint  their  bod- 
ies.    It  mav  be  useful  in  the  arts. 

CHICKEN.     See  Poulinj. 

CHICK  PEA.  An  exotic,  legu- 
minous annual,  resembling  the  vetcii : 
the  Cicer  aricfrniim  o\'hoia.nists.  They 
have  been  raised  m  the  Middle  States 
with  success.  It  is  the  Gaibanza  of 
Spain,  and  Poiscluca  of  thv  French, 
and  reputed  as  the  most  delicious  pea. 
The  ground  dry  pea  is  also  used  in 
soups,  and  the  roasted  grain  is  said 
to  be  a  good  substitute  for  coffee.  It 
prefers  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  is  grown 
in  rows,  does  not  climb,  attains  the 
iieight  of  about  eigiiteen  inches;  the 
pods  contain  two  peas,  and  the  yield 
i.s  small.  As  they  come  to  most  per- 
fection in  the  South,  they  must  be 
sown  in  June  in  the  Middle  States. 

C  H  I  ( M)  11  Y.  Cichormm  intyhus. 
An  indigenous  perennial  plant,  with 
fine    blue    composite   flowers.      (<Sef 

The  following  is  from  Mr.  Rham  : 
"  It  has  a  fusiform  root  like  a  car- 
rot, from  the  crown  of  which  large 


CHI 


and  succulent  leaves  spread  out,  with 
deeply-indented  edges.  The  whole 
plant  is  bitter  and  aromatic.  It  is  fre- 
quently used  as  a  salad,  especially 
when  blanched.  For  this  purpose, 
the  roots  are  taken  up  in  the  end  of 
autumn  ;  they  are  then  placed  in  sand 
or  liijht  mould,  in  a  cellar  from  which 
the  light  is  excluded,  the  leaves  hav- 
ing been  cut  ofTpreviously  within  half 
an  inch  of  the  crown.  Fresh,  slender 
leaves  soon  grow  out  of  the  root,  and, 
being  deprived  of  light,  they  are  much 
more  delicate  and  tender  than  those 
which  grow  in  the  open  ground.  The 
bitterness,  also,  is  thus  lessened,  and 
they  form  a  very  pleasant  winter  sal- 
ad, which,  from  the  long,  slender,  and 
matted  state  of  the  leaves,  the  French 
call  bar  be  dc  capucin  (monk's  beard). 
It  is  pleasanter  to  the  taste  than  com- 
mon endive. 

"  The  luxuriant  growth  of  the  leaves 
of  the  chicory,  and  their  speedy  re- 
production after  they  have  been  cut, 
suggested  tlie  more  extensive  culti- 
vation of  this  phint  ;is  fond  for  f-attle 
and  sheep,  who  arc  fond  of  the  h-aves. 
M.  Crelte  de  Panuel,  who  (uiltivated 
it  near  Paris  in  a  rich  soil,  produced 
extraordinary  crops.  The  first  year 
he  cut  it  only  twice,  but  afterward 
four  and  five  times  in  a  year :  it  pro- 
duced more  green  food  than  any  oth- 
er plant  cultivated  lor  this  purpose 
Arthur  Young  was  so  struck,  with  it 
155 


cm 


cm 


that  he  strongly  recommended  it  to 
the  notice  of  British  agriciilturists  ; 
and  in  the  qtioiies  sent  to  various 
parts  of  tlie  cotnitry  l)y  the  Board  of 
Agriculture,  one  was  whether  cliico- 
ry  was  cultivated  in  the  district  as 
groon  food  for  cattle.  But,  notwith- 
staiuiing  its  abundant  produce,  it  has 
not  been  found  so  much  superior  to 
other  green  food  as  to  make  its  culti- 
vation general.  Some  accurate  ex- 
pernnents  on  a  large  scale  were  made 
in  France,  at  the  national  farm  of 
Rambouillet,  to  ascertain  the  value 
of  chicory  compared  with  lucern  and 
other  green  food.  The  chicory  was 
declared  inferior,  giving  a  disagreea- 
ble taste  to  milk  and  butter  when 
cows  are  kept  upon  it.  For  sheep  it 
is  very  good,  and  a  small  portion  mix- 
ed with  their  other  food  may  probably 
be  a  preservative  against  the  rot. 

"  Chicory  is  now  chiefly  cultivated 
in  Belgium  and  Germany,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  from  tlie  root  a  pow- 
der which  can  be  substituted  for  cof- 
fee. This  has  become  a  very  consid- 
erable article  of  commerce. 

"To  have  the  roots  in  perfection, 
the  seed  should  be  sown,  or,  rather, 
drilled,  in  April,  like  that  of  the  car- 
rot. If  sown  sooner,  they  are  ajit  to 
run  to  seed.  The  land  should  be  rich, 
deep,  and  light.  The  plants  should  be 
thinned  out  to  six  inches  in  the  rows, 
and  most  carefully  weeded.  In  Sep- 
tember the  leaves  should  be  finally 
gathered  and  the  roots  taken  up, 
which  may  be  done  with  a  common 
potato-fork.  They  are  then  cleaned 
by  scraping  and  washing,  split  where 
they  are  thickest,  and  cut  across  in 
pieces  about  two  or  three  inches  long. 
These  pieces  are  dried  by  means  of 
a  slow  oven  or  a  kiln.  Some  nicety 
is  required  in  drying,  to  prevent  the 
root  from  being  scorched,  and  to  keep 
the  proper  flavour.  In  this  state  it  is 
sold  to  the  merchants,  packed  in  bags. 
It  is  afterward  cut  or  chopped  into 
small  pieces,  roasted  exactly  as  cof- 
fee, and  ground  in  a  mill.  Chicory  is 
said  to  exhaust  the  soil,  and  to  require 
fresh  ground  to  prevent  its  degenera- 
ting. Unless  the  soil  is  rich  and  light, 
the  roots  will  not  come  to  a  good  size 
156 


in  one  season,  and  old  roots  become 
tough  and  stringy.  It  is  only  the  young 
roots  that  are  fit  to  be  prepared  for 
commerce.  They  lose  a  great  por- 
tion of  their  weiglit  in  drying.  The 
best  preparation  of  tlie  land  for  chic- 
ory is  grass  or  clover,  'i'lic  manure 
should  be  laid  on  before  it  is  jilough- 
ed  up  in  autumn,  which  will  acceler- 
ate the  decomposition  of  the  roots. 
The  land  should  be  ploughed  very 
deep  in  spring,  and  laid  light ;  the  sur- 
face harrowed  fine,  and  the  chicory 
seed  drilled  in  rows  twelve  inches 
apart,  and  rolled.  Liquid  manure 
spread  over  the  ground  will  much 
accelerate  the  growth  of  the  plants, 
which  must  be  thinned  out  like  tur- 
nips or  carrots,  to  six  or  eight  inches 
from  plant  to  plant." 

About  thirteen  pounds  of  seed  are 
used  to  the  acre. 

CHIGOE,  or  CHIGGER.  An  apter- 
ous minute  insect,  which  abounds  in 
southern  and  tropical  America.  It 
penetrates  the  skin  of  the  foot,  grow- 
ing to  some  size,  and  producing  in- 
tolerable itching.  Unless  destroyed 
by  tobacco  juice,  or  picked  out  with 
a  needle,  it  finally  brings  about  ulcer- 
ations. 

CHILIAN  CLOVER.  The  Alfal- 
fa.    It  is  common  lucern. 

CHINE.     The  back  bone. 

CHINQUAPIN.  Casfanea  pumila. 
A  small  tree  and  bush  seldom  found 
north  of  Delaware.  The  fruit  is  small 
and  like  a  chestnut.  It  is  seldom 
wood  is  obtained  lYom  the  chinqua- 
pin :  what  there  is  is  very  durable. 
In  neglected  new  lands  in  Virgmiait 
is  a  great  nuisance. 

CHINTZ,  or  CHINCK  BUG.  The 
following  is  from  Mr.  Pleasants  of 
Virginia  : 

"The  chinck  bug  is  a  much  more 
formidable  enemy  with  us  than  the 
wheat  worm,  or  even  the  Hessian 
tly.  They  (the  chinck  bugs)  attack 
both  corn  and  wheat  crops,  the  lat- 
ter in  May,  the  former  generally  in 
the  month  of  June.  They  continue 
to  injure  the  wheat  by  extracting  the 
sap  as  long  as  there  is  a  particle  of 
it  in  the  stalk.  The  consequence  is, 
%vhere  they  are  numerous,  the  grain, 


CHI, 


CHU 


when  harvested,  is  nearly  worthless 
and  the  straw  vastly  injured.  By  the 
time  the  wheat  is  cut,  the  bugs  (then 
flies)  take  wing,  and  immediately 
spread  over  the  neighbouring  corn- 
fields, concealing  themselves  under 
the  blade  slips,  under  the  roots,  tkc, 
where  they  dcposite  millions  of  eggs, 
which  are  hatched  in  eight  or  ten 
days,  and  continue  through  rapidly 
succeeding  generations  to  prey  upon 
the  sap  as  long  as  anything  green  re- 
mains upon  the  stalk,  finally  taking 
shelter  for  the  winter  under  the  bark 
of  stumps  and  logs,  under  large  clods, 
&c.,  to  be  ready  for  the  work  of  de- 
struction the  next  season.  "When 
first  hatched,  they  are  very  small,  and 
red  as  cochineal.  They  grow  very 
rapidly,  and  in  a  week  attain  half  the 
size  of  a  bedbug;  in  a  week  more, 
they  acquire  wings,  fly,  and  spread 
themselves  over  the  field,  depositing 
their  eggs  generally.  They  are,  in 
the  last  state,  about  twice  the  size  of 
a  flea,  have  white  wings,  and  tl.eir 
bodies  being  dark,  have  a  speckled 
appearance.  I  have  been  thus  minute 
in  describing  these  insects,  because  I 
observe  they  have  never  been  seen 
in  Maryland."  Their  destruction  is 
attempted  by  running  ditches  across 
the  field,  filled  «ith  straw,  and,  as 
soon  as  the  bugs  are  seen  thereon, 
setting  fire  to  it.  The  bugs  come 
from  forests,  and  are  destro3-ed  by 
occasionally  burning  the  dry  leaves. 

CHIVES,  or  GIVES.  Allium  schct- 
twprasum.  A  small  species  of  onion 
growing  in  tufts.  It  is  propagated 
by  dividing  the  roots,  set  out  in  May 
and  June  eight  inches  apart,  and  eight 
or  ten  offsets  together.  Keep  free 
from  weeds.  The  leaves  may  be  used 
for  soups.  In  the  fall,  as  soon  as  the 
tops  die,  dig  the  chives  and  store  for 
winter. 

CHLORINE  (from  ;f/l«j30f,  green). 
A  green  -  coloured  elementary  gas, 
produced  artificially.  It  is  pungent, 
poisonous,  and  of  great  chemical  ac- 
tivity. It  exists  only  in  combination 
in  nature  :  equivalent  35  45.  When 
combined  with  metals  the  substances 
are  called  Chlondcx,  as  chlonde  of 
sodium  (common  salt),  chloride  of  hy- 
O 


j  drogen  (muriatic  acid).     The  latter  is 
a  powerful  acid,  much  used  in  the 
j  arts,  and  known  under  the  name  of 
spirits  of  salts.     Chlorine  also  unites 
with  lime  and  soda,  forming  feeble 
compounds,  the  chlorides  of  lime  and 
soda ;  these,  especially  tlie  former, 
I  are   extensively  used  in   bleaching, 
!  from  the  continual  escape  of  the  chlo- 
'  rine.     They  are  also  disinfecting  for 
the  same  reason.     Chlorides  are  oft- 
en erroneously  called  Muriates.  Chlo- 
rine unites  with  five  equivalents  of 
oxygen,  and  forms  the  Chloric  Aad. 
One  of  its  salts,  the  chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, is  of  great  value  in  the  arts 

CHLORITE.  A  mineral  of  a  green- 
ish colour,  common  in  slates,  &c.  It 
is  chiefly  a  silicate  of  magnesia  and 
iron. 

CHLORO.  In  chemistry,  a  prefix 
to  substances  containing  chlorine,  as 
chloro-carbonic  acid,  iScc. 
*CHLOROPIiYL  (from;tlwpor  and 
(pv?./.ov,  a  leaf).  The  green  colouring 
matter  of  leaves.  It  closely  resem- 
bles wax,  and  is  converted  in  the  fall 
into  a  true  yellow  fat.  The  presence 
of  chlorophyl  is  essential  to  the 
healthy  functions  of  the  leaf,  which 
ceases  to  absorb  carbonic  acid  from 
the  air  when  yellow  or  red.  The  au- 
tumnal tints  of  leaves  depend  on  a 
change  of  this  colouring  matter,  the 
yellow  being  called  Zanlhophyl,  and 
the  red  Erythrophyl.  Chlorophyl  is 
also  called  chromule  by  some  authors. 
The  tints  of  many  flowers  depend 
upon  its  compounds,  which  assume 
every  variety  between  reds,  yellows, 
and  greens.  Chlorophyl  has  been 
very  recently  shown  to  be  analagous, 
in  its  phvsical  characters,  with  indigo. 

CHLORURETS.  The  old  name 
for  Chlorides. 

CHOCOLATE.  A  preparation 
made  by  triturating  the  roasted  cocoa 
beans  at  a  temperature  of  130=  Fah- 
renheit, and  mixing  with  cinnamon, 
cloves,  vanilla,  or  other  spices. 

CHOKE  DAMP.  The  suffocating 
vapour  existing  in  the  bottom  of  wells, 
cess-pools,  and  mines  of  wood  coal. 
It  is  an  air  containing  much  carbonic 
acid,  and  may  destroy  life.  Free 
exposure  to  pure  air  and  artificial 
157 


CHU 

warmth  are  the  means  to  be  used  in 
restoring  persons  overcome  with  this 
va|)our. 

CHOLESTERINE  ((romxo7.v,  hilc, 
and  rrrmp,  suet).  A  fatty  matter  re- 
sembling spermaceti,  found  in  the  bile 
and  biliary  concretions. 

CHOLEICACID.  Liebig  regards 
the  animal  matter  of  the  bile  as  cho- 
leic  acid,  the  secretion  being  a  soap 
formed  by  its  union  with  soda.  Cholic 
and  choloidic  acids  are  separated  by 
alcohol  and  other  solvents,  and  are  of 
secondary  consequence.  Redtenba- 
cher  has  recently  discovered  tu-cnty- 
mx  per  cent,  of  sulphur  in  choleic  acid. 

CHONDRINE.  Gristle,  or  carti- 
lage. It  consists  of  protein  with  wa- 
ter, or,  according  to  Liebig,  protein 
-|-20,  -|-4  water. 

CHORD.  A  straight  line  drawn 
between  the  two  extremities  of  the 
arc  of  a  curve.  The  chord  of  an  arch 
is  its  span. 

CHOROID  MEMBRANE.  The 
membrane  of  the  eye  within  the  white 
coat. 

CHROMATIC  (from  A'P"^«'.  col- 
our).    In  optics,  relating  to  colour. 

CHRONIC  (from  .ypoi'Of,  time). 
Diseases  which  are  slow  in  their  prog- 
ress are  called  chronic. 

CHRYSALIS.  The  grub  or  inac- 
tive state  of  changeable  insects.  The 
terms  pupa  and  aurealian  are  synony- 
mous. Some  are  enclosed  in  cocoons, 
others  are  destitute  of  covering,  and 
buried  in  the  earth  or  in  trees.  Moths 
usually  have  rounded  and  butterflies 
angular  chrysales. 

CHURN.  The  barrel  in  which  the 
butter  of  milk  is  separated.  The 
fommon  plunging  churn  is  described 
in  the  article  Butter.  Another  form 
is  a  barrel  with  paddles  moving  upon 
a  central  axis,  which  is  turned  by  a 
handle  on  the  outside.  Churns  are 
moved  by  horse  or  dog  power,  water, 
and  even  steam-engines.  A  simple 
plan  is  to  affix  the  rods  of  several 
plunging  churns  to  a  cross-bar  attach- 
ed to  a  lever,  one  end  of  which  is  fast- 
ened to  a  wall  or  tree  by  a  moveable 
joint ;  by  moving  the  free  end  of  the 
lever,  all  the  sticks  are  raised  or  de- 
pressed together,  and  thus  four  or 
158 


CIC 

more  churns  are  set  in  action  by  one 
person.  The  French  use  a  churn 
made  of  tin,  which  being  placed  in  a 
tub  of  warm  water,  can  be  warmed 
directly,  and  be  made  to  yield  butter 
in  from  ten  to  twelve  minutes. 

CHURNING.  From  a  series  of 
experiments  made  for  the  Highland 
Agricultural  Society,  it  appears  that 
temperature  of  50°  or  55°  Fahrenheit 
is  the  best  for  the  process  (with 
cream),  and  about  two  hours'  work. 
If  the  churning  be  continued  after  the 
formation  of  butter  it  becomes  soft, 
and  sometimes  looses  its  colour. 
When  the  whole  milk  is  used  it  should 
be  warmed  to  65°  Fahrenheit.  As 
this  point  is  easily  managed  in  sum- 
mer as  well  as  in  winter,  it  is  best  to 
use  the  entire  milk.  An  additional 
argument  is,  that  more  butter  is  ob- 
tained, Mr.  Ballantyne  having  shown 
that  more  than  five  per  cent,  is  ob- 
tained m  summer  from  milk  than 
cream. 

CHYLE.  The  milky  fluid  result- 
ing from  digestion.  It  is  almost  iden- 
tical with  milk,  and  owes  its  white 
colour  to  fat  suspended  in  it.  The 
chyle  is  carried  directly  into  the  veins, 
and  serves  to  repair  the  blood  em- 
ployed in  maintaining  the  functions 
of  the  bod^.  It  is  alkaline,  and  con- 
tains albumen  and  fibrin. 

CHYLIFICATION.  The  produc- 
tion of  chyle. 

CHYME.  The  solid  parts  result- 
ing from  digestion,  which  are  first 
Avhite  from  admixture  with  chyle,  but 
ultimately  become  converted  into  fec- 
ulent matter.  Chyme  is  slightly  acid, 
from  the  presence  of  lactic  acid. 

CICADA.  A  genus  of  insects  re- 
lated to  the  grasshopper  and  locust, 
but  inhabiting  trees  ;  they  make  a 
shrill  sound.  The  dry  fly  of  the 
South  is  a  species  (C.  cankularts). 
The  cicada;,  by  puncturing  trees  and 
allowing  their  sap  to  exude,  do  much 
harm  ;  the  C.  or>ii  produces,  in  this 
way,  the  manna  of  the  druggists,  by 
wounding  the  Fraxinus  ornus,  or 
manna  ash-tree.  The  seventeen- 
year  locust  is  the  C.  septendecim. 

CICATRIX.  The  scab  of  a  wound 
in  the  act  of  healing. 


i;iD 

CICHORIUM.  The  generic  name 
of  a  number  of  composite  plants,  of 
which  the  C.  intyhus  is  chic-ory  or 
succory,  and  C.  endira,  endive. 

CIDER.  The  fermented  juice  of 
apples.  The  Harrison,  Newark 
Sweeting,  Hugh's  Virginia  Crab,  and 
Granniwinkle  are  the  best  cider  ap- 
ples ;  but  any  fruit  serves  that  is 
well  flavoured  and  becomes  sweet  in 
the  pomace.  The  apples  should  be 
ripe,  mashed  well  in  a  mortar  or  mill, 
and  the  crushed  mass  kept  until  thor- 
oughly sweet  (from  two  to  six  days) : 
it  is  then  placed  m  a  frame  surround- 
ed by  straw  and  put  under  the  press. 
The  juice  should  be  put  in  barrels,  in 
a  cool  place,  to  ferment,  and  as  soon 
as  the  feculent  matter  (pulp)  contain- 
ed in  it  has  overflown  (about  four 
days),  it  should  be  racked  or  decant- 
ed into  a  clean  cask  furnished  with 
a  vent  peg,  bunged  up,  and  placed  in 
a  cool  cellar.  It  is  advisal)le  to  se- 
cure the  decanted  cider  from  becofn- 
ing  sour  and  running  into  vinegar,  by 
burning  a  little  sulphur  in  the  new 
cask  immediately  before  pouring  in. 
Tiie  liquor  will  be  fit  for  bottling  in 
February.  Some  persons  add  sugar 
and  spirits  to  the  cider,  but  they  tend 
only  to  increase  its  intoxicating  ef- 
fects. Old  cider,  made  without  such 
addition,  contains  from  seven  to  nine 
per  cent  of  alcohol. 

By  allowing  the  juice  to  remain  in 


CI\ 

the  first  cask  it  speedily  becomes 
sour,  and  vinegar  is  lapidly  formed  as 
long  as  air  finds  access.  As  soon  as 
the  juice  is  intenselysour,  bung  up  ibe 
barrel,  or  the  acetic  acid  evaporates, 
and  only  a  flat  water  is  left  behind.  ' 

The  refuse  pomace  is  sometimes 
moistened  with  water,  and  pressed 
again  to  form  water  cider.  It  is  eat- 
en by  hogs  and  cows  while  fresh  ;  or, 
if  in  great  excess,  may  be  carried  to 
the  farm-yard  to  add  to  the  manure 
heap.  Every  part  of  the  apparatus 
must  be  kept  clean  by  washing  with 
hot  water  and  scrubbing. 

CIDER  MILL.  Several  contri- 
vances are  used  for  the  purpose  o-f 
crushing  the  apples  ;  a  larjre  trunk  of 
a  tree,  hollowed,  serves  for  a  small 
family,  the  fruit  being  beaten  by  a 
wooden  beetle.  The  following  are 
more  elTective  mills  :  Fig.  1  pre'sents 
compartments  for  varieties  of  aa- 
Fi^.  1.  *^ 


pie  ;  the  large  millstone,  a,  is  drawn 
around  in  the  groove  and  crushes  ev- 
ery particle  of  fruit.  Fig  2  is  a  mill 
of  similar  construction,  but  more  sub- 
stantial ;  b  is  the  swinging  tree. 


f^^^ 


Another  irtill,  figured  under  the  ar- 
ticle Crushers,  is  also  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  mill  {Fig.  2)  above 
would  be  of  great  service  on  the  farm 
to  crush  corn,  roots,  bones,  charcoal, 
&c.,  as  well  as  fruit. 

CILIA  (from  cihum,  the  eyelash).  Mi- 


nute hairs  on  the  margins  of  leaves, 
angles  of  the  bodies  of  insects,  &c. 
Cii'iiite  is  a  derivative. 

CI.MEX.  The  general  term  for  in- 
sects resemliling  the  bedbug 

CINEREOUS  (from  cinis,  ash). 
Ash  coloured. 

159 


cm 

CINNAMON  Laurus  annamo- 
tnum.  This  is  a  small  tree,  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  hij^li.  iiidiucnotis 
to  Coylon  and  the  Eastern  islands, 
but  cultivated  in  Cayenne,  Egypt, 
and  Brazil.  The  spice  consists  of" 
the  inner  hark  of  the  branches  ;  its 
flavour  is  due  to  an  essential  oil  ea- 
sily distilled. 

ClNyl'EFOIL.  Several  species 
of  l\)tciiiilla  with  yellow  flowers  are 
so  called.  They  are  weeds,  the  roots 
of  which  are  astringent. 

C 1 11 C I N  N  A  T  E.  In  botany,  the 
manner  in  which  the  buds  of  ferns 
and  some  other  plants  are  folded,  re- 
sembling a  crosier. 

CIRCULATION.  In  physiology, 
the  route  which  the  fluids  or  blood 
of  animals  and  plants  lake  through 
the  system.  It  differs  with  the  spe- 
cies of  animals,  but  is  nearly  uniform 
in  the  highest  classes. 

Tke  circulation  of  the  blood  in  man 
and  quadrupeds  may  be  said  to  com- 
mence on  the  right  side  of  the  heart, 
from  whence  it  is  driven  along  the 
■pulmonary  arteries  into  the  structure 
of  the  lungs;  being  here  changed  by 
the  action  of  air,  the  bright  crimson 
blood  is  conveyed  by  the  pulinotiary 
vans  into  the  left  side  of  the  heart, 
and  thence  driven  by  its  contraction 
along  the  aorta  and  throughout  the 
body  in  the  sy.stem  of  vessels  called 
arteries.  The  arterial  blood  ultimate- 
ly reaching  the  skin  and  membranes, 
moves  through  them  and  becomes  of 
a  dark  colour ;  in  this  state  it  enters 
the  vcinx,  and  is  conveyed  back  to  the 
heart  qgain  to  pass  through  the  same 
course.  The  circulation  in  the  lungs 
is  termed  the  lesser  or  pulmonic  cir- 
culation ;  that  through  the  body,  the 
systemii.  circulation.  The  object  of 
thK  movement  is  to  supply  every  part 
with  its  proper  nourishment.  The 
force  which  accomplishes  it  is  the 
chemical  action  taking  place  in  the 
minute  or  capillary  vessels.  See  Dr. 
Draper's  work  on  Vegetable  Chemistry. 

CIRCULATION  IN  PLANTS. 
Fluid  entering  the  roots  of  plants 
rises  by  capillary  action  along  the 
cellular  tissue  or  new  wood  in  trees, 
and  diffuses  itself  over  the  leaves  ; 
160 


CLA 

here  a  chemical  change  occurs,  and 
it  is  driven  along  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf  to  the  space  between  the  bark 
and  new  wood,  where  the  changed 
fluid  or  sap  diffuses  itself  and  sup- 
plies the  young  buds,  and  also  de- 
scend-s  to  the  roots,  forming  new 
wood  and  rootlets  in  its  passage. 
The  force  producing  this  circulation 
is.  like  the  former,  due  to  chemical 
changes  m  a  great  measure. 

CIRRUS.     A  tendril. 

CITRIC  ACID.  The  sour  princi- 
ple of  lemons.     See  Acids. 

CITRON.  A  variety  of  lemon,  the 
fruit  of  which  is  much  larger  and  with 
a  thicker  rind,  used  for  preserving  ; 
the  pulp  is  less,  and  acid  as  in  the 
lemon. 

CITRUS.  The  generic  name  of 
the  orange,  lemon,  and  lime  tree. 

CLARIFICATION.  The  process 
of  clearing  or  refining  fluids,  by  which 
they  are  freed  from  sediment.  The 
white  of  egg,  the  clear  portions  of 
blood,  clay,  and  charcoal  powder  are 
the  best  clarifiers. 

CL.A.RY.  A  species  of  sage  {Sal- 
via sclarea).  It  is  seldom  cultivated 
in  the  United  States,  being  inferior 
to  that  aromatic  herb. 

CLASPERS.     Tendrils. 

CLASS.  A  general  division  of  nat- 
ural objects. 

CLA  V  ATE  (from  clava,  a  club). 
Club-shaped.  A  descriptive  term  in 
botany. 

CLAVICLE.     The  collar  bone. 

CLAY.  The  earth  which  is  form- 
ed from  the  decomposition  of  slates, 
shales,  and  minerals  containing  much 
alumina.  It  is  a  hydrated  silicate  of 
alumina,  usually  coloured  red  or  blue 
by  metals,  hut  sometimes,  as  in  pipe 
clay  and  porcelain  clay,  of  its  natural 
white  or  gray  colour.  It  is  very  plas- 
tic, adhesive,  and  tenacious  of  water, 
so  that  in  soils  containing  seventy 
per  cent,  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
produce  a  good  Ullage.  11  also  pos- 
sesses the  properly  of  forming  feeble 
combinations  with  the  ammonia  of 
the  air  or  soil.  Clay  soils,  when 
manageable,  are  usually  fertile,  from 
the  presence  of  other  minerals  occur- 
ring in  them,  so  that  in  practice  it  is 


CJ-A 

customary  to  value  soils  by  the  pro- 
portion of  this  earth. 

Chemically,  the  alumina  is  a  feeble 
base,  uniting  with  acids,  and  is  found 
as  a  phosphate  and  sulphate,  as  well 
as  silicate.  Clay  can  hardly  be  said 
to  furnish  food  to  plants  directly,  but 
is  of  consequence  in  giving  texture 
and  absorbency  to  soils. 

CLAY,  BURNED.  See  Clay  Soils 
and  Turf. 

CLAYING  LANDS.  This  is  the 
spreading  of  clay  over  soils  which  are 
too  sandy.  It  is  an  important  remedy 
for  loose  lands  ;  but  the  expense  is 
too  heavy  to  justify  the  practice,  ex- 
cept in  garden  culture.  The  clay 
should  be  carried  on  in  the  fall,  to 
mellow  during  winter;  100  or  more 
loads  to  the  acre  will  be  necessary 
for  a  good  result  :  the  addition  is  per- 
manent. If  marl  can  be  obtained,  it 
is  very  preferable. 

CLAY  SOILS.  A  clay  soil  con- 
sists of  a  large  proportion  of  alumina 
united  to  silica  of  various  degrees  of 
fineness.  When  the  sand  is  very 
fine,  and  intimately  mixed  with  the 
alumina,  the  clay,  although  stiff  in 
appearance,  is  fertile  in  proportion  to 
the  humus  which  it  contains,  or  which 
is  artificially  added  to  it.  It  then 
forms  that  class  of  rich  wheat  soils 
which  produce  many  successive  abun- 
dant crops  without  change  or  manure. 
It  has  a  strong  afiinity  for  water, 
which  prevents  the  plants  that  grow 
in  it  being  injured  by  drought  ;  and 
it  has  a  sufficient  degree  of  porous- 
ness to  allow  superfluous  moisture  to 
percolate  v.ithout  making  it  too  soft. 
All  that  is  required  for  such  a  soil  is 
a  porous  substratum  of  rock  or  grav- 
el ;  and  where  this  is  not  the  case, 
sufficient  under-drains  must  be  made 
to  produce  the  same  effect.  Clay 
soils  are  of  a  compact  nature,  which 
retains  the  water  ;  hence  they  require 
expensive  draining  and  manuring  to 
render  them  productive.  This  has 
made  lighter  soils,  which  are  more 
easily  worked,  to  be  generally  pre- 
ferred, although  naturally  less  adapt- 
ed to  the  growth  of  wheat ;  and  the 
mode  of  cultivation  of  the  light  soils 
has  advanced  more  rapidly  towards 
O  2 


CLA 

perfection  than  that  of  the  clays  ;  yet 
the  latter  will  undoubtedly  repay  the 
outlay  best  when  once  they  are 
brought  to  a  certahi  state  of  improve- 
ment. When  clay  soils  are  well 
drained,  and  when  the  effect  of  nox- 
ious salts  has  been  removed  by  liming, 
burning,  and  frequent  stirring,  it  wdl 
be  found  that  a  much  smaller  (juantity 
of  manure  will  produce  a  more  cer- 
tain return  in  grass  or  corn  than  on 
any  light  soil.  The  great  difficulty  is 
to  choose  the  time  when  stiff  clays 
are  to  be  worked  ;  and  here  it  may 
be  observed  that  ploughing  some- 
times does  more  harm  than  good. 
When  clay  is  wet,  especially  in  the 
beginning  of  summer,  and  it  is  plough- 
ed in  the  regular  process  of  fallow- 
ing, the  tough,  moist  slice  cut  out  by 
the  plough  is  set  on  edge,  and  the 
sun  bakes  it  into  a  hard  mass  like 
brick.  In  this  state  it  is  not  im- 
proved by  exposure  to  the  air,  which 
cannot  penetrate  this  hard  substance. 
It  would  be  much  better  to  plough 
out  deep  water-furrows  with  a  plough 
made  on  purpose,  and  wait  until  tiie 
moisture  is  reduced  by  gradual  per- 
colation and  evaporation,  so  that  the 
plough  should  raise  a  slice  ready  to 
break  and  crumble  as  it  is  turned 
over.  This  should  be  done  imme- 
diately before  winter,  and  then  the 
frost  will  so  divide  and  mellow  the 
soil  that,  provided  it  he  kept  free 
from  superfluous  water  by  under- 
drains  and  water-furrows,  it  will  have 
the  appearance  of  the  finest  mould 
wlien  worked  with  the  harrows  in 
spring.  To  plough  it  again  would  be 
to  spoil  all.  It  should  have  received 
the  necessary  manuring  in  autumn, 
and  be  ready  for  the  seed  to  be  sown 
on  this  pulverized  surface.  The 
horses  which  draw  the  harrows  or 
the  sowing  machines  should  be  made 
to  walk  in  the  furrows,  which  should 
afterward  be  deepened  out  with  a 
plough  constructed  for  the  purpose. 
A  free  course  and  outlet  sliould  be 
formed  (or  all  surface  water ;  for  no 
maxim  is  more  true  than  this,  that 
slifT clays  are  never  injured  by  a  con- 
tinuance of  dry  weather,  unless  they 
were  in  a  wet  state  immediately  be- 
IGl 


CLAY  SOILS. 


fore.  The  dryest  clay  contains  suf- 
ficient water  to  siii)|)iy  the  roots  of 
plants  for  a  long  tnne  ;  but  wet  clay, 
in  drying  and  slirndcing,  destroys  the 
texture  of  the  roots  l)y  meclianical 
pressure.  Tiiis  may  be  of  use  when 
weeds  are  to  be  eradicated,  and  in 
that  case  a  different  mode  of  proceed- 
ing may  be  rccommerulcd  ;  but  when 
good  seed  is  sown  the  clay  should  be 
in  such  a  state  as  to  crumble  under 
the  harrows.  Experience  has  taught 
the  ploughman  that  clay  soils  should 
be  laid  m  round  lands  or  stitches  ; 
and  much  of  the  produce  of  a  tieJd 
depends  on  the  skill  with  which  this 
is  done.  It  is  not  only  the  surface 
which  should  lie  in  a  rounded  form, 
but  the  bottoms  of  the  furrows  should 
lie  in  a  regular  curve,  without  small 
ridges  or  inequalities  between  them, 
so  that,  when  heavy  rains  penetrate 
through  the  whole  thickness  which 
the  plough  has  raised,  the  water  may 
find  its  way  into  the  intervening  fur- 
rows without  being  retained  by  the 
small  ridges  left  by  an  unskilful 
ploughman.  The  slightest  inclina- 
tion of  the  plough  to  either  side 
makes  an  inclination  in  the  bottom 
of  the  furrow.  An  inequality  in  the 
depth  does  the  same.  The  usual 
method  is  to  increase  the  depth  of 
the  ploughing  from  the  crown  of  the 
stitch  to  the  outer  furrow.  If  the 
land  has  been  cross-ploughed  or  drag- 
ged level  before  the  last  ploughing, 
this  may  answer  the  purpose  ;  but  if 
the  stitches  are  only  reversed,  and 
the  centre  of  the  new  stitch  is  to  be 
where  the  water-furrow  was  before, 
it  requires  twice  ploughing  to  bring 
the  stitch  to  its  proper  form  ;  and  this 
is  not  always  done,  for  fear  of  tread- 
ing the  land  too  much.  Hence  it  is 
always  preferable,  where  it  can  be 
done,  to  lay  the  land  flat  by  cross- 
ploughing  and  harrowing  before  it  is 
raised  in  stitches.  The  narrower  the 
stitches  are  the  dryer  the  land  will 
lie.  The  most  convenient  width  is 
five  bouts,  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  five 
furrows  on  each  side  of  the  centre, 
which,  allowing  nine  inches  for  each 
furrow,  makes  seven  and  a  half  feet, 
leaving  eighteen  inches  for  a  water 
162 


furrow,  which  is  deepened  into  a  nar- 
row channel  in  the  middle. 

"\\'e  have  been  thus  particular  in 
describing  the  management  of  clay 
land,  because  it  seems  not  so  gener- 
ally understood,  and  there  is  great 
room  for  improvement  in  the  com- 
mon modes  of  cultivation.  Fallow- 
ing for  wheat  is  the  old  system  on 
clay  soils,  and  continues  to  be  so  in 
nine  farms  out  of  ten  ;  but  it  often 
happens  that,  in  a  wet  season,  the 
whole  advantage  of  the  repeated 
ploughings  is  entirely  lost :  the  land 
sown  with  wheat  is  neither  enriched 
nor  improved  by  all  the  tillage  be- 
stowed upon  it,  and  it  is  as  full  of 
weeds  as  it  was  when  first  broken  up 
from  the  preceding  stubble.  The  bet- 
ter system  is  to  clean  the  land  well 
in  summer,  after  it  has  borne  a  crop, 
and  to  lay  it  up  high  and  dry  for  the 
winter,  having  given  it  the  proper  li- 
ming ;  to  sow  it  with  oats  and  grass 
seeds  in  spring,  keep  it  in  grass  as 
long  as  is  convenient,  and  break  it 
up  in  autumn.  Wheat  may  then  be 
sown  ;  or  it  may  have  the  benefit  of 
another  winter's  frost,  and  corn  may 
be  drilled  in  spring.  Clay  land  will 
bear  a  repetition  of  the  same  crops 
much  oftener  than  lighter  lands  ;  but 
every  scientific  agriculturist  knows 
the  advantage  of  varying  the  produce 
as  much  as  possible,  making  plants 
of  different  families  succeed  each 
other.  The  cereal  grasses  are  of 
one  family,  which  is  the  reason  why 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye  grass,  &c.,  do 
not  succeed  so  well  after  each  other 
as  after  leguminous  plants  or  clover, 
and  that  turnips,  besides  cleaning  the 
land  by  the  repeated  hoeings  given 
them,  are  so  good  a  preparation  for 
corn.  A  good  rotation  for  stiff  clays 
is  yet  a  desideratum  in  agriculture  ; 
and  although  we  will  not  affirm  that 
fallows  can  be  entirely  dispensed 
with,  we  are  persuaded  that  they 
might  be  separated  by  much  larger 
intervals  than  is  usually  done ;  and 
if  advantage  is  taken  of  early  sea- 
sons, most  lands  may  be  kept  clean 
by  what  is  called  a  bastard  fallow 
immediately  after  harvest,  without 
losing  a  crop.     We  will  go  farther, 


CLAY  SOILS 


and  assert  that,  instead  of  three 
crops  in  four  years,  which  is  the  com- 
mon method,  and  an  improvement  on 
the  old  system  of  two  crops  and  a 
fallow,  five  might  easily  be  obtained, 
especially  if  clovers  are  considered 
as  crops.  For  example:  L  Oats  or 
barley  ;  2.  Clover  ;  3.  Wheat ;  4.  Tri- 
folium  cut  in  May,  and  succeeded  by 
spring  rye,  cabbages,  or  potatoes.  At 
ail  events,  the  trifolium  or  winter  rye 
may  always  be  had  in  the  year  in 
which  the  land  is  to  be  cleaned  by 
repeated  ploughings,  as  they  may  be 
cut  early  in  summer,  and  leave  ample 
time  for  the  operations. 

The  most  profitable  management 
of  a  stiff,  wet  clay  soil,  after  thorough 
draining  it,  is  to  cultivate  it  on  the 
convertible  system,  that  is,  to  have 
it  three  years  in  grass  and  three 
years  under  the  plough,  unless  a  per- 
manent and  good  sward  can  be  ob- 
tained upon  it,  in  which  case  it  will 
give  the  surest  return  by  remaining 
iii  grass.  A  preliminary  course  of 
cropping',  with  ample  manuring,  will 
so  much  improve  the  texture  of  the 
surface  that  a  much  better  herbage 
will  grow  upon  it ;  and  when  this  is 
well  established,  it  may  be  left  so 
until  it  degenerates. 

The  effect  of  burned  clay  as  a  ma- 
mire  has  been  highly  extolled,  and 
not  without  some  reason  in  particular 
situations.  Clay  by  burning  alters  its 
nature :  it  becomes  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter, and  loses  its  attraction  for  it ;  it 
then  resembles  silicious  sand,  and 
may  greatly  improve  a  very  strong, 
retentive  clay,  tempering  it  and  ren- 
dering it  more  porous.  To  burn  clay, 
it  is  dug  out  in  lumps  and  dried ; 
heaps  are  made  of  these  at  regular 
distances  in  a  field,  vrilh  a  small  cav- 
ity in  the  centre,  into  which  dry  brush- 
wood is  introduced.  This  being  light- 
ed, the  fire  is  allowed  to  burn  very 
slowly,  and  the  smoke  kept  in  by  add- 
ing a  sod  wherever  it  bursts  out. 
When  the  heap  is  once  burning,  more 
clay  may  be  added,  even  without  be- 
ing dry,  and  the  combustion  goes  on 
without  other  fuel.  It  must  be  so 
managed  as  to  bake  the  clay  without 
oeating  it  too  much ;  and  when  the 


heaps  are  cooled  and  opened,  the 
whole  should  appear  pulverized,  and 
of  a  red  colour  if  oxide  of  iron  exists 
in  the  soil.  A  coat  two  or  three  inch- 
es thick  spread  over  a  field,  and 
ploughed  in,  will  greatly  improve  its 
texture  ;  but  sufficient  animal  or  ve- 
getable manure  must  be  added  to 
make  it  fertile. 

An  improved  method  of  burning 
clay  has  been  adopted  in  Northum- 
berland. Instead  of  building  a  kiln, 
gratings  or  arches  of  cast  iron  are 
used  to  form  a  vault  or  funnel  for  the 
fuel,  and  over  this  funnel  the  clay  is 
built.  The  grated  arches  are  made 
about  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  two 
feet  diameter,  and  about  fourteen 
inches  high.  One  grating  is  to  be 
filled  with  brush-wood,  stubble,  or 
any  other  cheap  fuel,  and  the  clay,  as 
it  is  dug,  built  upon  it  to  a  convenient 
height,  leaving  small  vacancies,  or 
hormg  holes,  to  allow  the  heat  to 
penetrate  to  the  middle  and  outer 
parts  of  the  clay.  When  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  built  upon  the  first  gra- 
ting, another  is  added  at  either  end, 
or  at  both,  filled  with  similar  fuel,  and 
the  clay  built  upon  them  as  before. 
This  process  is  continued  until  ten, 
twelve,  or  a  greater  number  of  the 
gratings  have  been  used,  when  one 
end  is  built  up  or  covered  with  clay, 
and  at  the  other,  under  the  last  gra- 
ting, a  fire  is  made  of  coals  or  fagot- 
wood.  The  end  at  which  the  fire  is 
made  should  face  the  wind  if  possi- 
ble, and  if  the  process  has  been  prop- 
erly conducted  the  clay  will  be  effec- 
tually burned.  By  commencing  with 
a  centre  grating  in  the  form  of  a  cross 
(see  Fig.),  the  workman  may  build 


1S3 


CLI 


CLO 


from  four  ends  in  the  place  of  two  ; 
tliis  contrivance  will  afford  a  facility 
in  the  work,  and  have  a  draft  of  wind 
at  two  entrances. 

CLEANING.  The  after-birth  of 
cows,  ewes,  6:c. 

CLEARING  LANDS.  The  remo- 
val of  obstructions  to  tillage.  Much 
information  on  this  subject  Avill  be 
found  in  tlie  article  Barren  Lands. 
The  heavy  operation  is  the  removal 
of  trees.  Two  methods  are  in  com- 
mon use  :  either  to  cut  a  ring  of  bark 
and  wood  out  around  the  trunk,  at  a 
foot  or  two  from  the  ground,  and  kill 
the  tree,  or  to  cut  it  down  altogether 
during  the  early  summer,  and  leave 
the  trunk  to  dry  on  the  ground.  In 
the  first  case,  grasses,  and,  indeed, 
corn  can  be  cultivated  among  the 
dead  trees,  and  thus  the  land  is  made 
to  produce  sooner  ;  but  there  is  risk 
from  the  fall  of  limbs.  The  dead  for- 
est can  be  burned  during  summer, 
the  ashes  serving  to  enrich  the  land 
for  some  time.  When  the  trees  are 
felled  they  are  divided  into  lengths 
of  twelve  feet  or  more,  and  drawn 
out  of  the  cleared  space,  or  split  and 
burned,  a  suitable  amount  of  fence- 
rails  being  obtained.  In  both  these 
operations  the  stumps  remain  to  dis- 
figure the  land  ;  it  has  therefore  been 
proposed  to  draw  the  trees  down  by 
a  strong  chain  made  fast  to  their  up- 
per limbs,  and  pulled  by  oxen  or  a 
windlass.  This  will  scarcely  answer 
with  large  trees,  unless  the  roots  are 
cut  through  by  an  axe.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  cleared  lands  is  necessarily 
very  imperfect ;  corn,  tobacco,  hemp, 
and  cotton  are  found  the  best  crops. 

CLEAVAGE  OF  MINERALS. 
Minerals  which  have  a  regular  crys- 
talline form  can  only  be  split  or  cleav- 
ed with  ea.se  in  planes  corresponding 
to  their  sides ;  hence,  to  discover  the 
shape  of  the  crystal,  the  mineral  is 
split. 

CLEFT  GRAFTING.    See  Graft: 

CLEFTS.  In  farriery,  cracks  in 
the  heels  of  horses. 

CLEVIS.  The  draught  iron  of  the 
plough. 

CLIMATE.  The  temperature  and 
164 


liability  to  winds,  rain,  &c.,  of  any 
place.  Those  places  always  enjoy 
the  mildest  climates  which  are  situ- 
ated near  seas,  lakes,  or  large  bodies 
of  water ;  they  also  receive  most 
rain.  Climate  exerts  the  most  im- 
portant effects  on  plants,  so  that  they 
refuse  to  grow  at  places  very  remote 
from  their  original  stations  ;  but  by 
long-continued  attention,  and  the  use 
of  seeds  obtained  from  the  highest 
limits,  a  few  have  been  naturalized 
even  far  north.  One  very  interesting 
result  takes  place  in  the  cultivation 
of  plants  in  the  extreme  limits  of 
their  zone.  They  usually  bear  fruit 
much  sooner  (in  annuals),  and  the 
fruit  is  increased  in  delicacy  and  pulp. 
This  is  true  of  staple  crops  also, 
which  are  better  in  their  most  north- 
ern positions  than  in  the  original 
place  of  growth,  as  cotton,  hemp,  and 
flax.  But  the  rule  does  not  apply  to 
oily  or  saccharine  plants  ;  and  many 
annuals  become  perennials  in  north- 
ern positions. 

CLINANTHIUM.  The  flat  sur- 
face in  which  many  composite  flow- 
ers are  arranged,  as  the  sunflower. 

CLINKSTONE.  A  hard,  slaty 
mineral. 

CLOACA.  The  common  cavity 
in  which  the  intestines  and  urinary 
apparatus  terminate  in  fish,  birds, 
reptiles,  and  some  larger  animals. 

CLOD-CRUSHERS.     See  Roller. 

CLOTHING  HORSES.  It  keeps 
the  coat  fine,  and  in  northern  lati- 
tudes is  very  useful  in  preserving 
health. 

CLOUD.  A  mass  of  vapour,  simi- 
lar to  a  fog,  suspended  in  the  air.  The 
height  varies  with  the  density,  but 
seldom  exceeds  two  miles.  Clouds 
differ  in  form,  transparency,  &c.,  ac- 
cordmg  to  the  amount  of  vapour  of 
water  they  contain  and  the  wn)d 
which  drives  them.  Meteorologists 
divide  them  into  three  classes:  1st. 
Cirrus,  which  is  a  light,  branching 
cloud  ;  2d.  Cumulus,  a  conical  mass 
of  clouds;  3d.  iSVra/us,  which  consists 
of  horizontal  layers.  Every  variety 
occurs,  compounded  of  these  primarj 
forms. 

Clouds  owe  their  origin  to  a  par 


CLO 


CLO 


tial  condensation  of  the  vaponr  of 
water,  wliifh  air  naturally  contains. 
The  condensation  is  produced  by  cold 
and  the  operation  of  winds  blowini,' 
in  directions  contrary  to  one  another. 
CLOUTED  CREAM.  The  clout- 
ed cream  of  Devonshire  is  a  well- 
known  delicacy.  It  is  made  by  heat- 
ing the  milk  on  the  hearth,  or  by 
means  of  a  stove,  to  a  degree  a  little 
below  the  boiling-point,  when  the 
clouted  cream  rises  to  the  top  like  a 
thick  scum,  and  is  taken  off  when 
cooled.  This  cream  being  merely 
stirred  briskly  with  the  hand  or  a 


I  stick,  is  converted  into  butter.  It  is 
I  universally  admitted  that  the  butter 
I  thus  produced  is  inferior  to  tliat 
which  is  made  from  the  cream  which 
has  risen  slowly  and  spontaneously, 
and  in  all  the  largest  and  best  dai- 
ries in  the  vale  of  Honiton  the  cream 
is  never  clouted,  except  to  be  eaten 
in  that  state  as  a  luxury. 

CLOVER.  A  name  given  to  dif- 
ferent species  of  trifolium.  Dutch 
clover  is  T.  repcns  ;{b)  purple  clover 
is  T.  pratense  ,-(a)  cow  grass,  or  per- 
ennial clover,  is  T.  7nedtum..{d) 
Its  abundant  produce,  its  destruc- 


tion of  annual  weeds,  which  it  smoth- 
ers by  its  broad  foliage,  and  especially 
the  beauty  of  the  wheat  sown  after 
it,  recommend  it  as  an  indispensable 
part  of  an  improved  rotation  of  crops. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  clover, 
which  all  go  under  the  botanical  name 
of  trifolium,  from  the  three  leaves 
which  grow  together,  or,  rather,  the 
form  of  the  leaf,  which  has  three 
heart-shaped  parts.  They  are  an- 
nual, biennial,  or  perennial  plants. 
The  annual  clovers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Trifolium  incarnalum  {Tre.- 
jlc  incarnat  ox  farouchc),{c)  introduced 
from  the  south  of  France,  are  not  so 
generally  cultivated  as  the  biennial, 
which  produces  a  greater  crop,  and 
being  sown  along  with  the  spring 
grain,  comes  up  the  first  year  under 
its  shade,  and  gives  two  full  crops  in 
the  second.  In  good  land  it  will  some- 
times stand  another  year,  but  it  falls 


off  in  quantity; 
and  unless  other 
artificial  grass- 
es or  perenni- 
al clovers  have 
been  sown  a- 
mong  it,  to  fill 
up  the  places 
where  the  bien- 
nial clover  has 
failed,  it  is  sel- 
dom profitable 
to  allow  it  to 
remain  on  the 
ground  more 
than  one  year 
after  that  in 
which  it  is  sown.  It  should  be 
ploughed  in  in  the  fall  in  clay  lands 
for  a  spring  crop,  but  if  fallowed  ear- 
ly, wheat  can  be  grown  on  the  fresh 
ley. 
The  most  approved  variety  of  the 
16.) 


CLOVER. 


biennial  clovers  is  the  common  red 
or  broad  clover  {Tnfolium  ptatcnse), 
which  is  usually  sown  wilh  barley  or 
oats,  or  sometimes  among  wheat  or 
rye  in  spring,  at  the  rate  of  ten  to 
thirteen  pounds  of  clover  seed.  Clo- 
ver is  often  perennial.  The  time  for 
cutting  is  when  the  flowers  are  just 
expanded  ;  the  hay  is  more  abundant 
and  better  by  upward  of  ten  per  cent. 
The  first  crop  is  generally  mown  and 
made  into  hay.  In  this  process  great 
care  is  taken  not  to  i)reak  off  the 
tender  leaves  of  the  plant  in  drying; 
the  swarth  is  not  shaken  out  as  is 
done  with  meadow  grass,  but  merely 
turned  over ;  and  if  the  clover  can 
be  dried  and  put  in  a  stack  without 
any  shaking,  it  is  so  much  the  more 
valuable.  When  clover  is  soaked 
with  rain,  no  hope  of  an  improvement 
in  the  stack  must  induce  the  farmer 
to  carry  it  together  so  long  as  the 
least  moisture  remains.  If  it  be  al- 
lowed to  stay  in  the  field  till  perfectly 
dry,  even  when  it  has  been  soaked 
repeatedly  and  is  nearly  black,  and 
is  then  trod  hard  in  a  rick  with  a 
sprinkling  of  salt  over  each  layer,  it 
will  be  readily  eaten  by  cattle  in  win- 
ter, and  be  far  more  nutritious  than 
that  which,  having  been  stacked  in  a 
moist  state,  will  infallibly  come  out 
musty.  A  very  good  method  in  those 
seasons  when  a  continuance  of  dry 
weather  cannot  be  reckoned  upon — 
particularly  when  the  second  crop  is 
cut  in  September — is  to  take  advan- 
tage of  two  or  three  dry  days  to  cut 
the  clover,  and  turn  it  as  soon  as  the 
dew  is  completely  dried  off  the  upper 
side  ;  the  next  day  do  the  same,  and 
in  the  evening  carry  the  green,  dry 
clover  and  lay  it  in  alternate  layers 
with  sweet  straw,  so  as  to  form  a 
moderately-sized  stack.  A  ferment- 
ation will  soon  arise,  but  the  dry 
straw  will  prevent  all  danger  from 
too  much  heating,  and,  acquiring  the 
flavour  of  the  clover,  will  be  eaten 
with  avidity  by  the  cattle.  To  those 
who  make  clover  hay  for  the  use  of 
their  own  stock  in  winter,  we  recom- 
mend this  as  preferable  to  the  com- 
mon method,  even  when  there  is  less 
danger  from  the  weather.  The  pro- 
166 


cess  of  curing  by  sweating  is  very 
well  adapted  to  clover. 

It  is  usual  to  sow  timothy  in  a 
small  proportion  with  clover  seed, 
especially  where  clover,  having  been 
often  repeated  on  the  same  land,  is 
apt  to  fail. 

The  most  profitable  use  of  clover 
is  to  cut  it  green  for  horses  and  cat- 
tle. With  a  little  management,  green 
food  may  be  given  to  all  the  stock 
from  the  first  day  of  April  to  October. 

The  land  which  has  borne  clover 
is  in  a  very  good  state  for  producing 
corn  or  wheat.  In  the  regulai:  Nor- 
folk rotation,  clover  should  recur 
I  every  fourth  year ;  but  after  a  few 
rotations  this  is  found  to  be  too  quick 
!  a  recurrence,  and  other  grass  seeds 
!  or  pulse  are  substituted.  The  Flem- 
ish do  not  sow  clover  again  on  the 
same  ground  sooner  than  in  eight  or 
ten  years. 

The  white  or  Dutch  clover  (Trifo- 
lium  repens)  is  a  perennial,  which 
grows  rapidly,  and  fonns  excellent 
pasture  ;  but  its  bulk  is  not  sufficient 
to  make  it  profitable  to  mow  for  hay. 
It  is  excellent  for  sheep,  which  thrive 
well  upon  it.  A  liglit,  calcareous 
soil  is  best  adapted  for  white  clover, 
but  it  also  grows  well  on  heavy  land, 
provided  the  bottom  be  sound  and 
dry. 

Another  perennial  clover,  called 
cow  grass  {TrifoUum  medium),  is 
found  in  all  rich  meadows  :  it  is  oft- 
en sown  in  conjunction  with  the 
white  clover  in  laying  down  arable 
land  to  grass.  The  lesser  yeUow 
trefoil  (Tnf'olivm  minvs)  and  the  hop 
trefoil  ( Trifolium  procumbcns)  are  also 
valuable  varieties  found  in  good  pas- 
tures. 

The  only  annual  clover  which  is 
cultivated  is  the  French  clover  {Tri- 
folium incarnaliim)  mentioned  be- 
fore. It  is  a  most  valuable  addition 
to  the  plants  usually  sown  for  fodder, 
from  the  short  time  in  which  it  ar- 
rives at  perfection  if  sown  in  spring; 
so  that,  where  clover  has  failed,  this 
may  be  sown  to  fill  up  the  bare  pla- 
ces. Its  principal  use  is  to  raise 
very  early  food  for  ewes  and  lambs, 
which  it  does  with  very  little  trouble 


CLO 


CLO 


or  expense.  Immediately  after  har- 
vest the  stubble  is  scarified  and  har- 
rowed, so  as  to  raise  a  mould  ;  the 
trifolium  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  six- 
teen to  twenty  pounds  per  acre,  and 
well  rolled  in.  It  springs  up  and 
stands  the  winter  well,  and  with  the 
first  genial  weather  in  sprmg  it  grows 
rapidly.  It  makes  excellent  hay,  and 
what  is  left  produces  seed  most  abun- 
dantly in  the  end  of  May  or  beginning 
of  June,  being  off  the  ground  in  good 
time  to  plough  the  land  and  clean  it 
for  turnips.  It  is  far  superior  to  stub- 
ble turnips  as  an  intervening  crop, 
and  more  rapid  in  its  growth  than 
tares.  On  light  land  a  crop  of  buck- 
wheat is  readily  obtained  alter  it.  It 
has  the  property  of  smothering  an- 
nual weeds  by  its  rapid  growth,  and 
for  this  reason  is  not  so  well  adapt- 
ed for  sowing  with  other  crops.  The 
Italian  rye  grass  {LoUum  pcrcnnc) 
may  be  sown  with  it,  and  will  grow 
as  rapidly.  After  the  tnfolmm  has 
been  cut,  this  will  continue  and  give 
an  excellent  second  crop 

In  France  and  m  the  United  States 
plaster  is  considered  as  a  specitic  ma- 
nure for  clover.  It  is  sown  by  hand 
over  tho  plant  in  spring,  and  in  some 
situations  the  advantage  is  evident, 
in  others  scarcely  observable.  The 
quantity  used  is  about  one  bushel  to 
the  acre. 

On  good  land  an  acre  of  clover  will 
produce  as  much  as  three  tons  and  a 
half  of  dry  hay  ;  that  is,  two  tons 
the  first  cutting,  and  one  and  a  half 
the  second.  Greater  crops  are  ob- 
tained on  very  highly  manured  land. 
The  value  of  a  ton  of  clover  hay  to 
feed  horses  with  is  about  fifteen  or 
twenty  per  cent,  more  than  good 
meadow  hay. 

When  clover  is  intended  to  be  left 
to  ripen  its  seeds,  it  should  be  mown 
early,  or  fed  off  by  sheep  in  May. 
The  first  crop  is  seldom  free  from 
various  seeds  of  other  plants  which 
rise  among  the  clover  :  by  feeding  it 
down  or  mowing  it  these  are  destroy- 
ed, and  the  clover,  which  grows  more 
rapidly  than  most  other  plants,  ri- 
ses again  without  any  mixture  of 
weeds.     When  the  blossom  is  thor- 


oughly withered,  and  the  seed  is 
nearly  ripe,  the  clover  is  mown  and 
left  to  dry  on  the  ground  without 
much  shaking.  In  very  dry  weather 
it  may  be  housed  or  stacked  in  a 
week  ;  but  the  process  is  much  re- 
larded  by  showers.  It  is  well  knuwn 
that  the  subsequent  stock  suffers  if 
the  clover  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
seed.  As  the  calyx  of  the  fiower  of 
clover  envelops  the  seed  closely,  it  is 
difficult  to  separate  them.  There  are 
various  machines  for  this  purpose, 
one  of  which  consists  of  two  fine- 
rodded  hurdles,  made  to  rub  on  each 
other  while  the  heads  pass  between 
them.  I'he  principal  clover  mill  for 
separating  the  seed  is  by  J.  Ritten- 
house,  price  sixty  dollars.  Clover  is 
generally  thrashed  on  the  floor,  but  if 
the  heads,  after  being  separated  from 
the  haulm,  are  put  together  in  a  heap 
and  pressed,  a  slight  fermentation 
takes  place,  and  this  makes  the  calyx 
brittle,  so  that  it  breaks  into  dust, 
and  the  seed  comes  out  readily  ;  it  is 
then  easily  cleared  by  the  fan.  The 
yield  is  four  to  five  bushels  the  acre. 

When  the  seed  is  not  intended  for 
the  market,  the  trouble  of  clearing  it 
from  the  husk  may  be  saved,  espe 
cially  in  the  Trifolium  incarnaium 
It  will  grow  as  well  when  sown  with 
the  husk  as  when  cleaned,  and  it  is 
easy  to  find  the  proportion  required 
to  be  sown  in  that  state  by  allowing 
fur  the  weight  of  the  husk. 

CLOVER,  VARIETIES.  Numer- 
ous plants  are  more  or  less  cultiva- 
ted resembling  clover,  hence  some 
confusion  has  arisen  in  the  popular 
names.  Thus,  the  Chilian  clover  is 
lucern.  Bokhura  clover  is  sweet  clo- 
ver {Mcliloli/s  major) ;  it  is  a  coarse 
plant,  rising  to  six  and  ten  feet,  but 
if  cut  four  or  five  tiiTies  in  the  season, 
when  about  two  feet  high,  it  yields 
an  immense  quantity  of  good  herbage 
for  soiling.  'Jlie  seed  should  be  sown 
in  spring  in  drills  eighteen  inches 
apart.  It  should  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  when  young,  thinned  out  by 
the  hoe,  and  cut  close  to  the  ground. 
It  is  perennial,  and  will  stand  the 
winters  of  Virginia,  and  probably  of 
Penn.sylvania.  The  mature  stems 
1G7 


clo 

make  good  hemp  when  rotted  and  1 
broken.     Two   pounds   of  seed   the 
acre  is  al)undanlly  cnoush. 

"Mr.  James  Gowcii,  who  resides  at 
Mount  Airy,  near  Philadelphia,  has 
been  much  in  the  practice  of  keep- 
ing up  a  considerable  stock  of  uncom-  | 
raoiily  line  cattle,  and  soiling  them  in 
sunm'ier  upon  lucern,  rye,  and  red 
clover.  He  has  raised  patches  of  the 
melilotus,  and  from  his  observation 
says,  'there  is  no  grass  or  plant  I 
have  yet  seen  that  all'ords  to  me  such 
promise  as  the  sweet-scented  or  Bok- 
hara clover.'  " — {Cultivator,  Novem- 
ber, 1842.) 

CLOVER,  GIGANTIC.  The 
same  as  Bokhara  clover. 

CLOVER,  ALSIKE.  TrifoUum  hj- 
bridum.  A  supposed  hybrid  between 
the  white  and  common  red  clover. 
It  is  very  hardy,  withstanding  tiie 
winters  of  Sweden,  perennial,  but 
runs  close  to  the  ground,  and  is  only 
fit  for  pastures,  es()ecially  for  sheep. 
Numerous  small  species  of  trifolium, 
medicago,  melilotus,  and  other  legu- 
minous plants  are  known  vulgarly 
under  the  names  of  yellow,  sweet, 
&c.,  clovers,  but  they  are  scarcely 
worthy  of  attention  to  the  cultiva- 
tor. 

CLOVER,  MACHINE  FOR 
GATHERING.  A  simple  contri- 
vance for  gathering  the  seed  heads 
is  much  used,  and  is  figured  below. 
It  is  of  wood,  but  the  teeth  may  be 
made  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  wheels 
removed  with  advantage.  It  is  drawn 
by  one  horse,  and  managed  by  a  boy. 
The  hand  gatherer  (a)  is  used  for 
emptying  the  barrow,  or  for  collect- 
ing pease,  beans,  &.c. 


CLOVES.  The  unexpanded  blos- 
soms of  an  Eastern  tree,  the  Eugenia 
caryophyllata.  They  contain  an  oil 
higldy  aromatic,  and  grateful  to  the 
stomach  in  minute  quantities.  It  is 
a  tropical  production. 
168 


COC 

CLUPEA.  The  generic  name  of 
tlie  herring  and  shad  fishes,  ancho- 
vies, sprats,  &c. :  most  of  the  species 
are  migratory. 

CLUSTER.  A  bunch.  A  raceme 
in  botany. 

COAGULATION.  The  formation 
of  a  solid  body  of  a  jelly-like  charac- 
ter. 

COAL.  Numerous  varieties  ex- 
ist :  that  of  Pennsylvania  and  Wales 
(Eng.)  is  anthracite,  difficult  of  com- 
bustion, producing  no  flame,  but  in- 
tense heat :  it  is  nearly  pure  carbon. 
Bituminous  coal,  such  as  that  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Ohio  (Liverpool  coal),  con- 
tains hydrogen  as  well  as  carbon, 
and  gives  off  gas  and  flame  in  burn- 
ing. Wood  coal  resembles  charred 
wood,  and  shows  the  marks  of  wood  : 
it  produces  much  light. 

All  coal  is  of  vegetable  origin,  be- 
ing, indeed,  the  remains  of  plants  and 
trees.  The  chief  beds  of  it  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  curved  form  ;  hence  the 
term  coal  basins.  This  variety  lies 
above  the  old  red  sandstone,  and  is 
covered  with  sandstones  and  con- 
glomerates. It  is,  therefore,  a  sec- 
ondary formation,  and,  according  to 
the  New-York  geologists,  does  not 
exist  in  this  state. 

COAL  TAR.  A  tary  fluid  of  a 
complicated  nature,  produced  during 
the  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  for 
gas.  It  is  a  cheap  and  excellent 
paint  for  iron- ware,  railings,  &c , 
and  has  latterly  been  used  on  wood- 
work. It  preserves  the  timber,  but 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  colour  may 
not  prove  injurious  by  causing  warp- 
in?. 

COBBLES.  Small  round  stones. 
COCCINELLA.  The  generic 
name  of  the  lady-bird  insects.  They 
are  of  great  service  to  the  farmer  and 
orchardists  in  destroying  plant  lice 
{Aphides),  on  which  they  prey. 

COCCULUS  INDICUS.  A  poi- 
sonous Eastern  berry  used  in  medi- 
cine ;  it  is  sometimes  employed,  to 
cause  intoxication,  in  beer,  or  thrown 
into  fish  ponds  to  stupily  fish,  which 
can  be  caught  by  the  hand  while  suf- 
i  feriug  from  its  effects.  The  poison- 
^  ous  principle  is  picrolojcia. 


\ 


coc 


GOF 


COCCUM.  Adry  elastic  seed  cov- 
ering. 

COCCUS.  Tiie  bark  lice  or  scale 
insect  family.     See  Bark  Lice. 

COCCYX.  The  termination  of 
tlie  spinal  column. 

COCHLXEAL.  The  Coccus  cadi, 
a  Mexican  insect.  The  fine  article 
should  be  of  a  grayish  exterior,  and 
the  lines  of  the  body  clearly  defined. 
The  brilliant  scarlet  of  cochineal  is 
fixed  in  dyeing  by  a  mordant  of  alu- 
mina and  solution  of  tin,  and  bright- 
ened by  cream  of  tartar. 

C  O  C  H  L  E  A  T  E  (from  cochlea,  a 
shell).     Twisted  like  some  shells. 

COCK-CHAFFER.     See  Insects. 

COCKLE.  The  weed  Asrrostem- 
ma  githago,  which  grows  amid  wheat, 
and  whose  black  seed  impair  the  col- 
our of  flour  if  not  well  separated  by 
screening.  It  is  an  annual,  to  be  de- 
stroyed only  by  a  succession  of  fod- 
der crops  cut  for  soiling  before  flow- 
er, or  by  clean  fallows. 

COCK'S-FOOT  GRASS.  The  or- 
chard grass.     See  Grasses. 

COCOA  GRASS.  Dr.  Cartwright 
thus  writes  in  the  American  Agricul- 
turist : 

"  There  is  a  repent  pla'nt  called  the 
cocoa  in  Louisiana  and  .Mississippi, 
which,  instead  of  running  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  runs  down  into  it 
to  the  depth  of  four  or  five  feet,  and 
horizontally  a  little  under  the  sur- 
face, mole  fashion,  and  at  short  in- 
tervals throwing  up  a  bunch  of  thick, 
coarse  grass.  A  better  idea  of  this 
plant  can  be  formed  by  calling  it  a 
subterraneous  strawberry.  It  bears 
nuts  under  ground  the  size  of  straw- 
berries. Their  bitter  taste  distin- 
guishes them  from  the  nut  grass, 
called  sweet  cocoa.  The  bitter  cocoa 
grows  so  fast,  that  double  the  num- 
ber of  labourers  are  required  to  culti- 
vate the  lands  infested  by  it.  All 
those  who,  ignorant  of  this  pernicious 
repent,  have  purchased  cocoa  lands, 
have  paid  dearly  for  the  want  of  a  lit- 
tle practical  information,  as  they  are 
nearly  all  bankrupt.  Many  have 
wisely  abandoned  their  cocoa  planta- 
tions. No  means  have  been  discov- 
ered of  extirpating  this  pernicious 
P 


repent  when  it  once  gets  fixed  in  the 
soil."' 

It  certainly  would  be  exterminated 
by  hoed  crops,  or  long-rooted  peren- 
nial plants,  as  clovers.  ISotwith- 
standing  its  vivacious  nature,  it  is  a 
grass  of  great  value  to  the  grazier 
and  sheep  raiser.  It  is  somekmes 
called  nut  grass. 

COCOON.  The  web  which  cov- 
ers the  chrysalis  of  an  insect. 

CCELIAC  (from  koi/mc,  hollow). 
Relating  to  the  belly  or  abdomen. 

COFFEE.  The  berries  of  the 
Cojfcca  Arabica,  a  tropical  shrub. 
The  coffee  plant  thrives  between 
the  tropics  in  situations  where  the 
mean  and  nearly  constant  tempera- 
ture is  between  22°  and  26^  C.  (71-5=" 
and  80^  F.). 

Coffee  is  rarely  sown  in  a  nursery  ; 
the  seeds  are  made  to  germinate  still 
surrounded  by  their  natural  pulp,  and 
wrapped  up  in  leaves  of  the  banana. 
The  young  plants,  after  seven  or 
eight  days  of  germination,  are  put 
into  the  ground.  In  the  Valley  d'Ara- 
gua  an  acre  of  ground  of  good  quality 
is  generally  laid  out  with  about  1040 
plants.  The  coffee  plant  flourishes 
in  the  course  of  the  second  year ; 
when  left  to  grow  unimpeded,  it  will 
attain  a  height  of  from  23  to  26  feet, 
but  it  is  seldom  allowed  to  grow  so 
high,  its  upward  progress  being  check- 
ed by  pruning.  The  planters  of  ^"en- 
ezuela  generally  keep  it  at  a  height 
of  from  five  to  six  feet.  The  shrub 
receives  the  care  of  the  planter  du- 
ring the  first  two  years  ;  the  ground 
must  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and 
the  giowth  of  parasites  must,  above 
all,  be  prevented.  To  thrive,  the  cof- 
fee plant  requires  frequent  rains  up 
to  the  time  of  flowering.  The  fruit 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  small 
cherry,  and  is  ripe  when  it  becomes 
of  a  red  colour,  and  the  pulp  is  soft 
and  very  sweet.  As  the  berries  nev- 
er ripen  simultaneously,  the  coffee 
harvest  takes  place  at  different  times, 
each  requiring  at  least  three  visits 
made  at  intervals  of  from  five  to  six 
days.  A  negro  will  gather  from  ten 
to  twelve  gallons  of  fruit  in  the  course 
of  a  day. 

169 


COF 


COF 


Two  beans  are  found  in  the  inte-  | 
rior  of  each  berry  ;  in  order  to  free 
these  from  the  pulp  which  surrounds 
them,  they  are  passed  through  a  kind 
of  mill,  and  the  coflee  is  steeped  in 
water  for  twenty-four  hours  in  order 
to  free  it  from  the  mucilaginous  mat- 
ter which  adheres  to  it :  it  is  then 
dried  by  being  spread  out  upon  a  floor 
under  a  shed.  In  the  coflee  planta- 
tions of  Venezuela  which  I  visited,  I 
saw  them  proceed  in  another  way  : 
the  berries  were  exposed  to  the  sun 
upon  a  piece  of  ground  somewhat  in- 
clined, and  spread  out  to  about  three 
inches  in  thickness ;  the  pulp  soon 
enters  into  fermentation,  and  a  very 
distinct  vinous  odour  is  exhaled,  and 
the  juice  altered  either  flows  away 
or  dries  up  ;  at  the  end  of  a  fort- 
night or  three  weeks  the  berries  are 
all  dry  and  shrivelled,  and  they  then 
undergo  two  triturations,  one  to  ob- 
tain the  seeds  or  beans,  the  other  to 
detach  a  thin  pelUcle  which  surrounds 
them.  Three  bushels  of  berries  will 
yield  from  85  to  90  pounds  of  mar- 
ketable coffee. 

During  the  destruction  of  the  sugary 
matter  contained  in  the  pulp  of  the 
berry,  a  considerable  quantity  of  spir- 
it is  produced  and  dissipated.  M. 
Humboldt,  struck  with  the  readiness 
with  which  the  berry  of  the  coffee 
plant  runs  into  fermentation,  express- 
es his  surprise  that  no  one  ever 
thought  of  obtaining  alcohol  from  it. 
In  an  old  work,  however,  I  find  the 
following  passage  ■.  "The  inhabitants 
of  Arabia  take  the  skin  which  sur- 
rounds the  coffee  bean,  and  prepare  it 
as  we  do  raisins ;  they  form  a  drink 
with  it  for  refreshment  during  the 
summer."*  This  vinous  liquor  ap- 
pears to  enjoy  all  the  exciting  prop- 
erties which  are  esteemed  in  the  in- 
fusion of  coffee. 

The  cofl^ee  plant  continues  to  pro- 
duce to  the  age  of  forty  to  forty-five 
years  ;  it  bears  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent even  in  the  third  year.  Some 
shrubs  yield  from  17  to  22  pounds  of 
dry  coflee  beans  ;  but  this  is  a  very 
large  quantity.  An  acre  of  land  in 
the  Valley  d'Aragua,  planted  with 
about  1040  shrubs,  will  yield  about 
170 


940  or  950  pounds,  which  is  at  the 
rale  of  somewhat  less  than  one  pound 
per  shrub. 

Coffee  contains  the  same  active 
principle  as  tea,  coffeine,  but  in  less 
proportion  ;  the  researches  of  differ- 
ent chemists  have  also  shown  the 
presence  of  a  particular  acid  called 
coffeic  acid,  of  fatty  matters,  a  vola- 
tile od,  a  colouring  matter,  albumen, 
tannin,  and  alkaline  and  earthy  salts. 
— {Boussiuiraidl.) 

COFFEE-TREE.  The  Gymnocla- 
dus  Canadensis.  A  leguminous  tree, 
the  beans  of  which  have  been  slight- 
ly used  for  coffee  ;  they  are  nutri- 
tious, but  rather  sickening,  and  are 
said  to  destroy  flies  with  great  cer- 
tainty when  a  decoction  is  exposed 
in  proper  places.  The  foliage  of  the 
tree  is  like  that  of  the  black  walnut. 

The  tree  often  attains  60  feet,  and 
15  inches  diameter ;  it  has  few  branch- 
es, and  those  thick :  its  presence  is 
said  to  indicate  the  richest  soils.  The 
wood  is  rosy,  compact,  and  as  dura- 
ble as  the  locust,  and  like  it,  contain- 
ing very  little  sap  wood. 

COFFER  DAM.  In  architecture 
and  bridge-building,  a  case  of  piling, 
water-tight,' fixed  in  the  bed  of  a  riv- 
er for  the  purpose  of  laying  the  bot- 
tom dry  for  a  space  large  enough  to 
build  the  pier  on.  CotTer  dams  are 
formed  in  various  ways,  either  by  a 
single  enclosure  or  a  double  one, 
with  clay  or  chalk  rammed  in  be- 
tween the  two  to  prevent  the  water 
from  coming  through  the  sides.  They 
are  also  made  either  with  piles  only, 
driven  close  together,  and  sometimes 
notched  or  dovetailed  into  one  an- 
other ;  or,  if  the  water  is  not  very 
deep,  by  piles  driven  at  a  distance  of 
five  or  six  feet  from  each  other,  and 
grooved  in  the  sides  with  boards  let 
down  between  them  in  the  grooves. 
In  order  to  build  in  coffer  dams,  a 
very  good  natural  bottom  of  solid 
earth  or  clay  is  required  ;  for  though 
the  sides  be  made  water-tight,  il'the 
bed  of  the  river  be  of  a  loose  con- 
sistence, the  water  will  ooze  up 
through  it  in  too  great  a  quantity  to 

*  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  vol. 
xxiii.,  p.  214. 


{ 


COL 

permit  the  operations  to  be  carried 
on.  It  is  almost  needless  to  remark 
that  the  sides  must  be  very  strong 
and  well  braced  in  the  inside  to  re- 
sist the  pressure  of  the  ambient  wa- 
ter.— {Hnltoii's  Tracts,  vol.  i.) 

COFFIN  BONE.  The  bone  which 
lies  encircled  within  a  horse's  hoof". 

COHESION.  The  force  which 
binds  together  similar  particles  ;  it 
is  supposed  to  be  electrical.  The 
strain  which  any  wood  or  metal  bears 
is  a  measure  of  its  cohesion. 

"The  following  is  a  tabular  view 
of  the  absolute  cohesion  of  the  prm- 
cipal  kinds  of  timber  employed  in 
building  and  carpentry,  showing  the 
load  which  would  rend  a  prism  of  an 
inch  square,  and  the  length  of  the 
prism  which,  if  suspended,  would  be 
torn  asunder  by  its  own  weight  : 

Teak 12,915  lbs.  —  36,049  feet 

Oak 11,880  —32,900 

Sycamore      .     .     .  9,630  —  35,hll0 

Beech 12,225  —  38,940 

Ash 14,130  —  42,080 

Elm 9,720  —  39,050 

Memel  fir  ...     .  9,540  —  40,500 

Norway  fir    .     .     .  12,346  —  55,500 

Larch 12,240  —42,160 

"The  metals  differ  more  widely  from 
each  other  in  their  cohesive  strength 
than  the  several  species  of  wood  or 
vegetable  fibres.  According  to  the 
experiments  of  Mr.  George  Rennie 
in  1817,  the  cohesive  power  of  a  rod 
an  inch  square  of  different  metals,  in 
pounds  avoirdupois,  with  the  corre- 
sponding length  in  feet,  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Ca-st  steel  .  .  .  134,256  lbs.  —  39,455  feet 
Swedish    malleable 

iron 72,064         —  19,740 

English  ditto     .     .     55,672  —  19,740 

Cast  iron  ....  19,096  —  6,110 
Cast  copper  .  .  .  19,072  —  5,093 
Yellow  brass  .  .  17,959  —  5,180 
Cast  tin  ...  .  4,736  —  1,496 
Cast  lead.  .  .  .  1,824  —  346" 
{Brande's  Encycl.) 

COKE.  The  cinder  of  bituminous 
coals  after  being  heated  for  gas. 

COLCHICUM.  Colchicum  offici- 
nale. Meadow  saffron,  a  bulbous  plant, 
growing  freely  in  moist,  sandy  loams. 
The  bulb  and  seeds  are  of  the  high- 
est value  as  a  medicine  in  gout  and 
rheumatism.  In  large  doses  it  is 
poisonous. 


COM 

COLE.     See  Colza. 

COLEOPTERA  (from  Kn-Xto<:,  a 
sheath,  and  Trrepov,  a  wing).  Insects, 
the  outer  wings  of  which  are  hard  or 
horny,  the  inner  wings  being  large 
and  very  delicate.  Borers,  lady-birds, 
curculios,  &c.,  belong  to  this  race. 
The  hard  outer  wings  are  called  ely- 
tra. 

COLEWORT.     See  Cabbage. 

COLIC.  In  common  parlance,  an 
irritation  of  the  stomach  or  intes- 
tines, causing  pain,  and  readily  alle- 
viated by  a  slight  purge  or  by  lauda- 
num. 

COLLAPSE.     A  loss  of  strength. 

COLLAR  BLADE.     The  haims. 

COLLEY.  The  Scotch  sheep 
dog. 

COLLIQUATIVE.  An  excessive 
evacuation,  diminishing  the  strength. 

COLLUM.  The  point  where  the 
roots  diverge  from  the  stem  of  plants. 

COLLYRIUM.     An  eye-wash. 

COLOCYNTH.  The  pulp  of  the 
Cucumis  colocynth,  a  plant  similar  to 
the  cucumber,  bearing  round  fruit  of 
great  bitterness  and  purgative  pow- 
er. The  cultivation  is  similar  to  that 
of  melons. 

COLON.     The  large  intestines. 

COLOPHONY.  The  dark  resin 
remaining  after  the  distillation  of  the 
spirit  from  rosin. 

COLT.     A  young  horse,  ass,  &c. 

COLT'S  FOOT.  A  vile  perennial 
weed. 

COLUMBARIUM.  A  pigeon- 
house. 

COLZA.  Two  or  more  varieties 
of  plants  of  the  open  cabbage  kind 
{Brassica  arvensis  and  campestris)  are 
cultivated  under  this  name  in  Ger- 
many and  France.  They  are  usually 
sown  in  drills,  but  sometimes  broad 
cast  for  eating  off  in  the  fall.  The 
most  common  object  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  colza  is  the  seed,  which  yields 
a  coarse  oil  like  rape,  and  is  obtained 
by  pressure.  The  cake  is  very  simi- 
lar to  that  from  rape,  and  used  like 
it  for  fodder  and  manure.  The  treat- 
ment is  precisely  similar  to  rape, 
which  see. 

CO.VLV  (from  keu,  to  lie  down).  A 
propensity  to  sleep,  amounting  to  a 
171 


COM 


CON 


disease  or  stupidity.  Comalusc  is  a 
derivative. 

COMBINATION.  In  chemistry, 
the  chemical  union  of  atoms,  wliere- 
by  the  sensiljle  properties  of  the  com- 
bining parts  are  altered.  It  takes 
place  in  niathemalical  proportions. 
See  Atom. 

COMBUSTION.  Burning.  The 
chemical  change  of  a  body,  attended 
with  lieat  or  light.  For  combustion, 
the  body  must  be  surrounded  with  a 
medium  which  enters,  in  part,  into 
the  change,  such  as  oxygen,  chlorine, 
&c. 

COMFREY.  The  Symphytum  offi- 
cinale, a  rough  perennial  plant,  with 
coarse,  rough  leaves  and  large  roots. 


The  American  Agriculturist  thus 
writes  : 

"  We  learn  by  the  Portsmouth 
Journal  that  Mr.  Robinson  is  of 
opinion,  from  an  imperfect  experi- 
ment made  by  him  on  a  small  patch 
of  ground,  that  he  will  be  able  next 
year  to  gather,  at  two  cuttings,  eight 
tons  of  leaves  of  the  comfrcy  root  to 
the  acre,  which,  he  says,  is  excellent 
food  for  stock.  The  root  is  consid- 
ered very  nutritious  for  man  or  beast ; 
and  Mr.  Rich,  of  Troy,  N.  H.,  asserts 
that  it  can  be  harvested  every  two 
or  three  years,  and  will  yield  over 
2000  bushels  per  acre.  We  should 
think  it  advisable  to  try  the  experi- 
ment of  a  rod  or  two  square  of  grow- 
ing comfrey  in  this  vicinity.  It  is 
cultivated  by  transplanting  the  roots, 
which  grow  wild  in  the  fields,  to  any 
ground  deep  ploughed  and  well  pul- 
verized." 
172 


COM.MISSURE.  In  anatomy,  a 
junction  or  union. 

C  O  M  O  8  E.  Ending  in  a  tuft  or 
brush,  like  the  top  of  a  tree. 

COMPASy.  An  instrument  used 
by  mariners  and  surveyors  to  obtain 
the  bearing  of  any  place.  The  essen- 
tial part  is  a  magnetic  needle,  which 
plays  over  a  card  marked  into  the 
points  of  the  compass.  The  follow- 
ing figure  gives  the  full  divisions  :  N 
signifies  north,  S  south,  E  east,  W 
west,  and  b  by  or  towards. 

v^  »/>  "^       «  4;   .^ 


COMPOSIT.E.  Plants  like  the 
sunflower,  dandelion,  lettuce,  &;c., 
the  flowers  of  which  are  grouped  to- 
gether on  a  flattish  surface.  They 
are  very  numerous,  and  form  the 
Syngcncsia  of  Linnaeus.  Few  are  cul- 
tivated ;  most  are  valueless  weeds  ; 
but  chamomile,  wormwood,  and  a 
few  others  yield  bitter  medicines. 
Their  ashes  abound  in  potash. 

COMPOST.  Any  compound  of 
manures,  usually  of  vegetable  matter 
for  the  most  part.  See  Peat,  Lime, 
Ves'c tabic  Matter,  &.e. 

COMPRESSIBILITY.  This  qual- 
ity  depends  on  the  natural  pores  of 
bodies,  which  enable  the  solid  parts 
to  approach  nearer  under  great  force. 

CONCAVE.  Having  a  hollowed 
surface.  Concave  surfaces  in  mir- 
rors produce  a  magnifying  effect,  and 
condense  heat  and  light. 

CONCEPTACLES.  The  seed 
cases  of  ferns,  lichens,  &c. 

CONCHOID  (from  Koyxn,  a  shell). 
Like  a  shell.     The  name  of  a  curve. 

CONCRETE  (from  concresccre,  to 
coalesce  in  one  mass).  In  architecture 
and  engineering,  a  mass  composed  of 


cox 


cox 


stone  chippings  or  ballast  cemented 
together  tlirough  the  medium  of  lime 
and  sand,  usually  employed  in  ma- 
king foundations  where  the  soil  is 
of  Itself  too  light  or  boggj-,  or  other- 
wise insufficient  for  the  reception  of 
the  walls.  The  essential  quality  of 
concrete  seems  to  be,  that  the  mate- 
rials used  should  be  of  small  dimen- 
sions, so  that  the  cementing  medium 
may  act  in  every  direction  round 
them,  and  that  the  latter  should  on 
no  account  be  more  in  quantity  than 
is  necessary  for  that  purpose.  Ar- 
chitects and  engineers  have  much 
varied  the  proportions  of  lime  and 
sand  used.  If  the  lime,  which  should 
be  fresh  and  ground  to  powder,  be 
good  stone  lime,  it  will  bear  three  or 
four  times  its  measure  by  bulk  of 
sand.  These  and  the  ballast  or  gal- 
lots,  as  the  stone  chippings  are  called, 
should  be  thoroughly  turned  over  and 
mixed  together.  If  the  foundations 
be  wet,  the  mixture  will  want  very 
little  if  an}"  water  ;  indeed,  some- 
times the  ballast  only  is  wetted,  and 
then  covered  over  with  the  lime  and 
sand.  It  is  then  filled  into  the  bar- 
rows, and  run  on  to  be  dropped  from 
a  stage  into  the  foundations.  This 
latter  operation  should  be  performed 
at  as  great  a  height  as  possible  above 
the  level  of  the  trench,  in  order  that 
the  whole  of  the  different  particles 
of  the  composition  may  be  compress- 
ed together  so  as  to  occupy  the  least 
possible  space.  The  stones  employ- 
ed should  not  exceed  the  size  of  a 
common  hen's  egg.  The  mass  very 
quickly  sets  and  becomes  extremely 
hard.  On  the  top  of  it,  which  is  kept 
as  level  as  possible,  a  tier  of  stone 
landings  is  laid,  and  very  often 
throughout  the  length  a  chain  of  tim- 
ber is  buried  in  the  footings,  whose 
durability  is  requisite  only  while  the 
work  is  settling;  over  the  landings 
and  timber  thus  laid,  the  latter,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  occupying  but  a  very 
small  portion  of  the  thickness  of  the 
footings,  and  quite  buried  in  them, 
the  walls  are  carried  up. — (See  Daty 
OH  Artificial  Foundations,  and  Tottcn 
on  Mortars,  Cements.  &.C.) 

CONDENSATION.     The  render- 


ing a  body  more  dense,  most  com- 
monly applied  to  the  conversion  of 
vapour  into  the  fluid  form. 

CONDENSER.  Any  machine  by 
which  the  compression  of  gas,  &c., 
can  be  effected. 

CONDITION.  In  horsemanship, 
the  health  and  good  appearance  of  a 
horse  or  other  animal. 

CONDUCTOR.  In  physics,  any 
substance  which  allows  the  passage 
of  heat,  light,  or  electricity  is  said  to 
conduct  it. 

CONDYLE  (from  kov6v,  a  cup). 
The  rounded  ends  of  the  long  bones. 

CONFERVA.  An  extensive  fam- 
ily of  small  water  weeds,  forming  the 
green  slime  on  stagnant  waters. 
They  nourish  innumerable  insects 
and  animalcules. 

CONGELATION.  The  act  of 
passing  into  the  state  of  ice  or  other 
solid  forms  from  the  fluid. 

CONGESTION.  In  farriery  and 
medicine,  an  increased  accumulation 
of  blood  or  other  fluid  in  any  part. 
It  is  to  be  relieved  by  bleeding,  cup- 
ping, leeches,  or  counter  irritation. 

CONGLOMER.VTE.  In  geology, 
a  compound  stony  mass  containing 
pebbles,  &c.,  cemented  together  by 
iron,  calcareous  or  other  matter. 

CONIC.  Relating  to  a  cone,  small- 
er at  one  end  than  the  other. 

CONIFER-E.  Trees  bearing 
cones,  as  the  pines,  firs,  cedars,  &,c. 
The  wood  of  all  is  useful,  and  they 
grow  usually  upon  poor  soils. 

CONTROSTERS.  A  tribe  of  birds 
with  strong  conical  bills,  as  crows 
and  finches. 

CONIU.M.  The  genus  containing 
hemlock,  which  see. 

C  O  N  N I V  E  N  S.  In  botany,  any 
covering  or  arrangement  by  which 
the  parts  of  a  plant  or  flower  are  hid- 
den ;  as  the  flowers  of  the  fig  by  the 
connivent  receptacle. 

CONSERVATORY.  In  horticul- 
ture, a  glazed  structure,  in  which 
exotic  trees  and  shrubs  are  grown 
in  a  bed  or  floor  of  soil.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  an  orangerv'  by  its  hav- 
ing a  glazed  roof,  while  that  of  the 
latter  is  opaque  ;  and  from  a  green- 
house, by  tlie  plants  being  planted  in 

17a 


CON 


COP 


the  free  S(«I,  and  thus  growing  np 
from  the  floor,  wliile  in  the  green- 
house the  plants  are  grown  in  pots 
placed  on  shelves,  or  on  a  stage  or 
series  of  shelves  rising  one  above 
another.  Above  a  century  ago,  for 
example,  in  the  time  of  Evelyn,  the 
term  conservatory  was  applied  to 
those  garden  buildings  now  called 
orangeries,  and  in  modern  horticul- 
ture employed  only  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  exotic  plants,  such  as  orange- 
trees,  &c.,  which  are  in  a  dormant 
state  during  winter.  The  green- 
house and  the  modern  conservatory 
were  then  not  in  existence.  They 
are  exclusively  employed  for  the 
preservation  of  plants  which  are  in  a 
growing  state  during  the  winter.  The 
largest  conservatory  in  the  world,  at 
the  present  time  (1841),  is  that  erect- 
ed at  Chatsworth  in  Derbyshire,  for 
palms  and  other  tropical  plants,  which 
covers  above  an  acre  of  ground,  and 
is  sixty  feet  high.— (Brande's  Ency- 
clopedia. ) 

CONSTIPATION.  Costiveness, 
want  of  regular  evacuations  from  the 
bowels. 

CONSTITUTION.  The  general 
strength  and  liability  to  disease  of 
any  person  or  animal. 

CONSTRICTOR.  Any  muscle 
which  has  the  power  of  closing  the 
openings  of  the  body. 

CONTRACTION  OF  THE 
HOOF.  In  farriery,  a  distorted 
state  of  the  horny  substance  of  the 
hoof  in  cattle,  producing  all  the  mis- 
chiefs of  unnatural  and  irregular 
pressure  on  the  soft  parts  contained 
in  it,  and,  consequently,  a  degree  of 
lameness  which  can  only  be  cured  by 
removing  the  cause.  Contraction  of 
the  hoof  rarely  happens,  however, 
except  to  those  animals  whose  hoofs, 
for  the  convenience  of  labour,  are 
shod. — {Johnsoji.) 

CONVERTIBLE  HUSBANDRY, 
or  MIXED  HUSBANDRY.  A  term 
implying  frequent  change  in  the  same 
field  from  tillage  crops  to  grass,  and 
from  grass  back  to  tillage  crops  ;  an 
alternation  of  wheat,  rye,  &.C.,  with 
root  and  grass  crops. 

CONVOLVULACE.E.  A  family 
174 


of  plants,  including  the  bind  weed, 
sweet  potato,  and  jalap.  The  stems 
are  commonly  twining,  and  the  large 
roots  purgative  ;  the  flowers  are  oft- 
en beautiful  and  large. 

CONVULSIONS.'  An  unnatural 
action  of  the  muscular  system  pro- 
duced by  a  derangement  of  nervous 
power.  Staggering  is  a  convulsion 
originating  in  an  excess  of  blood  be- 
ing diverted  to  the  head,  and  is  re- 
lieved by  bleeding  ;  the  use  of  hot 
baths  to  the  lower  extremities  is  also 
useful.  Worms  frequently  produce 
convulsions. 

COOLER.  The  large  vats  of  brew- 
ers are  so  called. 

COOMB.  A  measure  of  four 
bushels. 

COOP.  A  cage  for  poultry,  of  bas- 
ket-work or  laths. 

COPAL.  A  resinous  body  which 
forms  an  excellent  varnish  when  dis- 
solved in  linseed  oil,  and  mixed  with 
turpentine. 

COPING.  The  top  course  of  a 
wall,  usually  of  stone,  and  wider  than 
the  wall,  to  save  it  from  rain. 

COPPER.  A  red  ductile  metal, 
remarkable  for  its  conducting  power. 
The  sulphate,  or  blue  vitriol,  is  used 
as  a  caustic  in  farriery,  in  dyeing,  and 
sometimes  as  a  steep  to  kill  insects 
and  parasites,  &c.,  on  wheat  and 
grain.  A  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  at 
the  rate  of  one  ounce  to  enough  wa- 
ter to  thoroughly  soak  a  bushel  of 
wheat,  is  esteemed  the  most  certain 
preventive  to  smut,  rust,  and  mildew, 
and  has  been  long  used  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  the  northeast  of 
France.  The  black  oxide  is  of  great 
service  in  analysis. 

COPPERAS.  Green  vitriol,  sul- 
phate  of  iron.  Blue  copperas  is  sul- 
phate of  copper,  or  blue  stone. 

COPPICE.  A  young  wood.  Wood 
cut  every  few  years. 

COPROLITE  (from  /coTrpof,  excre- 
ment, and  7udoQ,  a  stone).  The  fos- 
sils resembling  cones,  which  are 
found  in  the  ancient  calcareous  for- 
mations, and  shown  by  Professor 
Buckland  to  be  the  petrified  excre- 
ments of  former  animals.  They  have 
1  been  discovered  in  the  green  sand  of 


COR 

New-Jersey.  Liebig  called  the  atten- 
tion of  farmers  to  coprolites  as  a  ma- 
nure containing  sixteen  to  twenty 
per  cent,  of  bone  earth. 

CORALS.  The  calcareous  basis 
of  some  marine  animals.  Coral  sand 
has  been  used  freely  in  France  in  the 
same  way  and  with  similar  eflects  as 
marl.  It  may  contain  two  per  cent, 
of  bone  earth. 

CORDATE.  In  botany,  heart- 
shaped.  Like  the  heart  on  playing 
cards. 

CORD.  A  measure  for  wood,  equal 
to  four  feet  high  and  wide,  and  eight 
feet  long. 

CORD  GRASSES.  Coarse,  salt- 
marsh  grasses,  of  the  genus  Spartma. 

CORDIAL.  A  stimulating,  sto- 
machic medicine. 

COREOPSIS.  A  yellow  compo- 
site garden  flower,  the  fresh  flowers 
of  which  yield  a  yellow  dye. 

CORIANDER.  The  Cormndrium 
sativum,  an  umbelliferous  plant  culti- 
vated for  its  aromatic  seeds,  which 
are  used  in  confectionery  and  medi- 
cine. The  soil  must  be  dry.  "  The 
sowings  are  generally  performed  in 
April  in  drills  eight  inches  apart,  and 
half  an  inch  deep  ;  the  plants  to  re- 
main where  sown.  The  only  culti- 
vation required  is  to  thin  them  to 
eight  inches'  distance,  and  to  have 
them  kept  clear  of  weeds  throughout 
their  growth.  They  will  perfect  their 
seed  in  early  autumn,  being  in  flower 
during  June." 

CORK.  The  bark  of  the  Spanish 
oak,  Alcornoque  {Quercus  subcr).  It 
would  flourish  wherever  the  live  oak 
grows,  but  requires  a  dry  granitic  soil, 
and  might  be  made  a  source  of  great 
profit  to  the  Southern  States.  The 
tree  is  evergreen,  not  very  large  (six- 
ty-five feet),  yields  fine  sweet  acorns, 
and  begins  to  supply  good  cork  at 
forty  years.  The  cork  is  stripped 
every  eight  or  ten  years  afterward. 
It  is  taken  in  July,  a  perpendicular 
cut  being  made  the  length  of  the 
trunk,  and  a  circular  one  above  and 
below,  down  to  the  new  bark,  but  not 
into  the  young  wood.  The  tree  of 
100  years  furnishes  from  200  to  400 
pounds   of  cork.      The   young  oak 


COR 

plantations  are  set  with  vines,  which 
last  for  twenty-five  years. 

CORMUS.  The  solid  swelling  be- 
neath the  stem  of  some  plants.  See 
Bulb. 

CORN.  In  Europe,  wheat,  or  a 
mixture  of  pease,  beans,  and  oats. 

CORN,  BROOM.  See  Broom  Com. 

CORN,  INDIAN.  Zea  mays.  An 
annual  cereal  plant  of  great  impor- 
tance to  American  agriculture. 

Varieties. — These  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes :  1st.  Table  corn. 
2d.  Field  corn. 

The  esteemed  table  corns  are.  Ear- 
ly Golden  Sioux,  Canadian,  Early 
Tuscarora,  and  Sweet  Corn.  The 
White  Hominy  and  Dutton  also  an- 
swer for  late  sorts  when  green. 

Field  Corn.  —  The  varieties  are 
very  numerous,  and  designated  by 
the  number  of  rows,  the  colour  and 
shape  of  the  grain.  The  clear  white 
or  yellow  is  always  preferred  ;  a  long 
heavy  grain,  large  ear,  small  cob,  and 
those  of  early  maturity.  The  favour- 
ite northern  varieties  are  of  the  Si- 
oux kind,  of  a  yellow  gourd-seed 
grain,  the  Dutton,  and  several  kinds 
of  flint  and  Canadian  corn.  In  the 
Middle  States  the  yellow  gourd-seed 
and  Virginia  white  gourd-seed,  of 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  rows,  are 
chiefly  cultivated. 

Other  Varieties. — A  small  corn  (Zca 
caragua)  is  used  for  parching ;  it  is 
called  pop  corn  and  Valparaiso. 

Baden,  or  Tree  Corn. — This  created 
much  attention  at  first,  and  is  worthy 
of  cultivation,  but  with  that  care 
which  was  taken  in  its  production. 
Mr.  Baden's  account  is  from  the  New- 
England  Farmer,  and  is  a  lesson  on 
the  improvement  of  any  variety  of 
grain  or  plant. 

"  I  have  the  pleasure  to  say  that  I 
have  brought  this  corn  to  its  high 
state  of  perfection  by  carefully  se- 
lecting the  best  seed  in  the  field  for  a 
long  course  of  years,  having  especial 
reference  to  those  stalks  which  pro- 
duced the  most  ears.  When  the  corn 
was  husked,  1  made  are-selection,  ta- 
king only  that  which  appeared  sound 
and  fully  ripe,  liavmg  a  regard  to  the 
deepest  and  best  colour,  as  well  as  to. 
173 


CORN,  INDIAN 


the  size  of  the  cob.  In  the  spring,  be- 
fore shelling  the  corn,  I  examined  it 
again,  and  selected  that  which  was 
the  best  in  all  respects.  In  shelling 
the  corn,  I  omitted  to  take  the  irreg- 
ular kernels  at  hotli  the  large  and 
small  ends.  I  have  carefully  follow- 
ed this  mode  of  selecting  seed  corn 
for  twenty-three  years,  and  still  con- 
tinue to  do  so.  When  I  first  com- 
menced, it  was  with  a  common  kind  of 
corn,  for  there  was  no  other  in  this 
partofthe  country.  If  any  other  per- 
son undertook  the  same  experiment, 
I  did  not  hear  of  it ;  I  do  not  believe 
others  ever  exercised  the  patience  to 
bring  the  experiment  to  the  present 
state  of  perfection.  At  first  I  was 
troubled  to  find  stalks  with  even  two 
good  ears  on  them  ;  perhaps  one  good 
ear  and  one  small  one,  or  one  good 
ear  and  a  '  nubbin.'  It  was  several 
years  before  I  could  discover  much 
benefit  resulting  from  my  efTorts  ; 
however,  at  length  the  quality  and 
quantity  began  to  improve,  and  the 
improvement  was  then  very  rapid. 
At  present  I  do  not  pretend  to  lay  up 
any  seed  without  it  comes  from  stalks 
which  bear  four,  five,  or  six  ears.  I 
have  seen  stalks  bearing  eight  ears. 
One  of  my  neighbours  informed  me 
that  he  had  a  single  stalk  with  ten 
perfect  ears  on  it,  and  that  he  intend- 
ed to  send  the  same  to  the  museum 
at  Baltimore.  In  addition  to  the  num- 
ber of  ears,  and,  of  course,  the  great 
increase  in  quantity  unshelled,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  it  yields  much 
more  than  the  common  corn  when 
shelled.  Some  gentlemen,  in  whom 
I  have  full  confidence,  informed  me 
that  they  shelled  a  barrel  (10  bushels 
of  ears)  of  my  kind  of  corn  which 
measured  a  little  more  than  six  bush- 
els. The  common  kind  of  corn  will 
measure  about  five  bushels  only.  1 
believe  I  raise  double,  or  nearly  so, 
to  what  I  could  with  any  other  corn 
I  have  ever  seen.  I  generally  plant 
the  corn  about  the  first  of  May,  and 
place  the  hills  five  feet  apart  each 
way,  and  have  two  stalks  in  a  hill. 

"  Early  last   spring   I  let  George 
Law,  Esq.,  of  Baltimore  City,  have 
some  of  this  seed  corn  ;  he  sent  it  to 
17G 


his  friend  in  Illinois,  with  instructions 
how  to  manage  it.  A  few  weeks  since 
he  informed  me  that  the  increase  was 
120  bushels  to  the  acre  ;  that  there 
was  no  corn  in  Illinois  like  it,  and 
that  it  produced  more  fodder  than  any 
other  kind.  I  have  supplied  many 
friends  with  seed  corn,  but  some  of 
them  have  planted  it  with  other  corn, 
and  will,  I  fear,  find  it  degenerate. 

"  I  have  lately  been  inquired  of  if 
this  corn  was  not  later  than  any  oth- 
er kinds.  It  is  rather  earlier,  cer- 
tainly not  later.  Corn  planted  in  moist 
or  wet  soils  will  not  ripen  so  quick  as 
that  planted  on  a  dry  soil.  In  the  for- 
mer there  will  be  found  more  damp- 
ness in  the  cob,  although  the  kernel 
may  appear  ripe  in  both.  In  the  two 
last  years,  the  wet  seasons  have  in- 
jured much  corn  that  was  early  loft- 
ed or  housed." 

Culture  of  Indian  Corn,  by  Judge 
Buel. — "  The  soils  adapted  to  the  cultxire 
of  Indian  corn  are  such  as  are  perme- 
able to  heat,  air,  and  the  roots  of  the 
plant,  and  embrace  those  denomina- 
ted sandy,  gravelly,  and  loamy.  Corn 
will  not  succeed  well  on  grounds  that 
are  stiff,  hard,  or  wet.  The  roots 
grow  to  as  great  length  as  the  stalks, 
and  the  soil  must  be  loose  to  permit 
their  free  extension. 

"  The  manures  jiscd  are  generally 
yard  and  stable  dung,  and  plaster  of 
Paris  (sulphate  of  lime).  The  first 
ought  to  be  abundant,  as  upon  the 
fertility  which  it  induces  depends  the 
profit  of  the  crop.  Long  or  unfer- 
mented  manure  is  to  be  preferred.  It 
decomposes  as  the  wants  of  the  plant 
require  it ;  while  its  mechanical  op- 
eration, in  rendering  the  soil  light  and 
porous,  is  beneficial  to  the  crop.  It 
should  be  equally  spread  over  the 
whole  surface  before  it  is  ploughed 
under.  It  then  continues  to  afford 
fresh  pasture  to  the  roots  till  the  corn 
has  matured,  and  is,  in  its  place,  to 
benefit  the  succeeding  crop.  If  put 
into  the  hills,  the  roots  soon  extend 
beyond  its  influence;  it  does  not  so 
readily  decompose,  and  the  subse- 
quent crop  is  prejudiced  from  its  par- 
tial distribution  in  the  soil.  In  a  ro- 
tation of  four  or  five  years,  in  which 


CORN,  INDIAN, 


this  crop  receives  the  manure,  twen- 
ty-five or  thirty  ordinary  loads  may 
be  applied  to  one  acre  with  greater 
profit  than  to  hcu  or  three  acres.  Ev- 
ery addition  tells  in  the  product ;  and 
there  is  scarcely  any  danger  of  ma- 
nuring too  high  for  this  favourite  crop. 
Gypsum  is  applied  broad-cast  before 
the  last  ploughing  or  harrowing,  or 
strewed  on  the  hills  after  hoeing.  I 
pursued  the  first  method,  at  the  rate 
of  a  bushel  to  the  acre. 

"  The  best  preparation  for  a  corn  crop 
is  a  clover  or  other  grass  lay,  or  lea, 
well  covered  with  long  manure,  re- 
cently spread,  neatly  ploughed,  and 
harrowed  lengthwise  of  the  furrow. 
A  roller  may  precede  the  harrow  with 
advantage.  The  time  of  performing 
these  operations  depends  upon  the 
texture  of  the  soil  and  the  quality  of 
the  sod.  If  the  first  is  inclining  to 
clay,  or  the  latter  tough  or  of  long 
continuance,  the  ploughing  may  be 
performed  the  preceding  autumn ; 
but  where  sand  or  gravel  greatly  pre- 
ponderate, or  the  sod  is  light  and  ten- 
der, it  is  best  performed  in  the  spring, 
and  as  near  to  the  planting  as  conve- 
nient. The  harrow,  at  least,  should 
immediately  precede  planting.  All 
seeds  do  best  when  put  into  the  fresh- 
stirred  mould.  Stiff  lands  are  me- 
liorated and  broken  down  by  fall 
ploughing,  but  light  lands  are  rather 
prejudiced  by  it.  When  corn  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  tilled  crop,  the  ground 
should  be  furrowed,  and  the  seed  de- 
posited in  the  bottoms  of  the  furrows. 
Where  there  is  a  sod,  the  rows  should 
be  superficially  marked,  and  the  seed 
planted  upon  the  surface.  Where  the 
field  is  flat,  or  the  subsoil  retentive 
of  moisture,  the  land  should  be  laid  in 
ridges,  that  the  excess  of  water  which 
falls  may  pass  off  in  the  furrows. 

"  The  time  of  planting  must  vary  in 
different  districts  and  in  different  sea- 
sons. The  ground  should  be  suffi- 
ciently warmed  by  vernal  heat  to 
cause  a  speedy  germination.  Natu- 
ral vegetation  affords  the  best  guide. 
My  rule  has  been  to  plant  when  the 
apple  is  bursting  its  blossom  buds, 
which  has  generally  been  between 
the  1 2th  and  20th  of  Mav. 


"  Preparation  of  the  Seed. — The  en- 
emies to  be  combated  are  the  wire- 
worm,  brown  grub,  birds,  and  squir- 
rels. Of  these,  the  first  and  last  two 
prey  upon  the  kernels,  and  against 
these  tar  offers  a  complete  protection. 
I  soak  my  seed  twelve  hours  in  hot 
water,  in  which  is  dissolved  a  few 
ounces  of  crude  saltpetre.  When  the 
corn  has  been  thus  soaked,  I  take  for 
each  half  bushel  of  seed  half  a  pint  of 
tar,  put  it  into  an  iron  vessel  with 
water,  and  heat  it  till  the  tar  is  dis- 
solved, when  it  is  turned  upon  the 
seed  in  steep.  The  mass  is  well  stir- 
red, the  corn  taken  out,  and  as  much 
plaster  added  as  will  adhere  to  the 
grain.  This  impregnates  and  partial- 
ly coats  the  seed  with  the  tar.  The 
experience  of  years  will  warrant  me 
in  confidently  recommending  this  as 
a  protection  for  the  seed. 

^^Thc  manner  of  planting  is  ordinari- 
ly in  hills,  from  two  and  a  half  to  six 
feet  apart,  according  to  the  variety 
of  corn,  the  strength  of  the  soil,  and 
the  fancy  of  the  cultivator.  The  usu- 
al distance  in  my  neighbourhood  is 
three  feet.  Some,  however,  plant  in 
drills  of  one,  two,  and  three  rows, 
by  which  a  greater  crop  is  unques- 
tionably obtained,  though  the  expense 
of  culture  is  somewhat  increased. 

"  Thcguantityof  seed  should  be  dou- 
ble, and  may  be  quadruple  of  what  is 
required  to  stand.  It  is  well  known 
that  a  great  difference  is  manifest  in 
the  appearance  of  the  plants.  Some 
appear  feeble  and  sickly,  which  the 
best  nursing  will  not  render  produc- 
tive. The  expense  of  seed  and  the  la- 
bour of  pulling  up  all  but  three  or  four 
of  the  strongest  plants  in  a  hill,  it  is 
believed,  will  be  amply  remunerated 
by  the  increased  product.  If  the  seed 
is  covered,  as  it  should  be,  with  fine 
mould  only,  and  not  too  deep,  we  may 
at  least  calculate  upon  every  hill  or 
drill  having  its  requisite  number  of 
plants. 

"  The  after  culture  consists  in  keep- 
ing the  soil  loose  and  free  from  weeds, 
which  is  ordinarily  accomplished  by 
two  dressings,  and  in  thinning  the 
plants,  which  latter  may  be  done  the 
first  hoeing,  or  partially  omitted  till 
177 


CORN,  INDIAN? 


the  last.  The  practice  of  ploughing 
among  corn  and  of  making  large  liills 
is  justly  getting  into  disrepute  ;  for 
the  plougli  bruises  and  cuts  the  roots 
of  the  j)lants,  turns  up  the  sod  and 
manure  to  waste,  and  renders  the 
crop  more  liable  to  suffer  by  drought. 
The  first  dressing  should  be  perform- 
ed as  soon  as  the  size  of  the  plants 
will  permit ;  and  the  best  implement 
to  precede  the  hoe  is  a  corn-harrow, 
adapted  to  the  width  of  the  rows, 
which  every  farmer  can  make.  This 
will  destroy  most  of  the  weeds  and 
pulverize  the  soil.  The  second  hoe- 
ing should  be  performed  before  or  as 
soon  as  the  tassels  appear,  and  may 
be  preceded  by  the  corn-harrow,  a 
shallow  furrow  of  the  plough,  or,  what 
is  better  than  either,  by  the  cultiva- 
tor. A  slight  earthing  is  beneficial, 
providing  the  earth  is  scraped  from 
the  surface,  and  tlie  sod  and  manure 
not  exposed.  It  will  be  found  bene- 
ficial to  run  the  harrow  or  cultivator 
a  third,  and  even  a  fourth  time,  be- 
tween the  rows,  to  destroy  weeds  and 
loosen  the  surface,  particularly  if  the 
season  is  dry. 

"  In  harvesting  the  crop,  one  of  three 
modes  is  adopted,  viz. :  1.  The  corn  is 
cut  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  when 
the  grain  has  become  glazed  or  hard 
upon  the  outside,  put  immediately  into 
stocks,  and,  when  sufficiently  dried, 
the  corn  and  stalks  are  separated, 
and  both  secured.  2.  The  tops  are 
taken  off  when  the  corn  has  become 
glazed,  and  the  grain  permitted  to  re- 
main till  October  or  November  upon 
the  butts.  Or,  3.  Both  corn  and  stalks 
are  left  standing  till  the  grain  has  fuh 
ly  ripened,  and  the  latter  become  dry, 
when  both  are  secured.  There  are 
other  modes,  such  as  leaving  the  butts 
or  entire  stalks  in  the  field  after  the 
grain  is  gathered  ;  but  tliese  are  so 
wasteful  and  slovenly  as  not  to  mer- 
it consideration.  The  stalks,  blades, 
and  tops  of  corn,  if  well  secured,  are 
an  excellent  fodder  for  neat  cattle. 
If  cut,  or  cut  and  steamed,  so  that 
they  can  be  readily  masticated,  they 
are  superior  to  hay.  Besides,  their 
fertilizing  properties  as  a  manure  are 
greatly  augmented  by  being  fed  out 
178 


in  the  cattle-yard,  and  imbibing  the 
urine  and  liijuids  wiiicii  always  there 
abound,  and  which  are  lost  to  the 
farm,  in  ordinary  yards,  without  an 
abundance  of  dry  litter  to  take  them 
up.  By  the  first  of  these  methods  the 
crop  may  be  secured  before  the  au- 
tumnal rains  ;  the  value  of  the  fodder 
is  increased,  and  the  ground  is  clear- 
ed in  time  for  a  winter  crop  of  wheat 
or  rye.  The  second  mode  impairs  the 
value  of  the  rorage,  requires  more  la- 
bour, and  does  not  increase  the  quan- 
tity or  improve  the  quality  of  the 
grain.  The  third  mode  requires  the 
same  labour  as  the  first,  may  improve 
the  quality  of  the  grain,  but  must  in- 
evitably deteriorate  the  quality  of  the 
fodder.  The  corn  cannot  be  husked 
too  promptly  after  it  is  gathered  from 
the  field.  If  permitted  to  heat,  the 
value  of  the  grain  is  seriously  im- 
paired. 

''Sowing  Seed.  —  The  fairest  and 
soundest  ears  are  either  selected  in 
the  field,  or,  at  the  time  of  husking,  a 
few  of  the  husks  being  left  on,  braid- 
ed, and  preserved  in  an  airy  situation 
till  wanted  for  use. 

"  In  making  choice  of  sorts,  the  ob- 
ject should  be  to  obtain  the  varieties 
which  ripen  early  and  aflx)rdthe  great- 
est crop.  I  think  these  two  proper- 
ties are  best  combined  in  a  twelve- 
rowed  kind  which  I  obtained  from 
Vermont  some  years  ago,  and  which 
I  call  Button  corn,  from  the  name  of 
the  gentleman  from  whom  I  received 
it.  It  is  earlier  than  the  common 
eight-rowed  yellow,  or  any  other  field 
variety  I  have  seen,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  gives  the  greatest  product.  I 
have  invariably  cut  the  crop  in  the 
first  fourteen  days  of  September,  and 
once  in  the  last  week  in  August.  The 
cob  is  large,  but  the  grain  is  so  com- 
pact upon  it  that  two  bushels  of  sound 
ears  have  yielded  five  pecks  of  shell- 
ed grain,  weighing  62  lbs.  the  bushel. 

"/«  securing  the  fodder,  precaution 
must  be  used.  The  butts  become  wet 
by  standing  on  the  ground,  and  if  pla- 
ced in  large  stacks  or  in  the  barn,  the 
moisture  which  they  contain  often  in- 
duces fermentation  and  mouldiness. 
To  avoid  this,  I  put  them  first  in 


CORN,  INDIAN 


stacks  so  small  that  the  whole  of  the 
butts  are  exposed  upon  the  outer  sur- 
face ;  and,  when  thoroughly  dry,  they 
may  be  taken  to  the  barn,  or  left  to 
be  removed  as  they  are  wanted  to  be 
fed  out,  merely  regarding  the  propri- 
ety of  removing  a  whole  stack  at  the 
same  time. 


One  ploughing  (suppose  a  clover  lay) 

Harrowing  and  planting 

Two  hoeings,  4  days  and  horse  team 

Harvesting,  two  days    . 

Cutting  and  harvesting  stalks 

Rent ■   . 


I  Acre  of  In- 


$2  00 

2  00 

3  75 
1  50 
1  50 
5  00 

$15  75 


"(i)  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  dilTerence  in  product  of  various 
methods  of  planting,  and  serves  also 
to  explain  the  manner  in  which  large 
crops  of  this  grain  have  been  obtained 
I  have  assumed  in  the  estimate  that 
each  stock  produces  one  ear  of  corn, 
and  that  the  ears  average  one  gill  of 
shelled  grain.  This  is  estimating  the 
product  low  ;  for  while  I  am  penning 
this  (October),  I  find  that  my  largest 
ears  give  two  gills,  and  100  fair  ears 
half  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  The 
calculation  is  also  predicated  upon  the 
supposition  that  there  is  no  deficien- 
cy in  the  number  of  stocks,  a  contin- 
gency pretty  sure  on  my  method  of 
planting. 


L  An  acre  in  hills,  4  feet  apart 
each  way,  will  produce  . 

2.  The  same,  3  by  3  feet 

3.  The  same,  3  by  2J  feet       . 

4.  The  same,  in  drills  at  3  feet, 

plants  6  stalks,  one  inch 
apart  in  the  drills    . 

5.  The  same  in  do.,  2  rows  in 

a  drill,  6  inches  apart,  and 
the  plants  9  inches,  and  3 
feet  9  inches  from  centre 
of  drills,  thus  . 


Hills,    bush.  qts. 


2,722  42 
4,840  75 
5,808    93 


29,040  113    14 


30,970  120    31 


6.  The  same  in  do.,  3  rows  in 
a  drill,  as  above,  3  feet 
from  centre  of  drills         .  43,560    170      5 


"The  fifth  mode  I  have  tried.  The 
ground  was  highly  manured,  the  crop 
twice  cleaned,  and  the  entire  acre 
gathered  and  weighed  accurately  the 
same  day.  The  product  in  ears  was 
103  baskets,  each  84  lbs.  nett,  and  65 


lbs.  over.     The  last  basket  was  shell- 
ed and  measured,  which  showed  a 
product  on  the  acre  of  1 18  bushels  10 
quarts.      I  gathered  at  the  rate  of 
more  than  100  bushels  the  acre  from 
four  rods  planted  in  the  third  method 
last  summer,  the  result  ascertained 
in  the  most  accurate  manner.     Corn 
shrinks  about  20  per  cent,  after  it  is 
cribbed.     The  sixth  mode  is  the  one 
by  which  the  Messrs.  Pratt,  of  Madi- 
son county,  obtained  the  prodigious 
crop  of  170  bushels  per  acre.     These 
gentlemen,  I  am  told,  are  of  opinion 
that  the  product  of  an  acre  may  be 
increased  to  200  bushels. 
"  Cutting  the  Stalks. — Forafewyears 
past  I  have  not  cut  my  corn-stalks  un- 
til the  corn  was  harvested,  guessing 
that  it  was  a  course  preferable  to  the 
one  commonly  pursued  in  this  part  of 
the  country,   of  topping   the   stalks 
while  in  a  green  state.     But  for  the 
purpose  of  settling  this  point  more 
clearly,  and  with  as  little  trouble  as 
the   case   would   admit,   I   selected, 
about  the  5th  of  September,  a  row  of 
corn  in  a  field  of  about  five  acres,  in- 
tending to  take  one  that  would  aver- 
age   in    quality   equal    to    the    field 
throughout,  that  I  might,  at  the  same 
time,  be  able  to  ascertain,  with  tol- 
erable certainty,  the  product  of  the 
whole  field.   The  manure  having  been 
spread  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  harrowed  in  lengthwise  of  the 
furrows,  and  the  corn  planted  across 
I  the  furrows,  made  it  apparently  less 
I  difficult   to  select  an  average  row. 
.  On  this  row  I  cut  the  stalks  from  half 
I  the  hills  ;  beginning  at  one  end,  and 
I  cutting  the  first  hill,  then  leaving  the 
I  next  uncut,  and  so  proceeding  alter- 
nately, cutting  one,  and  leaving  the 
next  uncut,  through  the  row.     I  had 
intended  to  confine  the  experiment  to 
this  row,  but  finally  was  led  to  extend 
it  so  far  as  to  include  four  rows  ;  and, 
numbering  them  agreeably  to  the  or- 
der in  which  they  were  standing  in 
the  field,  this  row  may  be  called  No. 
2.     There  were  ninety-two  hills  in 
the  row,  and  the  stalks  were  cut  from 
forty-six  hills,  all  of  them  in  the  man- 
ner that  is  here  termed  jointing,  i.e., 
cut  off  betweeu  the  ear  and  the  first 
179 


CORN,  INDIAN. 


joint  above  tlie  ear.  I  Ihoiight  they 
were  somewhat  more  ripe  than  is 
usual  at  tlie  tiino  of  cutting;  a  few 
of  them  were  nearly  dry.  The  soil 
was  a  sandy  or  gravelly  loam,  ancient- 
ly covered  with  pine,  oak,  and  chest- 
nut. In  hoeing  the  com,  no  hills 
were  made,  but  some  care  was  taken 
that  the  surface  of  the  ground  should 
remain  as  level  as  possible  through 
the  season. 

"My  estimate  of  the  number  of  hills 
on  an  acre  was  made  in  the  following 
manner ;  and,  if  I  am  wrong  in  my 
calculations,  I  shall  be  corrected  by 
some  of  your  readers. 

"  In  an  area  of  200  feet  square  (or 
40,000  square  feet),  there  were  sixty- 
two  rows,  with  fifty-four  hills  in  a 
row,  making  3348  hills.  This  is  equal 
to  3646  hills  per  acre,  each  hill  occu- 
pying nearly  twelve  square  feet  of  sur- 
face. There  were  about  four  stalks 
of  corn  in  a  hill.  In  estimating  bush- 
els, I  have  allowed  the  lawful  weight 
of  fifty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

"  At  the  time  of  harvesting,  the  corn 
was  husked  in  the  field.  The  forty- 
six  hills  from  which  the  stalks  had 
been  cut  gave  forty-eight  and  a  half 
pounds  of  ears  ;  and  the  forty-six  hills 
on  which  the  stalks  had  not  been  cut 
gave  sixty-two  pounds  of  ears.  The 
number  of  ears  in  the  two  cases  was 
about  the  same  ;  those  from  the  un- 
cut hills  were  evidently  the  best  filled 
out  and  the  most  hale  ;  on  a  large 
proportion  of  them  the  kernels  were 
so  closely  wedged  in  as  to  make  it 
difficult  to  bend  the  ear  at  all  with- 
out breaking  it.  There  was  very  lit- 
tle mouldy  corn  in  either  case  ;  a  few 
ears  were  gathered,  mostly  from  the 
cut  stalks,  but  the  whole  quantity 
was  so  small  as  to  make  it  question- 
able whether  cutting  the  stalks  had 
much  effect  in  this  particular. 

"  Both  parcels  were  carefully  laid 
aside  in  a  dry  chamber  for  about  sis 
or  eight  weeks,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  time  they  were  again  weighed, 
and  the  parcel  of  ears  from  the  uncut 
hills  had  lost  in  drying  about  two  per 
cent,  more  than  the  other,  affording 
some  evidence  that  the  sap  continued 
to  circulate  for  a  greater  length  of 
ISO 


time  in  the  uncut  than  in  the  cut 
stalks.  Theuncuthilis  gave 42  pounds 
8  ounces  dry  shelled  corn,  equal  to  14 
ounces  12}  grains  per  hill,  or  60  bush- 
els and  eight  pounds  per  acre.  The 
parcel  from  the  cut  hills  gave  33 
pounds  7  ounces,  equal  to  11  ounces 
10  grains  per  hill,  or  47  bushels  and 
18  i)ounds  per  acre,  making  a  loss  of 
12  bushels  and  46  pounds  per  acre  by 
cutting  the  stalks  ;  conclusive  evi- 
dence that,  while  the  sap  is  in  circu- 
lation, nature  does  not  assign  the 
stalks  an  unprofitable  office.  The 
product  of  this  whole  row,  taken  to- 
gether, cut  and  uncut  hills,  was  equal 
to  53  bushels  and  41  pounds  per  acre. 

"The  product  of  row  No.  3,  taken 
by  itself  (containing  ninety-two  hills, 
on  one  half  of  whicli  the  stalks  were 
cut  on  the  same  day  the  others  were), 
would  not  show  the  practice  of  cut- 
ting stalks  quite  so  destructive  in  its 
effects  as  that  exhibited  in  row  No.  2. 
Its  whole  produce  was  77  lbs.  9  oz. 
dry  corn,  equal  to  55  bushels  and  10 
pounds  per  acre,  or  1  bushel  and  25 
pounds  per  acre  more  than  row  No.  2. 

"  Not  satisfied  with  resting  the  ex- 
periment here,  I  gathered  the  corn 
on  rows  Nos.  1  and  4,  i.  e.,  the  rows 
each  side  next  adjoining  Nos.  2  and 
3,  and  on  which  none  of  the  stalks 
had  been  cut.  These  rows,  taken 
together,  contained  186  hills,  and 
their  product  of  dry  shelled  corn  was 
171  lbs.  13  oz.,  equal  to  14  oz.  12^ 
grs.  per  hill,  or  60  bushels  and  8 
pounds  per  acre,  precisely  the  same 
average  yield  as  tliat  part  of  row  No. 
2  on  which  the  stalks  had  not  been 
cut.  This  exact  coincidence,  howev- 
er, I  think,  may  be  numbered  among 
those  cases  which  rarely  happen. 

"  The  difference  between  the  two 
rows  on  which  half  the  stalks  were 
cut  and  the  two  rows  on  which  none 
of  the  stalks  were  cut  was  5  bushels 
38}  pounds  per  acre.  If  this  differ- 
ence arose  from  cutting  half  the 
stalks  (and  I  know  of  no  other  rea- 
son), then  cutting  the  whole  would 
have  reduced  the  crop  11  bushels  and 
21  pounds  per  acre,  or  from  60  bush- 
els and  8  pounds  to  48  bushels  and 
43  pounds  per  acre. 


CORN,  INDIAN. 


"  To  recapitulate,  row  No.  2,  on  which  the 
experiment  was  commenced,  taken  by  itself, 
is  as  follows,  viz.  : 
40  hills,  on  which  the  stalks  had 

not  been  cut,  gave  42  lbs.  8 

oz.  dry  shelled  corn,  equal  to, 

per  acre  ...         60  bush.  8  lbs. 

46  hills,  from  which  the  stalks 

had  been  cut,  gave  33  lbs.  7 

oz.  dry  shelled  corn,  equal  to, 

per  acre  .         .         .  47     "     19    " 

Loss  by  cutting-  the  stalks,  per 
acre        .         .         .         .  12     "     46     " 

The  four  rows,  taken  together,  stand  as  fol- 
lows : 

Nos.  1  and  4,  on  which  no 
stalks  were  cut,  gave  an  av- 
erage of,  per  acre  .  .  60  bush.  8  lbs. 
Nos.  2  and  3,  from  which  half 
the  stalks  were  cut,  gave  an 
average  of,  per  acre  .  54  "  25.V  " 
Loss  by  cutting  one  half  the 

stalks,  per  acre,       .         .  5     "     3Si  " 


On  cutting  all  the  stalks,  would 
make  a  loss  equal  to,  per  acre   11     "     21     " 

"  The  difference  in  the  result  of  the 
two  cases  is  1  bushel  and  25  pounds 
per  acre  ;  or  in  the  two  experiments 
(if  it  may  be  so  termed)  there  is  an 
average  loss,  by  cutting  the  stalks, 
of  12  bushels  5  j  pounds  per  acre  ;  a 
loss  quite  equal  to  all  the  expense 
of  hoeing  and  harvesting,  especially 
when  we  consider  that  in  hoeing  the 
labour  of  making  hills  was  dispensed 
with. 

"  If  I  had  cut  all  the  stalks,  and  ob- 
tained a  crop  of  forty-eight  bushels  to 
the  acre,  the  very  fact  of  having  forty- 
eight  bushels  would,  I  think,  be  con- 
sidered by  farmers  generally,  in  this 
section  of  the  country,  as  proof  posi- 
tive that  the  stalks  were  cut  without 
injury  to  the  crop.  Or,  if  I  had  gone 
one  step  farther,  and  made  large  hills 
at  an  additional  expense  of  one  dollar 
per  acre,  and  thereby  reduced  the 
crop  to  forty-five  bushels  per  acre, 
the  forty-five  bushels  would  be  con- 
sidered sufficient  proof  that  making 
hills  (which,  by-the-way.  are  usually 
made  equally  large  and  high  on  wet 
or  dry  land,  without  regardto  soil  or 
situation)  was  labour  well  laid  out ; 
for  although  you  occasionally  give 
us  a  large  corn  story,  swollen  a  little, 
perhaps,  by  guessing  it  off  in  baskets, 
yet,  judging  from  what  we  see  and 
know  about  raising  corn,  we  call  for- 
ty-five bushels  per. acre  a.  good  crop. 


"  A  measured  bushel  from  the  cut 
hills  weighed  57  lbs.  6  oz.,  one  pound 
less  than  from  the  uncut,  the  shrink- 
age being  very  near  equal  to  the 
whole  loss  in  weight. 

"  If  this  experiment  is  a  fair  test,  it 
seems  that  about  twenty  'per  cent.,  or 
one  fifth  part  of  the  crop,  is  destroyed 
by  cutting  the  stalks  in  the  xcay  they  are 
usually  cut.  If  farther  experiment 
should  establish  this  fact,  I  think 
there  are  few  farmers  that  will  hesi- 
tate long  in  deciding  which  is  the 
most  valuable,  one  acre  of  corn  or 
five  acres  of  top  stalks.  But  this 
twenty  per  cent,  is  not  saved  at  the 
expense  of  losing  the  stalks  ;  they 
are  worth  as  much,  and,  I  think,  more, 
all  things  considered,  after  the  corn 
is  harvested,  than  they  are  gathered 
in  the  usual  way.  If,  after  being 
bunched  up  in  a  green  state,  they  heat 
or  become  mouldy  (a  case  of  frequent 
occurrence),  they  are  utterly  worth- 
less, except  it  be  for  manure  ;  I  know 
of  no  animal  that  will  eat  them.  But 
after  they  have  once  been  dried  by 
the  frost  and  wind,  a  subsequent  mod- 
erate degree  of  niouldiness  seems  to 
be  no  injury. 

"  The  course  which  I  have  pursued 
with  them,  and  for  the  present  I  know 
of  no  better,  has  been  as  follows  ;  In 
the  first  place,  they  are  cut  off  near 
the  ground,  and  for  this  purpose  a 
short  scythe  is  found  the  most  con- 
venient instrument.  The  expense 
of  cutting  in  this  manner,  however, 
is  but  a  mere  trifle,  if  any,  more  than 
cutting  the  stub  stalks  in  the  spring, 
and  may,  with  propriety,  be  entered 
as  an  item  of  expense  against  the 
next  crop,  for  which  it  is  preparing 
the  ground.  After  cutting,  they  are 
gathered  into  bunches  of  suitable 
size  for  binding,  and  three  good 
sheaves  of  rye  straw,  if  wet,  will  be 
sufficient  to  "bind  a  ton.  In  gather- 
ing them  up  and  laying  in  bunches, 
an  active  boy  will  do  as  much  as  a 
man.  In  this  way,  the  whole  ex- 
pense of  gathering,  binding,  and  load- 
ing will  not  exceed  75  cents  per  ton. 
As  they  are  very  bulky,  for  want  of 
barn  room,  I  have  them  stacked  near 
the  barn-yard  ;  and  I  think  I  may 
181 


COR 


COR 


safely  say  that  my  cattle  eat  more 
pounds  of  stalks  from  an  acre  gather- 
ed in  this  way  than  tliey  would  from 
the  same  acre  if  gathered  in  the  usual 
way.  It  may  be  objected  to  this,  that 
they  are  not  as  good  and  nourishing 
as  others :  as  to  that  matter,  I  am 
not  able  to  say  ;  but,  if  the  cattle  are 
good  judges  in  the  case  (and  I  think 
they  ought  to  be  admitted  as  such), 
they  are  quite  as  good  and  quite  as 
nourishing,  for  they  are  eaten  appa- 
rently with  quite  as  good  a  relish. 
In  addition  to  this,  they  are  obtained 
without  breaking  off  ears  or  breaking 
down  hills  in  hauling  out,  occurren- 
ces quite  frequent  in  the  other  case. 
They  also  furnish  more  than  double 
the  quantity  of  bedding  for  the  yard, 
an  item  of  no  small  moment  in  the 
list  of  '  creature  comforts  '  during 
our  cold  winters.  And  last,  though 
not  least,  they  make  more  than  double 
the  quantity  of  manure,  the  value  of 
which  will  "be  duly  appreciated  by  ev- 
ery good  farmer  without  argument. 
It  may  be  said  that  the  butt  stalks 
can  be  gathered  after  harvest,  and 
furnish  the  same  quantity  of  litter  and 
manure  as  in  this  case.  That  is  true  ; 
but  the  expense  of  gathering  both 
parts  in  that  way,  from  the  butts  be- 
ing so  short  and  inconvenient  to  bind, 
would  be  three  times  as  much  as  it  is 
to  gather  them  whole.  Thus,  view- 
ing the  subject  in  various  points,  I 
think  this  method  of  managing  corn- 
stalks is  much  better  than  the  old 
one  ;  and  that  a  little  observation  and 
experience  will  convince  the  most 
skeptical  that  this  branch  of  agricul- 
ture is  not  yet  brought  to  a  state  of 
perfection  ;  that  there  is  yet  room 
for  improvement."  —  {Farmers  In- 
structer.) 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  on  the 
Northern  and  Southern  plan  of  cuUi- 
vating  corn  :  the  first  in  hills  of  three 
to  five  stems,  the  other  in  rows  five 
feet  wide  ;  and  also  on  the  propriety 
of  hilling  or  planting  level.  The 
Northern  method  is  best,  as  the  yield 
shows,  so  far  as  closer  planting  is 
concerned  ;  but  the  height  of  the 
plants  is  very  different,  so  that  the 
close  planting  of  the  North  can  hard- 
182 


1y  be  imitated.  As  to  the  planting 
in  drills,  with  water-furrows  between 
them,  the  propriety  of  this  method 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  for 
stiff  clays  must  be  so  managed,  oth- 
erwise the  heavy  rains  would  destroy 
the  crop ;  but  in  light  soils  a  level 
surface  is  most  advantageous. 

For  the  value  of  maize  as  food,  see 
the  articles  Fodder  and  Food. 

CORN  FOR  SUGAR.  The  stems 
of  corn,  as  they  begin  to  turn  in  colour, 
contain,  according  to  some  writers, 
twelve  to  fourteen  per  cent,  of  sugar 
in  the  juice,  if  the  ears  have  been  re- 
moved as  fast  as  they  appear.  The 
juice  is  expressed  precisely  as  from 
the  cane,  and  treated  in  the  same 
way  ;  perhaps  it  requires  more  rapid- 
ity of  movement.  Six  per  cent,  of 
sugar  is  sometimes  obtained  from 
the  juice,  and  from  300  to  500  pounds 
the  acre.  The  question  of  economy 
is  the  only  one  which  embarrasses 
the  public  :  this  has  been  settled  ad- 
versely, so  far  as  regards  the  country 
in  which  the  sugar  cane  grows,  by 
Messrs.  Tillotson,  of  Louisiana,  but 
is  open  for  the  Western  and  Middle 
States,  and  in  places  where  corn 
sells  at  a  low  price  and  sugar  is  at 
eight  cents  the  pound  ;  we  therefore 
introduce  Messrs.  "Webb  and  Mapes's 
account,  from  the  Hon.  H.  C.  Ells- 
worth's report : 

"  Remarks  on  the  Manufacture  of  Corn 

Sugar,  by    William    Webh,  of  Wtl- 

nungton,  Delaware. 

"  In  common  with  many  others,  I 

have  felt  considerable  interest  in  the 

plan  for  extending  the  cultivation  of 

sugar  in  temperate  climates,  and  have 

made  many  experiments,  first  upon 

the  beet,  and  recently  upon  maize  or 

Indian  corn,  in  the  hope  of  discover- 

i  ing  some  mode  by  which  the  desired 

j  end  might  be  attained. 

I      "  The  results  from  the  latter  plant 

1  have   been   extremely   encouraging. 

I  The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  it, 

!  compared  with  that  from  the  beet, 

\  offers  many  advantages.     It  is  more 

I  simple,  and  less  liable  to  failure  ;  the 

machinery  is  less  expensive,  and  the 

i  amount  of  fuel  required  is  less  by  one 


CORN  FOR  SUGAR. 


half.  The  quantity  of  sugar  produced 
on  a  given  space  of  ground  is  greater, 
besides  being  of  better  quality.  An 
examination  into  the  nature  and  pro- 
ductive powers  of  these  two  plants 
will  show  that  no  other  results  could 
have  been  reasonably  expected.  It 
is  a  well-established  fact,  that  every 
variety  of  production  found  in  plants 
is  derived  from  the  sap.  It  is  also 
ascertained  that  the  principal  sub- 
.stanee  found  in  the  sap  or  juice  of 
many  vegetables  is  sugar  ;  therefore, 
the  amount  of  saccharine  matter  pro- 
duced by  any  plant  of  this  description 
may  be  estimated  from  an  analysis 
of  the  fruit,  seed,  &c.,  of  such  plant, 
when  ripe.  The  grain  yielded  by 
corn,  and  the  seed  from  beet,  in  the 
second  summer  of  its  growth,  are 
nothing  more  than  this  sap  or  juice 
elaborated  by  the  process  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  presented  to  our  view  in 
another  form. 

"  Now,  as  it  is  contrary  to  the  econ- 
omy of  nature  to  suppose  that  there 
should  be  any  loss  of  nutritive  mat- 
ter in  this  change  of  sap  into  seed  or 
grain,  does  it  not  follow  that  there 
must  be  the  same  difference  in  the 
quantity  of  sugar  produced  by  the  two 
plants  as  there  is  between  the  nutri- 
tive properties  of  beet  seed  and  corn  I 

"  The  juice  of  maize  contains  sugar, 
acid,  and  a  gummy,  mucilaginous 
matter,  which  forms  the  scum.  From 
the  experiments  of  Gay  Lussac,  The- 
nard,  Kirchoff,  and  others,  it  is  pro- 
ved that  starch,  sugar,  and  gum  are 
extremely  similar  in  composition,  and 
may  be  as  readily  converted  into  each 
other  by  chemical  processes  as  they 
are  by  the  operation  of  nature.  For 
example  ;  starch,  boiled  in  diluted 
sulphuric  acid  for  thirty-six  hours,  is 
converted  into  sugarof  greater  weight 
than  the  starch  made  use  of 

"This  result  goes  to  show  that  ev- 
ery pound  of  starch  found  in  the  seed 
of  a  plant  has  required  for  its  produc- 
tion at  least  one  pound  of  sugar  in 
the  form  of  sap.  If  it  be  objected 
that  this  deduction  is  too  theoretical 
to  be  admitted,  it  may  be  an.swered, 
that  experiment,  so  fa-  as  it  has  gone, 
has  fully  attested  its  correctness. 


"  The  raw  juice  of  maize,  when 
cultivated  for  sugar,  marks  10  '  on  the 
saccharometer,  while  the  avf^rage  of 
cane  juice  (as  I  am  informed)  is  not 
higher  than  8°,  an^  beet  juice  not 
over  3°. 

"  From  9|  quarts  (dry  measure)  of 
the  former  I  have  obtained  4  pounds 
6  ounces  of  sirup,  concentrated  to 
the  point  suitable  for  crystallization. 
The  proportion  of  crystailizable  sugar 
appears  to  be  larger  than  is  obtained 
from  cane  juice  in  Louisiana.  This 
is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  our 
climate  ripens  corn  perfectly,  while  it 
but  rarely,  if  ever,  happens  that  cane 
is  fully  matured.  In  some  cases  the 
sirup  has  crystallized  so  completely, 
that  less  than  one  sixth  part  of  mo- 
lasses remained.  This,  however,  only 
happened  after  it  had  stood  from  one 
to  two  months.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that,  if  the  plant  were  fully 
ripe,  and  the  process  of  manufacture 
perfectly  performed,  the  sirup  might 
be  entirely  crystallized  without  form- 
ing any  molasses. 

"  This  perfection  in  the  manufac- 
ture cannot,  however,  be  attained  with 
the  ordinary  apparatus.    Without  any 
'  other   means   for   pressing   out   the 
I  juice  than  a  small  hand  mill,  it  is  ini- 
j  possible  to  say  how  great  a  quantity 
of  sugar  may  be  produced  on  an  acre. 
"  The  experiments  have  been  direct- 
ed more  to  ascertain  the  saccharine 
quality  of  corn-stalk  than  the  amount 
a  given  quantity  of  ground  will  pro- 
duce ;  but  the  calculations  made,  from 
trials  on  a  small  scale,  leave  no  room 
to  doubt  that  the  quantity  of  sugar 
will  be  from  800  to  1000  pounds.  This 
amount  will  not  appear  unreasonable 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  juice 
of  corn  is  as  rich  as  that  of  cane,  and 
'  the  weight  of  green  produce  at  least 
equal. 

"  Mr.  Ellsworth,  in  one  of  his  pub- 
lications, states,  as  the  result  of  ac- 
tual weighing  and  measuring,  that 
corn,  sown  broad-cast,  yielded  five 
pounds  of  green  stalks  per  square 
foot ;  this  is  at  the  rate  of  108i  tons 
to  the  acre. 

"  My  attention  w-as  first  directed  to 
i  maize  as  a  material  for  sugar  by  ob- 
183 


CORN  FOR  SL'CAR. 


Berving  that,  in  some  stalks,  the  juice 
was  extienich'  sweet,  while  in  others 
it  was  weak  and  watery.  On  exam- 
ination, it  appeared  that  the  latter 
had  borne  large  and  perfect  ears  of 
grain,  while  on  the  former  these  were 
either  small  in  size  or  entirely  want- 
ing. The  natural  conclusion  from 
this  observation  was  that,  if  the  ears 
were  taken  off  in  tlieir  embryo  state, 
the  whole  quantity  of  saccharine  mat- 
ter produced  by  the  process  of  vege- 
tation would  be  preserved  in  the  stalk, 
from  which  it  might  be  extracted 
when  the  plant  was  matured  ;  but 
the  idea  occurred  too  late  in  the  sea- 
son to  test  it  by  expermient.  A  few 
stalks,  however,  were  found,  which, 
from  some  cause,  had  borne  no  grain  ; 
these  were  bruised  with  a  mallet,  and 
the  juice  extracted  by  a  lever  press. 
Some  lime  was  then  added,  and  the 
desiccation,  evaporation,  &c.,  began 
and  finished  in  a  single  vessel.  By 
these  simple  means  sugar  of  a  fair 
quality  was  produced,  which  was  sent 
to  the  horticultural  exhibition  of  our 
society  in  1810. 

"  I  have  since  been  informed,  by 
Mr.  Ellsworth,  that  Mons.  Pallas,  of 
France,  had  discovered, in  1839, that 
the  saccharme  properties  of  maize 
were  increased  by  merely  taking  off 
the  ear  m  its  embryo  state.  An  ex- 
periment, however,  which  I  instituted 
to  determine  the  value  of  this  plan 
resulted  in  disappointment :  the  quan- 
tity of  sugar  produced  was  not  large 
enough  to  render  it  an  object.  The 
reasons  of  this  failure  will  be  suf- 
ficiently obvious  on  stating  the  cir- 
cumstances. It  was  found  that  ta- 
king the  ear  off  a  large  stalk,  such  as 
is  produced  by  the  common  mode  of 
cultivation,  inflicted  a  considerable 
wound  upon  the  plant,  which  injured 
its  health,  and,  of  course,  lessened 
its  productive  power.  It  was  also 
found  that  the  natural  disposition  to 
form  grain  was  so  strong  that  sev- 
eral successive  ears  were  thrown  out, 
by  which  labour  was  increased  and 
the  injuries  of  the  plant  multiplied. 
Lastly,  it  appeared  that  the  juice 
yielded  from  those  plants  contained 
a  considerable  portion  of  foreign  sub- 
184 


stance  not  favourable  to  the  object  in 
view.  Yet,  under  all  these  disadvan 
tages,  from  one  hundred  to  two  hun 
dred  pounds  of  sugar  per  acre  may  be 
obtained. 

"  The  manifest  objections  detailed 
above  suggested  another  mode  of  cul- 
tivation, to  be  employed  in  combina- 
tion with  the  one  first  proposed  ;  it 
consists  simply  in  raising  a  greater 
number  of  plants  on  the  same  space 
of  ground.  By  this  plan  all  the  un- 
favourable results  above  mentioned 
were  obviated,  a  much  larger  quan- 
tity of  sugar  was  produced,  and  of 
better  quality.  The  juice  produced 
bv  this  mode  of  cultivation  is  remark- 
ably pure  and  agreeable  to  the  taste. 
Samples  of  the  sugar  yielded  by  it 
are  now  in  the  Patent  Office,  with  a 
small  hand  mill  by  which  the  stalks 
were  crushed.  Some  of  the  same 
kind  was  exhibited  to  our  agricultu- 
ral society  in  October,  1841,  accom- 
panied with  an  answer  to  an  invita- 
tion from  its  president.  Dr.  J.  W. 
Thompson,  to  explain  the  mode  of 
culture  and  process  of  manufacturing 
the  sugar.  The  molasses,  after  stand- 
ing, as  before  mentioned,  from  one  to 
two  months,  became  filled  with  small 
crystals,  which,  on  being  drained,  ex- 
hibited a  peculiar  kind  of  sugar  ;  the 
grain  is  small,  and  somewhat  inferior 
in  appearance,  but  still  is  as  sweet 
and  agreeable  to  the  taste  as  can  be 
desired.  A  small  sample  of  this  su- 
gar I  have  brought  for  your  inspec- 
tion. This  product,  from  what  was 
thought  to  be  molasses,  is  a  new  and 
I  unexpected  discovery,  and  discloses 
I  an  important  fact  in  the  investigation 
I  of  this  subject.  It  shows  the  supe- 
'  rior  degree  of  perfection  attained  by 
the  corn  plant,  compared  with  the 
cane,  in  any  part  of  the  Union.  It  is 
'  generally  understood  that  the  latter 
cannot  be  fully  matured  in  any  except 
'  a  tropical  climate,  and  ihe  proportion 
'  of  molasses  obtained  from  any  plant 
is  greater  or  less  according  to  the  im- 
maturity or  perfection  of  its  growth. 
The  sweetness  of  the  corn-stalk  is 
a  matter  of  universal  observation. 
Our  forefathers,  in  the  revolutionary 
;  struggle,  resorted  to  it  as  a  means  to 


CORN  FOR  SUGAR. 


furnish  a  substitute  for  West  India  I 
sugar.  They  expressed  the  juice,  ] 
and  exerted  their  ingenuity  in  efforts 
to  bring  it  to  a  crystalUzed  state  ; 
but  we  have  no  account  of  any  suc- 
cessful operation  of  the  kind.  In 
fact,  the  bitter  and  nauseous  proper- 
ties contained  in  the  joints  of  large 
stalks  render  the  whole  amount  of 
juice  from  them  fit  only  to  produce 
an  inferior  kind  of  molasses.  I  fuund, 
on  experiment,  that,  by  cutting  out 
the  joints,  and  crushing  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  stalk,  sugar  might  be 
made,  but  still  of  an  inferior  quality. 
The  molasses,  of  which  there  was  a 
large  proportion,  was  bitter  and  dis- 
agreeable. 

"  From  one  to  two  feet  of  the  lower 
part  of  these  stalks  was  full  of  juice  ; 
but  the  balance,  as  it  approached  the 
top,  became  dryer,  and  afforded  but 
little.  From  the  foregoing  experi- 
ments, we  see  that,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain the  purest  juice,  and  in  the  great- 
est quantity,  we  must  adopt  a  mode 
of  cultivation  which  will  prevent  the 
large  and  luxuriant  growth  of  the 
stalk. 

"As  we  are  upon  the  threshold  of 
this  inquiry,  many  other  improve- 
ments may  be  expected  in  the  mode 
of  operation  ;  for  example,  it  may  be 
that  cutting  off  the  tassel  as  soon  as 
it  appears  on  the  plant  will  prevent 
the  formation  of  grain,  and  prove  a 
preferable  means  for  effecting  that 
object. 

"  On  the  whole,  there  appears  am- 
ple encouragement  for  perseverance. 
Every  step  in  the  investigation  has 
increased  the  probabilities  of  success, 
no  evidence  having  been  discovered 
why  it  should  not  succeed  as  well,  if 
not  better,  on  a  large  scale,  than  it 
has  done  on  a  small  one. 

"  1.  In  the  first  place,  it  has  been  sat- 
isfactorily proved  that  sugar  of an  ex- 
cellent quality,  suitable  for  common 
use  without  refining,  may  be  made 
from  the  stalks  of  maize. 

"2.  That  the  juice  of  this  plant, 
when  cultivated  in  a  certain  manner, 
contains  saccharine  matter  remark- 
ably free  from  foreign  substances. 

"  3.  The  quantity  of  this  juice  (even 

Q3 


supposing  we  had  no  other  evidence 
about  it)  is  sufficiently  demonstrated 
by  the  great  amount  of  nutritive  grain 
which  it  produces  in  the  natural  course 
of  vegetation.  It  is  needless  to  ex- 
patiate on  the  va^advantagcs  which 
would  result  fronnhe  introduction  of 
this  manufacture  into  our  country. 

"  Grain  is  produced  in  the  West  in 
such  overflowing  abundance  that  the 
markets  become  glutted,  and  induce- 
ments are  offered  to  employ  the  sur- 
plus produce  in  distillation.  This  bu- 
siness is  now  becoming  disreputable. 
The  happy  conviction  is  spreading 
rapidly,  that  the  use  of  alcohol,  as  a 
beverage,  instead  of  conducing  to 
health  and  strength,  is  the  surest 
means  of  destroying  both.  Some  oth- 
er production,  therefore,  will  be  re- 
quired, in  which  the  powers  of  our 
soil  may  be  profitably  employed.  This, 
it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  in  the  busi- 
ness now  proposed.  Instead  of  dis- 
tilleries, converting  food  into  poison, 
we  may  have  sugar-houses,  manufac- 
turing at  our  doors  an  article  of  uni- 
versal demand,  not  merely  useful,  but 
necessary,  furnishing  as  it  does  one 
of  the  most  simple,  natural,  and  nu- 
tritious varieties  of  human  suste- 
nance found  in  the  whole  range  of 
vegetable  production. 

"  It  is  said  that  the  general  use  of 
sugar  in  Europe  has  had  the  effect  to 
extinguish  the  scurvy  and  many  oth- 
er diseases  formerly  epidemical.  It 
may  be  doubted  whether  a  tropical 
country  can  ever  furnish  a  great 
amount  of  exports,  except  through 
the  means  of  compulsory  labour.  It 
appears,  then,  highly  probable,  that  if 
the  inhabitants  of  temperate  countries 
wish  to  continue  the  use  of  sugar,  they 
must  find  some  means  to  produce  it 
themselves.  The  beet  appears  to  suc- 
ceed well  in  Europe,  and  the  manu- 
facture from  it  is  extending  rapidly  ; 
but  there  is  no  hazard  in  making  the 
assertion  that  Indian  corn  is  far  bet- 
ter adapted  to  our  purpose.  The  fol- 
lowing mode  of  cultivating  the  plant 
and  making  the  sugar  is  the  best  that 
can  now  be  offered.  The  kind  of  soil 
best  adapted  to  corn  is  so  well  under- 
stood, that  no  directions  on  this  point 
1S5 


CORN  FOR  SUGAR. 


are  necessary,  except  that  it  should 
be  rich — the  richer  the  better  ;  if  not 
naturally  fertile,  manure  must  be  ap- 
plied, either  ploughed  in  or  spread 
upon  the  surface,  or  used  both  ways, 
according  to  the  aMlity  of  the  owner. 
Nothing  can  form  ^)etter  preparation 
for  the  crop  than  a  clover  sod  well 
turned  under  and  harrowed  fine  im- 
mediately before  planting. 

"  Select  for  seed  the  largest  and  best 
ears  of  any  variety  of  corn  not  dispo- 
sed to  throw  up  suckers  or  spread  out 
in  branches ;  that  kind  most  produc- 
tive in  the  neighbourhood  will  be  gen- 
erally the  one  best  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose. The  planting  should  be  done 
with  a  drilling  machine.  One  man, 
with  a  pair  of  horses  and  an  instru- 
ment of  this  kind,  will  plant  and  cov- 
er, in  the  most  perfect  manner,  from 
ten  to  twelve  acres  in  a  day;  the 
rows  (if  practicable,  let  them  run 
north  and  south)  two  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  and  the  seed  dropped  sufficient- 
ly thick  in  the  row  to  ensure  a  plant 
every  two  or  three  inches.  A  large 
harrow,  made  with  teeth  arranged  so 
as  not  to  injure  the  corn,  may  be  used 
to  advantage  soon  after  it  is  up.  The 
after  culture  is  performed  with  a  cul- 
tivator, and  here  will  be  perceived 
one  of  the  great  advantages  of  drill- 
ing :  the  plants  all  growing  in  lines, 
perfectly  regular  and  straight  with 
each  other,  the  horse-hoe  stirs  the 
earth  and  cuts  up  the  weeds  close  by 
every  one,  so  that  no  hand  hoeing 
will  be  required  in  any  part  of  the  cul- 
tivation. '  It  is  part  of  the  system 
of  cane-planting  in  Louisiana,  to  raise 
as  full  a  stand  of  cane  upon  the  ground 
as  possible,  experience  having  proved 
that  the  most  sugar  is  obtained  from 
the  land  in  this  way.'  As  far  as  my 
experience  has  gone,  the  same  thing 
is  true  of  corn.  This  point  must 
therefore  be  attended  to,  and  the  de- 
ficiencies, if  any  occur,  made  up  by 
timely  replanting. 

"  The  next  operation  is  taking  off  the 
ears.  Many  stalks  will  not  produce 
any  ;  but,  whenever  they  appear,  they 
must  be  removed.  It  is  not  best  to 
undertake  tbis  work  too  early,  as, 
when  the  ears  first  appear,  they  are 
186 


tender,  and  cannot  be  taken  off  with- 
out breaking,  which  increases  the 
trouble.  Any  time  before  the  forma- 
tion of  grain  upon  them  will  be  soon 
enough. 

"  Nothing  farther  is  necessary  to  be 
done  until  the  crop  is  ready  to  cut  for 
grinding.  In  our  latitude,  the  cutting 
may  commence  with  the  earlier  va- 
rieties about  the  middle  of  August. 
The  later  kinds  will  be  ripe  in  Sep- 
tember, and  continue  in  season  until 
cut  offby  the  frost.  The  stalks  should 
be  topped  and  bladed  while  standing 
in  the  field.  They  are  then  cut,  tied 
in  bundles,  and  taken  to  the  mill. 
The  top  and  blades,  when  properly 
cured,  make  an  excellent  fodder,  rath- 
er better,  it  is  believed,  than  any  hith- 
erto used  ;  and  the  residuum,  after 
passing  the  rollers,  may  easily  be  dried 
and  used  in  the  same  way :  another 
advantage  over  the  cane,  which,  af- 
ter the  juice  is  expressed,  is  usually 
burned. 

"  The  mills  should  be  made  on  the 
same  general  principle  employed  in 
constructing  those  intended  for  grind- 
ing cane.  An  important  difference, 
however,  will  be  found  both  in  the 
original  cost  and  in  the  expense  of 
working  them.  Judging  from  the 
comparative  hardness  of  the  cane  and 
corn-stalk,  it  is  believed  that  one 
fourth  part  of  the  strength  necessary 
in  the  construction  of  a  cane  mill  will 
be  amply  sufficient  for  corn,  and  less 
than  one  fourth  part  of  the  power  will 
move  it  with  the  same  velocity.  It 
maybe  made  with  three  upright  wood- 
en rollers,  from  twenty  to  forty  inch- 
es in  length,  turned  so  as  to  run  true, 
and  fitted  into  a  strong  frame-work, 
consisting  of  two  horizontal  pieces, 
sustained  by  uprights.  These  pieces 
are  mortised  to  admit  wedges  on  each 
side  the  pivots  of  the  two  outside  roll- 
ers, by  which  their  distances  from  the 
middle  one  may  be  regulated.  The 
power  is  applied  to  the  middle  roller, 
and  the  others  are  moved  from  it  by 
means  of  cogs.  In  grinding,  the  stalks 
pass  through  on  the  right  side  of  the 
middle  cylinder,  and  come  in  contact 
with  a  piece  of  frame-work  called  the 
dumb  returner,  which  directs  them 


CORN  FOR  SUGAR. 


backward,  so  that  they  pass  through 

the  rollers  again,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  middle  one.  The  modern  im- 
proved machine  is  made  entirely  of 
iron,  three  horizontal  rollers,  arran- 
ged in  a  triangular  form,  one  above 
and  two  below  ;  the  cane  or  stalk 
passes  directly  through,  receiving  two 
pressures  before  it  escapes.  The  low- 
er cylinders  are  contained  in  a  small 
cistern  which  receives  the  juice.  The 
latter  machine  is  the  most  complete  ; 
the  former  the  least  expensive.  These 
mills  may  be  moved  by  cattle  ;  but, 
for  large  operations,  steam  or  water 
power  is  preferable.  When  the  ver- 
tical cylmders  are  turned  by  cattle, 
the  axis  of  the  middle  one  has  long 
levers  fixed  across  it,  extending  from 
ten  to  fifteen  feet  from  the  centre. 
To  render  the  arms  firm,  the  axis  of 
this  roller  is  carried  up  to  a  consid- 
erable height,  and  oblique  braces  of 
wood,  by  which  the  oxen  or  horses 
draw,  are  extended  from  the  top  of 
the  vertical  axis  to  the  extremities  of 
each  of  the  arms.  When  horizontal 
cylinders  are  propelled  by  animal 
power,  the  upper  roller  is  turned  by 
the  cogs  at  one  end,  which  are  caught 
by  cogs  on  a  vertical  shaft.  It  is  said 
that,  in  the  West  Indies,  the  purest 
cane  juice  will  ferment  in  twenty 
minutes  after  it  enters  the  receiver. 
Corn  juice  has  been  kept  for  one  hour 
before  boiling  without  any  apparent 
injury  resulting ;  but  so  much  delay 
is  not  desirable,  as  it  may  be  attend- 
ed with  bad  effects. 

"The  process  which  has  been  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  maize 
sugar  is  as  follows  :  The  juice,  after 
coming  from  the  mill,  stood  for  a  short 
time  to  deposite  some  of  its  coarser 
impurities.  It  was  then  poured  off, 
and  passed  through  a  flannel  strainer, 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  such  matters  as 
could  be  separated  in  this  way.  Lime- 
water,  called  mill\  of  lime,  was  then 
added,  in  the  proportion  of  one  or  two 
table-spoonfuUs  to  the  gallon.  It  is 
said  by  sugar  manufacturers  that 
knowledge  on  this  point  can  only  be 
acquired  by  experience  ;  but  I  have 
never  failed  in  making  sugar  from 
employing  too  much  or  too  little  of 


the  lime.     A  certain  portion  of  this 

substance,  however,  is  undoubtedly 
necessary,  and  more  or  less  than  this 
will  be  injurious,  but  no  precise  di- 
rections can  be  given  about  it.  The 
juice  was  then  placed  over  the  fire, 
and  brought  nearly  to  the  boiling 
point,  when  it  was  carefully  skim- 
med, taking  care  to  complete  this  op- 
eration before  ebullition  commenced. 
It  was  then  boiled  down  rapidly,  re- 
moving the  scum  as  it  rose.  The 
juice  was  examined  from  time  to 
time,  and  if  there  was  any  appear- 
ance of  feculent  particles,  which 
would  not  rise  to  the  surface,  it  was 
again  passed  through  a  flannel  strain- 
er. In  judging  when  the  sirup  is  suf- 
ficiently boiled,  a  portion  was  taken 
between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and 
if,  when  moderately  cool,  a  thread 
half  an  inch  long  could  be  drawn,  it 
was  considered  to  be  done,  and  pour- 
ed into  broad,  shallow  vessels  to  crys- 
tallize. In  some  cases,  crystallization 
commenced  in  twelve  hours  ;  in  oth- 
ers, not  till  after  several  days  ;  and 
in  no  case  was  this  process  so  far 
completed  as  to  allow  the  sugar  to  be 
drained  in  less  than  three  weeks  from 
the  time  of  boiling.  The  reason  why 
so  great  a  length  of  time  was  re- 
quired I  have  not  yet  been  able  to 
discover.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
an  improved  process  of  manufacture 
will  cause  it  to  granulate  as  quickly 
as  any  other. 

"  Enough  has  been  said  to  enable 
any  one  so  disposed  to  manufacture 
sugar  from  maize. 

"  As  to  the  profits  of  the  business, 
I  shall  make  no  positive  assertions  ; 
experience  on  the  subject  is  yet  too 
limited  to  warrant  them  ;  and,  as  all 
the  facts  in  relation  to  it  are  now  be- 
fore the  public,  every  one  interested 
can  draw  his  own  conclusions.  It  is 
said,  by  those  acquainted  with  the 
cultivation  of  the  cane,  that  that  bu- 
siness cannot  be  carried  on  profitably 
on  less  than  one  hundred  acres  in 
crop,  and  that  attempts  on  a  small 
scale  will  be  certain  to  fail,  with  a 
great  loss  of  time  and  labour.  How 
far  this  may  be  apphcable  to  corn  re- 
mains to  be  seen. 

187 


CORN  FOR  SUGAR. 


'■'■  Some  comparison  between  the 
cultivation  of  cane  and  that  of  corn 
may  perhaps  be  interesting. 

"The  cane  lands  in  Louisiana  are 
redeemed  to  agriculture  by  strong 
embankments  along  the  river,  and  by 
numerous  ditches,  which  extend  back 
into  the  swamp  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance beyond  the  line  of  cultivation. 
The  ground  is  still  farther  divided,  by 
smaller  ditches,  into  lots  of  from  one 
to  two  acres  in  extent.  It  is  ex- 
tremely rich  and  productive,  but  the 
expense  of  draining  and  keeping  up 
the  embankments  must  be  consider- 
able ;  this  forms  the  first  dilTerence  to 
be  noted  in  the  culture  of  the  two 
plants  under  consideration. 

"  The  best  season  for  planting  cane 
in  Louisiana  is  in  the  fall,  which  is 
also  the  time  of  harvest,  when  labour 
is  the  most  valuable,  and  the  greatest 
exertions  are  required  to  secure  the 
crop  before  it  is  destroyed  by  frost. 

"  But  the  most  striking  diffeience 
will  be  found  in  the  cost  of  seed,  and 
in  the  labour  of  planting.  The  cane 
is  propagated  by  layers ;  these  are 
partly  furnished  from  the  tops  of  the 
plants  when  cut  for  grinding,  but  are 
principally  ratoons.  Of  the  latter,  it 
requires  the  produce  of  one  acre  to 
plant  three.  The  grain  from  one  acre 
of  corn  will  be  sufficient  for  planting 
forty  acres  ;  therefore,  the  difference 
in  the  expense  for  seed  will  be  as  one 
to  thirteen. 

"  In  planting  cane,  furrows  are 
made  with  the  plough  from  two  and 
a  half  to  three  feet  apart ;  in  these 
the  layers  are  placed  in  a  double  row, 
and  the  earth  drawn  over  them  with 
hoes  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four 
inches. 

"  In  the  spring,  before  the  plants  are 
up,  this  covering  is  partly  scraped  off, 
so  as  to  leave  them  buried  from  one 
to  two  inches.  From  this  account, 
it  is  evident  that  no  more  manual  la- 
bour will  be  required  to  drill  fifty 
acres  in  corn  than  to  plant  one  acre 
in  cane.  The  labour  of  cultivating 
the  latter  plant  during  its  growth  is 
also  greater,  but  this  may  be  balan- 
ced by  the  extra  work  required  to 
take  off  the  embryo  ears  from  the 
183 


corn.  When  cultivated  in  the  mode 
recommended,  the  stalk  of  corn  is 
soft,  remarkably  heavy,  and  full  of 
juice  from  bottom  to  top.  The 
amount  of  power  required  for  grind- 
ing them  must  be  much  less  than  is 
necessary  for  cane,  or,  what  is  the 
same  thing,  an  equal  power  will  do  it 
witli  greater  rapidity.  The  average 
yield  of  cane,  in  Louisiana,  is  one 
thousand  pounds  of  sugar  and  forty- 
five  gallons  of  molasses  per  acre. 
From  the  above  comparative  state- 
ment, it  would  appear  that  one  half 
this  amount  of  crop  from  corn  would 
be  equally,  if  not  more  profitable. 

"  I  wih  only  add,  in  conclusion,  that 
whether  or  not  the  sugar  from  the 
corn-stalk  may  soon  become  an  arti- 
cle of  profitable  export,  its  manufac- 
ture in  the  simplest  form  will  enable 
every  family  to  supply  tliemselves 
with  this  article  for  common  use, 
now  become  so  much  a  necessary  of 
life,  and  thus  save  a  considerable  bill 
of  expense  yearly  paid  for  foreign 
sugars." 

Mr.  Mapes's  Account. — "You  re- 
quest to  know  the  best  method  of 
crystallizing  corn  sirup,  and  I  know 
of  no  more  ready  method  to  afford 
the  information  required  than  to  de- 
tail the  entire  mode  which  should  be 
pursued  for  its  manufacture  : 

"  1st.  To  cut  the  cane  as  ripe  as  pos- 
sible, but  before  any  acetic  acid  is 
formed  ;  litmus  paper,  touched  to 
the  fresh-cut  cane,  will  turn  red  if 
acid. 

"  2d.  Express  the  juice  without  loss 
of  time,  as  everj'  moment  after  cut- 
ting will  deteriorate  its  quality. 

"  3d.  A  smallquantity  of  clear  lime- 
water  (say  one  quart  to  a  hundred 
gallons  of  juice)  should  be  added  the 
moment  it  is  expressed,  unless  the 
juice  shows  acidity  with  litmus  pa- 
per ;  in  that  case,  no  lime  should  be 
used,  but  a  solution  of  sal  soda,  or 
soda  ash,  should  be  added,  until  it  is 
precisely  neutral. 

"  4th. When  the  juice  is  neutral  (free 
from  excess  of  acid  or  alkali)  it  should 
be  evaporated  in  such  an  apparatus 
as  would  finish  its  charge  in  30  min- 
utes ;  if  the  boiling  power  is  too  amall* 


COR 


COR 


good  crystallization  cannot  possibly 
be  obtained. 

"The  whole  time  occupied  from  the 
cutting  of  the  cane  to  finishina:  its 
boiling  should  not  exceed  one  hour. 

"5th.  To  know  u-hcn  the  boiling  isfiii- 
ished,  place  a  thermometer  in  the  ket-  I 
tie,  and  continue  to  evaporate  until  } 
it  stands  at  230^  Fahrenheit.  If, 
when  placed  to  run  off  after  cooling, 
It  should  be  found  too  freely  boiled, 
the  next  time  boil  to  240%  or,  if  too 
light  to  run  off,  to  238=',  and  so  on. 

"  6th.  The  kettle  or  boiler  should  be 
so  arranged  that  the  moment  it  is 
done  its  charge  should  be  thrown 
into  a  cooler  capable  of  holding  a 
number  of  charges.  The  first  charge 
should  be  left  in  the  cooler,  with  stir- 
ring, until  the  second  charge  is  thrown 
in  ;  then  with  an  oar  scrape  the  crys- 
tals found  on  the  side  and  bottom  of 
the  cooler  loose,  and  gently  stir  the 
whole  mass  together  (the  less  stirred 
the  better) ;  so  continue,  at  the  let- 
ting in  of  each  charge,  to  stir  gently  ; 
and  when  all  is  in  the  cooler,  let  the 
whole  stand  until  it  cools  down  to 
175=  ;  then  fill  out  into  sugar  moulds 
of  a  capacity  not  less  than  14  gal- 
lons. When  cooled  in  the  mould 
sufficient  (say  fourteen  hours),  pull 
the  plug  out  of  the  bottom  of  the 
mould,  and  insert  a  sharp  point  near- 
ly as  large  as  the  hole,  some  six  inch- 
es ;  withdraw  the  point,  and  stand 
the  mould  on  a  pot  to  drip. 

"7th.  If  the  sugar  is  intended  to  be 
brown,  leaving  it  standing  on  the  spot 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  in  a 
temperature  of  80^,  will  run  otf  its 
molasses,  and  leave  it  in  a  merchant- 
able shape  ;  it  will  probably  require 
twenty  days  ;  it  can  then  be  thrown 
out  of  the  moulds,  and  will  he  fit  for 
use.  When  moulds  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, conical  vessels  of  wood  or 
metal,  with  a  hole  at  the  apex,  will 
answer  equally  well. 

"The  above  description  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  any  operator  if  strictly  fol- 
lowed ;  but  should  any  of  your  friends 
wish  to  make  the  experiment  on  a 
large  scale,  or  to  produce  white  in- 
stead of  brown  sugar  at  a  single  op- 
eration, they  had  better  see  me  per- 


sonally before  commencing,  as  the 
kind  of  kettle,  and  many  otlier  minor 
particulars,  will  be  important.  The 
above  description,  however,  is  fully 
sufficient  for  the  use  of  the  farmer. 
If  the  juice  of  corn-stalks  be  manu- 
factured with  the  rapidity  named  in 
the  former  part  of  this  letter,  no  clari- 
fication will  be  necessary,  and  scum, 
which  may  rise  during  the  boiling, 
can  be  taken  off  with  a  skimmer ; 
but  in  the  large  icaij  both  clarifica- 
tion and  filtration  would  be  requisite, 
as  in  large  operations  every  part  of 
the  kettle  cannot  be  got  at  to  skim. 
Since  I  last  saw  you  I  have  made 
some  experiments  on  the  corn-stalk  ; 
and  if  your  statements  are  correct  as 
to  the  quantity  of  juice  which  can  be 
obtained  from  the  acre,  then  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  its  entire  supe- 
riority over  the  sugar-cane.  I  fear, 
however,  that  the  enthusiasm  of  those 
who  made  the  experiments  you  spoke 
of  has  led  them  into  errors.  It  is 
true  that  the  juice  of  the  corn-stalk, 
grown  with  a  view  to  sugar  making, 
will  yield  a  juice  at  10''  Beaume.  I 
have  arrangements  to  try  the  experi- 
ments fully  in  the  coming  summer, 
and  when  done  will  communicate  the 
result." 

CORN  FOR  SOILING,  or  HAY. 
Corn  sown  broad-cast  or  in  close 
drills  has  been  much  used  of  late  for 
soiling  ;  it  is  cut  from  four  to  six 
weeks  old,  and  is  relished  by  cattle 
when  mixed  with  other  fodders.  It 
should  be  gradually  introduced  into 
their  food,  lest  it  produce  scouring. 
An  acre  thickly  set  produces  upward 
of  SIX  tons  of  dry  fodder,  and  much 
more,  according  to  some  farmers.  It 
is  readily  cured  for  hay  by  sweating 
in  cocks,  but  cannot  be  dried  enough 
by  spreading  in  swarth  only.  As  hay, 
it  is  nearly  equal  to  fine  grass,  and 
readily  eaten. 

j      Corn  is  remarkably  free  from  de- 
structive diseases  ;  the  smut  masses 
j  which  affect  the  stems  are  seldom 
sufficiently  abundant  to  destroy  the 
crop  ;  the  caterpillars  that  prey  on 
'■  the    leaves    occasionally   destroy  a 
few  young  plants  ;  the  cutworm,  in 
rich   soils,  is  the   severest  enemy. 
189 


COR 

The  young  stems  are  occasionally 
infested  with  a  caterpillar  of  a  yel- 
lowish colour,  with  a  black  head  and 
smooth,  the  larva  of  the  Gortyna  zcce, 
or  spindle-worm  :  they  destroy  the 
plants  wiiich  they  infest,  but  the 
numbers  are  usually  limited. 

CORN,  SPECIAL  MANURES. 
Poudrette,  guano,  and  stable  ma- 
nure, composted  with  lime  and  bone 
dust,  are  the  great  fertilizers  for  this 
grain.  It  pre-eminently  requires  pu- 
trescent matter  and  bone  earth,  with- 
out which  last  the  seeds  are  imper- 
fect. The  ash  of  Indian  corn  shows 
how  much  phosphoric  acid  it  con- 
tains. {Analyzed  by  Lctellier.) 
Potash  and  soda  ....  30-8 
Lime  and  magnesia     .     .     .     18  3 

Phosphoric  acid 50' 1 

Silica,  <Stc 8 

i¥o¥ 

A  special  mixture  or  compost  of 
poudrette  or  stable  manure,  bone 
earth,  and  ashes  would  be  very  val- 
uable. 

CORN,  MEASURING  THE 
BULK.  The  foUowmg  rule  for  this 
purpose  is  given  by  William  Murray. 
It  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  strictly  ac- 
curate, but  an  approximation  : 

"  Having  previously  levelled  the 
corn  in  the  house,  so  that  it  will  be  of 
equal  depth  throughout,  ascertain  the 
length,  breadth,  and  depth  of  the 
bulk  ;  multiply  these  dimensions  to- 
gether, and  their  products  by  4  ;  then 
cut  off  one  figure  from  the  right  of  this 
last  product.  This  will  give  so  many 
bushels,  and  a  decimal  of  a  bushel  of 
shelled  corn.  If  it  be  required  to  find 
the  quantity  of  ear  corn,  substitute  8 
for  4,  and  cut  oflTone  figure  as  before." 

CORN  LAWS.  The  exportation 
of  grains  to  England  having  much  in- 
creased, the  following  tables  of  the 
tariff  will  be  useful  to  many  farmers : 

"  According  to  the  English  Corn 
Law  Act  existing  in  1842,  corn  in- 
spectors are  appointed  in  287  tow-ns, 
to  transmit  returns  to  the  Board  of 
Trade,  who  compute  the  average 
weekly  price  of  each  description  of 
grain,  and  the  aggregate  average  price 
for  the  previous  six  weeks,  and  trans- 
mit a  certified  copy  to  the  collectors 
190 


COR 

of  customs  at  the  different  outports. 
The  aggregate  average  regulates  the 
duty  on  importation  according  to  the 
following  scale : 

"  If  imported  from  any  ForeignCountry. 

"  Wheat.  —  Whenever  the  average 
price  of  wheat,  made  up  and  publish- 
ed in  the  manner  required  by  law, 
shall  be  for  every  quarter 

£.  t.  d. 

Under  51  j.,  the  duty  shall  be  for  every 

quarter 10   0 

51s.  and  under  52y 0  19   0 

52^.        —        tbs 0  18   0 

55s.        —        56* 0  17   0 

50^.        _        57, 0  16   0 

57s.        —        58* 0  15   0 

58s.        —        59* 0  14  0 

59s.        —        60i 0  13   0 

60s.         —        61s 0  12   0 

61s.         —        625 0  110 

62s.         —        63s 0  10   0 

63s.        —        64s 0    9  0 

64s.        —        65s 0    8   0 

65s.         —        60s 0     7   0 

66s.         —        69s 0     6   0 

69s.        —         70s 0     5   0 

70s.         —        71s 0     4   0 

71s.        —        72s 0     3   0 

72s.         —        73s 0     2   0 

73s.  and  upwaid 0     10 

"  Barley. —  Whenever  the  average 
price  of  barley,  made  up  and  publish- 
ed in  the  manner  required  by  law, 
shall  be  for  every  quarter 

£.  s.  d. 
Under  26s.,  the  duty  shall  be  for  every 

quarter 0110 

26s.  and  under  27s 0  10  0 

27s.         —        30s 0     9   0 

30s.         —        31s 0    8   0 

31s.         —        32s 0    7   0 

32s.         —         33s 0     6   0 

33s.         —        34s 0    5   0 

34s.         —         35s 0    4   0 

35s.         —         36s 0     3   0 

36s.         —        37s 0     2   0 

37s.  and  upward 0     10 

"Oats. — Whenever  the  average 
price  of  oats,  made  up  and  published 
in  the  manner  required  by  law,  shall 
be  for  every  quarter 

£.  s.  d. 

Under  19s.,  the  duty  shall  be  for  eveiy 

quarter 080 

19s.  and  under  20s 0    7   0 

20s.         —        23s 0     6   0 

23s.         —         24s 0     5   0 

24s.         —        25s 0     4   0 

25s.         —        26s 0     3   0 

26s.         —        27s 0     2   0 

27s.  and  upvsrarJ   ....         ..010 

*'  Rye,  Pease,  aiid  Beans. — Whenev- 
er the  average  price  of  rye,  or  of  pease, 
or  of  beans,  made  up  and  published 


COR 

in  the  manner  required  by  law,  shall 
be  for  every  quarter 

£  s.  d. 

Under  30*.,  the  duty  shall  be  for  every 

quarter 0  11  6 

30«.  and  under  33j 0  10  6 

33*.        —        Zis 0  9  6 

ZAs.        —        35s 0  8  6 

35s.        —        36s 0  7  6 

36s.         —        37s 0  6  6 

37s.        —        38j 0  5  6 

38s.        —        39s 0  4  6 

39s.        —        40s 0  3  6 

40s.         —        4Is 0  2  6 

41s.         —        42s 0  16 

42s.  and  upward 0  10 

"  Wheat  Meal  and  Flour. — For  every 
barrel,  being  196  lbs.,  a  duty  equal  in 
amount  to  the  duty  payable  on  38i 
gallons  of  wheat. 

"  Oatmeal. — For  every  quantity  of 
18U  lbs.,  a  duty  equal  in  amount  to 
the  duty  payable  on  a  quarter  of  oats. 

"Maize  or  Indian  Corn,  Buckwheat, 
Bear  or  Bigg. — For  every  quarter,  a 
duty  equal  in  amount  to  the  duty  pay- 
able on  a  quarter  of  barley." — {John- 
sun'' s  Encyclopedia.) 

CORN,  EGYPTIAN.  See  Egyp- 
tian Corn. 

CORN  MOTHS.  See  Grain 
Weevils. 

CORN  SALAD.  Fedia  oUtoria . 
Lamb  lettuce.  It  is  a  mucilaginous, 
pleasant  herb,  esteemed  for  the  early 
period  it  is  found  in  market.  Sow 
the  seed  in  drills  six  inches  apart ; 
weed  carefully.  The  seeds  are  small 
and  light ;  one  pound  serves  for  a 
quarter  of  an  acre.  They  are  sown  in 
August  or  September,  on  clean,  rich 
land,  covered  with  straw  duruig  cold 
weather,  and  brought  out  at  the  ear- 
liest period  in  spring.  It  might  be 
advantageously  cultivated  for  soiling, 
either  sown  late  for  spring  or  very 
early  for  summer  ;  or  it  may  be  rais- 
ed as  a  summer  salad  by  sowing  in 
March. 

CORN-SHELLER.     See  Sheller. 

CORNEA.  The  transparent  mem- 
brane in  front  of  the  eye.  Any  opa- 
city injures  vision  ;  it  should  be  care- 
fully treated  by  bleeding  and  blisters. 

CORNS,  IN  HORSES'  FEET. 
This  disease  is  produced  by  some  hard 
substance  pressing  on  the  sole  at  the 
quarters,  as  from  shoes  left  on  till  the 
heels  become  buried  in  the  hoof ;  the 


COR 

fibrous  substance  which  lies  betweeh 
the  sensible  foot  and  the  absolute 
horny  hoof  becomes  inflamed  by  the 
pressure,  and  the  inflammation  pro- 
duces a  hardness  of  the  spot,  similar, 
if  I  may  so  express  it,  to  a  knot  in  a 
piece  of  soft  timber.  Palliate  the  evil 
as  well  as  you  can  by  keeping  the 
hoof  constantly  pared  away  between 
the  corn  and  the  ground,  hut  do  not 
wound  in  your  vain  endeavours  to  cut 
it  out ;  avoid  the  hot  irons,  &c.  ;  let 
a  bit  of  sponge  be  softly  put  in,  mere- 
ly to  keep  out  gravel  and  keep  the 
spot  moist ;  and  when  the  season  ar 
rives,  turn  the  horse  out  without  any 
shoes  into  a  soft,  marshy  place, 
where  his  feet  must  be  in  a  constant 
moist  state  for  three  months  at  least ; 
by  that  time  the  hoof  will  be  altogeth- 
er renewed,  the  diseased  part  will 
have  grow^n  out,  and  if  there  is  no 
new  injury,  there  will  be  no  new 
corns. — {E.  Maunscll.) 

COROLLA.  The  coloured  part  of 
flowers,  usually.  If  there  be  no  green 
calyx,  the  coloured  envelope  is  called 
a  perianthium.  The  corolla  is  either 
in  one  piece,  or  monopctalous,  or  in 
many,  poli/petalous.  The  leaflets  or 
parts  are  also  called  petals.  Many 
natural  famdies  are  easily  determined 
by  the  figure  of  the  corolla,  as  the 
Convolvulaceffi,  Salviaceae,  Rosaceae, 
&c.     See  Botany. 

CORONET  BONE.  The  second 
of  the  consolidated  phalanges  of  the 
horse's  foot. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE.  A 
white  crystalline  salt,  the  chloride  of 
mercury.  It  is  a  fearful  poison,  one 
to  three  grains  producing  death.  The 
antidote  is,  abundance  of  white  of  egg 
given  internally.  A  weak  solution  is 
occasionally  used  to  destroy  vermin 
and  preserve  wood,  but  it  is  too  dan- 
gerous to  be  trifled  with. 

CORRUGATE.  To  wrinkle.  The 
folds  on  the  skin  of  some  animals  are 
called  corrugations. 

CORTICAL  (from  cortex,  the 
bark).     Relating  to  the  bark. 

CORUNDUM.  A  class  of  extreme- 
ly hard  crystalline  minerals,  compo- 
sed of  nearly  pure  alumina,  as  the 
sapphire,  ruby,  and  emery, 

191 


COT 


COT 


CORVUS.  The  generic  name  of 
the  crow  and  raven.  They  are  om- 
nivorous or  carnivorous. 

CORYMB.  A  hunch  of  flowers, 
the  lowest  llowcr  stalks  of  which  rise 
as  hijih  as  the  uppermost. 

CORYZA.  A  running  from  the 
nose. 

COSMOGONY  (from  Koa/xoi,  icorld, 
and  yovof,  birlk).  The  speculations 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  earth. 

COSTATE  (from  cos/a,  a  rib).  Rib- 
bed. In  botany  this  term  is  used  to 
designate  the  bundles  of  woody  fibre 
in  leaves,  also  called  nerves  and 
veins.  The  numerals  arc  often  prefix- 
ed, as  tricosiate,  with  three  ribs. 

COSTIVENESS.  Want  of  proper 
motion  in  the  bowels.  Glauber  salts, 
Epsom  salts,  and  aloes  are  useful 
purges. 

COTTAGE.  A  small,  low  resi- 
dence, often  highly  adorned,  or  ornee. 
The  following  from  Mr.  Ellsworth's 
Reports  on  building  cheap  Cottages 
will  be  valuable  : 

"  After  selecting  a  suitable  spot  of 
ground,  as  near  the  place  of  building 
as  practicable,  let  a  circle  of  ten  feet 
or  more  be  described.  Let  the  loam 
be  removed,  and  the  clay  dug  up  one 
foot  thick,  or,  if  clay  is  not  fbund  on 
the  spot,  let  it  be  carted  in  to  that 
depth.  Any  ordinary  clay  will  an- 
swer. Tread  this  clay  over  with 
cattle,  and  add  some  straw  cut  six 
or  eight  inches  long.  After  the  clay 
is  well  tempered  with  working  it  with 
the  cattle,  the  material  is  duly  pre- 
pared for  the  making  of  brick.  A 
mould  is  then  formed  of  plank,  of  the 
size  of  the  brick  desired.  In  England 
they  are  usually  made  eighteen  inch- 
es long,  one  foot  wide,  and  nine  inch- 
es thick.  I  have  found  the  more 
convenient  size  to  be  one  foot  long, 
seven  inches  wide,  and  five  inches 
thick.  The  mould  should  have  a 
bottom.  The  clay  is  then  placed  in 
the  moulds  in  the  same  manner  that 
brick  moulds  are  ordinarily  filled.  A 
wire  or  piece  of  iron  hoop  will  an- 
swer very  well  for  striking  offthe  top. 
One  man  will  mould  about  as  fast  as 
another  can  carry  away,  two  moulds 
being  used  by  him.  The  bricks  are 
192 


placed  upon  the  level  ground,  where 
they  are  suffered  to  dry  two  days, 
turning  them  up  edgewise  the  sec- 
ond day,  and  then  packed  up  in  a 
pile,  protected  from  the  rain,  and  left 
to  dry  ten  or  twelve  days,  during 
which  time  the  foundation  of  the 
building  can  be  prepared.  If  a  cellar 
is  desired,  this  must  be  formed  of 
stone  or  brick,  one  foot  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  For  cheap 
buildings  on  the  prairie,  wood  sills, 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide,  may 
be  laid  on  piles  or  stones.  This  will 
form  a  good  superstructure.  Where 
lime  and  small  stones  abound,  grout 
made  of  those  materials  (lime  and 
stones)  will  answer  very  well. 

"  In  all  cases,  however,  before 
commencing  the  walls  for  the  first 
story,  it  is  very  desirable,  as  well  in 
this  case  as  in  walls  of  brick,  to  lay 
a  single  course  of  slate ;  this  will  in- 
tercept the  dampness  so  often  rising 
in  the  walls  of  brick  houses.  The 
wall  is  laid  by  placing  the  brick  length- 
wise, thus  making  the  wall  one  foot 
thick.  Ordinary  clay,  such  as  is  used 
for  clay  mortar,  will  suffice,  though 
a  weak  mortar  of  sand  and  lime, 
when  these  articles  are  cheap,  is  rec- 
ommended as  forming  a  more  adhe- 
sive material  for  the  plaster.  The 
wall  may  safely  be  carried  up  one 
story,  or  two  or  three  stories  ;  the 
division  walls  may  be  seven  inches, 
just  the  width  of  the  brick.  The 
door  and  window  frames  being  in- 
serted as  the  wall  proceeds,  the  build- 
ing is  soon  raised.  The  roof  may 
be  shingles  or  thatch  :  in  either  case 
it  should  project  over  the  sides  of  the 
house,  and  also  over  the  tico  ends,  at 
least  two  feet,  to  guard  the  walls  from 
vertical  rains.  The  exterior  wall  is 
plastered  with  good  lime  mortar,  and 
then  with  a  second  coat  pebble- 
dashed.  The  inside  is  plastered  with- 
out dashing.  The  floor  may  be  laid 
with  oak  boards,  slit,  five  or  six  inch- 
es wide,  and  laid  down  without  joint- 
ing or  planing,  if  they  are  rubbed  over 
with  a  rough  stone  after  the  rooma 
are  finished.  Doors  of  a  cheap  and 
neat  appearance  may  be  made  by  ta- 
king two  single  boards  of  the  length 


COTTAGE. 


or  width  of  the  doors  ;  placing  these 
vertically,  they  will  till  the  space. 
Put  a  wide  batten  on  the  bottom  and 
a  narrow  one  on  the  top,  witli  strips 
on  the  side,  and  a  strip  in  the  middle. 
This  door  will  be  a  batten  door,  but 
presenting  two  long  panels  on  one 
side  and  a  smooth  surface  on  the 
other.  If  a  porch  or  veranda  is 
wanted,  it  may  be  roofed  with  boards 
laid  with  light  joints  and  covered 
with  a  thick  paper  dipped  in  tar,  and 
then  adding  a  good  coat,  after  sprink- 
ling it  with  sand  from  a  sand-box  or 
other  dish  with  small  holes. 

'•  Houses  built  in  this  way  are  dry, 
warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer, 
and  furnish  no  retreat  for  vermin. 
Such  houses  can  be  made  by  com- 
mon labourers,  if  a  little  carpenter's 
work  IS  excepted,  in  a  very  short 
time,  with  a  small  outlay  for  mate- 
rials, exclusive  of  floors,  windows, 
doors,  and  roof 

"  The  question  will  naturally  arise. 
Will  the  wall  stand  against  the  rain 
and  frost  '  I  answer,  They  have 
stood  well  in  Europe,  and  the  Hon. 
Mr.  Poinsett  remarked  to  me  that  he 
had  seen  them  in  South  America,  af- 
ter having  been  erected  three  hun- 
dred years.  Whoever  has  noticed 
the  rapid  absorption  of  water  by  a 
brick  that  has  been  burned,  will  not 
wonder  why  brick  walls  are  damp. 
The  burning  makes  the  brick  porous, 
while  the  unburned  brick  is  less  ab- 
sorbent ;  but  it  is  not  proposed  to 
present  the  unburned  brick  to  the 
weather.  A\'hoever  has  erected  a 
building  with  merchantable  brick  will 
at  once  perceive  the  large  number  of 
soft  and  yellow  brick,  partially  burn- 
ed, that  it  contains,  brick  that  would 
soon  yield  to  the  mouldering  in- 
fluence of  frost  and  storms.  Such 
brick  are,  however,  placed  within, 
beyond  the  reach  of  rain,  and  always 
kept  dry.  A  good  cabin  is  made  by 
a  single  room  twenty  feet  square.  A 
better  one  is  eighteen  feet  v.-ide  and 
twenty-four  feet  long,  cutting  ofT 
eight  feet  on  one  end  for  two  small 
rooms,  eight  feet  by  nine  each. 

"  How  easily  could  a  settler  erect 
6uch  a  cabin  on  the  Western  prairie,  | 
R 


j  where  clay  is  usually  found  about  fif- 

jteen  inches  below  the  surface,  and 

,  where  stone  and  lime  are  often  both 

;  very  cheap.     The  article  of  brick  for 

1  chimneys   is   found  to  be  quite   an 

item  of  expense  in  wooden  houses. 

,  In   these   mud   houses   no   brick  is 

^  needed,  except  for  the   top  of  the 

chimneys,  the  oven,  and  casing  of 

the  fire-place,  though  this  last  might 

be  well  disponed  with.     A  cement, 

to  put  around  the  chimneys,  or  to  fill 

any  other  crack,  is  easily  made  by  a 

mixture  of  one  part  of  sand,  two  of 

1  ashes,  and  three  of  clay.     This  soon 

I  hardens,  and  will  resist  the  weather. 

A  little  lard  or  oil  may  be  added,  to 

make  the  composition  still  harder. 

••  Such  a  cottage  will  be  as  cheap 
as  a  log  cabin,  less  expensive  than 
pine  buildings,  and  durable  for  cen- 
turies. I  have  tried  the  experiment 
in  this  city  by  erecting  a  building 
eighteen  by  fifty-four  feet,  two  sto- 
ries high,  adopting  the  different  sug- 
gestions now  made.  Although  many 
doubted  the  success  of  the  underta- 
king, all  now  admit  that  it  has  been 
very  successful,  and  presents  a  con- 
venient and  comfortable  building, 
that  appears  well  to  public  view,  and 
offers  a  residence  combining  as  many 
advantages  as  a  stone,  brick,  or  wood- 
en house  presents.  I  will  add  what 
Loudon  says  in  his  most  excellent 
work,  the  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture, 
p.  74  and  75  : 

"  '  The  great  art  in  building  an 
economical  cottage  is  to  employ  the 
kind  of  materials  and  labour  which 
are  cheapest  in  the  given  locality. 
In  almost  every  part  of  the  world  the 
cheapest  article  of  which  the  walls 
can  be  made  will  be  found  to  be  the 
earth  on  which  the  cottage  stands, 
and  to  make  good  walls  from  the 
earth  is  the  principal  art  of  the  rus- 
tic or  primitive  builder.  Soils,  with 
reference  to  building,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes  :  clays,  loams,  and 
all  such  soils  as  can  neither  be  called 
gravels  nor  sands,  and  sands  and 
gravels.  The  former,  whether  they 
are  stifT  or  free,  rich  or  poor,  mixed 
with  stones,  or  free  from  stones,  may 
be  formed  into  walls  in  one  of  these 
193 


COT 

modes,  viz.,  in  the  pise  manner,  by 
lumps  moulded  in  boxes,  and  by 
compressed  blocks.  Sandy  and  grav- 
elly soils  may  be  always  made  into 
excellent  walls,  by  ibrming  a  frame 
of  boards,  leaving  a  space  between 
the  boards  of  the  intended  thickness 
of  the  wall,  and  filling  this  with  grav- 
el mixed  with  lime  mortar,  or,  if  this 
cannot  be  got,  with  mortar  made  of 
clay  and  straw. 

"  '  In  all  cases,  when  walls,  either 
of  this  class  or  the  former,  are  built, 
the  foundations  should  be  of  stone  or 
brick,  and  they  should  be  carried  up 
at  least  a  foot  above  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  platform. 

" '  We  shall  here  commence  by  giv- 
ing one  of  the  simplest  modes  of 
construction,  from  a  work  of  a  very 
excellent  and  highly  estimable  indi- 
vidual, Mr.  Denson,  of  Watcrbeach, 
Cambridgeshire,  the  author  of  the 
Peasant's  Voice,  who  built  his  own 
cottage  in  the  manner  described  be- 
low ; 

"  '  Mode  of  building  the  Mud  Walls 
of  Cottages  in  Cambridgeshire. — After 
a  labourer  has  dug  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  clay  for  his  purpose,  he  works 
it  up  with  straw  ;  he  is  then  provided 
with  a  frame  eighteen  inches  in 
length,  six  deep,  and  from  nine  to 
twelve  inches  in  diameter.  In  this 
frame  he  forms  his  lumps,  in  the 
same  manner  that  abriekmakerfornis 
his  bricks  ;  they  are  then  packed  up 
to  dry  by  the  weather  ;  that  done, 
they  are  fit  for  use,  as  a  substitute  for 
bricks.  On  laying  the  foundation  of 
a  cottage,  a  few  layers  of  brick  are 
necessary,  to  prevent  the  lumps  from 
contracting  a  damp  from  the  earth. 
The  fire-place  is  lined  and  the  oven 
is  built  with  bricks.  I  have  known 
cottagers,  where  they  could  get  the 
grant  of  a  piece  of  ground  to  build  on 
fur  themselves,  erect  a  cottage  of 
this  description  at  a  cost  of  from  £15 
to  £30.  I  examined  one  that  was 
nearly  completed,  of  a  superior  o.r- 
der ;  it  contained  two  good  lower 
rooms  and  a  chamber,  and  was  neat- 
ly thatched  with  straw.  It  is  a  warm, 
firm,  and  comfortable  building,  far 
superior  to  the  one  I  live  in  ;  and 
194 


COT 

my  opinion  is  that  it  will  last  for 
centuries.     The  lumps  are  laid  with 
mortar,  they  are  then  plastered,  and, 
on  the  outside,  once  roughcast,  which 
j  is  done  by  throwing  a  mixture  of 
I  water,  lime,  and  small  stones  against 
j  the  walls  before  the  plaster  is  dry, 
which  gives  them  a  very  handsome 
I  a|)pcarancc.      The  cottage  I  exam- 
;  ined  cost  £33,  and  took  nearly  one 
thousand  lumps  to   complete  it.     A 
labourer  will  make  that  number  in 
two  days.     The  roofs  of  cottages  of 
I  this    description    are    precisely    the 
same  as  when  built  with  bricks  or 
with  a  wooden  frame.     Cow-house 
sheds,  garden   walls,   and   partition 
fence  are  formed  with  the  same  ma- 
terials ;  but  in  all  cases  the  tops  are 
covered  with  straw,  which  thethatch- 
ers  perform  in  a  very  neat  manner.' " 
COTTON.    The  hairs  surrounding 
the  seeds  of  several  varieties  of  Gos- 
syptum,  which  are  cultivated  for  the 
staple   in    the   Southern    States    of 
America  and  elsewhere. 

Varieties. — The  most  common  is 
the  green  seed  {G.  hcrbaceum)  or  up- 
land cotton.  The  black  seed,  or  Sea- 
Island,  is  of  longer  and  finer  staple, 
and  supposed  to  be  a  variety  of  G. 
arborcum ;  it  rises  often  to  eighteen 
feet,  and  bears  well  for  four  or  five 
years.  The  Nankin  is  the  variety 
suited  for  the  manufacture  of  the  im- 
itation nankin.  The  Mexican  and 
Pettit  Gulf  are  also  upland  kinds, 
and  in  great  favour,  especially  the 
last ;  they  are  varieties  of  G.  hirsn- 
tum.  Aldridge  or  Okra  cotton  is  a 
new  Alabama  variety,  growing  with 
very  short  stalks,  tall,  and  yielding 
largely. 

Cultivation. — The  following  by  Dr. 
Philips,  from  the  American  Agricul- 
turist, gives  a  full  account  of  the 
management  of  the  upland  cotton  : 

"  If  the  land  was  in  corn  or  cotton 
the  previous  year,  I  run  olFtlie  rows 
in  the  old  water  furrow  with  a  short 
plough,  this  year  using  two  horses  to 
it,  and  running  deep.  With  a  turn- 
ing plough  I  then  throw  to  this  two 
furrows,  one  fnmi  each  side,  intend- 
ing to  reverse  the  last  beds. 

"  I  leave  the  ground  in  this  condition 


COTTON. 


until  a  day  or  two  before  I  wish  to 
plant,  and  then  break  out  the  entire 
surface  between  the  rows  and  the 
balk  ;  my  reason  for  so  doing  is,  that 
the  cotton  plant  grows  olT  faster  on  a 
bed  of  some  firnmess;  the  radicle,  or 
future  root,  will  die  oftener  on  a  light 
surface  than  when  on  hard  earth,  if 
not  so  hard  that  it  cannot  penetrate  ; 
and  by  breaking  out  the  middle  late  it 
leaves  the  bed  fresh,  except  a  narrow 
strip  on  the  top,  which  is  cleaned  off 
by  planting,  which  gives  the  plant  an 
even  start  with  grass  and  weeds. 

"  I  begin  to  plant  during  the  first 
fine  weather  after  the  20th  of  March, 
though  usually  not  before  early  in 
April,  some  of  my  neighbours  even 
earlier  than  the  20th  some  seasons  ; 
I  prefer  to  be  a  few  days  later,  and 
have  all  business  well  up,  than  to 
haste  in  planting,  and  probably  get  a 
bad  stand  from  cold,  and  part  of  the 
ploughing  to  be  jumped  over. 

"I  direct  the  cotton  seed  to  be  haul- 
ed out,  and  dropped  in  two  or  three 
heap-rows  across  the  rows,  at  con- 
venient distances,  and  in  sufficient 
parcels  ;  practice  gives  the  hands  a 
pretty  correct  idea  how  much  is  re- 
quired. I  usually  measure  enough 
for  the  first  row,  or  an  acre,  seldom 
planting  over  two  bushels  myself,  and 
often  not  over  one,  especially  if  the 
seeds  be  bought.  If  the  first  furrows 
have  been  settled  by  heavy  rains,  are 
rough,  or  have  many  cotton  stalks 
on  the  row,  an  iron  tooth  harrow 
should  be  run  over  them,  drawn  by 
one  horse,  and  with  the  row  ;  this 
cleans  off  the  row,  and  leaves  it  in  ' 
fine  condition  for  planting. 

"  I  Blrike  out  the  furrow  for  planting 
with  an  opener.     I  am  very  particular 
to  open  the  furrows  as  straight  as  , 
possible,  if  on  level  land  ;  or  a  regu-  I 
lar  curve,  if  on  hilly  or  rolling  land.  ' 
The  sower  now  follows  with  seed  in 
an  apron,  and  scatters  them  along  in 
the   narrow  furrow   by  shaking  the  ; 
hand,  so  as  to  cause  each  seed  to  fall  . 
separate,  if  possible.    This  furrow  be- 
ing from  one  half  to  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  deep,  cannot  be  covered 
deep,  which  would  be  an  injury,  seed 
coming  up  with   more   certainty  if 


lightly  covered,  the  nature  of  the 
seed  requiring  the  leaves,  which  are 
folded  or  rolled  up  with  the  radicle, 
or  root,  in  the  centre,  to  rise  up  be- 
fore the  plume  or  future  stalk  can 
start.     The  seed  is  well  covered. 

"  I  prefer  planting  about  one  half 
the  cotton  crop  some  ten  days  before 
the  remainder,  that  too  much  neces- 
sary work  will  not  be  required  at  the 
same  time ;  if  a  rainy  spell  of  weath- 
er now,  or  any  other  backset  should 
cause  detention  in  working  over  the 
first  time,  grass  and  weeds  will  have 
taken  such  hold,  that  the  farmer  will 
find  as  hard  work  as  in  fighting  fire  ; 
but  if  only  the  one  half  be  planted 
first,  the  last  half  will  not  be  pressing. 
I  plant  upland  at  four  feet  apart  be- 
tween the  rows ;  2d  low  ground  at 
five  feet  distance.  Any  farmer  will 
find  there  is  very  much  to  be  gained 
by  putting  his  land  in  fine  order  be- 
fore he  plants  ;  even  if  a  few  days 
later  planting  than  his  careless  neigh- 
bour, he  will  soon  overtake  him  in 
cleaning  his  crop  ;  besides,  his  crop  is 
not  checked  in  growth  ;  and  he  would- 
do  well  to  so  pitch  his  crop  that  his 
corn  could  get  one  working  before 
his  cotton  would  require  it. 

"  Before  giving  you  the  cultivation 
of  the  plant,  I  will  describe  the  seed 
that  I  have  found  to  be  the  best,  not 
only  in  producing,  but  in  gathering 
the  largest  weights  per  hand.  The 
seed  is  covered  with  a  short,  perfectly 
white  furze,  called  Mexican  ;  when 
fresh  it  is  small,  but,  after  being  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States,  it  be- 
comes longer,  gradually  losing  the 
white  fibres,  or  changing  to  a  germ. 
The  Pettit  Gulf  seed  is  the  same,  only 
it  is  careluiiy  selected  and  kept  pure 
by  the  planters  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
gulf  hills  near  Rodney,  this  part  of 
the  Mississippi  River  being  called 
Pettit  Gulf  This  cotton  not  only 
produces  more,  but  the  bowls  (that 
contain  the  cotton  and  seed)  open 
out  wider,  and  it  is  therefore  easier 
gathered  and  picked. 

"  Many  persons,  in  circling  their 

hilly  land,  do  it  a  greater  injury  than 

in  ploughing  up  and  down  the  hills, 

because  their  furrows  being  inclined, 

195 


COTTON. 


the  water  has  only  a  longer  distance 
to  flow,  thus  accumulating  in  quan- 
tity, velocity,  and  force  ;  whereas,  if 
they  were  correctly  run  off,  the  wa- 
ter should  lie  in  tiic  furrow  as  on 
level  land.  In  doing  tiiis,  the  curve 
should  be  as  regular  as  the  nature  of 
the  land  will  permit,  for  the  purpose 
of  admitting  the  ploughs  to  be  run 
close  up  to  the  plant,  which  could 
not  be  if  in  a  zigzag  course. 

"  If  the  cotton  seed  be  moistened 
and  rolled  with  ashes  and  earth,  so 
that  the  lint  or  furze  be  compressed, 
the  moisture  of  the  earth  being  thus 
brought  directly  in  contact  with  the 
hull  or  seed,  it  will  vegetate  earlier, 
and  will  require  less  seed  per  acre. 

"  I  throw  up  my  cotton  bed  as  flat 
as  I  can  to  break  out  deep,  and  leave 
the  water  furrow  well  open,  thus 
permitting  the  superfluous  water  to 
steep  from  the  bed,  and  the  earth 
to  become  warmer,  this  being  ne- 
cessary to  the  quick  growth  of  the 
plant. 

"  Cuhivalion. — Implements.  — Scra- 
ping cotton  (it  is  termed  shaving  by 
tobacco  growers)  is  merely  taking  off 
with  a  hoe  the  surface  of  the  hill  or 
bed,  so  as  to  leave  a  clean  surface  ; 
unless  this  be  done  well,  whether  i 
grass  or  weeds  be  in  sight  or  not,  ! 
there  will  be  a  quantity  of  them  before 
the  crop  can  be  worked  over  again. 

"  A  bull-tongue  plough  is  about  four 
inches  wide,  shaped  somewiiat  like 
the  shovel  plough,  and  used  on  the 
same  stock.  I  use  a  narrow  shovel 
about  six  inches  wide,  also  a  shovel 
of  the  usual  width  ;  the  first  is  used 
v/hen  the  crop  is  young,  likewise  the 
bull-tongue.  The  harrow  is  a  triangu- 
lar frame  of  white  oak,  three  by  four 
stuff,  with  nine  iron  teeth,  straight, 
twelve  inches  long,  and  made  of  three 
fourth  inch  square  bars. 

"  The  sweep  is  the  same  described 
by  Dr.  Cloud,  though  I  prefer  the  sem- 
icircular shape,  thus,  because  it  is  not 


so  liable,  in  striking  a  cotton-stalk  or 
stick,  to  glance  off  and  injure  the  cot- 
ton ;  it  should  be  made  with  cutting 
edge  level,  and  laid  with  steel,  the 
back  edge  raised,  so  that  when  the 
earth  falls  over,  it  falls  to  pieces ;  the 
ploughman  should  carry  a  file,  and  be 
required  to  keep  the  sweep  sliarp. 

"  The  double  shovel  is  a  plough  with 
two  moulds ;  I  prefer  the  moulds  of 
a  parallelogram  shape,  and  twisted 
so  as  to  throw  the  earth  all  one  way  : 
see  a  cut  of  the  stocking  of  one  in 
vol.  ii.,  old  series,  of  the  American 
Farmer,  for  Sept.  1,  1820. 

"  The  scraper  is  an  implement  I  have 
tried  to  have  constructed,  so  as  to 
shave  off  the  bed  each  side  of  the  cot- 
ton plant,  leaving  four  inches  or  less 
of  the  former  surface  for  the  hoe 
hands  to  clean.  I  think  the  difficulty 
m  those  formerly  used  was,  want  of 
weight  to  steady  them. 

"  Our  usual  scraping  is  after  the 
plough,  then  a  turning  plough  goes 
ahead  with  the  bar  next  to  the  row, 
throwing  the  earth  from  the  plant  to 
the  middle  of  the  row,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  having  to  run  two  or  three 
inches  deep,  we  dare  not  run  near 
the  plant,  owing  to  the  bed  crumbling 
down,  and  the  danger  of  covering  the 
plant  by  the  earth  falling  from  the 
plough.  I  am  as  particular  in  this 
part  of  our  labour  as  is  possible,  su- 
perintend it  in  person  all  the  day,  re- 
quiring of  the  hands  to  chop  through 
the  row,  leaving  one  or  more  stalks, 
and  cleaning  the  side  of  the  plants 
next  to  hand,  then  another  stand,  of 
a  stalk  or  more,  and  so  on,  thus  leav- 
ing cotton  plants  about  the  width  of 
the  hoe  apart ;  if  the  same  hand 
cleans  the  whole  row,  he  will  come 
back  on  the  other  side,  cutting  up  all 
but  one  stalk  in  each  bunch,  and 
cleaning  the  row  next  him  as  before. 
I  usually  put  two  on  a  row,  the  best 
hand  chops  through  the  row  on  his 
side,  the  other  reduces  to  a  stand  a 
single  stalk,  and  cleans  the  remain- 
ing side  ;  I  have  now  really  a  double 
stand,  that  is,  twice  as  many  stalks 
as  I  design  to  remain,  thinking  it 
prudent  not  to  reduce  to  a  stand,  as 
casualties  and  carelessness  may  by 


196 


COTTON. 


chance  destroy  a  stalk  or  two  ;  and 
being  not  over  two  or  three  inches 
high,  and  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart, 
they  do  not  injure  each  other.  When 
I  use  the  scraper,  there  is  so  little 
hoe  work,  that  each  hand  is  required 
to  clean  the  row  at  one  time  by  chop- 
ping through  to  himself,  sweeping  off 
the  side  of  the  plants,  then  with  a 
push  of  the  hoe  he  cleans  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  stalks,  and  reduces 
to  a  single  stalk  at  the  same  motion. 
Our  usual  work  is  three  quarters  of 
an  acre  per  hand  ;  but  with  the  scra- 
per, and  earth  in  the  same  condition, 
from  one  to  one  and  a  quarter  of  an 
acre  is  as  easily  done  ;  this  is  when 
the  crop  is  got  into  in  due  time,  which 
I  make  a  point  of  doing  as  soon  as  I 
have  what  I  consider  a  full  stand  up, 
never  waiting  for  height  or  age  of  it, 
and  only  wiien  too  cold.  On  referring 
to  my  farm-book,  I  find  I  commence 
reaping  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  af- 
ter sowing,  owing  to  the  season,  and 
whether  earlier  or  later  sown  ;  if  the 
seed  be  sown  early,  it  is  the  longer 
period,  the  earth  being  cool,  and  the 
sun  not  powerful  enough  at  this  sea- 
son to  warm  it. 

"  As  soon  as  I  can  return  for  other 
business,  say  in  ten  to  fifteen  days 
at  the  outside,  I  throw  earth  to  the 
plant  with  the  bull-tongue  plough,  run- 
ning near  and  deep,  and  with  any  or- 
dinary attention  the  plant  is  moulded 
well  with  fine,  light  earth  ;  the  soon- 
er this  can  be  done  the  better,  the 
light  earth  serving  to  protect  the 
stem  of  the  plant,  the  furrow  to  drain 
off  moisture  and  loosen  the  earth, 
and  to  give  warmth.  The  plant  be- 
ing thus  stinmlated,  if  the  weather 
be  not  too  cold,  will  resume  its  green 
colour  if  it  has  turned  yellowish,  and 
commences  growing  ;  the  last  half 
of  cotton  requiring  working,  and  if 
rain  falls  about  this  time,  it  may  not 
be  possible  to  get  into  it  earlier  than 
ten  days,  but  at  all  events  we  should 
do  so  some  five  days  before  lioe 
hands  go  into  it  to  clean  with  the  hoe. 
The  hoe  follows  this  moulding  with 
the  bull-tongue,  levels  the  earth 
around  the  pluut,  and  cuts  up  what 
grass  and  weeds  there  may  be  pres- , 
R  2 


ent.  This  working  will  take  us  into 
May,  when  our  heavy  rains  are  over, 
and  when  the  plant  begins  to  grow 
off;  if  I  find  the  earth  to  crack  or  be 
hard,  I  follow  the  hoes,  in  a  few  days, 
with  the  shovel-plough  ;  if  the  plant 
will  bear  it,  the  large  shovel,  if  not, 
the  small  one,  next  to  the  plant,  and 
break  out  the  entire  middle  deep  and 
thoroughly.  This  is  the  only  time  I  ev- 
er plough  deeper,  probably,  than  two 
inches  after  pitching  my  crop,  and  I 
do  not  use  the  turning-plough  after 
barring  off.  If  the  earth  be  light  and 
mellow,  I  use  the  double  shovel- 
plough,  three  furrows  moulding  the 
plant  and  sweeping  the  entire  middle. 

"  At  this  second  working  I  reduce 
to  a  stand,  leaving  the  stalks  about 
twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  in  ordi- 
nary land  ;  on  the  richer  land,  from 
two  feet  to  thirty  or  even  thirty-six 
inches.  After  this  working  I  keep 
the  earth  stirred  with  a  cultivator,  or 
sweep,  or  double  shovel,  or  harrow, 
keeping  the  bed  of  the  row  or  drill 
free  from  weeds  and  grass,  throwing 
a  little  earth  at  each  working  to  the 
plant,  but  not  enough  to  be  called  a 
ridge. 

"I  give  the  crop  as  many  and  as 
frequent  stirrings  as  I  am  able,  sel- 
dom less  than  three  or  four,  with  the 
hoe  and  plough  each,  making  it  a 
pomt  to  keep  the  ploughs  in  advance, 
unless  an  unfavourable  season,  when 
the  earth  is  rather  wet  to  plough,  or 
grass  has  grown  too  fast ;  I  tlien  re- 
verse it.  The  object  in  keeping 
ploughs  and  hoes  several  days  apart 
is  to  give  a  chance  for  grass  to  die, 
so  that  what  has  not  been  killed  or 
covered  by  ploughs  can  be  cut  out 
with  hoes. 

"  I  endeavour  to  have  my  land  in 
good  order  before  planting ;  plough 
as  deep  as  my  horses  can  pull  the 
plough,  and  commence  to  clean  my 
crop  before  grass  has  got  started, 
and  by  frequent  stirring  keep  the  crop 
entirely  under  my  control.  I  have 
tried  all  the  plans  (except  Dr.  Cloud's, 
and  intend  to  give  that  a  trial)  of 
pkinting  and  cultivating  cotton,  and 
think  I  can  make  as  much  on  the 
same  land  with  those  implements  that 
197 


COTTOX 


merely  stir  the  surface  as  others  do 
with  the  turning  or  shovel  plough, 
and  can,  with  the  same  lahour,  cer- 
tainly cultivate  more.  I  cannot  per- 
ceive that  any  labour  will  be  saved 
on  the  same  space  of  land  by  manu- 
ring, as  the  same  acre  will  require 
the  same  work  ;  but  the  plant,  by  be- 
ing warmed  with  tlie  manure,  will 
grow  off  faster,  and  if  the  crop  can 
be  ever  doubled  on  an  acre,  it  will  re- 
quire only  half  the  number  of  acres 
for  cultivation. 

"  I  may  err,  as  we  all  are  subject 
to  error,  especially  in  being  wedded 
to  our  peculiar  mode  of  practice  ;  but 
I  think  all  practical  planters  will  agree 
with  me  that  the  first,  and  often 
the  second  working  of  cotton,  must 
be  slow  and  tedious,  even  should  the 
planting  be  in  May.  It  is  impossible 
that  the  plant  should  grow  off  until 
the  fine  roots  or  spongioles  have 
formed  around  the  top  roots  to  nour- 
ish the  plant  ;  in  the  mean  time  the 
fibrous  rooted  plants  are  growing  ; 
we  must  therefore  work  early,  and 
every  one  who  has  followed  hands 
knows  there  is  little  dependance  on 
covering  grass  ;  it  must  be  cut  up.  I 
therefore  think  we  must  scrape. 

"  My  hoes  are  home-made,  the 
blade  entirely  steel ;  I  have  some 
here  that  have  been  used  for  the  past 
four  years,  and  they  have  been  used 
for  cutting  down  sprouts  as  well  as 
cutting  up  grass  and  weeds.  My  fore- 
man of  the  crop  is  furnished  with  a 
flat  file,  and  is  required  to  keep  the 
hoes  sharp. 

"  I  now  sum  up,  commence  clean- 
ing the  cotton  early,  clean  it  well,  re- 
turn as  soon  as  possible,  throw  earth 
or  mould  to  the  young  plant ;  if  the 
earth  be  hard,  give  a  thorough  plough- 
ing ;  keep  the  earth  light  and  mel- 
low, and  the  plants  clear  of  grass  and 
weeds. 

"  Gathering  and  Drying. — After  my 
crop  has  grown  so  large  as  to  meet 
in  the  row,  or  to  be  injured  by  the 
plough,  I  have  the  grass  chopped  out 
with  the  hoe,  especially  if  there  has 
been  rain,  for  then  tliere  springs  up 
a  grass  called  by  the  opposite  names 
of  sour  or  saltpetre  grass  ;  not  that 
198 


I  fear  any  injury  to  the  crop,  only  as 
furnishing  more  trash  to  get  into  the 
cotton  when  gathering,  or  keeping 
the  earth  wet  in  the  mornings  b): 
dews.  I  forthwith  prepare  for  gath- 
ering cotton  any  leisure  time,  such 
as  making  baskets,  sacks,  cleaning 
up  gin-house,  &c. 

"  In  all  this  country  each  hand  has 
a  cotton  sack  and  cotton  basket  for 
picking  ;  the  first  made  out  of  stout, 
yard-wide  Lowell  goods,  by  cutting 
off  one  and  a  third  to  one  and  a  half 
yards,  doubling,  and  sewing  one  side 
and  end.  On  the  open  end  attach  a 
strip  of  cotton  doubled,  long  enougli, 
when  over  the  shoulder,  to  keep  the 
sack  off  the  ground  when  standing 
erect,  this  is  sewed  on  each  side,  so 
as  when  the  right  arm  and  head  are 
passed  through,  similar  to  the  belt 
of  the  bayonet  or  broadsword,  the 
weight  rests  on  the  left  shoulder,  and 
the  sack  against  the  right  hip.  When 
picking,  the  cotton  is  placed  in  this 
sack  until  full,  which  will  weigii  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  pounds,  and  then 
emptied  into  the  hamper  or  basket, 
placed  in  a  central  part  of  the  day's 
picking.  This  is  made  of  young 
white  oak,  some  three  to  five  or  six 
inches  in  diameter,  growing  in  low 
ground,  by  cutting  of!"  a  piece  about 
seven  leet  long,  quartering,  and  then 
splitting  into  splits  about  three  quar- 
ters to  an  inch  wide,  and  as  thick  as 
a  case-knife  blade,  and  ribs  somewhat 
thicker.  Take,  according  to  size  of 
basket  wanted,  some 
fifteen  to  twenty-two  or 
twenty-three  of  these 
ribs,  and  lay  them  on 
the  ground  crossing 
each  other  thus,  and 
commence  weaving  in  the  splits  as 
near  to  the  central  point  as  possible, 
by  fastening  to  the  bottom  rib  first, 
running  over  and  under  until  all 
round  ;  insert  an  odd  rib,  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  will  give  an  even  number 
of  ribs,  each  long  one  making,  in  fact, 
two,  and,  if  an  even  number,  the 
splits  will  round  all  alike  ;  but  by  hav- 
ing an  odd  one,  the  rib  that  was  out- 
side comes  next  inside,  &c.  After 
the  bottom  is  filled  up  the  size  want- 


COTTON. 


cd,  double  the  ribs  over  on  tlie  bot- 
tom, press  on  them  with  the  foot  all 
round  until  they  will  assume,  more 
or  less,  an  erect  position,  then  con- 
tinue around  until  the  proper  heigiit. 
Now  double  down  the  rib  so  as  to  en- 
close the  last  split,  and  run  the  end 
down  into  splits,  so  as  to  make  fast. 
Get  out  now  two  pieces  of  the  white 
oak,  about  one  tiiird  of  an  inch  thick, 
take  off  the  corners  with  a  drawing 
knife,  put  one  on  the  inside,  the  oth- 
er outside  of  the  last  split  around  the 
top  of  the  basket,  and  wrap  it  well 
with  thin,  narrow  splits,  over  and  un- 
der the  last  split.  This  basket  should 
do  for  two  seasons  ;  the  bottom  of 
iiiy  largest  is  about  twenty-seven 
inches  across,  and  about  two  feet 
liigh,  will  hold  about  150  pounds  of 
cotton,  or  three  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  in  the  ear. 

"The  next  thing  is  cotton-scaffolds 
for  sunning  the  cotton  ;  I  only  use 
the  shed  attached  to  my  gin-house, 
sixty-two  feet  lonir  and  twelve  wide. 
Tiie  best  made  use  of  by  our  neatest 
planters  are  made  of  plank,  attached 
with  hinges  (like  a  folding-leaf  table 
reversed),  and  resting  on  a  frame- 
work, so  that  at  night,  or  a  rain  threat- 
ening, the  leaves  can  be  folded  up 
and  shelter  the  cotton.  The  first  of 
these  was  described  to  me  ten  years 
ago  by  the  late  Mr.  William  Bacon, 
who  was  at  that  time  the  most  sys- 
tematic cotton  planter  1  knew,  a  Nor- 
therner. Other  kinds  of  scaffolds  are 
made  by  cutting  cane  about  five  to 
six  feet  long,  and  weaving  together 
with  linn  bark,  of  a  tree  called  here 
linn  or  wahoo,  and  laid  cro&swise  on 
stakes  and  poles.  Others  split  out 
boards. 

"  The  gin-house  now  undergoes  a 
rigid  examination.  The  gin-stand 
should  be  sent  off  to  the  gin-wright, 
if  necessary  ;  the  band  be  put  in  or- 
der, which  should  have  been  well 
greased  and  hung  up  out  of  the  way 
in  the  winter  ;  the  running  gear  train- 
ed, plummed.  and  levelled,  and  the 
house  again  thoroughly  cleaned  out, 
as  it  is  presumed  it  was  done  when 
the  last  season's  ginning  was  done. 
I  use  a  sixty-saw  ginstand  ;  a  light 


draught  for  four  mules,  the  runnintr 
gear  being  Pliiladelphia  castings  fur 
a  twelve-foot  wheel,  fastened  to  a 
wooden  wheel  by  bolts  and  nuts.  I 
could  give  you  a  minute  description 
of  number  of  cogs  in  wheel,  and  in 
spur  or  trundle-head,  size  of  band- 
wheel,  and  speed  of  the  saws  ;  but, 
as  I  purpose  to  make  an  examination 
into  tliis  matter  the  ensuing  month 
among  my  intelligent  brethren  in  the 
soutliwest  part  of  this  state,  I  will 
postpone  and  communicate  to  you 
hereafter  in  the  East. 

"  To  make  fine  cotton,  there  is  cer- 
tainly much  depending  on  the  gin- 
stand,  the  speed,  &c.,  in  aid  of  which 
there  are  a  variety  of  improvements, 
as  the  flue,  false  grates,  and  a  thrash- 
er, thougli  of  these  hereafter  ;  for  the 
present,  I  think  the  flue  will  entirely 
supersede  all  others.  As  I  think  of 
concluding  with  my  last  article,  and 
have  yet  only  given  you  two  pages,  I 
will  offer  some  views  I  have  on  the 
handling  of  cotton,  though  their  cor- 
rectness is  questioned  by  many  ; 
yet,  as  account  sales  are  '  stubborn 
things,'  I  may  be  allowed  to  hold  on 
until  there  is  a  demonstration  to  the 
contrary. 

"  Cotton  should  be  gathered  from 
the  field  as  clean  as  possible,  taken 
to  the  scaffolds,  and  dried  until  the 
seed  will  crack  when  pressed  be- 
tween the  teeth,  not  crush  or  mash, 
but  crack  with  some  noise.  It 
should  be  frequently  turned  over  and 
stirred  (all  the  trash  and  rotten  pods 
taken  out  while  this  is  being  done), 
so  as  to  ensure  its  drying  earlier. 

"  If  seeds  are  wanted  for  planting, 
gin  the  cotton  immediately,  and 
spread  the  seed  over  the  floor  some 
five  inches  thick,  until  perfectly  dry. 
If  the  cotton  seed  be  not  wanted, 
pack  the  seed  cotton  away  into  the 
house,  to  remain  until  a  gentle  heat 
is  discovered,  or  until  sufficient  for 
ginning ;  after  it  has  heated  until  a 
feeling  of  warmth  to  the  hand,  and  it 
looks  as  if  pressed  together,  open  out 
and  scatter  to  cool.  This  cotton  will 
gin  faster,  have  a  softer  feel,  is  not 
so  iirittle,  therefore  not  so  liable  to 
break  by  rapidity  of  gin,  and  has  a 
199 


COTTO.X. 


creamy  colour ;  the  wool  has  im- 
bibed a  part  of  the  oil  that  has  ex- 
uded by  the  warmth  of  seed,  and 
is,  in  fact,  restored  to  the  original 
colour ;  for  the  oil  being  vegetable, 
it  is  dissipated  by  sun  and  air,  and 
the  colour  by  moisture  (of  rain  and 
dews)  and  light.  1  have  known  of  a 
number  of  sales  made  of  this  descrip- 
tion of  cotton,  and  even  those  who 
are  most  strenuous  against  the  heat- 
ing admit  it  bore  a  better  price.  No 
one  supposes  if  cotton  be  put  up  wet, 
dirty,  trashy,  with  rotton  pods,  that 
it  is  benefited.  Having  all  things 
ready  for  picking  cotton,  I  com- 
mence, as  usual,  early,  as  soon  as 
the  hands  can  gather  even  twenty 
pounds  each.  This  is  advisable,  not 
only  in  saving  a  portion  of  that  from 
being  destroyed  if  rains  should  fall, 
which  often  do  at  this  season  (about 
the  middle  of  August),  but  for  anoth- 
er reason :  passing  through  the  cotton 
has  a  tendency  to  open  out  to  sun 
and  air  the  limbs  that  have  interlock- 
ed across  the  rows,  and  hastens  the 
early  opening.  On  low  grounds,  es- 
pecially, much  loss  is  incurred  in 
some  seasons  from  the  want  of  the 
sun  to  cause  an  expansion  of  the 
fibre  within  the  bowl,  so  as  to  cause 
it  to  open.  The  bowl  is  composed 
of  five  divisions,  in  each  of  which 
there  is  a  parcel  of  cotton  wool  sur- 
rounding each  seed,  there  being  sev- 
eral in  each  loch  of  cotton.  When 
green,  these  fibres  lie  close  to  the 
seed,  and  as  it  ripens,  the  fibres  be- 
come elastic,  the  bowl  becoming  hard 
and  brownish.  The  Sea  Island  has 
only  three  divisions,  as  also  the  Egyp- 
tian, which  is  only  the  Sea  Island  of 
the  best  variety,  with  black  seed, 
smooth,  and  a  yellowish  tuft  of  fibres 
on  the  small  end  ;  they  are  both  from 
Pernambuco.  Some  of  the  cotton 
we  plant  has  only  four  divisions,  but 
I  think  five  generally. 

"  There  is  a  peculiar  art  in  gathering 
the  cotton  from  the  iiowl,  which,  like 
handling  stock,  can  only  be  acquired 
by  practice  ;  many  gather  equally  fast 
with  either  hand.  The  left  hand 
seizes  the  stem  near  the  open  bowl, 
or  the  bowl  between  the  two  mid- 
200 


die  finger.',  the  palm  of  the  ham 
up  ;  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  are 
inserted  tolerably  low  down  in  the 
bowl,  a  finger  on  each  lock  of  cotton  ; 
then,  as  the  fingers  grasp  it,  there  is 
a  slight  twisting  motion,  and  a  quick 
pull,  which,  if  done  well,  will  extract 
the  contents,  the  bowl  being  open, 
and  the  bottom  of  the  locks  not  gum- 
my to  adhere.  There  is  a  vast  difler- 
ence  in  hands,  not  the  quickest  ma- 
king the  best  pickers ;  a  steady,  clock- 
like motion,  with  some  quickness,  is 
necessary  to  gather  fast.  A  neigh- 
bour of  mine,  when  a  young  man, 
some  ten  years  since,  gathered  400 
lbs.,  which  was  at  that  time  the  best 
I  had  known  ;  this  has  been  beaten 
since,  by  aiding  the  hand  in  emptying 
his  sacks,  and  almost  feeding  and 
watering  him  while  at  work. 

"  After  weighing,  if  the  weather  be 
fair,  the  cotton  is  consigned  to  the 
scaffold,  to  the  care  of  those  who  pick 
out  what  trash  and  rotten  parts  are 
left.  After  being  dried  as  said,  it  is 
taken  into  the  upper  part  of  the  house, 
and  placed  over  the  gin-stand,  ready 
to  be  turned  into  the  hopper  that  leads 
from  this  place  to  the  gin-stand.  My 
gin-house  is  32  by  62,  framed,  with 
two  floors.  Below  the  first  floor  is 
the  running  gear,  where  the  horses 
work  ;  in  the  second  story  we  weigh  ; 
on  a  level  is  the  shed  lor  sunning, 
fronting  the  south,  in  which  is  the 
gin-stand  at  one  end,  at  the  other  the 
press.  In  the  garret  is  carried  the 
seed  ;  cotton  over  the  gin-stand,  and 
the  ginned  cotton  over  the  press. 

"I  never  pick  cotton  if  wet  with 
rain,  but  attend  to  other  matters. 
When  the  weather  is  good,  I  strive  to 
keep  every  one  busy  that  can  gather 
anything  like  even  a  half  hand's  work. 
All  go  out  after  daylight,  but  not  long, 
I  assure  you. 

"When  I  commence  ginning,  there 
is  a  small  boy  to  drive  each  team, 
there  being  four  horses  or  mules,  to 
work  in  pairs  ;  one  hand  at  the  gin- 
stand,  who  is  kept  pretty  busy  in  put- 
ting the  seed-cotton  on  to  the  saws  ; 
another  hand  is  retiuired  to  push  the 
cotton  back  from  the  flue  of  the  gin- 
i  stand,  rake  cotton  into  the  hopper, 


COTTON. 


and  clear  out  seed  and  motes  after 
the  gin  drops  them.  With  my  gin- 
stand,  I  have  myself  ginned  lour  bales 
per  day,  and  averaged  over  three  bales 
for  a  week  together  ;  but  it  requires 
constant  attention.  Though  the  la- 
bour is  light,  yet  it  requires  a  good 
hand  to  perform  it.  There  is  much 
loss-work  in  this  business  ;  frequent- 
ly a  part  of  the  saws  are  running 
tiirough  seed,  while  others  are  almost 
choked  ;  again,  the  roll  is  not  full ; 
again  too  full.  In  this  way  my  gin- 
ner,  though  an  excellent  servant,  and 
named  after  Cyrus  of  yore,  is  some- 
times busy  ginning  out  two  bales,  or 
even  less  per  day,  while  I,  though 
naturally  lazy,  and  not  disposed  to 
thwart  nature  in  that  prerogative, 
never  gin  under  three  bales.  The 
plan  is  to  keep  the  team  steady,  and 
shake  the  cotton  regularly  over  the 
roll,  so  as  to  keep  the  roll  regularly 
full.  I  call  the  roll  the  cotton  in  the 
gin-stand  that  is  turned  over  and  over 
by  the  motion  of  the  saws,  from  which 
the  saws  pull  off  the  article  known  in 
commerce  as  cotton. 

"  The  next  and  last  thing  is  haling, 
which  I  do  by  cutting  off  several  pie- 
ces from  a  bolt  of  bagging,  about  4 
feet  6  to  8  inches  long,  the  length  of 
the  bale  being  4  feet  6  inches  ;  I  then 
cut  out  the  bed-cloth,  so  as  to  have 
the  heading  of  each  end  on  it,  with- 
out wasting,  which  is  done  by  split- 
ting the  first  end  long  enough  for 
head,  say  2  feet  9  inches  to  3  feet, 
and  cut  off  one  piece  ;  then  measure 
the  length  of  the  bale,  cut  half  across, 
and  split  the  same  distance  as  their 
end,  and  cut  one  end  from  the  bolt 
(leaving  one  half  attached  to  the 
bolt),  so  as  to  have  both  heads  on  the 
same  side  of  the  cloth,  thus  :  I  then 


L 


split  in  two  one  of  the  first-named 
pieces,  and  sew  on  to  the  side  from  a 
to  b ;  this  gives  the  bed-cloth  ;  the 
two  pieces  each  side  of  the  long  mid- 
dle piece,  when  cotton  is  pressed 
down,  serve  as  half  the  sides  of  the 
bale  ;  the  first-named  cloth  being  pla- 


ced on  top  of  the  cotton  before  press- 
ing, and  turned  down,  is  met  by  these 
half  sides,  and,  when  sewed  up,  cov- 
ers the  bale  ;  the  bed-cloth  is  laid 
smooth  and  even  on  the  bed-block, 
and  the  doors  of  the  press  fastened 
over  it,  when  the  press  is  full  ;  one 
of  the  first  cloths  cut,  called  top-cloth, 
is  stretched  under  follower  and  on 
cotton.  My  press  is  a  single- screw, 
inside  press ;  the  horse  walking  ad- 
joining to  the  walk  of  the  teams  work- 
ing the  running-gear  of  the  gin-stand. 
The  bale  is  pressed  above  them  on 
the  first  floor,  and  the  cotton  is  put 
in  the  press  on  the  upper  floor.  Four 
hands,  or,  rather,  three  hands  and  a 
youngster  do  the  pressing,  two  get- 
ting in  the  box  and  tramping  the  cot- 
ton down,  while  the  youngster  throws 
in  the  cotton,  and  the  fourth  sews  in 
the  head,  and  prepares  a  bed-cloth. 
We  press  9  to  10  bales  a  day,  aver- 
aging generally  425  lbs.,  preferring 
about  tliat  weight  to  any  other. 

"  After  running  the  press  down,  one 
hand  is  employed  in  tying,  while  the 
two  others  wind  up  the  rope  on  a 
windlass,  to  make  it  tight  round  the 
bale,  having  grooves  in  the  bed-block 
and  follower  large  enough  for  rope 
to  pass  through  easily  ;  one  hand  has 
a  needle  three  feet  long,  either  of 
white  oak  or  iron  wire,  through  the 
eye  of  which  is  passed  a  piece  of 
twine,  the  ends  tied  together  ;  a  loop 
is  formed,  the  rope  passed  through, 
and  made  fast  ;  the  needle  is  then 
passed  through  the  upper  groove  by 
one  hand,  another  pulls  through  the 
opposite  side ;  he  then  returns  it  be- 
low ;  the  hand  that  ties  pulls  through, 
releases  the  twine,  makes  a  knot  in 
the  end  of  the  rope,  passes  it  over 
the  rope  attached  to  the  coil,  and 
makes  a  single  knot ;  the  long  end 
then  is  passed  over  a  pin  in  the  shaft 
to  which  the  windlass  is  attached, 
then  this  is  turned  over  and  over  un- 
til tight,  the  rope  cut,  and  passed  un- 
der the  rope  on  the  bale,  sometimes 
tied,  as  if  knitting  a  line  on  to  a  fish- 
ing-hook, and  so  on  until  the  ropes 
are  all  tied.  Mine  are  eight  in  num- 
ber ;  seven,  however,  are  an  abun- 
dance." 

SOI 


COTTON. 


Some  planters  top  the  cotton  in  1  cases,  one  extreme  produced  another. 


August. 

CultivMtion  of  Sea- Island. — The  fol- 
lowing is  by  Mr.  Spalding,  of  Sapelo, 
from  the  American  Agriculturist : 

"  The  Sea-Island  cotton  was  intro- 
duced into  Georgia  from  the  Baha- 
mas ;  the  seed  was  from  a  small  isl- 
and near  St.  Domingo,  known  as  Ar- 
guilla,  then  producing  the  best  cotton 
of  the  Western  world.  It  in  no  way 
resembles  the  Brazil  cotton,  which 
is  the  kidney-seed  kind,  introduced 
some  years  later,  and  which,  after 
trial,  was  rejected  in  Georgia.  This 
seed  came  in  small  parcels  from  the 
Bahamas  in  the  winter  of  1785.  It 
gradually  and  slowly  made  its  way 
along  the  coast  of  Georgia,  and  pass- 
ed into  Carolina,  from  the  year  1790 
to  1792.  The  winter  of  178G  in 
Georgia  was  a  mild  one,  and  al- 
though the  plants  of  the  Sea-Island 
cotton  that  year  had  not  ripened  their 
seed — it  being  a  perennial,  and  sub- 
ject only  to  be  killed  by  frost — it  start- 
ed the  next  season  (1787)  from  the 
roots  of  the  previous  year,  its  seed 
ripened,  and  the  plants  became  accli- 
mated. Many  changes  have  come 
over  this  seed  since  that  time,  from 
difference  of  soil,  of  culture,  and  lo- 
cal position  ;  and,  above  all,^  from 
careful  selection  of  seed.  But  it  re- 
quires to  be  discovered  that  what  is 
gained  in  fineness  of  wool  is  lost  in 
the  quality  and  weight  of  the  prod- 
uct ;  for,  in  spite  of  a  zeal  and  intel- 
ligence brought  to  act  upon  the  sub- 
ject without  parallel,  the  crops  are 
yearly  diminishing,  until  to  grow  Sea- 
Island  cotton  is  one  of  the  most  prof- 
itless pursuits  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  States. 

"The  Culture.  —  When  the  Sea- 
Island  cotton  seed  was  introduced  in 
1786,  it  was  planted  in  hills  prepared 
upon  the  level  field,  at  five  feet  each 
way  ;  but  it  was  soon  learned  that 
of  all  plants  that  grow,  it  is,  in  its 
first  vegetation  and  early  stage,  the 
most  tender,  liable  to  sutler  by  storms, 
by  wind,  by  drought,  and  by  excess 
of  rain.  The  quantity  of  seed  was 
therefore  increased,  and  the  plants 
multiplied,  until,  as  in  most  other 
208 


For  many  years,  however,  among 
experienced  planters,  the  course  is 
to  divide  their  enclosed  fields  into 
two  portions,  the  one  at  rest,  the 
other  in  culture. 

"  Preparing  the  Land  for  the  Crop. 
— Early  in  February,  any  hands  not 
engaged  in  preparing  the  previous 
crop  for  market  are  employed  in 
cleaning  up  the  rested  fields,  and 
either  in  burning  off  the  fennel  weeds 
and  grass  of  the  previous  year,  or  in 
listing  them  in  at  five  feet  apart,  to 
serve  as  the  base  of  the  future  ridg- 
es or  bed.  There  is  much  difference 
of  opinion  upon  the  subject  of  burn- 
ing or  listing  in  ;  for  myself,  I  am  in- 
clined to  take  the  first  opinion,  be- 
lieving that  the  light  dressing  of 
ashes  the  field  receives  from  burning 
of!"  is  more  beneficial  to  the  soil  than 
the  decay  of  the  vegetable  matter, 
and  renders  it  less  liable  to  produce 
what  is  a  growing  evil,  the  rust,  a 
species  of  blight  much  resembling 
the  rust  or  blight  upon  wheat,  and 
which  takes  place  about  the  same 
period,  just  as  the  plant  is  putting 
out  and  preparing  to  ripen  its  fruit. 

"  Ridging. — The  land  being  listed 
in  short  lines  across  the  entire  field, 
at  five  feet  apart,  the  operation  of 
ridging  is  commenced  about  the  first 
of  March.  The  ridges  occupy  the 
entire  surface  ;  that  is,  the  foot  of 
one  ridge  commencing  where  the 
other  ridge  ends,  and  rising  about 
eight  inches  above  the  natural  level 
of  the  land,  thus  presenting  a  sur- 
face almost  as  smooth,  and  almost  as 
deeply  worked  as  a  garden-bed.  This 
ridging  is  carried  on  but  a  few  days 
ahead  of  the  planting.  The  ridge,  if 
the  operation  has  been  carefully  done, 
is  fiom  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet 
broad  at  top  ;  it  is  then  trenched  on 
the  upper  surface  with  the  hoe,  six 
inches  wide,  and  from  three  to  six 
inches  deep,  depending  upon  the  pe- 
riod of  planting. 

"Planting.  —  In  the  beginning,  if 
the  seed  is  covered  more  than  two 
inches,  the  soil  will  not  feel  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sun,  and  the  seed  will 
not  vegetate  later;  that  is,  in  April, 


COTTON. 


up  10  the  first  of  May,  you  must  give  I 
from  three  to  four  inches  of  covering 
to  preserve  the  moisture,  or  there, 
too,  you  fail  from  an  opposite  cause, 
the  wind  and  burnin5  influence  of 
the  sun  drying'  the  soil  too  much  for 
vegetation.  In  most  countries,  after 
sowing  the  seed  the  roller  is  applied ; 
but  in  cotton  planting,  in  our  ridge 
liusbandry,  the  foot,  in  covering  the 
seed  and  pressing  down  the  earth, 
well  supplies  its  place. 

"  Quantity  of  Seed  per  Acre.  —  A 
bushel  of  seed  is  generally  sown  to  the 
acre ;  I  believe  half  a  bushel  is  bet- 
ter ;  for  where  the  evil  comes,  wheth- 
er the  worm,  or  wind,  or  drought,  or 
wet,  there  is  no  security  in  the  many ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  where  they 
come  up  thin,  they  soon  grow  out  of 
the  way  of  injury  from  any  enemy. 

"After  Culture. — The  cultivation 
of  Sea-Island  cotton  is  carried  on  by 
the  hand  hoe,  and  the  quantity  al- 
ways limited  to  four  acres  to  the  la- 
bourer. The  operation  of  weeding 
commences  as  soon  as  we  finish 
planting,  because,  in  our  flat  and 
sandy  soils,  the  grass  seed  springs 
with  the  first  growth  of  the  cotton, 
and  by  the  time  we  finish  planting, 
say  the  first  of  May,  what  we  plant- 
ed in  March  requires  the  hoe.  The 
land  is  kept  in  the  operation  of  hoe- 
ing and  weeding,  as  far  as  may  be, 
at  its  original  level,  the  beds  neither 
increased  nor  diminished,  that  rains, 
which  generally  fall  with  beating 
power  and  in  redundant  quantity  in 
the  month  of  August,  may  as  little 
as  possible  injure  the  growing  plants, 
which  are  then  in  full  bearing.  The 
young  cotton  is  thinned  out  slowly 
at  from  six  to  twelve  inches  apart  on 
the  ridge  by  the  10th  of  .June.  As 
soon  as  the  rains  commence,  which 
is  about  the  last  of  July,  it  is  wise  to 
leave  nature  to  lierseif  and  no  longer 
disturb  the  soil ;  four  lioeings,  if  well 
done,  and  the  grass  well  picked  at 
each  hoeing,  is  enough,  nor  does  any 
after-growth  of  grass  do  injury. 

"  .\Ianuies  and  Soiling  Stock. — For 
ten  years  past  great  efforts  have  been 
made  by  the  Sea-I.<land  planters  in 
manuring.     Much  of  the  alluvion  of 


our  salt  ri%'ers  has  been  collected, 
and  sometimes  placed  directly  in 
heaps  through  the  fields  at  rest,  at 
other  times  placed  in  cattle  pens,  on 
which  cotton  seed  and  all  waste  ma- 
terials are  strewn,  and  the  cattle 
pounded  upon  it.  But  what  is  pre- 
ferred is  to  pen  our  cattle  near  the 
river  at  night,  and  cut  salt  grass, 
which  covers  these  alluvion  lands, 
and  which  is  as  nutritious  as  so  much 
clover.  Many  planters  now  employ 
labimrers  to  cut  the  grass  for  horses 
and  cattle  from  the  first  of  May  till 
the  last  of  November ;  the  task  re- 
quired is  generally  a  cord  of  grass  to 
the  hand,  and  this  quantity  will  an- 
swer tor  ten  horses,  or  fifteen  head 
of  cattle,  for  the  night.  Benefit  has 
resulted  from  this  course  in  the  ratio 
of  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been 
persevered  in.  The  last  year,  Mr. 
Ruffin  discovered  that  all  South  Car- 
olina was  underlayed  by  shell  marl, 
at  various  depths  :  from  my  own  ob- 
servation, and  inquiries  from  others, 
I  find  the  same  thing  exists  in  Geor- 
gia. Great  benefits  will  result  from 
this,  I  have  no  doubt,  hereafter,  de- 
pending much  upon  the  discretion 
that  is  used  in  the  quantity  applied, 
which  had  better  be  too  little,  I  think, 
than  too  much. 

"  Amount  of  Crop  per  Acre,  and 
Picking. — It  has  been  stated  already 
that  five  liundred  pounds  to  the  acre 
are  about  the  medium  crop,  which,  at 
twenty  cents  per  pound  (more  than 
the  actual  price  for  the  last  three 
years),  is  to  the  planter  8100  for  gross 
crop  ;  and  from  this  hundred  dollars 
is  to  be  subtracted  bagging,  freight, 
expenses  of  sale,  clothing  for  his  peo- 
ple, medical  attention,  and  too  ol'ten 
provisions.    Is  this  man  to  be  envied  ! 

'•In  picking  the  Sea-Island  cotton 

from  the  field,  the  same  disproportion 

exist.-i  with  his  interior  brethren  as 

in  the  other  operations  on  the  crop. 

From  the  exposure  to  sea-wind,  and 

I  the  necessity  of  guarding  against  ev- 

:  ery  possible  injury  to  the  staple,  the 

;  fields  have  to  be  picked  over  every 

two  weeks,  commencing  in  August 

'  and   ending  in   December  ;    so  that 

i  few  planters  receive  from  their  peo- 

203 


COTTON. 


pie  more  than  twenty-five  pounds  of 
cotton  per  day  during  the  picking 
season. 

"  Preparation  for  ihe  Market. — The 
Sea-Island  cotton  is  now  almost  ex- 
clusively separated  from  its  seed  by 
the  foot-gin:  two  wooden  rollers, 
placed  the  one  over  the  other  in  a 
frame.  The  rollers  are  one  inch  in 
diameter,  about  a  foot  long,  and  are 
inserted  in  an  iron  journal  supported 
by  the  frame  ;  upon  this  journal  a 
fly-wheel  thirty  inches  in  diameter  is 
placed ;  the  journal,  after  passing 
through  the  fly-wheel,  has  a  crank, 
to  which  the  treadle  worked  by  the 
foot  is  attached  :  the  fly-wheel  is  to 
give  a  circular  motion  by  the  tread 
of  the  foot.  This  gin  generally  sep- 
arates twenty-five  pounds  of  cotton 
per  day  to  one  hand.  The  whole  la- 
bour of  preparing  a  bag  of  three  hun- 
dred pounds  of  cotton,  in  sorting  the 
cotton  for  the  gin,  in  ginning,  and  in 
moting  after  the  gin,  in  again  exam- 
ining it,  and  in  packing,  my  friend 
Mr.  Seabrook,  of  South  Carolina,  puts 
down  at  fifty-four  days'  work.  I 
have  estimated  it  at  sixty.  Thus  a 
bale  of  cotton  worth  §60  has  cost, 
after  the  cotton  has  been  gathered 
into  the  house,  sixty  days'  labour. 

"  Locality  of  Sea-Island  Cotton,  Ori- 
ginal Growth  of  the  hands,  and  Abori- 
gines.— The  Sea-Island  cotton  of  the 
best  quality  is  grown  upon  islands 
bounded  by  the  sea  on  one  side,  and 
to  the  west  by  salt  rivers  and  salt 
marsh.  These  islands  extend  from 
Charleston,  in  South  Carolina,  to  the 
River  St.  John's,  in  Florida,  including 
the  whole  coast  of  Georgia.  This 
space  may  be  considered  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  miles,  between  wliich 
points  there  is  a  safe  navigation  for 
open  boats,  and  for  dragging  vessels 
of  one  hundred  tons'  capacity.  These 
islands  were  originally  almost  exclu- 
sively covered  with  live  oak,  and  from 
them  the  navy  of  the  United  States 
has  been  entirely  built.  These  live 
oak  groves  once  swarmed  w  ith  Indian 
tribes,  who  communed  with  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh  and  General  Oglethorpe 
with  confidence  and  friendship.  Ev- 
erywhere you  find  barrens  scattered 
204 


through  the  cotton  fields,  constructed 
exclusively  of  oyster  sliells.  Indian 
bones  and  Indian  pottery,  and  other 
remains,  tell  distinctly  here,  in  ages 
passed,  that  the  red  man  lived  and 
died. 

"  Healthiness  of  Climate. — Volney, 
in  his  American  tour,  says  that  'the 
climate  of  this  coast  is  the  best  in 
the  United  States,  from  Rhode  Isl- 
and south,'  and  this  my  own  expe- 
rience confirms  ;  carrying  more  men 
into  old  age  than  any  other  I  know 
of  Here,  too,  has  been  little  change 
of  inhabitants  for  one  hundred  years 
past,  the  son  clinging  to  the  home  of 
his  childhood  and  to  the  grave  of  his 
father." 

The  Gin  and  Wkippcr  are  concisely 
described  by  Mr.  Spalding. 

'•  The  whipper,  which  is  a  very  ne- 
cessary instrument  in  the  well  pre- 
paring of  cotton,  is  made  of  wood,  is 
a  long  barrel  composed  of  slats  or 
reeds  (or  it  would  be  better  made  of 
wire)  six  or  eight  feet  in  length,  and 
two  feet  in  diameter,  with  one  end 
closed  and  the  other  open,  and  is  sup- 
ported at  the  two  ends  by  feet  of  dif- 
ferent lengths,  so  that  the  barrel,  in 
its  horizontal  position,  declines  al)out 
one  foot  at  the  lower  end  ;  a  hopper 
containing  about  a  bushel  rests  upon 
the  upper  side  of  the  barrel,  at  the 
upper  enclosed  end  of  it.  This  hop- 
per lets  the  cotton  that  is  to  be  clean- 
ed fall  into  the  barrel,  through  v.-hich 
runs  in  its  whole  length  a  shaft, 
which  is  turned  by  the  hand  by  a 
crank  attached  to  the  shaft  at  one 
end.  This  shaft  is  intersected  by 
rods  which  reach  to  within  an  inch 
of  the  barrel.  The  cotton,  as  it  falls 
from  the  hopper,  is  whirled  round  by 
these  rods  until  it  escapes  at  the  low- 
er end  of  the  barrel,  by  which  time 
any  sand,  or  dirt,  or  leaves,  or  other 
matter  attached  to  the  cotton  has  es- 
caped through  the  spaces  intention- 
ally left  between  the  slats  or  reeds, 
which  constitute  the  external  rim  of 
this  barrel  or  whipper.  This  whip- 
ping was  formerly  performed  as  well 
upon  the  cotton  in  the  seed  as  after 
it  was  separated  from  the  seed  ;  but 
the  second  operation  of  the  whipper 


COTTON. 


has  lately  been  discontinued  under  a 
belief  that  it  produced  a  stringy  ap- 
pearance in  the  cotton  wool. 

"  The  whipping  of  cotton  at  its  first 
gathering,  and  while  attached  to  the 
seed,  is  really  beneficial,  and  should 
never  be  omitted.  When  these  op- 
erations are  completed,  the  harvest 
may  be  considered  as  closed,  and  the 
preparation  of  the  cotton  for  market 
really  begins.  Many  machines  have 
been  designed,  and  many  forms  of 
the  same  machine  adopted,  for  sep- 
arating the  seed  from  the  Sea-Island 
cotton,  but  all  of  them  at  last  resolve 
themselves  into  two  wooden  rollers 
turning  by  opposite  movements  upon 
each  other.  The  rollers  are  from 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  revolve  from  100  to  500  times 
in  a  minute  ;  the  whole  resolving 
itself  mto  this  simple  rule,  that  the 
smaller  the  rollers,  and  the  slower 
they  revolve,  the  cleaner  will  be  the 
cotton  separated  from  the  seed,  be- 
cause, if  the  rollers  are  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, and,  above  all,  if  they  revolve 
with  a  high  velocity,  they  will  take 
in  soft  seeds,  small  seeds,  and  false 
seeds,  or  motes,  as  they  are  called, 
and  in  crushing  them  in  their  passage 
through  the  rollers  will  stain  and  in- 
jure the  cotton  in  its  appearance. 

"  Much  money  has  been  spent  upon 
costly  machines  propelled  by  horses, 
by  water,  or  by  wind,  first  in  the  Ba- 
hama Islands,  and  for  many  years  in 
Georgia  and  Carolina,  but,  at  last, 
most  of  the  growers  of  Sea-Island 
cotton  have  returned  to  their  first 
and  most  simple  machine,  to  wit,  two 
wooden  rollers,  kept  together  by  a 
wooden  frame  and  a  square  shaft, 
upon  which  is  fixed  a  wooden  or  iron 
fly-wheel  from  two  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  iron  cranks  which 
turn  the  rollers  are  connected  by 
strips  of  wood,  with  a  treadle  work- 
ed by  the  foot ;  this  treadle  runs  un- 
der the  machine,  and  is  connected  at 
the  farther  end  of  the  floor  of  the 
house  by  sockets,  within  which  it  re- 
volves ;  the  man  stands,  therefore, 
in  the  front  of  the  rollers,  with  a 
board  between  him  and  the  roUers, 
upon  which  he  holds  a  large  handful 


of  seed  of  cotton,  which  he  presents 
from  time  to  time  to  the  rollers  that 
are  kept  in  motion  by  the  pressure  of 
the  foot  upon  the  treadle  ;  this  la- 
bour, from   habit,  becomes  easy,  as 
the  feet  are  often  changed  in  the  op- 
eration.     The   task   expected  from 
the  labourer  with  the  machine  (which 
costs,  when  new  and  complete,  ten 
American  dollars)  is  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty  pounds  per  day.     Women, 
from  their  careful  attention  in  keep- 
ing the  rollers,  while  ihey  revolve 
upon  each  other,  well  supplied  with 
seed  cotton,  were  unquestionably  the 
best  ginners,  as  they  are  called  from 
the  term  gin  applied  to  the  machine  ; 
but  in  process  of  time  it  began  to  be 
believed  that  the  continued  motion  of 
the  feet  produced  a  relaxed  system 
in  women,  which  was  likely  to  lead, 
in  the  end,  to   abortion  or  miscar- 
riage :  men  have,  consequently,  been 
substituted  for  this  work,  one  which, 
being  within  doors,  and  exercising 
both  hands  and   feet  without  very 
much  labour,  is  preferred  by  them  to 
any  other  in  the  winter.     To  prepare 
I  the  cotton  for  this  ginning,  or  separa- 
i  tion  from  the  seed,  when  taken  from 
,  the  house  where  it  was  put  from  the 
,  field,  it  is  carefully  looked  over  and 
I  separated,  or  sorted,  as  it  is  called  ; 
,  the  yellow   cotton,  the  motes,  any 
hard  cotton  that  may  have  passed 
,  through  the  whipper,  are  separated 
from  the  white  ;  this  is  a  work  of 
care  and  attention,  and  the  future 
[  appearance  of  the  cotton  much  de- 
pends upon  the  manner  in  which  the 
,  work  is  done.     Women  are  employ- 
ed  in    this    operation    seated   upon 
benches,  with  tables  before  them  ;  the 
seed  cotton  is  spread  in  small  par- 
;  eels,  taken  out  of  one  basket,  exam- 
ined, and  turned  over  to  another,  into 
j  which  the  person  puts  the  entire  of 
i  her  day's  labour.     The  quantity  re- 
quired to    be    thus    examined    and 
cleaned  in  the  day  by  each  one  is 
from  sixty  to  one  hundred   pounds, 
j  according  to  the  care  bestowed  upon 
!  the  cotton  by  the  grower  ;  after  this 
!  sorting  it  is  exposed  lightly  and  short- 
'  ly  to  the  sun,  that  it  may  take  off 
I  any  dampness  the  cotton  may  have 
205 


COTTON. 


acquired  in  the  house ;  it  is  then 
passed  from  this  drying  immediately 
to  the  gin,  or  machine  that  separates 
the  seed  from  the  wool ;  after  going 
through  the  gin,  and  being  separated 
from  the  seed,  it  is  again  turned  over 
to  the  women,  who  are  generally  in 
a  large  room,  well  lighted  with  glass 
windows.  They  sit  with  small  ta- 
bles before  them,  made  either  witli 
open  slats,  reeds,  or  wire,  when  any 
crushed  seeds,  and  cotton  burned  or 
blackened  by  the  former  machine,  or 
motes  that  have  escaped  the  former 
searches,  are  removed  ;  and  to  have 
this  work  well  done,  thirty  pounds  is 
all  that  is  required  per  day  from  each 
woman.  After  this  third  operation 
it  is  considered  ready  to  be  bagged 
for  market. 

"  As  soon  as  the  attention  of  the 
Southern  States  was  called  to  the 
profitable  cultivation  of  cotton  by  a 
few  persons  along  the  shores  of  Geor- 
gia and  Carolina,  the  cultivation  be- 
gan to  be  extended  into  the  interior. 
The  small  quantity  of  cotton  that  had 
been  grown  for  domestic  uses  was 
exchanged  for  larger  quantities,  to 
be  prepared  for  sale.  But  the  great 
difficulty  to  be  overcome  in  the  prog- 
ress to  extension  was  to  find  out  any 
instrument  by  wliich  the  cotton  wool 
could  be  separated  from  the  seed. 

"By  this  time  various  machines 
had  been  introduced  for  ginning  the 
Sea-Island  cotton,  but  all  of  them  end- 
ed at  last  in  two  rollers  revolving 
upon  each  other,  either  longer  or 
shorter,  and  moving  with,  some  more, 
some  less  velocity.  Those  rollers 
were  but  badly  adapted  to  the  hairy 
cotton,  or  second  variety,  which  soon 
began  to  obtain  the  preference,  in  the 
interior  of  Georgia  and  South  Caro- 
lina, over  the  first  or  smooth-leaved 
variety,  and  merited  to  obtain  that 
preference,  as  giving,  when  separa- 
ted from  its  downy  seed,  a  finer  and 
stronger,  although  shorter  fibre,  and 
as  perfecting  its  fruit  sooner,  but 
which  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
separate  with  the  rollers,  because  the 
down  or  fur  upon  the  seed  retained 
the  seed  hanging  upon  the  roller,  and 
denied  admission  to  the  rollers  of  the 
20G 


fresh  cotton  in  the  seed  that  was  of- 
fered. Many  plans  were  suggested, 
many  substitutes  for  the  rollers  de- 
signed. All  succeeded  in  part,  but 
still  they  went  on  slow.  Something 
was  desired  to  do  much  in  a  short 
time  ;  something  that  was  strong 
enough  to  travel  about  without  being 
broken  to  pieces,  and  light  enough  to 
move  with  its  moving  master.  At 
last  such  a  thing  was  found  in  Miller 
and  Whitney's  gin,  probably  not  the 
best  machine  that  could  have  been 
designed,  but  so  operative  to  its  end, 
so  efficient  to  its  purpose,  that  it  toolc 
possession  of  the  whole  ground. 
From  thence  forward  no  other  ma- 
chine was  sought  for,  and  Miller  and 
Whitney's  gin  is  employed  to  separ- 
ate the  cotton  seed  from  Virginia  to 
Louisiana,  save  where  the  roller  gin 
is  used,  and  its  use  is  now  altogether 
confined  to  the  Sea -Island  cotton, 
whose  superior  value  is  supposed  to 
warrant  the  great  increase  of  labour 
necessary  in  that  mode  of  ginning. 
Miller  and  Whitney's  gin  was  design- 
ed by  Mr.  Whitney,  and  executed  at 
the  plantation  of  Mr.  Miller,  sixteen 
miles  above  Savannah,  about  the  year 
1795,  and  it  seems  to  be  derived  from 
two  machines  already  used  upon  cot- 
ton, a  kind  of  cylindrical  whipper,  and 
the  circular  cards,  before  that  time 
introduced  in  manufacturing  cotton, 
a  wooden  shaft  or  roller  enclosed 
within  a  wooden  box.  This  roller  or 
shaft  has,  at  every  inch  of  its  length, 
a  steel  blade  or  saw  about  a  foot  in 
diameter ;  above  these  saws  is  a  box 
containing  the  cotton  in  the  seed. 
The  box  has  the  bottom  of  metal  slits, 
through  which  the  saws  pass  about 
an  inch,  and  pulling  off  the  cotton, 
but  sometimes  cutting  the  fibres  as 
it  passes.  This  revolving  of  the  saws 
carries  the  cotton  in  the  box  gradual- 
ly round,  until  the  seeds  contained  in 
the  box  are  freed  of  the  wool  attach- 
ed to  them,  when  it  is  emptied  of  the 
seed  and  refilled  with  fresh  cotton  : 
it  too  often  leaves  sonne  of  the  fibre 
behind  it,  which  diminishes  the  quan- 
tity as  well  as  injures  the  quality,  so 
much  so  that  the  estimated  difference 
of  the  products  in  these  two  modes  of 


COT 


COT 


ginning  are,  with  rollers,  300  pounds 
to  the  1000,  and  250  pounds  to  the 
1000  with  Miller  and  Whitney's  gin. 
This  gin  having,  at  last,  given  a  cheap 
and  expeditious  mode  of  taking  tlie 
wool  from  the  hairy  American  cotton 
(for  a  gin  that  costs  ten  pounds  ster- 
ling will  clean  a  bale  a  day  with  a 
single  horse  acting  upon  the  gin,  with 
a  band  wheel  which  any  man  can 
make  lor  himself),  the  cultivation  of 
this  description  of  cotton  diverged  in 
all  directions  around  Georgia  as  the 
common  centre  ;  it  went  north  into 
the  two  Carolinas  ;  it  went  west  into 
the  hill  country  of  all  the  Southern 
States  ;  it  was  found  capable  of  ad- 
justing itself  to  the  soil  and  climate 
of  the  mterior  country,  which  the  An- 
guiUa  cotton  had  not  been  adapted 
to;  still  the  fibre  of  the  hairy  or  short 
staple  cotton  is  better  near  the  sea 
than  in  the  interior." 

Diseases  of  the  Plant. — AVet  soils 
are  peculiarly  injurious,  producing 
rot  and  rust. 

The  rot  commences  with  a  black  or 
brown  spot  on  the  bowl,  which,  in- 
creasing, produces  a  putrefaction  of 
the  whole.  It  is  thougtit  to  be  a  fun- 
gus, and  to  prevail  in  old  varieties 
during  rainy  seasons. 

Rust  is  a  disease  of  the  leaves  and 
stalk.  Spots  or  blotches  of  a  brown 
colour  appear,  which  cause  the  parts 
to  dry  up  and  almost  crumble  away. 
It  is  produced  by  the  Urcdo  gossypit, 
according  to  Dr.  Leitner. 

The  sore  shin  is  a  disease  of  very 
young  plants  in  Upper  Mississippi,  by 
•which  the  stems  are  very  much  inju- 
red. 

The  louse,  or  Aphis,  is  often  very 
destructive  ;  sprinkling  with  slacked 
lime  and  topping  would  be  serviceable. 

The  green  caterpillar  eats  into  the 
bowl,  destroying  the  staple. 

The  army  worm  is  another  very  de- 
structive insect,  of  a  brown  colour 
striped  with  white,  and  devouring  the 
leaves. 

The  cotton  crop  is  rendered  by 
these  causes  very  uncertain,  and  pe- 
culiarly liable  to  destruction  during 
wet  weather.  The  introduction  of 
liming  is  perhaps  the  best  prevent- 


ive, but  the  large  worms  can  only  be 
destroyed  by  burning  up  the  bowls  or 
plants  infested,  so  as  to  iiitidcr  the 
propagation  of  the  creatures.  Not- 
withstanding all  these  enemies,  two 
million  bales  were  raised  in  1S44. 

COTTON  SEED.  The  seeds 
abound  in  a  mild  oil,  and  are  very 
nutritious.  A  bushel  weighs  thirty 
pounds,  and  }ields  two  and  one  third 
quarts  of  oil  and  twelve  and  a  half 
pounds  fine  meal.  They  are  used  as 
food. in  the  Levant  and  East.  The 
proportion  of  oil  is  great,  and  readily 
obtained  by  pressure  ;  the  cake  can 
afterward  be  used  with  success  in 
fattening,  and  as  a  manure  for  new- 
crops.  To  some  extent,  the  whole 
seed  is  used  for  cows  and  fattening 
in  the  South,  and  is  said  to  afford 
well-flavoured  milk. 

COTTON,  SPECIAL  MANURES. 
The  application  of  calcareous  marls 
in  South  Carolina  has  revived  worn 
lands  ;  salt,  also,  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties, improves  the  culture,  but  bone 
earth  will  be  the  most  serviceable. 
Rich  lands,  or  those  well  manured, 
yield  the  heaviest  supplies.  By  Dr. 
"Shephard's  analysis  cotton  wool  con- 
tains one  percent.,  and  the  seed  3  85 
per  cent,  of  ashes  thus  constituted  • 

Wool.  Seed. 


Lime  and  Magnesia 
Potash  and  (Soda?) 
Phosphoric  acid    . 
Sulphuric  acid 


30-31  —  2y-79 

3109  —  19  40 

12-30  —  45  35 

1-22  —  116 


64-92  93-TO 

COTTON  DYEING.  Cotton  and 
linen  have  nearly  the  same  affinity 
for  dyes,  and  will  be  introduced  to- 
gether here.  Having  been  bleached, 
the  first  step  is  to  prepare  them  to 
receive  a  good  stain.  Few  colours 
unite  at  once  to  form  a  permanent 
dye,  and  madder  fret  with  oil  is  the 

'■  most   permanent.      There    are   five 

'  methods  by  which  cloths  are  prepa- 

1  red  to  retain  colours. 

1st.  Galling. — Gall  nuts  or  sumach, 
or  a  mixture,  is  prepared  for  this  pur- 
pose.    Two  or  three  ounces  of  galls 

I  to  one  pound  of  cotton  are  coarsely 
powdered,  put  into  a  copper  contaiu- 

,  ing  thirty  gallons  of  water  for  one 
hundred  pounds  of  cotton,  and  boiled 

!  until  the  pieces  of  gall  nut  feel  pasty. 
207 


COT 


COT 


The  fire  is  removed,  and  the  liquor  I 
passed  through  a  hnir  sieve  -when 
mudpratcly  cool.  A  jiortion  of  the  h- 
quor  is  tlien  drawn  into  a  baih,  the 
yarn  or  cloth  well  soal<cd,  wrung  or 
pressed  out,  and  spread  to  dry.  Some 
fresh  liquor  is  then  added  to  the  bath, 
and  fresh  cotton  used. 

When  sumach  is  used,  double  the 
weight  is  added,  and  the  liquor  is 
merely  infused  in  hot  water,  and  not 
boiled.  Where  a  mixture  is  used, 
the  galls  and  sumach  are  prepared 
separately  and  the  liquors  mixed. 

2d.  Aliiming.  —  This  preparation 
serves  for  very  many  colours.  Four 
ounces  of  clean  alum  are  used  for 
every  pound  of  cotton  ;  the  solution 
is  made  in  a  copper  of  thirty  gallons, 
at  122°  Fahrenheit,  that  amount  of 
water  serving  for  one  hundred  pounds 
of  cotton.  The  cotton  is  introduced 
into  the  liquor  when  at  98°  Fahren- 
heit, well  worked,  taken  out,  and 
wrung  or  pressed,  being  placed  to 
dry  in  the  shade.  Cotton  usually  re- 
quires a  second,  and  even  third  im- 
mersion before  it  is  fully  prepared  ; 
it  should  be  kept  moist  for  twelve 
hours,  and  dipped  only  after  two  or 
three  days  from  the  preceding  pro- 
cess. It  must  be  well  washed  before 
colouring  to  remove  any  uncombined 
alum.  This  is  so  common  a  prepar- 
ation that  dyers  keep  the  solution  in 
tuns  to  be  drawn  off  and  warmed 
when  wanted.  The  mordant  is  some- 
times prepared  for  delicate  colours  by 
addingone  ounce  of  carbonate  of  soda 
for  every  pound  of  the  alum.  Ace- 
tate of  alumma  prepared  with  sugar  of 
lead,  alum,  and  a  little  potash,  is  used 
to  produce  fine  madder  reds,  weld 
yellovv's,  and  other  brilliant  colours  : 
it  is  used  cold,  and  at  4°  Baume. 

3d.  Mordants.  —  These  are  solu- 
ble mineral  bodies  which  possess  a 
twofold  affinity  for  the  staple  and  the 
colour.  Acetate  of  alumina,  and  iron, 
and  solution  of  tin  are  the  most  im- 
portant. They  are  applied  to  certain 
parts  of  the  cloth  to  produce  peculiar 
colours,  and  are  also  employed  in 
different  degrees  of  strength  in-solu- 
tion  for  the  production  of  light  or 
deep  tints.  Thus  acetate  of  iron 
208 


with  madder  brings  out  every  shade 
from  pale  violet  to  black.  Hence 
mordants  are  not  only  added  by  bath, 
but  mixed  in  a  paste  with  starch  or 
gum  to  hinder  them  from  spreading 
over  the  surface  of  the  web.  In  this 
way  more  is  used  than  stains  the 
cloth,  and  steps  are  to  be  taken  after 
the  preparation  is  fixed  to  remove 
any  part  of  the  mordant  that  is  un- 
combined ;  this  is  done  by  scouring 
in  a  bath  containing  fresh  cow-dung, 
which  takes  off  the  iron  or  alumina 
without  allowing  it  to  mix  with  oth- 
er parts  of  the  web.  The  process  is 
called  dunging. 

4th.  D'ye  baths  are  of  two  kinds. — 
Colour  baths,  which  are  used  to  ex- 
tract the  colour,  except  in  the  case 
of  madder,  which  is  used  in  powder. 
Dye  baths  are  the  solutions  in  wiiich 
the  web  or  yarn  is  pressed  to  attain 
a  stain  ;  thev  usually  require  a  heat 
of  90=  to  100°  Fahrenheit,  although 
some  are  used  cold.  See  the  Col- 
ours. 

5th.  Waslmig  after  Dyeing. — This 
is  a  delicate  operation,  as  the  uni- 
formity of  tint  depends  on  it.  "  A 
well -planned  dye-house  should  be 
an  oblong  gallery,  with  a  stream  of 
water  flowing  in  an  open  conduit  in 
the  middle,  a  series  of  dash  wheels 
arranged  against  the  wall  at  one  side, 
and  of  dyeing  coppers,  furnished  with 
self-acting  winces  or  reels,  against 
the  other.  Tiie  washing  may  be  done 
by  hand,  by  the  rinsing  machine,  or 
dash  wheel,  according  to  the  stuff; 
and  they  may  be  stripped  of  the  wa- 
ter either  by  the  jack  and  pin,  by  the 
squeezing  roller,  or  by  the  press. 
^^'ooden  pins  are  placed  in  some  dye- 
houses  on  each  side  the  wash  cistern 
or  pool.  They  are  somewhat  coni- 
cal, one  foot  and  a  half  high,  three 
inches  and  a  half  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  one  inch  and  a  half  at  the  top, 
and  fixed  firmly  upright,  and  at  a  lev- 
el of  about  three  feet  above  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cistern,  so  as  to  be  handy." 
— {Ure's  Encyclopedia.) 

COTTON  "GRASS.  Several  spe- 
cies of  Eriophoriim  have  a  small  cot- 
tony tuft  from  their  summits.  They 
are  of  trifling  importance. 


cow 

COTTON,  WILD.  The  silk  weed  | 
{Asdcpias  Syriaca).  ' 

COTTO>^"  WOOD.  The  Populus 
CdJiadeyisis.     See  Poplar. 

COTYLEDON.  Tlie  seed  lobes. 
Jussieu's  followers  divide  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  according  to  the  number 
of  parts  or  cotyledons  in  any  seed. 
Thus  dicotyledons,  or  plants  with  two 
seed  lobes,  are  the  ordinary  inhabi- 
tants of  the  temperate  zone.  Mono- 
cotyledons are  the  palms,  grasses,  &c., 
which  are  most  luxuriant  in  tropical 
regions,  and  possess  but  one  seed 
lobe.  Acotylcdons  are  the  same  with 
cryptogamic  plants,  and  contain  no 
apparent  cotvledons. 

COUCH  GRASS.  Several  varie- 
ties of  repent  grasses,  with  perennial 
stems,  are  so  called,  as  Trttkum  rc- 
pens,  Agrostis  rcpens,  &c.  There  is 
but  one  way  to  destroy  them  :  hoed 
crops,  thorough  ploughing,  with  a  har- 
row to  collect  the  fragments,  and 
heavy  liming  or  salting. 

COUGH.  Horses  and  cattle  troub- 
led with  cough  should  be  sheltered, 
bran  and  linseed  oil  administered,  or 
the  bowels  moved :  bleeding  is  occa- 
sionallv  necessary. 

COULTER.  The  knife  of  a  plough. 
It  is  also  a  corruption  of  cultivator, 
and  used  to  designate  a  one-pronged 
cultivator  used  in  the  South. 

COUNTER.  The  breast  of  a 
horse. 

COUPLES.  Ewes  and  lambs  are 
counted  bv  couples. 

COUPLINGS.  Thongs  of  leather 
to  fasten  two  bodies  together. 

COURT  PLASTER.  Silk,  usual- 
ly of  a  black  colour,  rendered  adhe- 
sive by  the  following  mixture :  one 
ounce  of  isinglass  dissolved  in  the 
smallest  quantity  of  water,  and  half 
an  ounce  of  benzoin  dissolved  in  al- 
cohol. This  is  brushed  over  ten  or 
twelve  times  until  a  sufficient  coat  is 
left. 

COVER.  Any  sheltered  place  in 
■which  game  can  lie  hid. 

COVEY.  A  gang  of  partridges  or 
other  game. 

COW.     "Oneof  the  most  useful  of 
the  domestic  animals  :   her  milk  is 
peculiarly  adapted  to  nourish  infants 
S2 


COW 

and  invalids,  and  requires  no  prepar- 
ation to  make  it  palatable  or  whole- 
some.    In  the  article  Cattle  we  have 
given  an  enumeration  of  the  various 
breeds  of  cows,  and  under  Butler  and 
Cheese  an  account  of  their  principal 
produce.     We  shall  here  confine  our- 
selves to  the  proper  management  of 
a  cow,  so  as  to  make  her  most  pro- 
ductive, and  to  the  most  common  dis- 
eases to  which  this  animal  is  subject. 
"  Where  only  one  or  two  cows  are 
kept,  especially  where  they  are  to  be 
maintained  on  a  limited  portion  of 
[  pasture,  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
I  a  good  choice  be  made  when  they  are 
purchased  or  reared.     Some  breeds, 
I  no  doubt,  are  much  superior  to  oth- 
!  ers  ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  there  is  a 
i  better  chance  of  having  a  profitable 
cow,  if  she  be  reared  on  the  land  on 
which  she  is  to  be  kept.     When  the 
common  breed  of  the  country  is  de- 
cidedly inferior,  it  may  be  profitable 
to  bring  a  cow  from  a  distance,  in 
;  which  case  it  should  be  from  some 
district  of  which  the  pasture  is  rath- 
er inferior  to  that  to  which  she  is 
i  brought,  or,  at  least,  not  better.     The 
best  breeds  are  found  in  the  richest 
pastures,  but  they  do  not  thrive  on 
'  worse.     On  poor  land  a  small  active 
^  cow  will  pick  her  food  and  keep  in 
]  condition,  where  a  fine   large    cow- 
would  starve,  or,  at  least,  fall  off  rap- 
idly.    This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
the  mountains,  near  the  tops  of  which 
no  domestic  animal  will  live  but  the 
goat,  and  next  to  it  the  smallest  breed 
of  cows.   Where  the  pastures  are  poor 
but  extensive,  cows  give  little  milk, 
and  the  number  which  can  be  kept 
must  make  up  for  the  produce  of 
each.     Where,  on  the  other  hand, 
cows  are  stalled,  and  fed  on  artificial 
food  brought    to  them  in  sufficient 
quantity,  large  bulky  cows  give  the 
best  return  for  the  food  ;  at  least,  this 
seems  to  be  the  opinion  of  the  Flem- 
ish farmers  in  general.     Where  cows 
pick  up  the  herbage  growing  by  the 
road-side,  in   forests,   or    are    teth- 
ered on  a  small  portion  of  clover  or 
lucern,  a  small  lean  cow  is  preferred  ; 
and  in  general  the  cows  commonly 
met  with,  and  which  are  bred  in  each 
208 


COV.' 

district,  seem  the  best  adapted  for 
the  mode  in  wliicli  they  are  fed. 
Whatever  be  Die  breed  or  quality  of 
a  cow,  she  should  always  have  plen- 
ty of  food,  without  which  no  consid- 
erable produce  in  milk  can  be  expect- 
ed. This  food  should  be  succulent 
as  well  as  nourishing,  or  else  fat  will 
be  produced  instead  of  rnilk.  A  cow 
well  fed  may  be  safely  milked  till 
within  a  month  of  her  calving.  It  is 
better  that  she  should  be  dry  before 
the  new  milk  begins  to  spring  in  her 
udder.  A  little  attention  will  readi- 
ly prevent  her  becoming  dry  too  soon, 
or  being  milked  too  long.  Heifers 
with  their  first  calf  should  be  allow- 
ed to  go  dry  sooner  than  older  cows, 
because  their  growth  would  be  impe- 
ded by  the  double  drain  of  the  milk 
and  the  calf  It  is  best  to  let  a  heif- 
er go  to  the  bull  when  nature  prompts 
her  to  it,  provided  she  be  not  less 
than  fifteen  or  eighteen  months  old  ; 
for  if  they  are  thwarted  in  their  first 
heat,  they  are  apt  to  become  irregu- 
lar ever  after ;  and  it  is  advanta- 
geous for  a  cow  to  calve  regularly  at 
the  same  season  of  the  year.  The 
best  time  is  May,  when  the  grass  be- 
gins to  be  succulent.  In  populous 
places,  where  veal  is  considered  a  lux- 
ury, the  calves  are  kept  and  fattened 
by  letting  them  suck  the  cows,  or  by 
giving  them  warm  milk  to  drink. 
Near  large  towns  this  is  a  profitable 
mode  of  employing  the  milk,  when  it 
cannot  be  sold  for  immediate  con- 
sumption. 

"  Her  food  must  be  raised  in  regu- 
lar succession,  and  cut  for  her.  The 
earliest  green  food  is  rye,  then  clo- 
ver, which  may  be  made  so  to  suc- 
ceed each  other  as  to  give  an  ample 
supply.  Cabbages,  beet  root,  pars- 
nips, potatoes,  and  turnips  will  con- 
tinue the  supply  during  winter,  and 
the  dung  and  urine  of  the  cow,  care- 
fully collected,  will  be  sufficient  to 
keep  the  land  in  condition. 

"  Where  cows  are  allowed  to  be  in 
the  open  air,  with  proper  shelter  in 
case  of  stormy  and  wet  weather, 
they  are  subject  to  few  diseases. 
They  must  be  carefully  looked  to  at 
the  time  of  calving,  but  except  in  ur- 
210 


COW 

gent  cases  nature  must  be  allowed 
to  perform  her  own  office.  A  little 
common  sense  and  experience  will 
soon  teach  the  possessor  of  a  cow  to 
assist  nature,  if  absolutely  necessa- 
ry ;  and  in  case  of  difficulties  the 
safest  way  is  to  call  in  an  experien- 
ced person.  Drinks  and  medicine 
should  be  avoided  ;  a  little  warm  wa- 
ter, with  some  barley  or  bean  meal 
mixed  with  it,  is  the  most  comforta- 
ble drink  for  a  cow  after  calving. 
The  calf,  and  not  the  cow,  should 
have  the  first  milk,  which  nature  has 
intended  to  purge  its  intestines  of  a 
glutinous  substance  which  is  always 
foimd  in  the  new-born  calf  A  very 
common  disease  with  cows  is  a  dis- 
ordered function  of  the  liver,  pro- 
ducing a  yellowish  tint  in  the  eyes, 
and  sometimes  in  the  skin.  A  gen- 
tle purge,  consisting  of  half  a  pound 
of  Glauber  salts,  an  ounce  of  ginger, 
and  two  ounces  of  treacle,  with  two 
quarts  of  boiling  water  poured  over 
them,  may  be  given  when  it  is  milk- 
warm,  and  repeated  every  other  day  ; 
keeping  the  cow  warm,  if  it  be  in 
winter,  by  a  cloth  over  the  loins,  and 
in  a  shed.  This  will  in  general  re- 
store her  health.  The  symptoms  of 
a  diseased  liver  or  lungs  in  a  cow  are 
leanness,  with  a  staring  coat,  a  husky 
cough  with  loss  of  appetite,  a  difficul- 
ty of  breathing,  and  a  great  diminu- 
tion in  the  secretion  of  the  milk.  In 
accidents  or  acute  diseases  the  at- 
tendance of  the  clever  veterinary 
practitioner  is  indispensable. 

"Attention  to  food  and  exercise, 
giving  the  first  regularly  and  in  mod- 
erate quantities  at  a  time,  and  allow- 
ing the  cow  to  use  her  own  judgment 
as  to  the  latter,  are  the  great  secrets 
of  health  ;  and  a  healthy  young  cow 
reared  at  home,  or  purchased  of  a 
conscientious  dealer,  will  probably 
live  to  old  age  without  ever  having 
had  any  disease.  A  cow  is  old  and 
unprofitable  when  she  reaches  twelve 
or  fourteen  years." 

COWAGE.  The  Dolichos pruricns, 
the  pods  of  which  are  set  with  small 
bristles,  which  produce  great  irrita- 
tion on  the  skin.  It  is  an  exploded 
remedy  for  worms,  and  exotic. 


CRA 

COW-BANE.     See  Hemlock. 

COWHERD.  One  who  tends 
cows. 

COWISH,  or  BISCUIT  ROOT.  A 
kind  of  potato  found  on  the  Colum- 
bia River. 

COW  PEA.     The  Southern  bean. 

COWPOX.  In  farriery,  a  dis- 
ease affecting  the  teats  of  cows. 
This  disease  appears  in  the  form  of 
small  bluish  vesicles  surrounded  by 
inflammation,  elevated  at  the  edge 
and  depressed  in  the  centre,  and  con- 
taining a  limpid  fluid.  By  the  use  of 
the  virus  of  this  disease  has  origina- 
ted the  present  excellent  system  of 
vaccination. 

C  O  W-TIE .  A  provincial  term  ap- 
plied to  a  short,  thick  hair  rope,  with 
a  wooden  nut  at  one  end  and  an  eye 
in  the  other,  being  used  for  tying  the 
hind  legs  of  the  cows  while  milking. 

COW  WHEAT.  A  very  inferior 
herbage  plant  of  Flanders  (Melamp]/- 
rum  pratense),  with  light  yellow  flow- 
ers (see  figure). 


CRAB.  The  European  crab-apple 
is  the  Fyrus  mains ;  it  is  larger  and 
tarter  than  ours,  which  is  the  P.  co- 
ronana,  an  ornamental  tree  of  fifteen 
or  eighteen  feet.  The  American  crab 
furnishes  good  stocks  for  dwarfs,  and 
the  fruit  makes  cider.  It  would  also 
furnish  new  varieties  if  cultivated. 

CRACKS  LN  THE  HEELS  OF 
HORSES.     See  Horse. 

CRADLE.  A  frame  consisting  of 
five  or  more  long  strips  of  wood,  prop- 


erly  curved  and  bound  together,  to  be 
affixed  to  a  scytlie  for  cutting  wheat, 
&c.  The  labourer  cuts  with  a  cradle 
five  or  six  times  more  than  with  a 
sicklo 

CRANBERRY.  The  Oxycoccus 
macrocarpus,  a  bog  plant  in  the  North 
and  West,  yielding  a  large,  acid,  red 
berry,  containing  malate  of  lime.  In 
preserves  and  tarts  it  is  highly  es- 
teemed, and  there  is  an  immense  de- 
mand for  shipping  and  exportation. 
Tliey  are  readily  cultivated  by  trans- 
planting, in  spring,  the  cranberry  sods, 
or  selecting  plants  and  transferring 
them  to  a  hghtsoil,  rather  moist.  The 
runners  can  be  layered,  or  seed  sown 
in  spring.  They  grow  rapidly,  cover- 
ing nearly  everything,  and  are  but  lit- 
tle subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects. 
The  plants  are  set  about  18  inches 
apart,  in  rows,  and  kept  clean  at  first. 

The  yield  increases  for  several 
years,  and  becomes  as  great  as  400 
bushels  the  acre  in  five  years,  al- 
though 200  are  a  good  average.  The 
fruit  is  gathered  by  rakes,  which  serve 
to  prune  the  plants  at  the  same  time. 
When  the  berries  are  intended  for 
keeping,  they  should  be  rolled  over  a 
gently  inclined  plane  of  wood,  to  re- 
move such  as  are  soft  or  rotten. 
They  keep  well  for  a  year  in  tight 
casks,  filled  with  water  and  headed 
close.  A  barrel  of  four  bushels  in 
England  sells  readily  for  $20.  The 
fresh  fruit  commands  $1  50  the  bush- 
el in  New-York. 

Several  varieties  of  tall  cranberry 
are  found  in  the  United  States  ;  as 
the  Viburnum  oxycoccus,  and  the  Pa.m- 
bina  of  Oregon  ;  but  they  are  not  cul- 
tivated, the  first  being  unfit  for  the 
table. 

The  English  Oxycoccus  palustris  is 
said  by  Nicol  to  be  superior  to  the 
American  ;  it  is  readily  cultivated  on 
the  margins  of  ponds,  and  might  be  in- 
troduced into  the  United  States. 

CRANK.  "  A  mechanical  contri- 
vance for  changing  a  revolving  into 
an  alternate  motion.  An  iron  axis  is 
bent  in  some  part  of  its  length  out  of 
its  rectilinear  direction.  As  the  axis 
turns,  the  bent  part  describes  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle,  and  gives  a 
211 


'      CRE 

reciprocating  motion  to  a  piston  or 
rod  attached  to  it." 

CRASSA.MENTUM.  The  clot  of 
blood  ;  fibrin,  with  red  globules. 

CREAM.  The  oleaginous  part  of 
milk,  mixed  with  some  casein. 

CREASOTE  (from  Kpsar,  flesh,  au- 
fw,  /  save).  A  colourless,  spiritu- 
ous, and  oily  liquid  obtained  from 
wood  tar.  It  is  singularly  antiseptic, 
imparting  that  property  to  smoke, 
wood  tar,  &:c.  It  is  of  great  price, 
and  used  chieflvto  subdue  toothache. 

CREMOC  ARPIUM.  A  two  to  five 
celled  inferior  fruit,  cells  one-seeded, 
indehiscent,  dry.  When  dry,  separa- 
ting from  a  common  axis,  as  in  the 
Umbel! ifcr<x.   ' 

CRENATE.  The  edges  of  leaves, 
which  are  divided  into  curved  notch- 
es, are  called  crenate. 

CREPITUS.  A  crackling  noise 
produced  by  pressing  cellular  tissue 
containing  air. 

CRESS.  Lepidium  sativum.  A 
small  salad  herb  similar  to  mustard. 
It  is  sown  thickly  in  drills  and  cut  in 
the  first  leaf  For  a  supply,  sow 
every  week  in  good,  clean  ground. 

CRESS,  INDIAN.  Tropccolum  ma- 
jus  ;  Common  nasturtium.  A  brill- 
iant yellow-flowered  climbing  plant, 
the  fruit  of  which  resembles  capers. 
Sow  in  April,  in  good,  strong  soil  and 
open  situation  ;  put  out  in  rows,  al- 
lowing three  inches  between  each : 
set  sticks  for  them  to  climb.  They 
flower  in  June  and  July.  The  fruit, 
which  is  admirable  for  pickling,  is  ta- 
ken when  full  sized,  but  green,  about 
August.  They  are  put  in  vinegar  or 
a  suitable  pickle  as  soon  as  gathered. 
They  require  little  attention  when 
once  fairly  started. 

CRESS,  WATER.  Nasturtium  of- 
ficinale. A  creeping,  amphibious  per- 
ennial, indigenous  in  England.  It  is 
of  an  agreeable  flavour,  and  relish- 
ed for  breakfast.  It  is  cultivated  on 
clear  streams  one  or  two  inches  deep, 
with  a  sandy  or  gravelly  bed.  The 
plants  are  set  along  the  stream  in 
rows  about  18  inches  apart.  They 
grow  readily,  and  bear  cutting  very 
often.  If  planted  near  a  spring  head, 
they  live  through  winter  and  remain 
213 


CRO 

for  many  years,  affording  a  greai 
quantitv  of  salad. 

CRETACEOi:S  {froxacreta,  chalk). 
Of  the  nature  of  chalk. 

CRIB.  A  feeding-stall,  or  store- 
house for  corn. 

CRIB  BITING.  A  habit  in  horses 
proceeding  from  derangement  of  the 
stomach  usually.  Straps  are  used 
to  hinder  it,  but  if  the  top  of  the  man- 
ger be  furnished  with  a  roller  turn- 
ing on  its  axis,  they  will  not  be  able 
to  bite  much  of  it  away. 

CRICK.  A  common  term  signify- 
ing inability  to  move  the  muscles  of 
the  part,  as  the  neck. 

CRICKET.  A  family  of  insects 
resembling  grasshoppers,  but  with 
less  perfect  wings.  The  Gryllotalpa 
brevipennis  burrows  like  a  mole,  and, 
with  other  kinds,  lives  on  the  tender 
roots  of  grasses,  &c.  They  do  injury 
to  melons,  pumpkins,  &c.,  and  some- 
times accumulate  in  old  meadows  so 
as  to  require  extermination.  Several 
Acheta,  as  the  A.  nigra  and  ahhrcvia- 
ta,  are  abundant,  dwelling  among 
grass.  They  are  only  to  be  destroyed 
by  liming,  fallows,  and  hoed  crops. 

CRINOIDEANS.  A  nearly  extinct 
race  of  crustaceous  sea  animals  re- 
sembling a  lily.  The  fossils  abound  in 
some  limestones,  as  thatof  Lockport. 

CRISTATE  (from  Kspa^,  a  horn). 
Having  the  appearance  of  a  horn,  or 
crest. 

CROP  OUT.  In  geology,  the  ex- 
posure of  rocks  above  the  suiface. 

CROPPING.  Gathering  a  crop. 
Cutting  the  ears  of  anixirals,  as  dogs. 

CROP,  ROTATION  OF.  See  Ro- 
tation. 

CROPS.    The  produce  of  the  field. 

CROSS  BREED.  The  young  of 
animals  of  different  breeds.  Some- 
times called  a  cross. 

CROSS  FURROW.  A  water-fur- 
row running  across  the  ridges  or 
lands.  It  is  often  deepened  with  a 
spade,  and  opened  with  a  double- 
mould-board  plough. 

CROTALUS.  A  genus  of  snakes, 
including  the  C.  horridus,  or  rattle- 
snake. They  are  all  furnished  with 
1  a  rattle,  and  their  wounds  are  ex- 
1  tremely  dangerous.    An  instant  ex- 


CRO 


CRU 


cision  of  the  part  is  the  most  certain 
remedy.      Spirits   of  hartshorn  and 
wine  are  necessary  to  save  the  pa- 1 
tient  from  sinking. 

CROTON  OIL.    An  extremely  ac- 
tive purge,  obtained  from  the  seeds  of , 
the  Crolon  tiglium,  an  Eastern  shnil).    j 

CROUP.     An  acute  inflanmiation  \ 
of  the  throat  and  windpipe,  attended 
with  a  shrill  wheezing  and  suffoca- 
tion, occurring  in  children.     It  runs 
its  course  rapidly,  and  must  be  treat- 
ed with  decision.    Bleeding,  leeches, 
external  irritations,  and  large  doses 
of  calomel  are  most  successful.  Hogs 
are  subject  to  this  disease,  and  are  I 
to  be  treated  similarly,  blood  being  \ 
drawn  freely  from  the  neck,  by  cut-  [ 
ting  to  the  jugular  vein.  j 

CROW.  Con-US  corone.  Too  well , 
known  to  require  description.  The 
crow  is  a  remarkably  intelligent  and 
suspicious  bird,  but  easily  domestica- 
ted, and  may  be  rendered  useful  on 
the  farm.  He  destroys  insects,  mice, 
rats,  and  small  vermin,  but,  unfor- 
tunately, also  delights  in  chickens, 
eggs,  and  corn.  His  suspicious  na- 
ture renders  it  an  easy  matter  to  keep 
him  from  fields  by  scarecrows  and 
moveable  objects.  Corn  steeped  in 
stupifying  drugs,  as  hellebore,  or  in 
tar  and  nitre,  either  destroy  him  or 
are  rejected.  Martins  are  well  known 
to  annoy  the  crow.  Buffon  prescribes 
two  curious  methods  of  destroying 
them  :  1st.  By  wrapping  a  piece  of 
paper  in  the  form  of  a  long  cone, 
smearing  the  interior  with  birdlime, 
and  placing  a  piece  of  meat  in  the 
bottom  :  the  crow,  reaching  after  it, 
fits  the  cone  to  his  head,  and  become*, 
blinded ;  in  this  dilemma  he  flies ' 
straight  upward  into  the  air,  until, 
becoming  fatigued,  he  alights  nearly 
at  the  spot  whence  he  had  flown, 
and  may  be  shot.  The  second  meth- 
od is  that  of  pinning  a  live  crow  to 
the  ground  by  the  wings,  stretched 
out  on  his  back,  and  retained  in  this 
posture  by  two  sharp,  forked  sticks. 
In  this  situation,  his  loud  cries  at- 
tract other  crows,  who  come  sweep- 
ing down  to  the  prostrate  prisoner, 
and  are  grappled  in  his  claws.  In 
this  way  each  successive  prisoner 


may  be  made  the  innocent  means  of 
capturing  his  companions. 

CROWSFOOT.  Several  species 
of  ranunculas,  which  are  acrid  and 
poisonous. 

CROWS'  NET.  A  net  made  of  fine 
packthread,  used  chiefly  for  catching 
wild  fowl,  but  which  may  be  employ- 
ed on  newly-sown  fields  to  entrap 
crows,  pigeons,  and  other  birds  that 
destroy  grain,  or  in  stubble,  where 
this  is  sufficiently  long  to  conceal 
the  network. 

CROWN  OF  A  LAND.  The  cen- 
tral part  of  the  ridge. 

CRUCIBLE.  A  chemical  vessel 
used  to  expose  bodies  to  a  strong 
heat.  For  coarse  purposes,  the  Hes- 
sian crucible,  made  of  sand  and  clay, 
is  used.  Porcelain  crucibles  are  ne- 
cessary for  finer  work,  and  where 
the  platinum  will  not  answer,  but  are 
destroyed  by  fixed  alkalies.  The 
platinum  crucible  is  the  finest,  from 
the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  clean- 
ed and  managed,  but  is  unfit  for  the 
treatment  of  lead,  arsenic,  mercury, 
and  a  few  other  metals  which  alloy 
with  platinum.  A  black-lead  crucible 
is  used  for  coarse  work,  and  resists 
a  stronger  heat  than  the  Hessian. 

In  delicate  operations  the  platinum 
crucible  is  placed  within  another  of 
coarse  porcelain,  or  in  a  muffle. 

CRUCIFORM,  or  CRUCIFER- 
OUS PLANTS.  Cruciferce  (from 
crux,  a  cross).  Plants  which  have  a 
flower  consisting  of  four  petals,  ar- 
ranged as  a  Maltese  cross,  as  the 
cabbage,  cress,  turnip,  mustard,  rad- 
ish, &.C.  They  require  rich  land,  are 
wholesome,  abound  in  pungent  oil, 
and  when  grown  for  seed  are  ex- 
tremely exhausting.  They  are  es- 
sentially sulphur  and  potash,  or  soda 
plants. 

CRUOR.     The  clot  of  blood. 

CRUPPER.  The  horse's  rump; 
the  leather  harness  which  passes  un- 
der the  tail. 

CRURAL  (from  cms,  the  thigh). 
Belonging  to  the  thigh  or  leg. 

CRUSHERS  FOR  GRAIN,  &c. 
Mortars,  mills  on  the  same  princi- 
ple as  the  coffee  mill,  bark  mills,  and 
grooved  rollers  running  into  one  an- 
813 


cue 


cue 


other  (Fig.),  are  variously  used  to 
crush  corn,  corn  cobs,  and  roots. 

CRUSTACEANS  (from  cnista,  a 
hard  covering).  A  tribe  of  animals 
like  crabs,  lobsters,  &c.,  with  a  crust, 
and  destitute  of  vertebrae.  The  crust 
contains  fourteen  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phate of  lime;  the  rest,  carbonate  of 
lime  and  animal  matter. 

CRYPTOGAMIA  (from  kpvktoc, 
concealed,  and  yafio^,  marriage).  An 
immense  tribe  of  plants,  which  have 
no  flowers  or  apparent  sexual  organs, 
but  produce  sporules  or  minute  seeds 
in  cases  on  their  sides,  backs,  or  on 
stalks.  Ferns,  mosses,  fungi,  sea- 
weeds, lichens,  and  the  minute  para- 
sites which  infest  plants  and  dead 
wood,  as  rust,  mildew,  rubigo,  &c., 
are  of  this  tribe. 

CRYSTAL  (from  KpvaTa2.?iog,  ice). 
Any  transparent  solid  with  a  natural 
and  regular  geometrical  figure. 

CRYSTALLINE  LENS.  The 
lens  of  the  eye,  which  refracts  light, 
so  as  to  produce  clear  vision.  It  is 
situated  internally,  behind  the  aque- 
ous humour. 

CUCUMBER.  Cucumis  sativus. 
A  pleasant  but  indigestible  edible. 
The  varieties  are  numerous,  but  the 
early  frame,  early  green  cluster,  long 
prickly,  and  long  green  are  most  cul- 
tivated. The  West  Indian  gherkin 
is  another  species. 
214 


As  the  cucumber  grows  so  freely 
in  the  United  States,  the  process  of 
forcing  is  much  more  attended  to  for 
early  supplies  than  m  Europe. 

Forcing. — Begin  ten  weeks  before 
the  fruit  is  wanted.  The  short  prick- 
ly, long  green,  and  white-spined  are 
preferred.  Seed  should  be  two  or 
three  years  old.  Sow  in  pots  placed 
over  a  warm  bed.  Water  with  tepid 
water,  and  take  care  that  chilled  air 
does  not  enter  the  frame.  When  the 
second  leaves  are  expanded,  trans- 
plant into  larger  pots  ;  place  three 
together.  Carry,  when  one  month 
old,  to  the  fruiting-bed.  The  fruiting- 
bed  is  made  on  a  dry  spot,  with  fresh 
dung,  well  turned  and  forked,  and 
four  feet  high.  As  soon  as  the  bed 
is  settled,  and  in  regular  fermenta- 
tion, add  six  inches  of  fine  mould, 
and  if  it  remains  mellow  it  will  an- 
swer, but  if  fire-fanged  or  caked, 
more  will  be  necessary.  Hill  the 
mould  to  within  eight  inches  of  the 
glass  frame,  and  set  three  plants  from 
the  pots  in  it,  transplanting  with  the 
ball  of  earth  :  these  are  enough  for 
one  frame.  Water  with  warmed  wa- 
ter, and  darken  until  they  are  well 
rooted.  The  temperature  is  kept 
from  70°  to  80°  Fahrenheit,  the  steam 
being  allowed  to  escape  when  it  rises. 
As  the  heat  lessens,  add  fresh  dung 
outside,  cutting  away  the  old.    Form 


cue 


CUL 


a  bank  two  feet  wide  and  a  foot  high 
against  the  back  of  the  frame.  Give 
the  plants  air  whenever  an  opportu- 
nity offers.  Water  in  the  morning. 
Sometimes  water  in  which  guano  or 
bird  dung  has  been  steeped  is  used. 
As  the  roots  enlarge,  add  fresh,  good 
mould. 

Stop  the  growth  of  the  stems  by 
pinching  off  the  buds  at  two  joints, 
and  in  this  way  keep  stopping  the 
lateral  shoots  :  this  strengthens  the 
plant  and  causes  it  to  perfect  fruit 
early.  ]Mind  that  some  female  flow- 
ers are  left,  or  such  as  have  solid 
swellings  under  the  blossom,  for  these 
only  bear  fruit.  Abercrombie  thinks 
it  advisable  to  pluck  the  male  blos- 
som and  shake  it  over  the  female,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  a  fall  of  pol- 
len or  farina.  The  fruit  is  fit  to  cut 
16  to  20  days  after  settmg,  and  by 
care  may  be  obtained  in  succession 
for  two  months. 

Common  Cultivation. — Sow  in  May 
in  slight  hollows,  four  feet  apart ; 
manure  the  seed  beds  well  with  rot- 
ten dung ;  eight  or  nine  seed  to  the 
hill.  Leave  three  plants  in  the  hill  ; 
hoe  and  earth  up  ;  cut  away  weeds  ; 
a  little  water  in  dry  weather  does 
good.  The  soil  should  be  light  and 
mellow.  Pickling  cucumbers  may  be 
planted  in  July.  Select  the  finest  for 
seed.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  made 
to  grow  in  cylindrical  moulds  of  pot- 
tery. 

Insects  injurious  to  the  Cucumber, 
Melon,  4-c. — The  striped  bug.  Gale- 
ruca  vilata.  It  eats  the  young  foliage 
and  flowers  ;  it  is  yellow,  striped  with 
black. 

The  Flea  Beetle.  Haltica  pubesccns. 
A  small,  black,  active  coleopterous  in- 
sect, which  destroys  the  small  plants. 

The  Squash  Bug.  Coreus  Iristis.  A 
large  angular  hemipterous  insect  with 
brown  upper  wings  and  orange  belly, 
collecting  in  groups  under  the  fruit, 
and  destroying  the  leaves  and  fruit 
of  all  tlie  cultivated  cucurbitacecB. 

The  black  Worm.  The  larva  of  a 
coccinella  ;  it  cuts  down  the  young 
plants,  and  can  only  be  caught  m  the 
morning,  as  it  retires  into  the  earth 
during  the  heat  of  the  day. 


Several  species  of  aphis  annoy  the 
plants.  The  large  insects  must  be 
caught  in  nets  or  with  the  hand  ;  soot, 
tobacco  water,  solution  of  whale  oil 
soap  ;  infusion  of  wormwood.  May- 
weed, pennyroyal ;  and  slacked  lime, 
are  all  used  with  advantage.  Placing 
hens  or  turkeys  with  young  broods  in 
a  coop,  and  allowing  the  chickens  to 
run  among  the  vines,  is  an  admirable 
expedient.  All  the  foregoing  insects 
infest  melons,  cucumbers,  and  squash- 
es also. 

CUCUMBER-TREE.  Some  mag- 
nolias are  so  called. 

CUCUMIS.     The  generic  name  of 
the  cucumber,  melon,  &c. 
I      CUCURBITACE-E.     A  family  of 
plants,  mostly  vines,  monoecious,  with 
mferior  fruit,  inhabiting  warm  coun- 
tries.    The  melon,  pumpkin,  cucum- 
ber, gourd,  squash,  colocynth,  and  bry- 
ony are  common  examples. 
I      CUD.     In  cattle,  the  food  in  the 
'  first  stomach,  which  is  to  be  chewed 
over  again  and  passed  into  the  third 
to  be  digested. 

CULEX.  A  genus  of  insects  in- 
cluding the  gnat  (C  pipiens)  and  sim- 
ilar creatures  :  it  is  the  type  of  the 
Culicidce,  which  contains  moschetoes, 
&c. 

CULINARY  VEGETABLES. 
Plants  cultivated  in  gardens,  and 
sometimes  in  fields,  for  culmary  pur- 
poses. They  may  be  classed  as  leaf 
plants,  such  as  the  cabbage  tribe,  spi- 
naceous  plants,  salads,  pot  and  sweet 
herbs ;  stalk  plants,  such  as  aspara- 
gus, tart  rhubarb,  sea  kale,  &:c.  ; 
roots,  such  as  the  turnip,  carrot,  po- 
tato, 6iC.  ;  seeds,  such  as  the  pea  and 
bean  ;  fruit,  such  as  the  cucumber, 
pumpkins,  squashes,  &c.  ;  and  the 
entire  plants,  such  as  the  onion,  leek, 
mushroom,  &c.  They  may  be  other- 
wise arranged,  as  the  cabbage  fami- 
ly ;  the  leguminous  family  ;  esculent 
roots  ;  spinaceous  plants  ;  alliaceous 
plants  ;  asparaginous  plants  ;  aceta- 
rious  plants ;  pot  herbs,  sweet  herbs, 
plants  used  in  tarts  and  confection- 
erv,  and  edible  fungi. 

GULLET.     Pounded  glass.     It  is 
:  used  in  glass-making,  for  scouring  pa- 
[  per,  and  as  a  manure.     It  consists  of 
215 


CUL 

silicate  of  soda  and  lead,  and  is  prob- 
ably over-estimated  as  a  manure. 

CULM.  Stems  wliich,  like  the 
straw  of  grain,  sustain  the  flowers  at 
a  distance  from  the  leaves.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  synonyrae  for  anthracite  in 
England. 

CULMIFEROUS  PLANTS.  The 
cerealia  and  grasses. 

CULTIVATOR.  The  same  as  a 
horse  hoe.  Cultivators  consist  of 
one  hoe  or  tine,  or  many.  They  are 
used  to  loosen  the  soil  in  drill  hus- 
bandry, and  pass  where  the  plough 
would  be  too  cumbrous.  They  also 
destroy  weeds  by  scraping  them  from 
the  surface  and  cutting  their  roots. 
The  tines  are  of  every  form,  either 
curved  forward  like  a  claw,  made 


Fig.  1. 


CUL 

like  a  double  mould-board  in  minia- 
ture, long  and  sharp,  or  like  sharp 
hoes,  according  to  the  objects  of  the 
farmer.  The  frame  on  which  they 
are  fastened  is  like  a  triangular  har- 
row, and  capable  of  being  widened 
at  pleasure.  The  several  kinds  of 
tines  should  be  purchased  with  the 
frame,  so  as  to  be  inserted  into  the 
mortices  when  wanted. 

BcnienCs  and  Van  Bergen's  culti- 
vators are  well  known  in  the  Nor- 
thern States.  In  Virginia,  a  strong 
one-tine,  or  coulter,  is  used  to  prepare 
new  land.  The  following  figures  rep- 
resent simple  hoes  and  the  most  im- 
proved ;  they  are  all  without  patent, 
being  English  or  Scotch  implements. 

In  Fig.  1  the  hoe  is  intended  for 


cutting   and   scraping   in   a   narrow!  nips:  the  wheel  regulates  the  deptn 
space,  as  between  carrots  or  pars-  j  of  the  hoe.     Fig.  2  is  used  to  scrape 


a  wide  surface,  and  is  valuable  in 
weeding ;  the  iron  blade  (b)  inclines 
downward,  so  as  to  cut  the  soil. 
These  can  be  made  in  any  village. 

Fig.  3  represents  Weir's  admirable 
cultivator  of  nine  coulters,  or  hoes ; 
it  may  be  used  to  stir  the  soil  or  to 
open  drills.  The  beam  (a)  moves  on 
the  support  (c),  so  as  to  regulate  the 
depth  of  the  hoes. 

Wilkie's  horse  hoe  and  drill  har- 
row {Fig.  4)  is  also  a  favourite  im- 
plement ;  the  first  three  hoes  are  so 
fixed  as  to  open  drills,  and  the  tinee 
316 


behind  scrape  the  soil  to  a  depth  reg- 
ulated by  the  grading  of  the  front 
wheel. 

Finlaysotis  cleaning  cultivator  or 
harrow"(F/>.  5)  is  entirely  of  iron  ;  it 
has  the  following  advantages  : 

"  1.  From  the  position  in  which 
the  tines  are  fixed,  their  points  (a,  a, 
a,  a,  a)  hanging  nearly  on  a  parallel 
to  the  surface  of  the  land,  it  follows 
that  this  implement  is  drawn  with  the 
least  possible  waste  of  power.  3. 
From  the  curved  form  of  the  tines, 
all  stubble,  couch,  &,c.,  that  the  tines 


CULTIVATOR. 


may    encounter    in    their    progress 
through  the  soil  is  brought  to  the 


surface  and  rolled  up  to  the  face  of 
the  tines,  when  it  loses  its  hold,  and  is 


thrown  off  (at  h,  b,  b,  b,  b),  always  re- 
lieving itself  from  being  choked,  how- 


ever wet  or  foul  the  land.     3.  The 
mode  by  which  this  harrow  can  be 


so  easily  adjusted  to  work  at  any 
depth  required  renders  it  of  great  val- 
ue; this  is  done  as  quick  as  thought 
T 


by  moving  the  regulator  (c)  upward 
or  downward   between  the   lateral 
spring  (d,  c) ;  and  by  each  movement 
217 


CUL 


CUP 


npward  into  the  openings  (/,  g,  h,  r,  k) 
the  fore  tines  (/,  /,  /,  /)  will  be  allow- 
ed to  enter  the  soil  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  deeper  by  each  movement  into 
the  different  spaces,  until  the  regu- 
lator is  thrown  up  to  e,  when  the 
harrow  is  given  its  greatest  power, 
and  will  then  be  working  at  the  depth 
of  eight  or  nine  inches.  Also,  the 
axletree  of  the  hind  wheels  is  moved 
between  o  and  p,  a  space  of  seven  or 
eight  inches,  by  a  screw  through  the 
axletree,  which  is  turned  by  a  small 
handle  (q),  so  that  the  hind  part  of 
the  harrow,  by  this  simple  mode,  is 
also  regulated  to  the  depth  at  which 
it  is  found  necessary  to  work.  4. 
When  the  harrow  is  drawn  to  the 
head  or  foot  lands,  the  regulator  is 
pressed  down  to  d,  and  the  fore  wheel 
(to)  is  then  allowed  to  pass  under  the 
fore  bar  (n),  by  which  the  nose  of 
the  harrow  is  lifted,  and  the  points 
of  the  fore  tines  (/,  I,  I,  I)  will  then 
be  taken  two  or  three  inches  out  of 
the  soil,  which  affords  the  means  of 
turning  the  harrow  with  the  greatest 
facility.  5.  Being  made  of  malleable 
iron,  its  durability  may  be  said  to  be 
endless  ;  whereas,  if  made  of  wood, 
the  priine  cost  would  be  entirely  lost 
at  the  end  of  every  five  or  six  years. 
Lastly,  the  mode  of  working  is  so 
easy,  that  any  boy  of  ten  or  twelve 
years  of  age  is  perfectly  qualified  to 
manage  it." 

Cultivators  are  occasionally  called 
grubbers,  scarifiers,  harrows,  &c.,  ac- 
cording to  the  figure  of  the  tines. 

Several  broad  share  cultivators  for 
Indian  corn,  beans,  &c.,  have  been 
recently  brought  out  by  Mr.  Langdon, 
which  clean  a  large  surface,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  pulverize  the  soil 
without  penetrating  deep  enough  to 
disturb  the  growing  roots.  They  re- 
semble double  mould-board  ploughs. 

CULVERT.  "  An  arched  channel 
of  masonry  built  beneath  the  bed  of 
a  canal,  for  the  purpose  of  conduct- 
ing water  under  the  canal.  If  the 
water  to  be  conveyed  has  nearly  the 
same  level  as  the  canal,  the  culvert 
is  built  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  si- 
phon, and  acts  on  the  principle  of  a 
■water  pipe.  This  word  also  signifies 
218 


any  arched  channel  for  water  under 
ground." 

CUMIN.  Cuminum  cyminum.  A 
plant  cultivated  in  Sicily  for  its  bitter 
aromatic  seeds  :  used  in  confections, 
and  to  flavour  cheese.  It  is  umbel- 
liferous ;  requires  a  dry,  rich  soil ; 
bears  the  second  year,  and  does  not 
differ  in  its  management  from  cori- 
ander. 

CUNEATE,  CUNEIFORM  (from 
cuneus,  a  wedge).  Used  in  botany, 
to  describe  any  surface  which  is  an- 
gular, with  the  length  considerably 
exceeding  the  width. 

CUPEL.  "  A  shallow  earthen  ves- 
sel, somewhat  of  a  cup  shape,  gener- 
ally made  of  bone  earth.  It  is  used 
in  the  assays  of  the  precious  metals, 
which  are  fused  upon  a  cupel  with 
lead.  Cupellation  means  the  refining 
of  gold  or  silver  upon  a  cupel.'''' 

CUPPING.  In  this  operation  a 
cup-shaped  glass  is  used,  into  which 
the  large  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  is 
momentarily  introduced,  so  as  to  ex- 
pel a  great  part  of  its  air  by  dilata- 
tion ;  it  is  then  instantly  applied  to 
some  part  of  the  body,  which  is  for- 
ced into  it  by  the  external  pressure  ; 
and  on  removing  the  glass  a  circular 
red  mark  is  left,  from  the  propulsion 
of  the  blood  in  the  small  vessels  of 
the  part :  this  is  called  dry  cupping. 
It  is  generally  followed  up  by  making 
a  number  of  incisions  in  the  part  by 
means  of  an  instrument  called  a  scar- 
ificator, from  which  the  blood  oozes, 
and  from  which  a  considerable  por- 
tion may  be  drawn  by  again  applying 
the  cupping  glass.  Cupping,  when 
well  performed,  is  not  a  very  painful 
or  disagreeable  operation,  and  is  an 
excellent  mode  of  local  blood-letting. 
When  the  operator  is  not  dexterous, 
it  is  not  only  painful,  but  often  dan- 
gerous in  its  consequences.  The 
bleeding  may  generally  be  easily  stop- 
ped by  a  piece  of  lint  or  soft  rag  ; 
but  this  should  be  looked  after.  — 
{Brands' s  Encyclopedia.) 

CUPULIFERxE  {from  cupa,  a  cup). 
A  natural  order  of  arborescent  or 
shrubby  exogenous  plants,  inhabiting 
all  temperate  and  some  hot  climates. 
They  are  distinguished  by  their  amen- 


CUR 


CUT 


taceons  flowers  and  peculiarly  veined 
leaves  from  all  European  trees  ;  and 
from  other  plants  by  their  apetalous 
calyx,  fruit  enclosed  in  a  husk  or  cup  ; 
and  by  their  nuts,  which  contain  but 
one  cell  and  one  or  two  seeds.  This 
order  comprehends  the  oak,  hazel, 
beech,  chestnut,  and  hornbeam,  well- 
known  valuable  forest  trees. 

GURACOA.  A  liqueur  which  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  island  of  Cu- 
racoa  :  it  is  prepared  in  great  per- 
fection by  the  Dutch.  It  derives  its 
flavour  from  Seville  orange  peel,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  cinnamon  and 
mace. 

CURCULIO.  A  general  term  in 
the  United  States  for  the  coleopter- 
ous insects  which  devour  fruits,  or  the 
larvae  of  which  do  so.  They  are  par- 
ticularly destructive  to  plums,  apri- 
cots, and  peaches,  as  well  as  nuts. 
The  introduction  of  poultry  into  the 
orchard,  especially  hens  in  coops  with 
broods,  hogs,  paving  the  ground,  sha- 
king the  trees,  and  other  expedients, 
are  used.  Destroying  every  fruit 
which  they  cause  to  fall  is  useful. 
But  suitable  attention  to  the  trees, 
scraping,  cleaning  with  suds,  solution 
of  soft  soap  and  whale  oil  soap,  are 
quite  effective.     See  Insects. 

CURD.     The  coagulum  of  milk. 

CURL.  A  disease  of  potatoes, 
which  see. 

CURRANT.  The  white  and  red 
are  improved  varieties  of  Ribes  ru- 
brum,  the  blacks  from  R.  nigriiin. 
The  most  esteemed  kinds  are  the 
Dutch  red  and  white,  white  crystal, 
f  Champagne,  and  black  Naples.  It  is 
propagated  by  slips,  layers,  suckers, 
grafting,  and  seeds.  A  warm,  loamy, 
rich  sod  is  best ;  they  thrive  in  free 
exposures.  They  bear  on  two  and 
three  years'  spurs  ;  in  pruning,  cut 
down  new  shoots  to  within  three 
eyes  of  the  starting  place.  They 
should  be  kept  open,  suckers  remo- 
ved, and  not  be  allowed  to  branch 
too  low :  four  feet  apart  is  a  good 
distance  for  bearing  shrubs.  The 
i  currant  is  very  healthy,  but  subject 
to  many  caterpillars,  aphides,  &c., 
which  must  be  destroyed  by  slacked 
lime,  and  keeping  the  branches  clean 


by  a  syringe.  The  fruit  makes  admi- 
rable jellv,  wine,  and  is  readily  kept. 

CURRYING.  The  preparation  of 
leather  by  which  it  is  polished  and 
rendered  soft.     See  Tanniiiff. 

CUSCUTA.  The  generic  name  of 
the  dodders. 

CUSPIDATE  (from  ciispis,  apoint). 
Pointed,  a  term  used  in  descriptive 
botany. 

CUSTARD  APPLE.  A  West  In- 
dian fruit,  the  Anona  reticulata. 

CUT.  An  incision,  best  treated 
with  sticking-plaster  only. 

CUTANEOUS  (from  cutis,  the 
skin).     Relating  to  the  skin. 

CUTICLE.  The  external  delicate 
membrane  of  the  true  skin  ;  the  epi- 
dermis of  plants. 

CUT  WORM.  This  name  is  ap- 
plied to  any  caterpillar  dwelling  in 
the  earth,  which  eats  or  cuts  away 
young  plants  of  cabbage,  corn,  beans, 
&c.  They  are  naked,  of  a  greasy 
appearance,  and  ashy  green  ;  are  only 
seen  above  ground  before  sunrise  or 
in  cloudy  weather.  They  abound  in 
lands  which  are  rich,  and  have  re- 
mained in  grass  or  clover  for  a  long 
time,  and  are  referred  chiefly  to  the 
genus  Agrostis,  especially  A.  sujfusa, 
latens,  teltfera,  but  are  also  the  worms 
of  other  genera.  The  moths  are 
large,  and  of  various  shades  of  pink 
and  brown :  they  are  formed  in  July 
and  August 

Means  of  destroying  them. — Soak- 
ing seeds  does  no  good  in  this  case. 
Working  soot,  tobacco,  ashes,  lime, 
and  other  noxious  substances  into 
the  soil  around  the  plants  answers 
on  a  small  scale.  Picking  them  be- 
fore sunrise  is  recommended,  but  is 
very  tedious  ;  young  chickens  would 
assist.  Wrapping  the  leaves  of  oth- 
er plants  about  young  cabbages,  &c., 
has  also  answered.  But  when  the 
soil  is  infested  with  these  creatures, 
it  is  best  to  add  a  good  salting  of  15 
or  20  bushels  the  acre,  or  50  bush- 
els of  fresh  lime  ;  expose  it  to  frost 
in  the  fall,  and  give  the  worms  no 
rest  bv  frequent  stirring  of  the  earth. 

CUTTING.  When  a  horse  cuts 
or  wounds  one  leg  with  the  opposite 
foot.  The  best  remedy  is  to  put  on 
219 


CYN 


DAI 


the  cutting  foot  a  shoe  of  even  thick- 
ness from  heel  to  toe,  not  projecting 
in  the  shghtest  degree  beyond  the 
crust,  and  the  crust  itself  to  be  rasp- 
ed a  little  at  the  quarters.  This  shoe 
should  only  have  one  nail  on  the  in- 
side, and  that  almost  close  to  the  toe. 
— {Library  of  Useful  Knowledge.) 

CYAIsiTE  (from  Kvavor,  blue).  A 
massive  and  crystallized  mineral.  It 
has  a  pearly  lustre,  is  translucent, 
and  of  various  shades  of  blue  :  it  is 
a  silicate  of  alumina,  with  a  trace  of 
oxide  of  iron.  Only  found  in  primi- 
tive rocks. 

CYANOGEN  (from  Kvavoc,  blue, 
and  yiyvofiai,  I  form).  A  gas  which 
burns  with  a  blue  flame,  the  bicarburet 
of  nitrogen  ;  it  is  a  compound  radi- 
cal, forming  acids  with  oxygen  {cyan- 
ic) and  hydrogen  {hydrocyanic  or  prus- 
sic).  The  gas  is  poisonous  :  it  com- 
bines directly  with  many  metals, 
forming  cyanides. 

CYANURIC  ACID.  A  product  of 
the  action  of  heat  on  urea,  formu- 
la C„  Nb  Ofi. 

CYCADE.E  (from  Cycas,  a  genus 
of  plants).  A  small  family  of  dwarf 
palms  which  are  gymnospermous. 
The  Cycas  circinalis  yields  sago. 

CYCLOSIS  (from  kvkIoc,  a  circle). 
A  circulation  of  the  elaborated  sap  in 
the  higher  plants  in  delicate  anasta- 
mosing  vessels.  The  latex  circula- 
tion. 

CYDONIA.  The  generic  name  of 
the  quince-tree. 

CYLINDER  (from  kv7uv6u,  I  roll). 
A  solid,  the  height  of  which  exceeds 
the  diameter,  which  is  constant ;  it 
offers  a  circular  section  at  every  part 
when  made  at  right  angles  to  the  axis. 
As  stacks  are  often  nearly  cylindrical, 
their  contents  may  be  discovered  by 
the  formula  for  a  cylinder  :  the  solid 
contents  are  equal  to  the  height  mul- 
tiplied into  the  area  of  the  base  or 
section. 

CYME.  An  inflorescence:  the 
flower  stems  spring  from  one  part,  but 
are  afterward  variously  subdivided. 

CYNARACE.^.     Plants  like  the 
artichoke,  thistle,  &c.,  with  the  flow- 
ers included  in  a  scaly  capilulum,  also 
called  a  cynaroccphalas. 
220 


CYNIPS.  A  genus  of  hymenop 
terous  insects  without  stings.  They 
insert  their  eggs  in  parts  of  living 
trees,  causing  tumours,  of  which  the 
gall  nut  is  a  specimen. 

CYNOSURUS.  A  genus  of  grass- 
es, of  which  the  C  cristatus  is  con- 
sidered a  good  sheep  grass.  See 
Grasses. 

CYPERACE.E  (from  Cypcnis,  a 
genus).  The  tribe  of  plants  consist- 
ing of  rushes,  sedges,  and  other  marsh 
grasses  without  nodes  or  joints. 
They  are  of  trifling  value  ;  the  Cype- 
rus  csculentus  of  Italy  furnishes  a 
sweet  nut  or  tuber. 

CYPRESS-TREE.  Cupressus 
sempervirens.  A  hardy  shrub,  a  na- 
tive of  the  Levant,  growing  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  feet  high,  which 
throws  out  yellow  blossoms  in  May. 
Its  wood  is  red,  very  hard,  and  sweet- 
scented.  It  likes  a  good  soil.  Its 
wood,  from  being  sonorous,  is  used 
for  harps,  violins,  and  other  musical 
instruments.  Worms  never  attack 
it.— {Phillip's  Shrub.,  vol.  i.,  p.  188; 
M'Culloch's  Com.  Diet.) 

CYPRESSES,  AMERICAN.  See 
Cedar. 

CYPSELA  (from  Kv\pElr],  a  bee- 
hive). A  one-celled,  one-seeded,  in- 
dehiscent  fruit.     An  Achenium. 

CYSTIC  (from  Kvang,  a  bag  or  blad- 
der). Appertaining  to  the  bladder. 
Cystic  oxide,  a  rare  ingredient  in  uri- 
nary calculi. 

D. 

DACTYLIS.  A  genus  of  grasses, 
of  which  D.  glomerata,  orchard  or 
cock's-foot,  is  the  only  important  spe- 
cies.    See  Grasses. 

DAIRY.  "  The  name  usually  given 
to  the  place  w-here  the  milk  of  cows 
is  kept  and  converted  into  butter  or 
cheese. 

"A  dairy-house  should  be  situated 
on  a  dry  spot  somewhat  elevated,  on 
the  side  of  a  gentle  declivity,  and  on 
a  porous  soil.  It  should  be  on  the 
west  or  northwest  side  of  a  hill  if 
possible,  or,  at  least,  sheltered  from 
the  north,  east,  and  south  by  high 
trees.  In  some  countries  where  there 
are  natural  caverns  with  an  opening 


DAIRY. 


to  the  west,  and  springs  of  water  at 
hand,  the  best  and  coolest  dairies  are 
thus  prepared  by  nature.  Artificial 
excavations  in  the  sides  of  freestone 
roclvs  are  sometimes  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  milk.  Where  no 
such  natural  advantages  exist,  the 
requisite  coohiess  in  summer,  and 
equal  temperature  in  winter,  which 
are  essential  in  a  good  dairy,  may  be 
obtained  by  sinking  the  floor  of  the 
dairy  some  feet  under  ground,  and 
forming  an  arched  roof  of  stone  or 
brick.  In  cold  climates  flues  around 
the  dairy  are  a  great  advantage  in 
winter ;  and  an  ice-house  in  warm 
summers  is  equally  useful.  But  these 
are  only  adapted  to  those  dairies 
which  are  kept  more  as  a  luxury  than 
as  an  object  of  profit.  Coolness  is 
also  produced  by  the  evaporation  of 
water,  an  abundant  supply  of  which 
is  essential  to  every  dairy.  It  is  also 
a  great  advantage  if  a  pure  stream 
can  be  made  to  pass  through  the  dai- 
ry, with  a  current  of  air  to  carry  off 
any  eflluvia,  and  keep  the  air  contin- 
ually renewed. 

"  As  the  milk  suflers  more  or  less 
from  being  agitated,  or  too  much 
cooled,  before  it  is  set  for  the  cream 
to  rise,  the  cow-house  or  milking- 
place  should  be  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  dairy,  or,  rather,  it  should  be 
under  the  same  roof  The  milk  may 
then  be  brought  immediately  from 
the  cows  without  being  exposed  to 
the  outer  air.  The  dairy-house  should 
consist  of  three  distinct  apartments 
below,  with  lofts  and  cheese-cham- 
bers above.  The  principal  place  is 
the  dairy,  properly  so  called,  sunk 
two  or  three  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  ground,  with  a  stone  or  brick 
bench  or  table  round  three  sides  of  it 
to  hold  the  milk  pans.  This  table 
should  be  a  little  below  the  level 
of  the  outer  soil.  Airholes  covered 
with  wire  should  be  made  in  the  walls 
a  little  above,  and  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  dairy ;  and  they  should 
have  shutters  sliding  over  them  to 
open  or  shut,  according  to  the  weath- 
er. The  floor  should  be  of  stone  or 
paving  tiles,  sloping  gently  towards 
a  drain  to  carry  olflhc  water.  Great 
T  2 


care  should  be  taken  that  no  water 
stagnates  in  this  drain,  which  must 
be  kept  as  clean  as  the  floor  of  the 
dairy,  and  not  communicate  with  any 
sink,  but  run  out  into  the  open  air  :  a 
declivity  from  the  dairy  is  essential 
for  this  purpose.  If  this  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, it  must  run  into  an  open  tank, 
and  the  water  be  regularly  pumped 
out.  The  windows  of  the  dairy  should 
be  latticed.  Glazed  windows  may  be 
added  for  the  winter,  but  they  should 
always  be  open  except  in  very  hot  or 
very  cold  weather.  There  may  be 
shutters  to  close  entirely,  but  this  is 
not  essential.  If  the  windows  are 
made  like  Venetian  blinds,  the  light 
will  be  excluded  without  excluding 
the  air.  The  utmost  purity  must  be 
maintained  in  the  air  of  a  dairy ; 
nothing  should  enter  it  that  can  pro- 
duce the  slightest  smell.  No  cheese 
or  rennet  should  be  kept  in  it ;  and 
particularly  no  meat,  dressed  or  un- 
dressed. Even  the  dairy-maid  should 
avoid  remaining  longer  in  it  than  is 
necessary,  and  should  at  all  times  be 
extremely  clean  in  her  person. 

"  The  next  important  place  is  a  kind 
of  wash-house,  in  which  there  is  a 
chimney  where  a  large  copper  kettle 
hangs  on  a  crane  to  heat  water  in,  or 
milk  when  cheese  is  made.  Where 
wood  is  scarce,  and  pit-coal  is  the 
common  fuel,  a  copper  may  be  set  in 
brick-work  with  a  grate  under  it.  In 
this  place  all  the  utensils  of  the  dairy 
are  kept,  and  scalded  with  boiling 
water  every  day.  It  should  have  an 
outer  door,  which  may  be  to  the  south, 
and  benches  outside,  on  which  the 
pails  and  other  utensils  may  be  set 
to  dry  and  be  exposed  to  the  air. 
Between  the  last  two  apartments 
may  be  another  communicating  with 
!  both,  and  forming  a  kind  of  vestibule, 
where  the  churnmg  may  take  place  ; 
and  over  them  a  cheese-room  and 
lofts,  or  any  other  useful  chambers. 
A  veranda  round  the  dairy  is  very 
convenient,  or  on  three  sides  at  least. 
j  It  shades  from  the  sun,  and  adds  to 
the  warmth  in  winter  ;  and  the  uten- 
sils may  be  dried  and  aired  under  it 
even  in  rainy  weather.  The  foUow- 
I  ing  description  of  a  cow-house  and 
221 


DAIRV^. 


dairy  under  one  roof  combines  all 
that  13  useful,  wilh  considerable  neat-  i 
ness  internally  and  externally :  It  is  I 
a  building  about  sixty  feet  long  by  I 
thirty  vide,  with  a  veranda  running  ; 
round  three  sides  of  it.  The  dairj- 
room  is  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  j 
soil,  and  is  paved  with  brick.  The 
sides  are  covered  with  tiles,  and  the  , 
arched  roof  with  hard  cement.  The 
cow-house  has  a  broad  passage  in  the 
middle,  and  the  cows  stand  with  their 
heads  towards  this  passage,  which  is  , 
paved  with  clinkers  or  bricks  set  on 
edge.  Their  tails  are  towards  the 
wall,  along  which  runs  a  broad  gut- 
ter sunk  six  or  eight  inches  below  the 
level  of  the  place  on  which  the  cows 
stand.  This  gutter  slopes  towards 
a  sink  covered  with  an  iron  grate, 
which  communicates  by  a  broad  arch- 
ed drain  with  a  vaulted  tank,  into 
which  all  the  liquid  flows.  The  gut- 
ter is  washed  clean  twice  a  day  be- 
fore the  cows  are  milked.  The  cows 
stand  or  he  on  a  sloping  brick  floor, 
and  have  but  a  small  quantity  of  litter 
allowed  them,  w'hich  is  removed  every 
day  and  carried  to  the  dung-heap  or 
to  the  pig-sties,  to  be  more  fully  con- 
verted into  dung.  Whenever  the  lit- 
ter is  removed,  the  bricks  are  swept 
clean  ;  and  in  summer  they  are  wash- 
ed with  water.  The  manner  in  which 
the  cows  are  fastened  is  worthy  of 
notice  :  Two  slight  pillars  of  strong 
wood  are  placed  perpendicularly  about 
two  feet  distant  from  each  other,  so 
that  the  cow  can  readily  pass  her 
head  between  them.  On  each  of 
these  is  an  iron  ring,  which  runs  free- 
ly up  and  down,  and  has  a  hook  in  its 
circumference  :  two  small  chains  pass 
from  these  hooks  to  a  leather  strap, 
which  buckles  round  the  neck  of  the 
cow.  Thus  the  cow  can  rise  and  lie 
down,  and  move  forward  to  take  her 
food,  which  is  placed  in  a  low  man- 
ger before  the  two  pillars  ;  but  she 
cannot  strike  her  neighbour  with  her 
horns.  The  mangers  or  troughs  are 
of  wood,  or  of  bricks  cemented  to- 
gether, and  are  kept  as  clean  as  all 
the  rest  of  the  cow-house.  In  Swit- 
zerland the  cow-houses  are  similar, 
but  there  is  also  a  rack,  the  back  of 
222 


which  towards  the  passage  shuts  up 
with  a  board  on  hinges.  The  Dutch 
mode  supplies  more  light  and  air  to 
the  middle  passage  ;  and  as  the  food 
is  given  frequently  and  in  small  quan- 
tities, there  is  very  little  waste.  The 
following  cuts  will  give  a  tolerable 
idea  of  the  whole  arrangement.  The 
food  is  brought  in  carts,  which  are 
driven  at  once  between  the  cows. 
What  is  not  wanted  immediately  is 
stored  above,  whence  it  is  readily 
thrown  down  before  the  cows.  Thus 
much  trouble  is  saved,  and  one  man 
can  feed  and  attend  to  a  great  many 
cows.  From  November  till  iMay  the 
cows  never  leave  the  cow-house.  In 
summer,  when  the  cows  are  out,  if 
they  are  in  adjacent  pastures,  they 
are  driven  home  to  be  milked  ;  but 
if  the  pastures  are  far  otf,  which  is 
sometimes  the  case,  they  are  milked 
there,  and  the  milk  is  brought  home  ; 
but  this  is  not  thought  so  good  for 
the  butter,  which  is  then  always 
churned  from  the  whole  milk,  with- 
out letting  the  cream  rise.  The  finest 
and  best  flavoured  butter  is  always 
made  from  the  cream  as  fresh  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  to  make  it  rise  well,  the 
milk  should  be  set  as  soon  as  it  is 
milked,  and  agitated  as  little  as  pos- 
sible. The  greatest  quantity  is  sel- 
dom obtained  when  the  quality  is  the 
finest.  When  great  attention  is  paid 
to  the  quality,  the  milk  is  skimmed 
about  si.x  hours  after  it  is  set ;  and 
the  cream  taken  ofl'is  churned  by  it- 
self The  next  skimming  makes  in- 
ferior butter.  These  particulars  are 
mentioned  to  show  the  necessity 
there  is  of  having  the  dairy  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  cow-house. 

♦■  The  utensils  of  the  dairy,  such  as 
pails,  churns,  vats,  &c.,  are  usually 
made  of  white  wood,  and  are  easily 
kept  clean  by  scalding  and  scouring. 
Leaden  troughs  are  used  in  large  dai- 
ries ;  and  if  they  are  kept  very  clean 
by  careful  scouring,  they  answer  the 
purpose  better  than  wood.  They 
may  be  so  constructed  that  the  milk 
may  be  let  off  gently  before  the  cream, 
which  is  collected  by  itself.  This 
saves  all  the  trouble  of  skimming. 
Brass  pans  have  the  advantage  of 


DAIRY. 


A,  A,  A.  passage  throug-h  the  cow-house  and  dairy,  ten  feet  wide,  paved  with  bricks  set  on 
edge,  or  Dutch  clinkers.  Tlie  food  is  brought  in  this  passage  in  a  small  cart  and  distributed  to 
tlie  cows. 

B,  part  of  the  above  passage  closed  in  with  doors,  and  forming  a  vestibule  to  the  dairy. 

C,  dairy-room,  in  which  only  milk,  cream,  and  butter  are  kept.  It  is  sunk  three  feet  under 
the  level  of  the  cow-hou«e,  and  covered  with  a  brick  arch  ;  it  has  one  latticed  window,  and  sev- 
eral ventilators  on  a  level  with  the  place  on  which  the  milk  vessels  are  set. 

D,  the  room  where  the  utensils  are  sculded,  and  where  cheese  is  made  ;  in  one  corner  is  a 
fire-place,  with  a  large  kettle  or  a  copper  set. 

E,  stairs  to  srn  up  to  the  cheese-mom  M  and  loft  N. 

F,  calf-pens,  in  which  the  calves  are  tied  up  to  fatten,  so  that  they  cannot  turn  to  lick  them- 
selves :  a  small  trough  witii  poumlod  chalk  and  salt  is  (ilaced  in  each  |<en. 

G,  tlic  place  for  Ihe  cows  without  partitions  ;  each  cow  is  tied  to  two  poslsby  two  small  chains 
and  two  iron  rings,  which  run  on  the  posts.  The  chains  are  fastened  to  a  broad  lenthei  strap, 
wh;ch  is  buckled  round  th  ■  iierk  of  each  cow.  II,  H,  two  sinks,  with  iron  gratings  over  them, 
lu  catch  the  urine  from  the  gutters  1,  I,  which  run  ail  the  length  of  the  cow-house  on  each  side. 

223 


DAIRY. 


K,  the  urine  tank,  vaultfd  over  wiih  a  door  L,  to  clean  it  out,  and  a  pump  to  pump  up  the  liquid 
manure.  O,  O,  in  the  section,  are  places  where  the  green  food  or  roots  are  deposited  for  the 
day's  consumption.     P,  a  hayloft. 


being  readily  warmed  on  a  chafing- 
dish  in  winter.  In  Devonshire,  tin 
or  brass  pans  are  frequently  used 
instead  of  earthen-ware.  Although 
there  is  sonao  danger  in  the  use  of 
brass  utensils,  very  little  attention 
will  obviate  it.  It  only  requires  that 
they  should  be  kept  bright,  in  which 
case  the  smallest  speck  of  oxide  or 
verdigris  would  be  perceptible.  In 
Holland  the  milk  is  invariably  carried 
in  brass  vessels.  Cast-iron  pans  have 
been  invented,  which  are  tinned  in- 
side. They  are  economical,  but  there 
is  nothing  better  or  neater  than  well- 
glazed  white  crockery-ware,  of  the 
common  oval  form.  Some  recom- 
mend unglazed  pans  for  summer,  but 
they  are  difficult  to  keep  sweet,  as 
the  milk  insinuates  itself  into  the 
pores,  and  is  apt  to  become  sour 
there. 

The  most  common  use  of  cows  is 
to  supply  butter  and  cheese  (see  Butler 
and  Cheese),  and  sometimes  to  fatten 
calves  for  the  butcher  ;  but  the  most 
profitable  dairy  is  that  which  supplies 
large  towns  with  milk.  In  these  dai- 
ries the  system  is  different.  The 
cows  are  mostly  kept  in  stalls,  and 
fed  with  food  brought  to  them.  Some 
dairymen  possess  several  hundred 
cows,  and  the  arrangement  of  their 
establishments  is  worthy  of  notice. 
The  cows  are  bought  before  or  after 
they  have  calved.  They  are  seldom 
allowed  to  go  to  the  bull,  but  are  kept 
as  long  as  they  can  be  made  to  give 
milk  by  good  feeding.  When  they 
are  dry,  they  are  often  already  suffi- 
ciently fat  for  sale,  or,  at  all  events, 
they  soon  fatten,  and  are  sold  to  the 
butcher.  A  succession  of  cows  is 
thus  kept  up,  new  ones  arriving  as 
others  are  sold  oflT.  The  cows  are 
milked  twice  a  day ;  and  as  it  is 
well  known  that  the  last  drop  of  milk 
is  the  richest,  they  are  sure  to  be 
milked  quite  dry,  an  essential  thing 
in  a  dairy.  When  there  is  more  milk 
than  there  is  a  demand  for,  it  is  set, 
and  the  cream  is  sold  separately,  or 
made  into  butter  ;  but  this  is  seldom 
done  to  any  extent.  The  cows  are 
S24 


fed  on  every  kind  of  food  that  can 
increase  the  milk  :  brewers'  grains 
and  distillers'  wash  are  preferred, 
when  they  can  be  obtained.  The 
grains  are  kept  in  large  pits,  pressed 
close,  and  covered  with  earth,  under 
which  circumstances  they  will  remain 
fresh  a  long  time.  Turnips  and  beet 
root  are  used  in  large  quantities,  but 
hay  is  given  sparingly.  The  cows 
are  generally  placed  in  pairs,  with  a 
partition  between  every  two  pair. 
Each  cow  is  fastened  to  the  corner 
of  the  stall,  where  she  has  a  small 
trough  with  water  before  her :  thus 
they  cannot  gore  each  other  with  their 
horns.  The  great  dairies  are  kept 
very  clean  ;  but  the  liquid  manure, 
which  would  be  so  valuable  for  the 
market  gardens,  is  lost,  and  runs  ofi". 
In  Belgium  the  urine  would  be  con- 
tracted for  at  the  rate  often  dollars 
per  cow  per  annum,  which,  in  a  dairy 
of  six  hundred  cows,  would  pay  a 
good  interest  for  the  money  expend- 
ed in  constructing  large  vaulted  cis- 
terns under  each  cow-house. 

There  is  no  chance  of  profit  in  a 
dairy  of  which  the  farmer  or  his  wife 
is  not  the  immediate  manager.  The 
attention  required  to  minute  particu- 
lars can  only  be  expected  in  those 
whose  profit  depends  upon  it.  A 
proper  attention  to  keeping  correct 
accounts  of  every  expense  will  con- 
vince any  one  of  this  truth.  In  a 
dairy  farm  the  great  difficulty  is  to 
feed  the  cows  in  winter.  It  is  usu- 
ally so  arranged  that  the  cows  shall 
be  dry  at  the  time  when  food  is  most 
scarce,  and  they  are  then  kept  on  in- 
ferior hay,  or  straw,  if  it  can  be  pro- 
cured. It  is  a  great  improvement  in 
a  dairy  farm  if  it  has  as  much  arable 
land  attached  to  it  as  will  employ 
one  plough,  especially  if  the  soil  be 
light ;  but  the  mode  of  cultivating 
this  farm  must  vary  from  that  of 
other  farms,  since  the  food  raised  for 
the  cows  must  be  a  principal  object. 
Corn  is  a  secondary  object ;  and  the 
cultivation  of  roots  and  grasses  must 
occupy  a  great  portion  of  the  farm. 
When  the  grasses  degenerate,  a  crop 


DAI 


DEC 


or  two  of  corn  is  taken,  and  the  ro- 
tation is  chiefly  roots,  corn,  and  grass 
cut  for  hay  until  it  wears  out.  If 
the  roots  are  well  manured,  the  land 
keeps  in  excellent  heart.  The  old 
pastures  are  kept  for  summer  feed- 
ing. Where  there  is  no  arable  land 
near  a  dairy  farm,  it  deserves  mature 
consideration  whether  it  will  be  ad- 
vantageous or  not  to  allow  some  of 
the  pasture  to  be  ploughed  up.  It  is 
often  a  dangerous  experiment  where 
the  soil  is  naturally  heavy.  Arable 
land  laid  down  to  grass  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  dairy  seldom  produces 
fine-flavoured  butter  or  good  clieese  ; 
but  clover-hay  is  excellent  for  young 
stock,  or  to  fatten  otf  the  old  cows. 
Lucern  is  reckoned  to  make  cows 
give  very  good  milk  ;  nothmg,  how- 
ever, can  equal  a  rich  old  pasture,  as 
all  dairymen  agree." 

The  following  estimates  from  Col- 
man's  Report  on  the  Agriculture  of 
Massachusetts  give  the  yield,  expen- 
ses, and  profits  of  the  dairy  : 

"In  Tyringham,  the  average  yLeld 
of  a  cow  is  reckoned  at,  new  milk 
cheese  283  pounds,  and  butter  at  the 
same  time  57  pounds.  A  dairy  of 
twenty-eight  cows  gave  7912  pounds 
of  new  milk  cheese,  and  1600  pounds 
of  butter.  A  large  amount  of  pork 
was  fattened  on  this  farm,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  say  what  portion  of  it  is 
to  be  credited  to  the  dairy. 

"  In  Shefiield,  the  average  product 
of  twenty-eight  cows  was  394  pounds 
of  new  milk  cheese,  and  50  pounds 
of  butter  each. 

"  The  product  of  a  cow  is  thus  sta- 
ted by  the  excellent  manager : 

"  Cow,  Cr. 
400  lbs.  new  milk  cheese,  at  8  cts     .  $32  00 
Calf  (kiUed  at  3  days  old)     ....        1  00 

50  lbs.  butter,  at  16  cts 8  33 

Whey  and  butter-milk  to  make  100 

lbs.  pork 8  00 

$49  33 
Cow,  Dr. 
Winter  keepin?      .     .     .     .  $12  00 
Oae  acre  of  land,  costing  $50, 

will  pasture  the  cow  .  .  3  50 
SaltSocts.,  3bush.  ofbran.SS  3  25 
Interest  on  the  value  of  cow, 

at  $25,  10  per  ct.  ...  2  50 
Labour   of  milking,  making 

butter,  cheese,  &c.  .     .     .      4  00      25  25 

Balance  in  favour  of  cow    .     .  $24  Oct" 


DAMSON.     A  small  variety  of  the 

Plum. 

DANDRUFF.  Scales  of  skin,  which 
are  brushed  otT  readily. 

DAPPLE.  Marked  with  various 
colours. 

DARNEL.  Several  grasses  are 
so  called.  The  Cheat  of  the  United 
States  goes  under  this  name  in  Eu- 
rope ;  but  it  is  principally  applied  to 
the  Lolium  temulcntum,  a  trouble- 
some weed. 

DARTARS.  In  farriery,  a  sort 
of  scab  or  ulceration  taking  place  on 
the  chin,  to  which  lambs  are  subject. 

DATE.  The  fruit  of  a  palm  {Phoe- 
nix dacli/lifcra),  remarkable  for  its  nu- 
tritious ness,  and  as  aflx»rding  food  to 
entire  populations. 

DATURA.  The  generic  name  of 
the  thorn  apple  or  Jamestown  weed, 
a  poisonous  plant. 

DAUCUS.  The  generic  name  of 
the  Carrot. 

DEAD  TOPS.  The  dead  sum- 
mits or  branches  of  old  trees.  They 
should  be  cut  at  a  sound  place,  and 
the  wound  covered  with  grafting  wax 
or  clay. 

DEAFNESS.  A  defect  in  hearing. 
It  is  sometimes  remedied  by  syrin- 
ging the  tube  of  the  ear  with  tepid 
water,  by  which  a  quantity  of  hard- 
ened wax  is  washed  out. 

DEAL.  Pieces  of  sawed  pine  or 
fir  wood,  three  inches  thick,  nine 
wide,  and  twelve  feet  long. 

DEBRIS.  In  geology,  mineral 
rubbish  worn  from  a  rock  or  forma- 
tion. 

DECAGON  (from  dena,  ten,  and 
yuvia,  an  angle).  Any  solid  having 
ten  sides  and  angles. 

DECANDRIA  (from  6eKa,  ten,  and 
avrip,  a  male).  The  class  of  plants 
having  ten  stamens. 

DECANT.  To  pour  ofl"  the  clear 
fluid  after  a  precipitate  subsides. 
Hence  Decantation. 

DECAPODS  (from  6eKa,  ten,  and 
Tzov^,  a  foot).  Crabs  with  ten  feet. 
Animals  like  the  cuttle-fish,  with  ten 
tentacula,  wherewith  they  walk. 

DECAY.  The  destruction  of  or- 
ganized bodies  by  natural  causes. 
The  products  depend  on  the  presence 
225 


DEC 


DEF 


or  deficiency  of  aii .  In  tlie  first  ease, 
tlie  process  is  called  Ercmacausis  ;  in 
the  second,  Fermentation,  which  sec. 

DECIDUOUS.  Parts  which  fall 
off,  such  as  hairs,  horns,  leaves,  &c. 

DECOCTION.  Any  mixture  which 
has  been  boiled. 

DECOMPOSITION.  In  chemis- 
try, the  separation  of  the  parts  of  any 
compound,  whether  mineral  or  or- 
ganic. Electricity  and  heat  are  the 
principal  forces  used  by  chemists  for 
this  purpose,  and  they  are  capable  of 
disturbing  most  combinations.  Chem- 
ical affinity,  or  the  attraction  which 
one  form  of  matter  has  for  another, 
is  also  an  agent  of  decomposition. 
Thus  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid)  has 
a  powerful  attraction  for  water  ;  if 
it  be  dropped  on  the  human  hand  a 
blister  is  instantly  produced,  and  the 
part  blackens.  This  decomposition 
is  owing  to  the  greater  affinity  of  the 
acid  for  water  than  the  flesh  of  the 
hand.  In  the  same  way  some  min- 
erals act  on  each  other,  producing 
change  of  composition,  or  decompo- 
sing them.  Decompositions  may  be 
expected  if  one  of  the  ingredients  is 
of  a  volatile  or  gaseous  nature,  or  if 
the  agent  added  forms  with  one  of 
the  original  components  a  product 
which  is  insoluble  in  water.  Thus 
sulphuric  and  oxalic  acid  decompose 
every  solution  of  lime,  because  they 
form  insoluble  salts  with  lime.  Car- 
bonic acid,  in  its  salts,  is  decomposed 
by  every  fixed  acid,  because  it  is  gas-- 
eous.  Lime,  potash,  and  soda  de- 
compose most  salts  of  ammonia,  be- 
cause the  latter  is  volatile. 

DECOMPOSITION  OF  FORCES. 
A  problem  in  physics,  in  which  it  is 
desired  to  know  in  how  many  differ- 
ent directions  several  forces  have 
acted  to  produce  a  given  result. 

DECOMPOSITIOxN  OF  LIGHT. 
The  separation  of  a  beam  of  light 
by  means  of  a  prism  of  glass,  into  the 
seven  colours,  red,  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  indigo,  violet,  which  are 
hence  called  the  primary  colours, 
light  being  the  result  of  their  mix- 
ture. 

DECORTICATION  (from  de,from, 
and  cortex,  bark).  Talcing  off  the  bark. 
826 


Scraping  the  bark,  and  even  partially 
removing  it  during  the  active  growth 
(June),  has  been  found  to  invigorate 
trees.  It  is  often  resorted  to  in  bark- 
bound  trees  which  bear  little  fruit. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  wound  the 
new  Vv'ood  or  expose  the  sap. 

DECOY.  "A  device  by  which 
aquatic  birds,  chiefly  ducks,  are  enti- 
ced from  a  river  or  lake  up  a  narrow, 
winding  canal  or  ditch,  which,  grad- 
ually becoming  narrower,  at  last  ter- 
minates under  a  cover  of  network,  of 
several  yards  in  length.  The  birds 
are  enticed  by  the  smoothness  of  the 
turf  on  the  margin  of  the  canal, 
which  tempts  them  to  leave  the  wa- 
ter, and  begin  to  dress  their  plumage. 
When  so  engaged  at  some  distance 
up  the  canal,  they  are  suddenly  sur- 
prised  by  the  decoy  man  and  his  dogs, 
who  have  been  concealed  behind  a 
fence  of  reeds  ;  and  having  again  ta- 
ken to  the  water,  they  are  driven  up 
by  the  dogs  till  they  enter  within  the 
network  which  terminates  the  decoy, 
and  are  then  easily  caught." 

DECREPITATION.  A  chemical 
term  signifying  crackling,  and  used 
to  describe  the  sound  made  by  nitre, 
salt,  sulphate  of  potash,  and  other 
salts,  when  thrown  into  the  fire. 

DECUMBENT.  In  botany,  incli- 
ned  downward. 

DECURRENT.  In  botany,  a  leaf, 
a  part  of  the  lamina  of  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  stalk  of  the  plant. 

DECUSSATE.  To  cross  and  in- 
termingle, in  anatomy. 

DEER.  The  common  species  is 
the  Ccrvus  Virginianus  of  naturalists  ; 
it  is  diffused  throughout  the  United 
States  as  far  north  as  Canada.  The 
moose  (C  alecs)  is  the  largest  spe- 
cies of  the  deer;  it  inhabits  swamps, 
and  is  confined  to  the  most  northern 
parts  of  the  States,  and  to  Canada. 
The  reindeer  (C.  tarandus)  is  remark- 
able for  its  immense  horns,  its  value 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  highest  lat- 
itudes, docility,  and  abstemiousness. 
It  is  rarely  seen  in  the  States  except 
in  Maine.  Some  other  species  are 
found  far  in  the  nortliM^est. 

DEFLAGRATION.  A  chemical 
term,  meaning  very  rapid  combustion, 


DET 


DEW 


as  when  nitre  is  thrown  on  red-hot 
coals. 

DEFLECTION.  A  terra  in  optics. 
When  a  thin  opaque  body  is  placed  in 
the  course  of  a  ray  of  light,  the  ray 
is  bent  out  of  its  straight  direction. 
The  phenomenon  is  also  called  dif- 
fraction. 

DEGLUTITION.  The  act  of  swal- 
lowing. 

DEHISCENT.  A  botanical  term 
signifymg  the  bursting  open,  when 
dry,  of  seed  vessels. 

DELIQUESCENT.  Saline  sub- 
stances which  absorb  so  much  moist- 
ure from  the  air  as  to  become  fluid 
are  called  deliquescent. 

DELPHINIA.  A  vegetable  alka- 
loid from  Stavesacre,  or  Delphinium. 

DELPHINIC  ACID.  An  oily  acid, 
obtained  from  whale  oil,  having  a 
rancid  smell. 

DENDROMETER  (fromtJei'dpov,  a 
tree,  dLadfiETpov,ameasure).  An  instru- 
ment like  an  immense  pair  of  com- 
passes, to  measure  the  height  and 
the  girth  of  trees,  for  estimating  the 
amount  of  timber. 

DENTATE  (from  dens,  a  tooth). 
Toothed. 

DENTIROSTERS.  Birds  having 
a  tooth-like  notch  on  each  side  of  the 
upper  mandible.  They  are  very  ra- 
pacious. 

DEOBSTRUENT.  A  medicine 
given  to  remove  any  obstruction  in 
the  bowels,  &c. 

DERBYSHIRE  SPAR.  Fluor 
spar,  or  fluoride  of  calcium. 

DESPUMATION.  The  act  of 
skimming  the  scum  from  any  heated 
fluid. 

DESTRUCTIVE  DISTILLA- 
TION. The  heating  of  bones,  wood, 
coal,  &c.,  in  iron  vessels,  at  a  high 
temperature,  to  produce  peculiar  sub- 
stances. From  green  wood,  vinegar 
and  wood  tar  ;  from  bones,  impure 
ammonia  ;  from  coal,  gas,  coal  tar, 
&c. 

DETERGENTS.  Medicines  which 
remove  imparities  and  cleanse  sores. 

DETONATION.  In  chemistry,  ex- 
plosions on  a  small  scale 

DETRITUS.  The  broken  and 
pounded  remains  of  rocks. 


DEUTOXIDE,  BINOXIDE.  A 
compound  acting  as  a  base,  which 
contains  two  atoms  of  oxygen 

DEVON  CATTLE.  Esteemed  for 
draught.     See  Cattle. 

DEW.  The  deposite  of  water  from 
the  air  produced  by  cold  ;  it  becomes 
frost  when  the  cold  is  below  32°  Fah- 
renheit. As  soon  as  the  sun  sets,  the 
heat  imparted  to  the  earth  begins  to 
fall  by  radiation  into  space  ;  if  clouds 
be  present,  the  heat  is  mostly  return- 
ed again  ;  if  in  a  clear  sky,  it  is  lost, 
and  the  earth's  surface  chilled.  The 
cold  of  the  surface  chills  the  air  lying 
above  it,  and  causes  a  deposite  of  its 
water  ;  hence  the  dew.  Those  bod- 
ies which  cool  quickest  receive  most 
dew;  black  soils  more  than  light-col- 
oured ;  rough  surfaces  more  than  pol- 
ished. Dew,  therefore,  only  falls  on 
clear  nights,  and  frost  observes  the 
same  rule.  When  the  atmosphere  is 
loaded  with  water,  the  cooling  of  a 
few  degrees  is  sufficient  to  form  dew ; 
hence  most  falls  near  rivers  and 
streams. 

DEW  POINT.  The  temperature 
at  which  dew  falls.  It  is  a  very  im- 
portant fact  in  meteorology,  and  ea- 
sily ascertained.  Place  in  a  clean 
wine-glass,  half  full  of  water,  a  little 
ice,  untd  a  mist  of  dew  is  seen  on  the 
outside  ;  remove  the  ice  without  wet- 
ting the  surface,  plunge  a  thermome- 
ter into  the  water,  and  observe  the 
temperature  as  the  mist  disappears : 
the  degree  marks  the  dew  point. 
This  is  the  simplest  way,  and  as 
good  as  any.  The  difference  in  de- 
grees between  the  air  and  dew  point 
IS  called  the  drying  power,  and  shows 
how  much  more  moisture  the  air  will 
take.  When  they  agree,  the  air  is 
tilled  or  saturated  with  moisture.  The 
amount  of  water  in  the  atmosphere  is 
connected  with  the  probability  of  rain, 
the  growth  of  plants,  the  occurrence 
of  mildew,  rust,  &c.,  and  should  be 
measured  by  the  farmer  on  important 
occasions  as  a  means  of  ascertaining 
its  relation  to  these  pomts. 

DEWBERRY.  The  creeping 
blackben-y,  which  see. 

DEWLAP.  The  fold  of  skin  be- 
low the  neck  of  cattle. 

ssa 


DIA 


1)113 


DEXTRINE.  Soluble  starch,  re- 
Bcmbling  gum,  but  having  the  prop- 
erty of  turning  the  plane  of  polariza- 
tion to  the  right  ;  hence  its  name. 
The  descending  sap  and  cambium 
contain  much  dextrine.  It  consists 
ofCi.Hu  On. 

DIACHYLON.  A  common  and 
useful  sticking  plaster  for  wounds, 
made  of  litharge  and  resin  spread  on 
linen. 

DIADELPHIA,  DIADELPHOUS 
(from  6ic,  twice,  and  ade7.(pLc,  a  brother- 
hood). A  Linnajan  class,  in  whicli  the 
stamens  are  bound  together  into  two 
parcels. 

DIAGNOSIS  (from  SiaytruaKu, 
to  discern).  The  determination,  by 
symptoms,  of  one  disease  from  an- 
other. 

DIAMETER.  The  measure  across 
a  circle  or  other  regular  figure. 

DIAMOND.  A  rare  gem,  of  or- 
ganic origin,  consisting  of  pure  car- 
bon, and  crystallized  in  octohedrons, 
dodecahedrons,  and  other  derivative 
forms.     The  hardest  bodv  in  nature. 

DIANDRIA,  DIANDROUS  (from 
6lc,  twice,  and  avjjp,  a  man).  Plants 
with  two  stamens.    See  Botany, 

DIAPHANOUS  (from  6ia,  and  (pa- 
ivu,  to  shi7ie).  Translucent :  not  quite 
clear  like  glass. 

DIAPHORESIS  (from  6ia  <popeu,  I 
carry  through).  Sweating,  or  perspi- 
ration ;  hence  diaphoretics,  medicines 
which  produce  sweating. 

DIAPHRAGM  (from  6ia,  and  cjipaT- 
Tu,  I  divide).  Any  substance  which 
divides  a  cavity.  Thus,  the  muscle 
which  lies  between  the  chest  and  ab- 
domen is  a  diaphragm  ;  the  matter 
dividing  the  cells  of  shells  ;  the  disks 
which  are  inserted  into  microscopes 
are  also  called  diaphragms.  Septum 
is  synonymous.     Diaphragmitis  is  an 


inflammation  of  the  diaphragm  in  an- 
imals. 

DI ARRHCEA  (from  diappecj,  Ifoio 
through).  Looseness  of  the  bowels. 
Chalk  and  binding  medicines  are  rem- 
edies.    See  Horse,  O.r,  Sheep. 

DIASTASE  (from  6ia,  and  larrnii,  I 
set).  A  condition  in  the  decay  of  fibrin 
and  other  protein  compounds,  which, 
acting  like  a  ferment,  converts  solu- 
tion of  starch  into  sugar.  1  part  of 
changed  protein  converts  2000  of 
starch.  It  occurs  in  malting  and  ger- 
mination. The  existence  of  diastase 
as  a  separate  body  is  unknown,  its  ef- 
fects being  the  result  of  change,  and 
not  due  to  the  presence  of  any  specif- 
ic agent.  Its  property  is  destroyed 
by  a  boiling  heat. 

DIATHERMAL  (from  6ia,  and 
^epfiT],  heat).  Bodies  which  allow  ra- 
diant heat  to  pass  through  them,  as 
rock  salt. 

DIATHESIS  (from  (haneriiiv,  I  dis- 
pose). A  predisposition  to  a  partic- 
ular class  of  diseases. 

DIBBLE.  An  instrument  to  make 
holes  in  the  soil  for  the  insertion  of 
transplanted  vegetables,  sowing  large 
seeds,  onions,  &c.  It  is  commonly 
no  more  than  a  rod,  with  a  spade  han- 
dle, the  lower  part  or  point  shod  with 
iron,  and  sharp.  A  man,  carrying 
one  in  each  hand,  walks  backward, 
dibbling  a  hole  riglit  and  left,  at  suit- 
able distances  ;  3000  holes  can  be 
made  thus  in  a  day.  The  following 
is  a  simple  and  effective  contrivance 
used  for  beans,  potatoes,  &c.  ;  it  is 
so  arranged  that  the  side  rods,  point- 
ed with  iron  {a,  a),  run  a  mark  or  drill, 
into  which  the  dibble  afterward  runs. 
Several  wheels  may  be  fitted  to  one 
axis,  and  thus  a  great  deal  of  labour 
done.  It  is  adapted  to  light,  mellow 
soils  ;  and  the  saving  of  seeds  and  la- 


S38 


DIF 


DKi 


bour  soon  pays  for  the  machine.  A 
number  of  these  wheels  drawn  by  a 
horse  has  been  recently  introduced. 

DICHOTO.MOUS  (from  6ic,  twice, 
and  TEfivu,  I  cut).  Bifurcate.  It  is 
used  in  natural  history  to  indicate 
a  division  into  two  parts,  especially 
when  it  is  repeated  several  times,  as 
in  some  stems. 

DICHROIS.M  (from  dig,  and  jpwua, 
colour).  Bodies  which  exhibit  two  col- 
ours, as  they  are  examined  by  reflect- 
ed o)  refracted  light.  Dichromatic 
is  a  derivative 

DICOTYLEbONS  (from  6ic,  and 
KOTv7.i]6uv,  a  seed  lobe).  One  of  the 
great  divisions  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, including  most  plants  and  trees  ; 
of  temperate  climates.  They  bear  1 
seed  with  two  lobes,  like  the  bean, 
have  leaves  freely  veined,  and  the 
trees  grow  with  a  conical  trunk.  The 
term  is  synonymous  with  cxogens. 

DIDELPH  YS  (from  6ig,  and  dtAcpvr, 
icomb).  A  genus  of  animals  resem- 
bling >  the  opossum  and  kangaroo, 
which  bring  forth  minute  young,  and 
afterward  nourish  them  in  an  exter- 
nal pouch.     Marsupials. 

DIDYNAMOUS  (from  Sir,  and  6v- 
vafiig,  power).  Flowers  with  four  sta- 
mens, two  being  longer  than  the  rest. 
See  Botani/. 

DIETETICS  (from  Siairaeiv,  to 
nourish).  The  study  of  varieties  of 
food.     See  Fodder. 

DIFFERENTIAL  THERMOME- 
TER. A  thermometer  with  two 
bulbs,  invented  to  measure  differ- 
ences in  temperature,  but  seldom 
used. 

DIFFRACTION.     See  Deflection. 

DIFFUSION  OF  GASES.  Pene- 
tration of  gases.  The  expression  of 
a  phenomenon  which  occurs  when 
one  gas  is  set  free  into  another. 
They  mutually  expand  or  diffuse  into 
one  another,  so  as  to  produce,  in  time, 
an  equal  mixture.  The  rapidity  of 
diffusion  differs  with  different  gases. 
By  reason  of  this  law,  noxious  va- 
pours rising  from  the  earth  are  pres- 
ently diluted  into  the  atmosphere. 
The  composition  of  the  air  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  diffusion  or  admixture  of 
the  several  gases  it  contains.  This 
U 


passage  takes  place  through  all  po- 
rous vessels,  tissues,  &c.  In  virtue 
of  this  property,  gases  are  said  to  act 
as  a  vacuum  towards  each  other. 

DIFFUSUS.  Spreading  :  used  in 
botany. 

DIGESTER.  A  strong  iron  or 
copper  pot,  the  lid  of  which  fits  steam- 
tight,  and  either  screws  on  or  is  press- 
ed by  clamps,  and  is  furnished  with  a 
safety-valve.  It  is  used  for  boiling  or 
digesting  substances  at  a  heat  great- 
er than  boiling  water,  and  is  especial- 
ly useful  for  extracting  jelly  and  glue 
from  bones,  skins,  horns,  &,c. 

DIGESTION.  In  physiology,  the 
change  through  which  food  passes  in 
the  stomach  for  the  production  of 
chyme.  Food  received  into  the  stom- 
ach is  speedily  attacked  by  a  peculiar 
fluid  therein,  the  gastric,  which  has 
the  power  of  rendering  soluble  the  in- 
soluble parts  :  this  it  effects  by  pro- 
ducing a  change  nearly  resembling 
fermentation.  The  gastric  juice  is  a 
portion  of  the  membrane  of  the  stom- 
ach in  a  peculiar  state  of  change,  re- 
sembling diastase,  and  supposed  to 
owe  its  power  to  a  principle  called 
pepsin,  but  being  in  reality  active  only 
because  in  a  state  of  change.  The 
food  acted  on  by  this  agency  is  con- 
verted into  a  pasty  mass  called  chyme ; 
this,  passing  into  the  bowels,  is  sep- 
arated into  a  fluid  part,  chyle,  which 
is  absorbed  by  the  veins  and  absor- 
bents of  the  intestines,  and  reaches 
the  blood  to  add  to  that  fluid.  There 
j  is  reason  to  believe  that  starchy  and 
saccharine  bodies  are  converted  into 
lactic  acid,  and  in  part  into  oils,  by 
digestion.  The  remaining  thickened 
chyme,  receiving  several  excretiuns, 
becomes  mere  feculent  matter.  The 
process  of  digestion  requires  from  one 
to  four  hours,  according  to  the  food. 
Raw  substances  are  digested  more 
rapidly  than  boiled,  fresh  than  salt. 
It  is  best  conducted  when  the  body 
and  mind  are  in  a  state  of  rest. 

DIGESTION   IN    CHEMISTRY. 
The  exposure  for  a  long  time  of  any 
substance  to  the  action  of  water  or 
a  solvent  at  a  gentle  heat. 
DIGGING.     See  Spade. 
DIGITALIS.     The  generic  name 
229 


DIS 


DIS 


of  the  foxglove  (Z>.  purpurea),  a  poi- 
sonous sedative. 

DIGITATE.  In  botany,  any  leaf 
divided  into  several  segments  origi- 
nating in  a  common  centre. 

DIGYNIA  (from  die,  and  yvvri,  a 
tooman).  Flowers  with  two  styles. 
See  Botany. 

DILL.  Anethum  graveolens.  An 
umbelliferous  plant,  the  seeds  of 
which  are  esteemed  as  a  medicine. 
They  contain  dill  oil,  which,  being 
distilled,  is  used  in  solution  in  water 
for  the  gripes  of  infants.  It  is  an  an- 
nual, requiring  a  dry,  rich  soil.  Sow 
in  drills  in  March  or  April,  keep  clear 
of  weeds,  thin  out  to  ten  inches  ;  they 
fruit  in  September.  Fresh  seed  must 
be  used  for  planting.  The  leaves  are 
sometimes  used  like  parsley. 

DILUENTS.  Any  fluid,  as  water, 
which  dilutes. 

DILUVIUM,  DILUTION.  Accu- 
mulations of  gravel  found  upon  the 
ordinary  rocks  in  manv  places. 

DINGLE.     A  small" vallev. 

DICECIA,  DIOICA  (from  'du.  tivice, 
and  oiKia,  house).  Flowers,  the  sta- 
mens and  pistils  of  which  are  on  dis- 
tinct plants,  as  the  hop,  hemp,  &c. 

DIOPTRICS  (from  (ha,  and  otvto- 
uai,  I  see).  That  part  of  optics  which 
investigates  the  passage  of  light 
through  glasses,  &c. 

DIOSOOKEA.  The  generic  name 
of  the  yam      See  Sweet  Potato. 

DIPLOE  (Greek).  The  cellular 
layer  between  the  outer  and  inner 
layers  of  the  scull  bones. 

DIPPLE'S  ANIMAL  OIL.  A  fe- 
tid oil  obtamed  by  the  distillation  of 
bones,  used  as  an  antispasmodic. 

DIPSACUS.  The  generic  name 
of  the  teasel. 

DIPTERA,  DIPTERANS  (from 
dif,  ticice,  and  irrepov,  a  icing).  Flies 
or  insects  with  two  wings  only.  They 
are  furnished  with  a  sucker. 

DISCUTIENT  (from  discutio,  I  de- 
stroy). Any  application  which  has  the 
property  of  resolving  or  hindering  the 
formation  of  tumours  or  boils. 

DISEASES.  See  them,  or  Ox,  Horse, 
IShcep. 

DISK,      Any  flat,   round   body  : 
hence  discoid.    In  botany,  any  space 
230 


existing  between  the  insertion  of  the 
stamens  and  the  ovary. 

DISPERSION  OF  LIGHT.      Its 

separation  into  the  colours  by  a  prism. 

DISSEPIMENTS.     The  dividing 

membranes  formed  in  ovana  by  the 

union  of  the  sides  of  two  carpels. 

DISTEMPER.  Frequently  used  in 
the  same  sense  as  disease,  but  is  par- 
ticularly applied  to  cattle.  In  racing 
stables  it  is  the  distinguishing  name 
for  epidemic  catarrh  or  influenza  in 
horses.  Bleeding  in  the  early  stage 
is  recommended,  and  it  is  important 
that  the  bowels  should  be  evacuated 
and  sedative  medicines  given.  (See 
Horse).  In  dogs,  distemper  is  one  of 
the  most  fatal  diseases  ;  a  little  emet- 
ic powder  (three  grains  of  tartar  emet- 
ic and  one-grain  of  opium)  is  recom- 
mended to  be  given. — {Clater's  Far., 
p.  392). 

DISTICHOUS  (from  6ic,  and  otikoc, 
a  row).  Two  rows  of  seeds,  leaves, 
&c..  arranged  side  by  side.  A  term 
of  frequent  use  in  descriptive  botany. 
DISTILLATION.  A  chemical  pro- 
cess, whereby  the  more  volatile  parts 
of  a  mixture  are  separated  by  heat. 
It  is  conducted  in  a  still  of  metal, 
usually  copper,  except  where  a  great 
heat  is  necessary,  as  in  destructive 
distillation,  when  iron  is  used.  Earth- 
en-ware and  glass  are  used  for  many 
chemical  distillations.  Vessels  of  this 
kind  are  called  retorts  or  alembics.  A 
retort  is  of  the  figure  of  a  large  in- 
verted comma  ;  if  there  be  an  aper- 
ture over  the  bulb  fitted  by  a  stopper, 
or  to  receive  a  tube,  it  is  termed  a 
tubulated  retort.  (See  Retort.)  An 
alembic  consists  of  two  parts,  an  up- 
per cap,  which  carries  the  tube,  or 
beak,  along  which  the  distilled  fluid 
passes,  and  a  lower  vessel  to  contain 
the  matter  for  distillation.  The  cap 
is  well  luted  or  fastened  before  use. 
The  heat  employed  is  regulated  to 
the  purposes  of  the  operator.  If  the 
object  be  to  separate  alcohol  from  wa- 
ter, the  heat  must  not  rise  above  the 
boiling  of  alcohol  (176°).  As  the  va- 
pour rises,  it  is  at  first  cooled  along 
the  tube,  or  beak,  of  the  retort,  and 
flows  down  it  into  the  receiver ;  but 
the  tube  becoming  heated,  steps  must 


DOD 


DOG 


be  taken  to  produce  the  condensa- 
tion. This  is  managed  in  the  labora- 
tory by  keeping  pieces  of  wet  rag  on 
the  tube,  or  by  passing  it  through  an- 
other larger  tube  of  metal  which  is 
cooled  by  a  stream  of  water.  In  lar- 
ger operations,  the  still  beak  enters 
another  long  tube,  which  winds  sev- 
eral times  in  a  bucket  of  water,  and 
is  thus  kept  cool,  the  water  being  oc- 
casionally renewed. 

Distillation  is  employed  to  separate 
alcohol,  ether,  vinegar,  and  other 
products  from  mixtures  ;  to  obtain 
the  essential  oil  of  plants  ;  and  when 
much  heat  is  used,  to  separate  gas 
from  coal ;  tar  and  vinegar  from  green 
wood  ;  hartshorn  from  bones,  whale- 
bone shavings,  &c.  When  a  distilled 
product  is  re-distilled,  it  is  said  to  be 
rectified. 

DITCH.  A  trench  cut  in  the 
ground,  usually  round  the  fences  of  a 
field.  Trenches  of  this  kind  are  form- 
ed differently  in  various  localities,  but 
they  should  always  be  made  so  as  to 
keep  the  water  in  them  as  pure  as 
possible. 

DIURESIS  (from  6ia,  and  ovp^u,  to 
make  water).  Excessive  urination  : 
hence  Diuretics,  medicines  causing 
urination,  as  nitre,  juniper  berries, 
turpentine,  cubebs,  &c.     See  Ball. 

DIVARICATE.  To  spread  out 
widely. 

DIVERGENT.  Branches  separa- 
ted by  an  angle. 

DIVISIBILITY.  In  chemistry,  the 
extent  to  which  pieces  of  matter  may 
be  divided  is  extraordinary  ;  thus,  in 
gilding,  the  thickness  of  gold  on  a 
surface  is  often  as  little  as  110,000th 
part  of  an  inch.  But  matter  is  not 
infinitely  divisible. 

DOCK.  Troublesome,  long-root- 
ed, perennial  plants,  of  the  genera 
Rumex,  Tussilago,  &c.     See  Weeds. 

DODDER.  A  weed  consisting  of 
thread-like  stems,  which  bind  togeth- 
er the  plants  among  which  it  grows. 
It  is  occasionally  destructive  to  small 
crops,  such  as  flax. 

DODECAHEDRON  (from  dcjSeKa, 
twelve,  and  eS/ja,  a  seat).  A  solid 
of  twelve  sides.  In  crystallography 
there  are  two  varieties  :  the  rhombic 


and  angular  dodecahedron,  according 
to  the  figure  of  the  sides. 

DODECANDRIA  (from  6u<hKa, 
twelve,  and  afr/p,  male).  The  class  of 
plants  containing  twelve  stamens. 
See  Botany. 

DOE.  The  female  of  the  fallow 
deer. 

DOG.  A  genus  of  animals  (Ca«(>), 
including  innumerable  varieties.  The 
farmer  requires  a  good  rat  and  ver- 
min dog,  of  which  the  varieties  of 
terrier  are  the  best ;  a  house-dog,  as 
the  Newfoundland,  bull-dog,  or  mas- 
tiff; and  herd-dogs,  as  the  sheep- 
dog, the  Scotch  sheep-dog,  or  the 
Spanish  shepherd's  dog.  The  last  is 
said  to  be  the  most  manageable  and 
trusty,  as  it  is  the  strongest,  being 
nearly  as  large  as  a  Newfoundland  ; 
but  the  instinct  of  the  Scotch  animal 
cannot  be  readily  surpassed.  Hunting 
and  coursing  dogs  are  merely  useful 
for  pleasure,  but  of  these  the  pointer 
is  an  animal  of  rare  instinct,  and  can 
be  taught  to  equal  the  best  sheep- 
dogs in  caring  for  flocks. 

Fig.  1  is  the  Scotch  shepherd's  dog, 
or   colly      Characters     ears    partly 


erect,  head  rather  pointed,  shaggy 
coat,  and  thick  tail.  To  this  animal 
large  flocks  are  safely  intrusted  with- 
out any  shepherd.  He  is  also  capable 
of  managing  cattle  with  great  nicety. 
Fig.  2,  the  English  sheep-dog,  is 
larger.     His  colour  is  usually  white 


and  black,  with  half-pricked  ear:j.    He 
is  an  excellent  cattle  and  farm  dog. 

Dogs  should  be  kept  clean  and  fed 
with  wholesome  food,  under  which 
circumstances  they  are  very  healthy. 
Worming  is  an  absurd  and  useless 
custom.  The  mange  in  dogs  is  the 
231 


DOO 


DRA 


result  of  unclean) iness,  and  resem- 
bles itc'i.  It  sliould  be  treated  with 
tar  ointioent  mixed  with  sulphur. 

Madm^s. — Symptoms:  at  first  the 
dog  lose.s  spirits,  neglects  his  food, 
retires  from  his  master,  does  not 
bark,  but  murmurs,  is  irritable,  his 
ears  and  tail  droop,  he  seems  drow- 
sy, in  two  or  three  days  his  tongue 
lolls  out,  he  froths  at  the  mouth,  the 
eyes  are  heavy,  he  runs  along  pant- 
ing, and  in  two  or  three  more  days 
dies.  Any  animal  bitten  should  in- 
stantly have  the  part  cut  out,  the 
wound  being  allowed  to  bleed  for  a 
short  time. 

Distemper  is  very  contagious,  usu- 
ally commences  with  a  cold,  is  fol- 
lowed by  fits  or  diarrhoea,  great  loss 
of  strength,  and  frequently  death. 
Treatment:  first  give  emetics,  and 
then  a  large  spoonful  of  salt  dissolved 
in  water  ;  if  looseness  comes  on,  give 
chalk  in  powder  mixed  with  water. 
A  blister  on  the  head  is  used  when 
the  animal  is  very  stupid  and  liable 
to  fits.     The  food  should  be  good. 

Other  diseases  are  treated  like 
those  incident  to  sheep. 

DOG'S-TAIL  GRASS.  Cynosu- 
rus  cristatus.     See  Grasses. 

DOG'S-TOOTH  GRASS.  Doub 
grass.     See  Benmida  Grass. 

DOGWOOD.  Connis  Florida.  A 
small  tree,  remarkable  for  its  flower- 
like involucrum.  It  is  found  from 
Massachusetts  to  Florida,  usually  on 
the  borders  of  woods.  The  bark  is 
medicinal  and  used  as  a  febrifuge. 
The  heart  wood,  of  a  deep  brown 
colour,  is  hard,  heavy,  and  compact. 
Its  chief  use  is  for  the  cogs  of  wheels, 
points  of  harrows,  and  similar  purpo- 
ses :  the  size  is  not  sufficiently  large 
for  other  objects. 

DOLERITE.  A  trap  rock,  con- 
sisting of  augite  and  feldspar. 

DOLOMITE.  Magnesian  marble, 
or  granular  limestone  containing 
magnesia. 

DOLPHIN,  BLACK.  The  Aphis 
of  beans,  cabbages,  &c.  See  Black 
Dolphin. 

DOOB,  or  DOUB  GRASS.  Cyno- 
don  dactylon.  A  perennial,  creeping 
grass  of  great  value,  acclimated  in 
232 


the  Southern  States,  and  of  celebrity 
among  the  Hindoos.  It  flowers  in 
August,  but  does  not  always  perfect 
seed.  It  is  propagated  from  roots. 
This  is  also  called  Bermuda  or  Brah- 
ma grass.     See  Bermuda  Grass. 

DORSAL.    Belonging  to  the  back. 

DOVE.     See  Piecon. 

DOVE-COTE.    ^See  Pigeon-house. 

DOWNS.  Elevated,  open  mead- 
ows. 

DRAGON  FLY.  The  common 
name  for  Libcllulas,  Agrions,  and  oth- 
er neuropterous  insects.  They  are 
devourers  of  insects,  and  therefore 
friends  of  the  farmer. 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD.  A  blood-red 
resin  imported  from  India,  and  used 
to  colour  varnishes. 

DRAINAGE.  "  As  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  moisture  is  essential  to  vege- 
tation, so  an  excess  of  it  is  highly 
detrimental.  In  the  removal  of  this 
excess  consists  the  art  of  draining. 

"  Water  may  render  land  unproduc- 
tive by  covering  it  entirely  or  partial- 
ly, forming  lakes  or  bogs  ;  or  there 
may  be  an  excess  of  moisture  dif- 
fused through  the  soil  and  stagnating 
in  it,  by  which  the  fibres  of  the  roots 
of  all  plants  which  are  not  aquatic 
are  injured,  if  not  destroyed. 

''  From  these  different  causes  of  in- 
fertility arise  three  different  branches 
of  the  art  of  draining,  which  require 
to  be  separately  noticed. 

"  1.  To  drain  land  which  is  flooded, 
or  rendered  marshy  by  water  coming 
over  it  from  a  higher  level,  and  hav- 
ing no  adequate  outlet  below. 

"  2.  To  drain  land  where  springs 
rise  to  the  surface,  and  where  there 
are  no  natural  channels  for  the  water 
to  run  off. 

"  3.  To  drain  land  which  is  wet  from 
its  impervious  nature,  and  where  the 
evaporation  is  not  sufficient  to  carry 
off  all  the  water  supplied  by  snow  and 
rain. 

"  The  first  branch  includes  all  those 
extensive  operations  where  large 
tracts  of  land  are  reclaimed  by  means 
of  embankments,  canals,  sluices,  and 
mills  to  raise  the  water ;  or  where 
deep  cuts  or  tunnels  are  made  through 
hills  which  formed  a  natural  dam  or 


DRAINAGE. 


barrier  to  the  water.  Such  works 
are  generally  undertaken  by  associa- 
tions, few  individuals  being  possess- 
ed of  sufficient  capital,  or  having  the 
power  to  oblige  all  whose  interests 
are  affected  by  the  draining  of  the 
land  to  give  their  consent  and  afford 
assistance. 

"  All  these  operations  require  the 
science  and  experience  of  civil  engi- 
neers, and  cannot  be  undertaken 
without  great  means.  The  greater 
part  of  the  lowlands  in  the  Nether- 
lands, especially  in  the  province  of 
Holland,  have  been  reclaimed  from 
the  sea,  or  the  rivers  which  flow"ed 
over  them,  by  embanking  and  drain- 
ing, and  are  only  kept  from  floods  by 
a  constant  attention  to  the  works 
originally  erected. 

"Where  the  land  is  below  the  level 
of  the  sea  at  high  water,  and  without 
the  smallest  eminence,  it  requires  a 
constant  removal  of  the  "-vater  which 
percolates  through  the  banks  or  ac- 
cumulates by  rains ;  and  this  can 
only  be  effected  by  sluices  and  mills. 
The  water  is  collected  in  numerous 
ditches  and  canals,  and  led  to  the 
points  where  it  can  most  convenient- 
ly be  discharged  over  the  banks.  The 
mills  conuiionly  erected  for  this  pur- 
pose are  small  wind-mills,  which  turn 
a  kind  of  perpetual  screw  made  of 
wood  several  feet  in  diameter,  on  a 
solid  axle.  This  screw  fits  a  semi- 
circular trough,  which  lies  inclined  at  I 
an  angle  of  about  30"  with  the  ho-  ' 
rizon.  The  lower  part  dips  into  the  i 
water  below,  and  by  its  revolution 
discharges  the  water  into  a  reservoir  ! 
above.  All  the  friction  of  pumps,  and 
the  consequent  wearing  out  of  the 
machinery,  is  thus  avoided.  If  the 
mills  are  properly  constructed  they  re- 
quire little  attendance,  and  work  night 
and  day  whenever  the  wind  blows.  I 
"  In  hilly  countries  it  sometimes 
happens  that  water,  which  runs  down 
the  slopes  of  the  hills,  collects  in  the 
bottoms  where  there  is  no  outlet,  and 
where  the  soil  is  impervious.  In  that 
case  it  may  sometimes  be  laid  dry  by 
cutting  a  sufficient  channel  all  round, 
to  intercept  the  waters  as  they  flow 
down,  and  to  carry  them  over  or  ; 
U2 


through  the  lowest  part  of  the  sur- 
rounding barrier.  If  there  are  no 
very  abundant  springs  in  the  bottom, 
a  few  ditches  and  ponds  will  suffice 
to  dry  the  soil  by  evaporation  from 
their  surface.  We  shall  see  that  this 
principle  may  be  applied  with  great 
advantage  in  many  cases  where  the 
water  could  not  be  drained  out  of 
considerable  hollows  if  it  were  allow- 
ed to  run  into  them. 

"  When  there  are  different  levels  at 
which  the  water  is  pent  up,  the  drain- 
ing should  always  be  begun  at  the 
highest,  because  it  may  happen  that 
when  this  is  laid  dry  the  lower  may 
not  have  a  great  excess  of  water. 
At  all  events,  if  the  water  is  to  be 
raised  by  mechanical  power,  there  is 
a  saving  in  raising  it  from  the  highest 
level,  instead  of  letting  it  run  down 
to  the  lower,  from  which  it  has  to  be 
raised  so  much  higher. 

"  In  draining  a  great  extent  of  land, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  widen  and 
deepen  rivers,  and  alter  their  course  ; 
and  not  unfrequently  the  water  can- 
not be  let  off  without  being  carried, 
by  means  of  tunnels,  under  the  bed 
of  some  river,  the  level  of  which  is 
above  that  of  the  land.  In  more  con- 
fined operations,  cast-iron  pipes  are 
often  a  cheap  and  easy  means  of  ef- 
fecting this.  They  may  be  bent  in  a 
curve,  so  as  not  to  impede  the  course  of 
the  river  or  the  navigation  of  a  canal. 
"  The  draining  of  land  which  is  ren- 
dered u-et  by  springs  arising  from  under 
the  soil  is  a  branch  of  more  general 
application.  The  principles  on  which 
the  operations  are  carried  on  apply 
as  well  to  a  small  field  as  to  the  great- 
est extent  of  land.  The  object  is  to 
find  the  readiest  channels  by  which 
the  superfluous  water  may  be  car- 
ried off;  and  for  this  purpose  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  strata  through 
which  the  springs  rise  is  indispen- 
sable. It  would  be  useless  labour 
merely  to  let  the  water  run  into  drains 
after  it  had  sprung  through  the  soil 
and  appears  at  the  surface,  as  igno- 
rant men  frequently  attempt  to  do, 
and  thus  carry  it  off  after  it  has  al- 
ready soaked  the  soil.  But  the  origin 
of  the  springs  must,  if  possible,  be 
233 


DRAINAGE. 


detected  ;  and  one  single  drain  or 
ditch,  judiciously  disposed,  nnay  lay 
a  great  extent  of  land  dry  if  it  cuts 
off  the  springs  before  they  run  into 
the  soiL  Abundant  springs  which 
flow  continually  generally  proceed 
from  the  outbreaking  of  some  porous 
stratum  in  which  the  waters  were 
confined,  or  through  natural  crevices 
in  rocks  or  impervious  earth.  A 
knowledge  of  the  geology  of  the  coun- 
try will  greatly  assist  in  tracing  this, 
and  the  springs  may  be  cut  off  with 
greater  certainty.    But  it  is  not  these 

Fi. 


main  springs  which  give  the  greatest 
trouble  to  an  experienced  drainer  ;  it 
is  the  various  land-springs,  which  are 
sometimes  branches  of  the  former, 
and  often  original  and  independent 
springs  arising  from  sudden  varia- 
tions in  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  sub- 
sod.  The  annexed  diagram,  repre- 
senting a  section  of  an  uneven  sur- 
face of  land,  will  explain  the  nature 
of  the  strata  which  produce  springs. 
"  Suppose  A  A  a  porous  gravel 
through  which  the  water  filtrates 
readily  ;  B  B  a  stratum  of  loam  or 


clay  impervious  to  water.  The  wa- 
ter which  comes  through  A  A  will 
run  along  the  surface  of  B  B  towards 
S  S,  where  it  will  spring  to  the  sur- 
face and  form  a  lake  or  bog  between 
S  and  S.  Suppose  another  gravelly 
or  pervious  stratum  under  the  last, 
as  C,  C,  C,  bending  as  here  represent- 
ed, and  filled  with  water  running;  into 
it  from  a  higher  level ;  it  is  evident 
that  this  stratum  will  be  saturated 
with  water  up  to  the  dotted  line  E,  F, 
F,  which  is  the  level  of  the  point  in 
the  lower  rock,  or  impervious  stratum, 
D,  D,  where  the  water  can  run  over 
it.  If  the  stratum  B  B  has  any  crev- 
ices in  it  below  the  dotted  line,  the 
water  will  rise  through  these  to  the 
surface,  and  form  springs  rising  from 
the  bottom  of  the  lake  or  bog ;  and 
if  B  B  were  bored  through  and  a  pipe 
inserted  rising  up  to  the  dotted  line, 
as  c,  0,  the  water  would  rise  and  stand 
at  o.  If  there  were  no  springs  at 
S  S,  the  space  below  the  dotted  line 
might  still  be  filled  with  water  rising 
from  stratum  C,  C,  C.  But  if  the  bo- 
ring took  place  at  G,  the  water  would 
not  rise,  but,  on  the  contrary,  if  there 
■were  any  on  the  surface,  it  would  be 
carried  down  to  the  porous  stratum 
C,  C,  C,  and  run  off.  Thus  in  one  sit- 
uation boring  will  bring  water,  and 
in  another  it  will  take  it  off.  This 
principle  being  well  understood  will 
greatly  facilitate  all  drainmgs  of 
234 


springs.  Wherever  water  springs, 
there  must  be  a  pervious  and  an  im- 
pervious stratum  to  cause  it,  and  the 
water  either  runs  over  the  impervi- 
ous surface  or  rises  through  the  crev- 
ices in  it.  When  the  line  of  the 
springs  is  found,  as  at  S  S,  the  obvi- 
ous remedy  is  to  cut  a  channel  with 
a  sufficient  declivity  to  take  off  the 
water  in  a  direction  across  this  line, 
and  sunk  through  the  porous  soil  at 
the  surface  into  the  lower  impervious 
earth.  The  place  for  this  channel  is 
where  the  porous  soil  is  the  shallow- 
est above  the  breaking  out,  so  as  to 
require  the  least  depth  of  drain,  but 
the  solid  stratum  must  be  reached, 
or  the  draining  will  be  imperfect. 
It  is  by  attending  to  all  these  circum- 
stances that  Elkington  acquired  his 
celebrity  in  draining,  and  that  he  has 
been  considered  as  the  father  of  the 
system.  It  is,  however,  of  much 
earlier  invention,  and  is  too  obvious 
not  to  have  struck  any  one  who  seri- 
ously considered  the  subject.  In  the 
practical  application  of  the  principle, 
great  ingenuity  and  skill  may  be  dis- 
played, and  the  desired  effect  may  be 
produced  more  or  less  completely, 
and  at  a  greater  or  less  expense. 
The  advice  of  a  scientific  and  prac- 
tical drainer  is  always  well  worth  the 
cost  at  which  it  may  be  obtained. 

"  When  there  is  a  great  variation  in 
the  soil,  and  it  is  difficult  to  find  any 


DRAINAGE. 


main  line  of  springs,  it  is  best  to  pro- 
ceed experimentally  by  making  pits  a 
few  feet  deep,  or  by  boring  in  various 
parts  wbere  water  appears,  observing 
the  level  at  which  the  water  stands 
in  these  pits  or  bores,  as  well  as  the 
nature  of  the  soil  taken  out.  Thus 
it  will  generally  be  easy  to  ascertain 
whence  the  water  arises,  and  how  it 
may  be  let  off.  When  there  is  a 
mound  of  light  soil  over  a  more  im- 
pervious stratum,  the  springs  will 
break  out  all  round  the  edge  of  the 
mound  ;  a  drain  laid  round  the  base 
will  take  offall  the  water  which  arises 
from  this  cause,  and  the  lower  part 
of  the  land  will  be  effectually  laid  dry. 
So,  likewise,  where  there  is  a  hollow 
or  depression  of  which  the  bottom  is 
clay,  with  sand  in  the  upper  part,  a 
drain  laid  along  the  edge  of  the  hol- 
low, and  carried  round  it,  will  prevent 
the  water  running  down  into  it  and 
forming  a  marsh  at  the  bottom. 

"  When  the  drains  cannot  be  carried 
to  a  sufficient  depth  to  take  the  water 
out  of  the  porous  stratum  saturated 
with  it,  it  is  often  useful  to  bore  nu- 
merous holes  with  a  proper  auger  in 


Fig.  2. 


■C'&S-A 


ditch  (h,  h)  across  it  and  sinking  holes 
into  the  subsoil.  One  of  these  holes 
is  shown  in  Ftg.  2  (a,  b),  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  conveys  the  surface 
water  away.  The  bottom  of  the 
drains  is  sometimes  choked  with 
loose  sand,  which  flows  up  with  the 
water,  and  they  require  to  be  cleared 
repeatedly  ;  but  this  soon  ceases  after 
the  first  rush  is  past,  and  the  water 


the  bottom  of  the  drain  through  the 
stiffer  soil,  and,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciple explained  in  the  diagram,  the 
water  will  either  rise  through  these 
bores  into  the  drains  and  be  carried 
off,  and  the  natural  springs  will  be 
dried  up,  or  it  will  sink  down  through 
them  as  at  G,  in  the  section,  if  it  lies 
above.  This  method  is  often  advan- 
tageous in  the  draining  of  peat  bogs, 
which  generally  lie  on  clay  or  stiff 
loam,  with  a  layer  of  gravel  between 
the  loam  and  the  peat,  the  whole  ly- 
ing in  a  basin  or  hollow,  and  often  on 
a  declivity.  The  peat,  though  it  re- 
tains water,  is  not  pervious,  and 
drains  may  be  cut  into  it  which  will 
hold  water.  When  the  drains  are 
four  or  five  feet  deep  and  the  peat  is 
much  deeper,  holes  are  bored  down 
to  the  clay  below,  and  the  water  is 
pressed  up  through  these  holes,  by 
the  weight  of  the  whole  body  of  peat, 
into  the  drains,  by  which  it  is  carried 
off.  The  cuts,  Figs.  2  and  3,  repre- 
sent a  common  case  of  this  kind  ;  h,  h 
(3)  are  the  sides  of  a  hill ;  the  swampy 
lot  below  is  filled  with  springs,  which 
are,  however,  drained  by  running  a 


rises  slowly  and  regularly.  The  sur- 
face of  the  peat  being  dried,  dressed 
with  lime,  and  consolidated  with 
earth  and  gravel,  soon  becomes  pro- 
ductive. If  the  soil,  whatever  be  its 
nature,  can  be  drained  to  a  certain 
depth,  it  is  of  no  consequence  what 
water  may  be  lodged  below  it.  It  is 
only  when  it  rises  so  as  to  stagnate 
about  the  roots  of  plants  that  it  is 
235 


DRAINAGE. 


hurtful.  Land  may  be  drained  so 
much  as  to  l)e  deteriorated,  as  expe- 
rience has  shown. 

"  When  a  single  large  and  deep 
drain  will  produce  the  desired  eflect, 
it  is  much  better  than  when  there  are 
several  smaller,  as  large  drains  are 
more  easily  kept  open,  and  last  long- 
er tlian  smaller  ;  but  this  is  only  the 
case  in  tapping  main  springs,  tor  if 
the  water  is  ditlused  through  the  sur- 
rounding soil,  numerous  small  drains 
are  more  effective  :  but  as  soon  as 
there  is  a  sufficient  body  of  water 
collected,  the  smaller  drains  should 
run  into  larger,  and  these  into  main 
drains,  which  should  all,  as  far  as  is 
practicable,  unite  into  one  principal 
outlet,  by  which  means  there  will  be 
less  chance  of  their  being  choked  up. 
WTien  the  water  springs  into  a  drain 
from  below,  it  is  best  to  fill  up  that 
part  of  the  drain  which  lies  above 
the  stones  or  other  materials  which 
form  the  channel,  with  solid  earth 
well  pressed  in,  and  made  impervious 
to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  bottom 
of  the  furrows  in  ploughed  land,  or 
the  sod  in  pastures  ;  because  the 
water  running  along  the  surface  is 
apt  to  carry  loose  earth  with  it,  and 
choke  the  drains.  When  the  water 
comes  in  by  the  sides  of  the  drains, 
loose  stones  or  gravel,  or  any  porous 
material,  should  be  laid  in  them  to  the 
line  where  the  water  comes  in,  and  a 
little  above  it,  over  which  the  earth 
may  be  rammed  in  tight,  so  as  to  al- 
low the  horses  to  walk  over  the  drain 
without  sinking  in. 

"  It  sometimes  happens  that  the 
water  collected  from  springs,  which 
caused  marshes  and  bogs  below,  by 
being  carried  in  new  channels,  may 
be  usefully  employed  in  irrigating  the 
land  which  it  rendered  barren  before ; 
not  only  removing  the  cause  of  bar- 
renness, but  adding  positive  fertility. 
In  this  case  the  lower  ground  must 
have  numerous  drains  in  it,  in  order 
that  the  water  let  on  to  irrigate  it 
may  not  stagnate  upon  it,  but  run  olT 
after  it  has  answered  its  purpose. 

"  The  third  branch  in  the  art  of  drain- 
in  ff  is  the  removal  of  water  from  imper- 
vious soils  which  lie  flat,  or  in  hollows, 
2:3G 


where  the  water  from  rain,  snow,  or 
dews,  which  cannot  sink  into  the  soil 
on  account  of  its  impervious  nature, 
and  which  cannot  be  carried  olT  by 
evaporation,  runs  along  the  surface 
and  stagnates  in  every  depression. 
This  is  by  far  the  most  expensive 
operation,  in  consequence  of  the  num- 
ber of  drains  required  to  lay  the  sur- 
face dry.  It  requires  much  skill  and 
practice  to  lay  out  the  drains  so  as 
to  produce  the  greatest  effect  at  the 
least  expense.  There  is  often  a  layer 
of  light  earth  immediately  over  a  sub- 
stratum of  clay,  and  after  continued 
rains  this  soil  becomes  filled  with 
water,  like  a  sponge,  and  no  healthy 
vegetation  can  take  place.  In  this 
case  numerous  drains  must  be  made 
in  the  subsoU,  and  over  the  draining 
tiles  or  bushes,  which  may  be  laid  at 
the  bottom  of  the  drains,  loose  gravel 
or  broken  stones  must  be  laid  to  with- 
in a  foot  of  the  surface,  so  that  the 
plough  shall  not  reach  them.  The 
water  will  gradually  sink  into  these 
drains  and  be  carried  ofT,  and  the 
loose  wet  soil  will  become  firm  and 
dry.  In  no  case  is  the  advantage  of 
draining  more  immediately  apparent. 
The  average  depth  is  30  inches. 

"  It  is  very  seldom  that  a  field  is  ab- 
solutely level ;  the  first  thing,  there- 
fore, to  be  ascertained  is  the  greatest 
inclmation  and  its  direction.  For  this 
purpose,  there  is  an  instrument  essen- 
tial to  a  drainer,  with  which  an  accu- 
rately horizontal  line  can  be  ascer- 
tained, by  means  of  a  plummet,  a 
bricklayer's  level,  or  a  spirit  level. 
A  sufficient  fall  may  thus  be  found  or 
artificially  made  in  the  drains  to  car- 
ry off  the  water.  The  next  object 
is  to  arrange  drains  so  that  each 
shall  collect  as  much  of  the  water  in 
the  sod  as  possible.  Large  drains, 
except  as  main  drains,  are  inadmis- 
sible. The  depth  should  be  such 
only  that  the  plough  may  not  reach  it, 
if  the  land  is  arable,  or  the  feet  of 
cattle  tread  it  in,  if  it  be  in  pasture. 
All  the  drains  which  are  to  collect 
the  water  should  lie  as  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  the  inclination  of  the 
surface  as  is  consistent  with  a  suffi- 
cient fall  in  the  drains  to  make  them 


DRAINAGE. 


run.     One  foot  is  sufficient  fall  for  a  ' 
drain  300  feet  in  length,  provided  the 
drains  be  not  more  than  twenty  feet 
apart.     The  main  drains,  by  being 
laid  obliquely  across  the  fall  of  the 
frround,  will  help  to  take  off  a  part  of 
the  surface  water.    It  is  evident  that 
the  drains  can  seldom  be  in  a  straight  j 
line  unless  the  ground  be  perfectly 
even.     They  should,  however,  never  : 
have  sudden  turns,  but  be  bent  grad- ' 
ually  where  the  direction  is  changed. 
The  flatter  the  surface  and  the  stiffer 
the  soil,  the  greater  number  of  drains 
will  be  required.     It  is  a  common 
practice  with  drainers  to  run  a  main 
drain  directly  down  the  slope,  how- 
ever  rapid,   and   to    carry    smaller 
drains  into  this  alternately  on  the 
right  and  left,  which  they  call  her- 
ring-bone fashion.    But  this  can  only 
be  approved  of  where  the  ground  is 
nearly  level,  and  where  there  is  very 
little  Vail  for  the  main  drain.     A  con- 
siderable fall  is  to  be  avoided  as  much  | 
as  possible  ;  and  every  drain  should  \ 
lie  obliquely  to  the  natural  run  of  the  j 
water.     It   generally  happens   that, 
besides  surface  water,  there  are  also 
some  land-springs  arising  from  a  va- 
riation in  the  soil  ;  these  should  be 
carefully  ascertained,  and  the  drains 
should  be  so  laid  as  to  cut  them  off. 
"  In  draining  clay  land,  where  there 
is  only  a  layer  of  a  few  inches  of 
looser  soil  over  a  solid  clay,  which 
the   plough  never  stirs,  the   drains 
need  not  be  deeper  than  two  feet  in 
the  solid  clay,  nor  wider  than  they 
can  be  made  without  the  sides  falling 
in.    The  common  draining  tile,  which 
is  a  flat  tile  bent  in  the  form  of  half 
a  cyUnder,  and  which  can  be  made  at 
a  very  cheap  rate,  is  the  best  for  ex- 
tensive surface  draining.      In  solid 
clay  it  requires  no  fiat  tile  under  it ; 
it  is  merely  an  arch  to  carry  the  loose 
stones  or  earth  with  which  the  drain 
is  filled  up.     Loose  round  stones  or 
pebbles  are  the  best  where  they  can 
be  procured  ;  and  in  default  of  them, 
bushes,  heath,  or  straw  may  be  laid. 
In  grass  land  the  sod  may  be  laid 
over  the  drain,  after  it  has  been  filled 
up,  so  as  to  form  a  slight  ridge  over 
it.    This  will  soon  sink  to  a  level 


with  the  surface.  To  save  the  ex- 
pense of  stone  or  tiles,  drains  are 
frequently  made  si.x  inches  wide  at 
the  bottom  ;  a  narrow  channel  is  cut 
in  the  solid  clay,  two  or  three  inches 
wide  and  six  deep  («),  leaving  a  shoul- 
der on  each  side  to  support  a  sod, 
which  is  cut  so  as  to  fit  the  drain,  and 
rest  on  the  shoulders  {h)  ;  this  sod 
keeps  the  earth  from  filling  the  chan- 
nel (see  Fiff.  4).     It  is  filled  up  as  de- 


scribed  before  :  such  drains  are  made 
at  a  small  expense,  and  will  last  for 
many  years. 

"  Where  the  clay  is  not  sufficiently 
tenacious,  the  bottom  of  the  drain  is 
sometimes  cut  with  a  sharp  angle, 
and  a  twisted  rope  of  straw  is  thrust 
into  it.  This  keeps  the  earth  from 
falUng  in,  and  the  running  of  the  wa- 
ter keeps  the  channel  open ;  the  straw, 
not  being  exposed  to  the  air,  remains 
a  long  time  without  decaying.  It  is 
a  common  mistake  to  suppose  that 
in  these  drains  water  enters  from 
above  ;  it  rises  from  below. 

"  The  best  materials  for  large  main 
drains,  where  they  can  be  procured, 
are  flat  stones  which  readily  split,  and 
of  which  a  square  or  triangular  chan- 
nel is  formed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
drain.     If  the  drain  is  made  merely 
as  a  trunk  to  carry  off  the  water,  it 
is  best  to  fill  it  up  with  earth,  well 
pressed  in,  over  the  channel  made  by 
the  stones.     A  very  useful  draining 
j  tile  is  used  in  Berkshire  and  other 
'  places,  which  requires  no  flat  tile  un- 
der it,  even  in  loose  soils,  because  it 
j  has  a  flat  foot  to  rest  on,  formed  of 
j  the  two  thick  edges  of  the  tile,  which, 
I  nearly  meeting  when  the  tile  is  bent 
round,  form  the  foot.    The  section  of 
1  the  tile  is  like  a  horseshoe.      It  is 
237 


DRAINAGE. 


well  adapted  for  drains  where  the  wa- 
ter springs  upward,  and  it  is  less  apt 
to  slip  out  01"  its  place  than  the  com- 
mon tile. 

"In  draining  fields  it  is  usual  to 
make  the  outlets  of  the  drains  in  the 
ditch  which  bounds  them.  The  few- 
er outlets  there  are,  the  less  chance 
there  is  of  their  being  choked  :  they 
should  fall  into  the  ditch  at  two  feet 
from  the  bottom,  and  a  wooden  trunk, 
or  one  of  stone,  should  be  laid  so  that 
the  water  may  be  discharged  without 
carrying  the  soil  from  the  side  of  the 
ditch.  If  there  is  water  in  the  ditch, 
it  should  be  kept  below  the  mouth  of 
the  drain.  The  outlets  of  all  drains 
should  be  repeatedly  examined,  to 
keep  them  clear ;  for  wherever  wa- 
ter remains  in  a  drain  it  will  soon 
derange  or  choke  it.  The  drains 
should  be  so  arranged  or  turned  that 


the  outlet  shall  meet  the  ditch  at  an 
obtuse  angle  towards  the  lower  part 
where  the  water  runs  to.  A  drain 
brought  at  right  angles  into  a  ditch 
must  necessarily  soon  be  choked  by 
the  deposition  of  sand  and  earth  at 
its  mouth.  The  channel  or  water- 
way of  drains  is  hable  to  the  inroads 
of  rats,  moles,  and  other  vermin  ; 
they  may  be  kept  out  by  inserting 
occasionally  a  piece  of  perforated  tin 
plate,  or  wire  grates. 

"  As  the  draining  of  wet  clay  soils 
is  the  only  means  by  which  they  can 
be  rendered  profitable  as  arable  land, 
and  the  expense  is  great,  various  in- 
struments and  ploughs  have  been 
contrived  to  diminish  manual  labour 
and  expedite  the  work.  Of  these  one 
of  the  simplest  is  the  common  mole 
plough  (Fig.  5),  which,  in  very  stiff 
clay,  makes  a  small  hollow  drain,  from 


^^^\\\ 


Lumbert'a  Mole  Plough. 


one  foot  to  18  inches  below  the  sur- 
face, by  forcing  a  pointed  iron  cylin- 
der horizontally  through  the  ground. 
It  makes  a  cut  through  the  clay,  and 
leaves  a  cylindrical  channel,  through 
which  the  water  which  enters  by  the 
slit  is  carried  off.  It  requires  great 
power  to  draw  it,  and  can  only  be  used 
when  the  clay  is  moist.  In  meadows 
it  is  extremely  useful,  and  there  it 
need  not  go  more  than  a  foot  under 
the  sod.  Five  to  ten  acres  of  grass 
land  may  easily  be  drained  by  it  in  a 
day.  It  is  very  apt,  however,  to  be 
filled  in  dry  weather  by  the  soil  fall- 
ing in  ;  and  moles  often  do  much 
damage  to  it  by  using  it  in  their  sub- 
terraneous workings. 

"  But  draining  ploughs  have  been 
invented  which  greatly  accelerate  the 
238 


operation  of  forming  drains,  by  cut- 
ting them  out  in  a  regular  manner, 
when  they  are  immediately  finished 
with  the  usual  tools  and  filled  up. 
See  Drainivg  Plough.  It  has  done 
wonders  in  some  of  the  wet,  stiff  soils 
in  Sussex,  and  is  much  to  be  recom- 
mended in  all  wet  and  heavy  clays. 
In  stony  land  it  cannot  well  be  used. 
The  subsoil  plough,  introduced  to 
public  notice  by  Mr.  Smith,  of  Deans- 
ton,  may  be  considered,  in  some 
measure,  as  a  draining  plough,  for  it 
loosens  the  subsoil,  so  that  a  few 
main  drains  are  sufficient  to  carry 
off  all  the  superfluous  moisture  ;  and 
it  has,  besides,  the  effect  of  not  carry- 
ing off  more  than  what  is  superfluous. 
By  means  of  judicious  drains  and  the 
use  of  the  subsoil  plough  the  stiffest 


DKA 

and  wettest  land  may  in  time  become 
the  most  fertile. 

"The  tools  used  in  draining  are 
few  and  simple.  Spades,  with  taper- 
ing blades  of  different  sizes,  are  re- 
quired to  difi  the  drains  of  the  proper 
width  and  the  sides  at  a  proper  an- 
gle. When  the  drain  begins  to  be 
very  narrow  near  the  bottom,  scoops 
are  used  of  different  sizes,  which  are 
fi.ved  to  handles  at  various  anglcjs, 
more  conveniently  to  clear  the  bot- 
tom and  lay  it  smooth  to  the  exact 
width  of  the  tiles,  if  these  are  used  ; 
for  tiie  more  firmly  the  tiles  are  kept 
in  their  places  by  the  solid  sides  of 
the  drain,  the  less  likely  they  are  to 
be  moved. 

Figs.  6,  7,  8,  represent  three  of  the 
most  common  tools.  A  heavy  plough 
is  first  run  in  the  line  of  the  drain  and 
back,  unless  it  be  desirable  to  retain 
the  sod,  which  must  be  cut  off"  with 
a  spade.  In  the  furrow  so  made  a 
hand  enters  with  the  spade  a,  which 
is  six  inches  wide  at  the  top,  four  be- 
low, and  fourteen  inches  deep  ;  the 
spits  of  earth  are  thrown  to  the  right, 
the  turf  being  on  the  left  side.  An- 
other workman  follows  with  b,  which 
is  four  inches  above  and  two  or  three 
below,  according  to  the  intended  size 
of  the  channel  of  the  drain.  Lastly, 
the  scoop,  c,  is  used  to  take  out  the 
last  portions  of  earth,  and  clear  away 
anv  rubbish. 


DRA 


Fig.  8. 


Fi?.  6. 


Fig.J. 


DRAINING  PLOUGH.  Several 
massive  ploughs  have  been  construct- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  opening  the 
greater  part  of  the  ditch  at  one  stroke ; 
they  are  double  mould-board  ploughs. 
Figs.  1  and  2  represent  two  views 
of  Gray's  draining  plough.     In  1  the 


side  is  figured,  and  2  is  taken  from 
above,    aa  are  wheels  which,  with  the 


front  wheel,  regulate  the  depth  of  the 
furrow.     A  stout  coulter,  b,  is  fixed 
S39 


DRE 

before  the  share  to  cut  the  way. 
Perpendicularly  on  each  side  two 
coulters,  c,  arc  fixed,  which  cut  in  an 
inclined  direction  to  form  the  sides 
of  the  drain  :  thoy  can  be  set  for  any 
required  inclination.  The  earth  thus 
cut  is  divided  by  the  share,  half  being 
forced  up  each  side  of  the  mould- 
board  as  the  plou<,'li  advances.  It 
requires  six  to  eight  strong  horses  to 
draw  it. 

DRASTIC  (from  dpaariKoc,  active). 
Medicines  which  act  violently. 

DRENCH.  In  farriery,  a  large 
drink  or  draught  of  any  liquid  reme- 
dy given  to  an  animal,  usually  by 
means  of  a  horn  properly  cut  for  the 
purpose. 

A  drink  is  not  so  portable  as  a  ball ; 
it  is  more  troublesome  to  give,  and  a 
portion  of  it  is  usually  wasted.  Mr. 
Stewart  strenuously  urges  the  follow- 
ing propositions  :  1.  That  draughts, 
particularly  when  pungent  or  disa- 
greeable, are  dangerous.  2.  That  by 
no  care  can  the  danger  be  altogether 
avoided.  3.  That  no  draught  should 
be  given  unless  the  horse  be  in  dan- 
ger of  dying  without  it.  4.  That  the 
safest  way  of  administering  draughts 


DRI 

is  to  give  them  when  the  horse  is  Ij-- 
ing.  5.  That  a  draught  is  seldom  or 
never  absolutely  necessary  but  in  dis- 
eases that  make  the  horse  lie.  6. 
That  a  bottle  is  a  better  drenching 
instrument  than  a  horn. 

DRESSING.  In  farriery,  the  ap- 
plication of  plasters,  &c.,  to  wounds. 
The  application  of  manure. 

DRILL.  A  long,  straight  line,  in 
which  seeds  or  plants  are  set.  Dnll 
husbandry  is  the  cultivation  of  crops 
in  drills  instead  of  broad-cast. 

DRILL  MACHINES.  Contrivan- 
ces for  the  purpose  of  running:  a  drill 
furrow,  depositing  seed  therein,  and 
covering  it  with  earth.  They  are 
simple — making  one  furrow  only,  for 
beans,  pease,  &c. — or  compound,  ma- 
king many  drills,  for  wheat,  turnips, 
&c.  The  principal  difficulty  in  the 
action  of  drills  is  the  inequality  of  the 
soil.  Sometimes  a  contrivance  for 
the  deposite  of  manures  is  added  to 
the  machine,  which  becomes  a  seed 
and  manure  dr*l.  Adjustments  for 
the  width  of  furrows  are  also  intro- 
duced in  the  more  complex  imple- 
ments 

Ftg.  1  represents  the  simplest  drill 


barrow,  a  is  the  hopper  containing 
seed ;  the  bottom  is  closed  by  a  cyl- 
inder, in  which  there  are  holes  at 
proper  distances  for  one  or  more 
seeds  ;  this  is  made  to  revolve  by 
a  string  or  strap  of  leather  passing 


from  the  axis  of  the  wheel  to  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder ;  c  is  a  coulter 
which  scrapes  the  furrow,  and  behind 
it  the  seeds  are  deposited  as  the  cyl- 
inder turns  round.  Such  a  machine 
has  to  be  used  upon  land  already  pre- 


Fig.  2 


240 


DRILL  MACHLXES. 


pared,  and  is  run  along  the  summit 
of  the  furrows. 

Fig.  2  is  a  much  more  important 
single  drill  for  beans,  &c.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  a  circular  coulter,  c ;  a 
small  double-moukl-hoard  plough  ;  a 
wheel,  a,  to  regulate  the  depth  of 
furrow ;  and  an  arrangement  of  le- 
vers, b,  by  which  the  seed-cylinder  is 
thrown  out  of  gearing  in  a  moment 
by  the  workman,  as  the  barrow  is 
moving  over  the  butts,  &c.  The  re- 
volving cylinder,  in  this  case,  is  mo- 
ved by  an  axis  furnished  with  a  cog- 
wheel, set  in  motion  by  the  wheel 
itself.     It  is  a  very  excellent  ma- 


chine, and  can  be  used  to  prepare 
the  soil,  or  on  level  ground,  without 
previous  ploughing. 

Figs.  3  and  4  represent  views  of 
a  turnip  drill  barrow,  with  a  contri- 
vance for  fluid  manure,  water,  &c., 
to  be  deposited  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing. The  seeds  are  contained  in  a 
cylindrical  tin  can,  furnished  with 
holes  at  proper  distances,  b ;  this  is 
set  in  motion  by  the  band  running 
from  the  wheel,  and  deposites  the 
seed  in  a  funnel,  the  front  part  of 
which  scrapes  the  drill ;  a  is  the  res- 
ervoir of  fluid,  which  discharges  its 
contents  along  the  tube,  d,  immedi- 


ately upon  the  seed  sown ;  after 
the  stream,  the  roller,  e,  serves 
to  cover  the  seed,  and  thus  com- 
pletes the  operation.  Figure 
4  represents  the  seed  cylinder, 
funnel,  and  roller  from  behind. 
The  stream  of  fluid  manure  is 
necessarily  very  fine. 

Weir's  manuring  one-ro\o  drill 
IS  figured  in  5  and  6.  It  is  a 
great  improvement  on  the  cele- 
brated Northumberland  turnip 
drill. 
X 


341 


DRILL  MACHINES. 


"  It  has  a  manure  hopper,  a,  and  a 
seed  hopper,  b,  the  same  as  the  oth- 
er; but  the  manure,  in  place  of  being 
dropped  along  with  the  seed,  is  de- 
posited in  a  deep  gutter  made  by  a 
coulter,  c,  which  goes  before  ;  this 
manure  is  covered  by  a  pronged  coul- 
ter, (/,  which  follows  the  other ;  next 
comes  the  coulter  which  forms  the 
gutter  for  the  seed,  c.  The  seed  is 
thus  deposited  about  one  inch  above 
the  manure.  One  roller  of  the  eon- 
cave  kind  goes  before  the  machine, 
and  another  light  one  of  the  common 
kind  follows  after  it ;  or,  without  at- 


tached rollers,  the  drill  may  be  affixed 
to  one  side  of  the  common  roller,  be- 
hind, which  roller  may  prepare  one 
drill  and  cover  the  seed  sown  on  an- 
other each  course." 

The  deposite  of  seed  in  this  and 
the  best  drills  is  managed  by  a  re- 
volving axis,  turned  by  a  cog-wheel, 
which  fits  into  a  wheel  on  the  axis 
of  the  large  wheel,/. 

Morion's  grain  drill,  for  three  or 
five  furrows,  is  shown  in  Ftg.  7.  The 
following  is  Loudon's  account  of  this 
machine  : 

"  It  is  decidedly  the  simplest  and 


best  of  grain  drills.  In  this  machine 
three  hoppers  are  included  in  one 
box,  the  seed  escaping  out  of  all  the 
three  by  the  revolution  of  three  seed 
cylinders  upon  one  axle  ;  and  drills 
of  different  breadths  are  produced 
simply  by  the  shifting  of  a  nut,  that 
fixes  a  screw  moving  in  a  groove  in 
the  under-frame,  by  which  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  outside  con- 
ductors and  the  central  one  (which 
is  fixed)  can  be  varied  from  nine  to 
ten  or  eleven  inches  ;  and  that  the 
two  small  wheels  may  always  be  at 
the  same  distances  respectively  as 
the  conductors,  there  are  two  wash- 
ers (hollow  cylinders),  an  inch  iu 
breadth,  on  the  axle-arms  of  each, 
which  may  be  transferred  either  to 
the  outside  or  inside  of  the  wheels, 
so  as  to  make  their  distances  from 
the  outside  conductors  nine,  ten,  or 
eleven  inches  respectively  also.  The 
small  wheels  may  be  raised  or  de- 
pressed, so  as  to  alter  the  depth  at 
which  the  seed  shall  be  deposited,  by 
the  action  of  a  wedge,  which  retains 
242 


the  upright  part  of  the  axle  in  any 
one  of  a  number  of  notches,  which 
are  made  similarly  in  both,  and  which 
are  caught  by  an  iron  plate  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  arms  which  carry 
the  axles.  This  machine  may  be  still 
farther  improved  by  increasing  the 
number  of  conductors  to  five  instead 
of  three,  the  latter  number  giving  too 
light  work  to  the  horses."' — {Highland 
Soc.  Trans.,  vol.  vii.) 

Cooke's  grain  drill  is  seen  in  Fig. 
8.     It  has  been  long  employed  with 
Fig.  6. 


DRILL  MACHINES. 


success  in  the  light  soils  of  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk,  England.  On  the  beam, 
a,  the  coulters  to  prepare  drills  are 
arranged,  the  whole  being  capable  of 
lateral  motion,  so  as  to  compensate 
for  irregularities  in  the  motion  of  the 
horse.  The  arrangement  by  which 
the  grain  is  conveyed  from  the  hop- 
per, by  small  cups  fixed  on  stems, 
into  the  funnels,  is  also  seen  in  the 
section.  The  ends  of  the  funnels 
which  deliver  seed  are  free  to  move 
a  few  inches,  so  as  to  overcome  ine- 
qualities in  the  ground.  This  imple- 
ment is  also  arranged  as  a  common 
horse  hoe,  or  scarifier,  by  taking  off 
the  apparatus  for  sowing. 

The  most  important  machine  of 
this  class  is  the  lever  drill,  which  is 
calculated  to  sow  at  a  uniform  depth 
in  uneven  soils  ;  it  is,  however,  ex- 
pensive. 

In  the  annexed  figure  (9)  the  box 
for  sowing  manure  is  not  added,  as  it 
is  in  the  Northumberland  drill.  The 
drill  is  supported  on  a  frame  and  two 
wheels.  The  box  A,  which  holds  the 
seed,  lets  it  down  gradually  into  a 
lower  part,  in  which  the  cylinder, 
which  has  the  small  cups  fixed  to  its 
circumference,  is  turned  by  the  wheel 
D.  By  means  of  the  lever  G  this 
may  be  raised  so  that  its  teeth  are 
freed  from  those  of  the  wheel  E,  and 
the  motion  of  the  cylinder  is  stopped. 
The  coulters  which  make  the  drills 
are  each  fixed  to  a  lever,  at  one  end 
of  which,  B,  a  weight  is  fixed  to  press 
the  coulter  into  the  ground.  Each 
coulter  has  a  separate  lever,  so  that 
it  adapts  itself  to  all  the  inequalities 
of  the  soil.  A  chain  proceeds  from 
the  end  of  each,  and  may  be  wound 
round  a  cylinder,  C,  by  turning  the 
handles  fixed  to  it  at  H,  where  there 
is  also  a  racket-wheel  to  prevent  its 
unwinding.  The  intent  of  this  is  to 
raise  all  the  coulters  out  of  the  ground 
when  the  drill  is  not  intended  to  act, 
or  is  moved  from  place  to  place. 
When  the  drill  is  used,  the  box  A  is 
filled  with  seed,  and  the  slide  in  it  so 
adjusted  as  to  supply  it  regularly ; 
the  lever  G,  which  was  fixed  down, 
is  raised,  and  the  wheel  D  connected 
with  the  wheel  E.     As  the  horses 


proceed  the  cylinder  turns,  the  cups 
take  up  the  seed,  and  throw  it  into 
the  funnels,  K  K,  which  conduct  it  to 
the  drill  behind  the  coulter.  A  light 
harrow  or  a  bush-harrow  follows, 
which  covers  the  seed.  In  very  loose 
soils  the  roller  completes  the  opera- 
tion. 

Other  forms  and  modifications  of 
this  class  of  machines  exist;  thus,  a 
patent  was  taken  out  by  Mr.  Hornsby 
for  a  drill  to  sow  at  intervals  instead 
of  along  the  whole  line.  In  the  Uni- 
ted States,  drills  have  not  been  much 
used  ;  BemcnVs  is  similar  to  the  one 
in  Fig.  1,  and  is  somewhat  employ- 
ed for  beans.  Messrs.  Pennock,  of 
Pennsylvania,  have  a  patent  for  a 
grain  drill  of  considerable  merit  and 
success. 

From  the  neglect  with  which  such 
contrivances  have  been  treated,  some 
may  suppose  that  they  are  not  of 
much  value  ;  this  is  by  no  means  the 
case,  as  the  following  summary  by 
Mr.  Binns  shows  : 

1.  The  seed  is  delivered  with  reg- 
ularity. 

2.  It  is  deposited  at  proper  depths. 

3.  The  weeds,  during  the  growth 
of  plants,  are  destroyed  wuth  great 
facility. 

4.  The  plants  cultivated  receive 
the  undivided  benefit  of  the  soil  and 
manure,  and  have  not  to  maintain  a 
constant  struggle  with  weeds. 

5.  The  land,  by  the  process  of  hoe- 
ing, is  undergoing  preparations  for 
another  crop. 

6.  The  necessity  of  summer  fallow- 
ing is  avoided. 

7.  By  admission  of  the  sun  and  air 
between  the  rows,  a  stronger  and 
healthier  plant  is  produced,  and  of 
course  a  heavier  crop. 

8.  By  stirring  the  soil  it  is  more 
susceptible  of  benefit  from  the  atmo- 
sphere, imbibing  more  oxygen,  and 
being  both  warmed  and  enriched  by 
the  sun. 

9.  The  roots  shoot  freely  in  pul- 
verized soil. 

10.  By  drilling,  the  farmer  is  en- 
abled to  have  heavier  crops  of  beans 
and  wheat  on  light  land. 

11.  Clover  and  grass  seeds  answer 

243 


DRILL  MACHLNES. 


214 


DRY 


DUC 


incomparably  better  in  tlie  pulveriza- 
tion produced  by  hoeing,  independent 
of  the  clearness  from  weeds. 

12.  The  drills  give  facility  for  de- 
positing smaller  portions  of  manure 
with  greater  effect. 

A  saving  of  half  the  seed  is  also 
effected.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
expense  of  hoeing  wheat,  &.c.,  very 
much  increases  the  price  of  cultiva- 
tion ;  although  it  is,  according  to  the 
evidence  of  practical  men,  repaid  by 
the  large  increase  of  crop. 

The  soils  most  benefited  by  this 
operation  are  light,  sandy,  and  calca- 
reous ;  on  clays,  the  treading  causes 
too  much  stiffening. 

Such  crops  as  beans,  pease,  cot- 
ton, turnips,  carrots,  and  beets  are 
now  most  usually  sown  in  drills  with 
the  greatest  advantage.  Such  rough 
seeds  as  carrots  require  to  be  first 
well  rubbed  with  sand  to  remove  the 
spines. 

DRILL  ROLLER.  A  roller  fur- 
nished with  a  number  of  sharp  rings 
projecting  from  tlie  surface,  which 
cut  the  earth  and  leave  drills  to  sow 
seeds  in :  it  is  only  suitable  on  light 
soils. 

DROPSY.     See  Horse,  &c. 

DROSO.METER  (from  6poao^,  dew, 
and //erpor,  a  measure).  Any  arrange- 
ment for  measuring  or  weighing  the 
quantity  of  dew  falUng  at  any  given 
time.  Dr.  Wells's  contrivance  is  the 
simplest ;  he  exposed  a  known  weight 
of  dry  wool,  and  afterward  weighing 
it  when  saturated  with  dew,  obtained 
a  measure  of  the  increase  of  moist- 
ure. 

DRUPE.  In  botany,  a  one-celled, 
one  or  two  seeded,  fleshy  fruit ;  as  the 
cherrv,  plum,  peach. 

DRY  DISTILLATION.  The  same 
as  Destructive  Distillation. 

DRYING  OIL.  This  usually 
means  linseed  oil  which  has  been 
boiled  with  white-lead.  It  forms  the 
basis  of  many  paints. 

DRY  HOT.  A  rotting  or  decay  of 
wood,  whereby  it  falls  gradually  into  | 
powder.  It  is  produced  by  the  action  I 
of  numerous  parasitical  fungi,  prob- 
ably of  the  genus  Sporolrichum.  It  is 
Diost  usually  seen  in  the  new  wood,  | 
X  Z 


and  in  damp  situations,  and  may  he 
perfectly  prevented  by  saturating  the 
timber  with  several  metallic  solutions, 
of  which  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  cop- 
per), acetate  of  iron  {pyrolignate),  and 
;  corrosive  sublimate  are  most  certain. 
I  Allowing  wood  to  be  immersed  in  a 
cream  of  lime,  in  tar,  &c.,  for  some 
weeks,  or  perfectly  drying  and  slight- 
ly charring  the  timber,  is  an  easy  pre- 
ventive. The  methods  of  preser- 
vation by  using  metallic  solutions  are 
termed  Kyanizing,  and  are  now  ac- 
complished with  extensive  machines, 
for  the  purpose  of  expediting  the  pen- 
etration of  the  fluid.  In  these  cases 
the  albumen  of  the  wood,  which  is 
most  liable  to  change,  is  disorgan- 
ized and  rendered  nearly  incorrupti- 
ble.    See  Preservation  of  Timber. 

DRY  STOVE.  A  hot-house,  in 
which  the  air  is  kept  very  dry  for  trop- 
ical plants  derived  from  arid  climates, 
as  cactuses. 

DUCK.  Many  species  of  the  genus 
Anas.  The  common  duck  is  econom- 
ical ;  one  drake  serves  eight  females. 
The  house  should  be  clean  and  pro- 
vided with  nests.  They  are  very  fond 
of  insects,  and  slugs,  toads,  &c.  The 
female  lays  from  fifty  to  sixty  eggs 
during  March  to  May ;  she  sets  a 
month,  and  should  be  sparingly  sup- 
plied with  moist  food  and  kept  away 
from  disturbance.  The  young  should 
not  be  allowed  to  go  to  the  water  at 
first,  but  supplied  with  a  little  in  a 
hole  :  the  duck  must  be  kept  cooped. 
The  ducklings  are  first  to  be  fed  on 
bread  crumbs  soaked  in  milk,  and 
subsequently  used  to  meal  and  herbs. 
The  feathers  are  valuable,  and  should 
be  plucked  as  soon  as  the  animal  is 
dead :  September  and  October  are  the 
best  times.  It  is  usual  to  hatch  ducks' 
eggs  under  hens,  which  are  better 
nurses.  The  Muscovy  being  larger, 
is  preferred  to  the  common  duck  by 
many,  hut  is  not  as  tender. 

DUCTILITY.  The  property  of  be- 
ing drawn  or  beaten  into  a  fine  film. 
Gold,  platinum,  and  sdver  are  the 
most  ductile  of  metals. 

DUCTS.      The   tubes   or  tubular 
vessels   found   in   the   wood,   roots, 
leaves,  &c.,  of  plants,  which  do  not 
245 


DWA 


DYN 


contain  a  fibre  cipablo  of  unrolling. 
They  are  marked  with  dots,  bars,  &c., 
and  arc  probal)ly  the  channels  in 
which  some  part  of  the  ascending  sap 
flows. 

DUMOSE  (from  dumus,  a  hush). 
Bushy. 

DUNES.  Hillocks  of  drift  sand 
found  on  the  seacoast  of  New-Eng- 
land and  elsewhere.  They  are  very 
destructive  to  agriculture,  and  are  to 
be  arrested  only  by  growing  long-root- 
ed reed  grasses,  trees,  &c.,  on  them. 
Species  of  Arundo  and  Elymus  have 
thus  been  made  to  arrest  their  ad- 
vancement towards  cultivated  lands. 

DUNG.  See  Farm-yard  Manure, 
Nioht-soil. 

DUODENUM.  The  intestine  im- 
mediately next  to  the  stomach. 

DURA  MATER.  The  fibrous  cov- 
ering of  the  brain. 

DURAMEN.     The  heart  wood. 

DURHAM  CATTLE.     See  Cattle. 

DWARF  TREES.  The  art  of  cul- 
tivating fruit-trees  of  moderate  or 
dwarf  size  in  the  place  of  large,  nat- 
ural standards  is  an  important  point 
in  horticulture.  Dwarfs  are  procured 
by  grafting  on  slow-growing,  small 
varieties,  as  the  apple  or  pear  on  the 
quince  stock  ;  by  raising  seedlings  in 
pots,  and  transplanting  into  poor,  bar- 
ren soils,  or  by  causing  a  branch  to 
take  root  and  allowing  it  to  fruit  as 
early  as  possible.  Lopping  off  the 
upright  branches  is  the  more  common 
method  of  hindering  trees  from  grow- 
ing too  lofty.  Fancy  gardeners  often 
procure  ornamental  dwarfs  of  the  or- 
ange by  grafting  a  cutting  with  flow- 
er buds  on  a  root  and  allowing  it  to 
fruit.  The  Chinese  are  very  curi- 
ous in  the  cultivation  of  ornamental 
dwarfs  ;  the  following  is  the  method 
employed  by  them  : 

"  The  extremity  of  a  branch,  two 
or  three  feet  in  length,  in  a  fruit  or 
flower  bearing  state  —  for  example, 
the  points  of  the  branches  of  a  fir- 
tree  bearing  cones,  or  of  an  elm  bear- 
ing blossom  buds— tjeing  fixed  on,  a 
ring  of  bark  is  taken  off  at  the  point 
where  it  is  desired  that  the  roots 
should  be  produced.  The  space  thus 
laid  bare  is  covered  with  a  ball  of 
246 


moist  clay,  which  is  kept  moist  by 
being  covered  with  moss,  which  is 
occasionally  watered.  In  the  course 
of  two  or  three  months  in  some  trees, 
and  of  a  year  or  two  in  others,  roots 
are  protruded  into  the  ball  of  clay. 
The  branch  may  then  be  cut  off  be- 
low the  part  from  whence  the  roots 
have  been  protruded,  and  the  branch 
being  planted  in  a  pot  of  poor  soil, 
and  kept  sparingly  supplied  with  wa- 
ter, it  will  remain  nearly  in  its  pres- 
ent state  for  many  years,  producing 
leaves,  and,  perhaps,  flowers,  annual- 
ly, but  never  shoots  longer  than  a  few 
lines." 

DYEING.  See  Cottoyi  Dyeing,  and 
the  different  colours. 

DYER'S  BROOM.  See  Wood 
Wa.reyi. 

DYER'S  WEED.     Weld. 

DYKE.  A  low  earthen  wall ;  an 
embankment.  In  geology,  a  mass  of 
condensed  mineral  matter,  such  as 
granite,  porphyry,  basalt,  trap,  &c., 
found  intersecting  strata,  and  evi- 
dently produced  by  injection,  in  a 
molten  condition,  through  the  strata. 
They  have  been  formp  I  during  vio- 
lent earthquakes,  ant'  are  very  im- 
portant as  forming  an  impervious 
barrier  to  the  drainage  of  land,  and 
giving  rise  to  springs  on  hillsides. 

DYNAMICS  (from  6vvau.i^,  power). 
The  science  which  examines  the  laws 
and  conditions  of  motion,  in  contra- 
distinction to  mechanics,  which  in- 
vestigates the  conditions  of  rest  and 
action  of  forces  not  producing  mo- 
tion. 

DYNAMOMETER  (from  Swafiic, 
and  fiETpov,  a  measure).  An  instrument 
for  the  purpose  of  measuring  the 
amount  of  strength  or  force  exerted 
in  any  draught,  &c.  In  ascertaining 
the  draught  for  ploughs  and  other 
agricultural  implements,  dynamome- 
ters are  now  regularly  introduced. 
The  commonest  is  Regnier's,  consist- 
ing of  two  semi-elliptical  bars  of  steel 
welded  together  at  the  ends,  one  of 
which  is  affixed  to  the  clevis  of  the 
plough  and  the  other  to  the  hook  of 
the  swinging  trees.  As  draught  is 
made  the  springs  are  pulled  closer 
together,  and  set  an  index  in  motion 


DYNAMOMETER. 


over  a  clock  face  marked  into  pounds 
and  hundreds.  Leroy's  implement 
is  a  strong  spring  enclosed  in  a 
box  of  cast  iron,  and  in  every  re- 
spect similar  to  Salter's  spring  bal- 
ance. 

The  objection  urged  against  these 
dynamometers  is,  that  the  inequali- 
ties of  the  soil  produces  so  much  vi-  i 
bration  in  the  index  that  no  satisfac-  j 
tory  measures  can  be  made.     The 
following  contrivance  to  obviate  this  | 
is  the  best  proposed  : 

"  The  improvement  consists  in  the 
attachment  of  a  small  brass  pump  ! 
filled  with  oil,  the  piston  of  which  j 
has    one   or   two    small    apertures,  i 


There  being  no  outlet  from  the  pump, 
it  is  evident  that  when  any  shock  oc- 
curs, caused  by  a  stone,  root,  &c., 
the  oil  having  to  pass  from  one  side 
of  the  piston  to  the  other,  the  sud- 
denness is  greatly  diminished  by  the 
resistance,  producing  a  correspond- 
ing effect  upon  the  pointer,  which,  as 
these  shocks  are  rapid,  vibrates  near- 
er the  actual  draught  of  the  machine, 
which  is  the  object  in  view,  and  not 
the  measurement  of  any  impediment, 
but  a  mean  result  of  the  whole." 

i'Vi,'-.  1  represents  an  extemporane- 
ous dynamometer  recommended  by 
Mr.  Cone,  in  the  American  Agricul- 
turist. 


h  is  the  beam  of  the  plough  ;  c, 
common  swinging  trees ;  a  is  an 
ordinary  steelyard  hitched  on  to  the 
clevis  and  trees  :  the  end  of  the  yard 
is  fastened  to  a  line  which  passes 
from  the  hook  of  a  common  spring 
balance,  d,  the  other  end  of  which  is 
also  attached  to  another  line  tied  to  the 
left  handle  of  the  plough.  When  the 
horses  pull,  the  steelyard  lies  in  the 
line  of  draught,  and  therefore  draws 
upon  the  balance,  the  sliding  rod  of 
which  is  pulled  out  to  an  extent  pro- 
portionate to  the  draught. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  uniform 
implements,  Mr.  Cone  proposes  that 
the  steelyard  be  constructed  so  that 
1  lb.  shall  equipoise  32  lbs.  near  the 
point  of  suspension,  as  in  Fig.  2. 
Adopting  this,  the  measure  of  draught 
is  readily  made  ;  for  if  the  spring  is 
drawn  out  to  10  lbs.,  we  multiply  by 


32,  and  add  10  lbs.,  so  as  to  make 
the  draught  330  lbs.  ;  the  number  of 
lbs.  indicated  by  the  spring  is  always 
added  to  the  sum,  for  that  weight 
would  be  necessary  at  the  beam  end 
to  balance  it,  and  must  not  be  omit- 
ted. Any  steelyard  answers  ;  and  we 
may  fa.sten  the  line  at  any  convenient 
mark,  taking  care  afterw^ard  to  mul- 
tiply the  weight  on  the  yard  by  that 
on  the  spring,  and  adding  as  many 
247 


EAR 

Ihs.  as  would  be  necessary  to  balance  I 
the  steelyard.  This  is,  however,  only 
a  coarse  measure  for  the  convenience 
of  the  farmer,  to  enable  him  to  ascer- 
tain the  draught  of  two  different 
ploughs,  &c. 

DYSENTERY  (from  <k>c,  difficulty, 
and  evrepa,  bowels).  A  looseness  of 
the  bowels,  attended  with  great  pain 
and  loss  of  strength,  and  endemic. 
See  Horse,  Ox. 

DYSPEPSIA  (from  6vc,  difficulty, 
and  mnTL),  I  digest).  Disordered  di- 
gestion, loss  o(  appetite,  unnatural 
appetite,  &c.  It  is  to  be  repaired  by 
simple  diet,  temperance,  and  exer- 
cise. 

DYSPNCEA  (from  dvg,  difficulty, 
and  nvEco,  I  breathe).  Difficulty  of 
breathing  :  a  symptom  of  disease  of 
the  chest  or  heart. 

E. 
EAR.  In  a  horse,  the  ears  should 
be  small,  narrow,  straight,  and  the 
substance  of  them  thin  and  delicate. 
They  should  be  placed  on  the  very 
top  of  the  head  ;  and  their  points, 
when  pricked  up,  should  be  nearer 
together  than  their  roots.  When  a 
horse  carries  his  ears  pointed  for- 
ward, he  is  said  to  have  a  bold  or 
brisk  ear.  In  travelling,  it  is  consid- 
ered an  advantage  when  the  horse 
keeps  them  firm. 

EARS  OF  GRAIN.  The  spike 
of  wheat,  corn,  barley. 

EARTH.  In  chemistry,  those  me- 
tallic oxides  which  are  colourless, 
nearly  or  quite  insoluble  in  water, 
the  metallic  basis  of  which  is  obtain- 
ed only  with  difficulty,  and  rapidly 
oxidizes,  are  termed  earths.  The 
entire  list  includes  but  ten  species  : 
lime,  magnesia,  baryta,  strontia,  alu- 
mina, glucina,  thorina,  zirconia,  yt- 
tria,  and  silica ;  but  of  these  lime, 
alumina,  and  silica  form  the  bulk  of 
the  soils  and  rocks  of  the  globe. 
Magnesia  is  also  rather  abundant, 
but  most  of  the  remainder  are  very 
rare  bodies.  With  the  exception  of 
silica,  which  is  an  acid,  they  are  ba- 
ses.    See  the  eartlis  separately. 

EARTHS,  PHYSICAL  PROPER- 
TIES OF.     The  power  of  absorbing 
24S 


EAR 

moisture  and  heat,  of  transmitting 
fluids,  and  drying  into  dust  or  a  hard 
mass,  are  termed  the  physical  quali- 
ties of  soils,  and  contribute,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  their  fertility.  This  sub- 
ject has  been  well  investigated  by 
Mr.  Schubler. 

Capacity  for  holding  Water.  —  If 
soils  of  different  kinds  be  wetted  un- 
til the  fluid  drops,  it  will  be  found 
that 

lbs.  lbs. 

100  of  dry  sand  retain  25  of  water. 
100  of  calcareous  sand  29  " 
100  of  loamy  soil  .  .  40  " 
100  of  clay  loam  .  .  50  " 
100  of  strong  clay  .  79  " 
100  of  peat  100  and  more. 

Good  soils  hold  from  forty  to  fifty 

per  cent,  of  water. 

Absorbing  Poiver.  —  Soils  not  only 

hold  water,  but  absorb  it  from  the  air 

unequally.     Thus,  a  quantity  spread 

out  to  the  same  extent, 

lbs. 

of  sand,  absorbed      .    0  of  water, 
of  calcareous  sand   .    3        " 
sandy  loam      ...  21         " 
strong  clay      ...  30        " 
garden  mould  ...  35        " 
In  the  same  way,  they  retain  moist- 
ure very  unequally,   sand  losing   it 
four  times  more  rapidly  than  mould. 
Absorption  of  Gases. — A  well-tilled 
soil  is  continually  absorbing  from  the 
air  gaseous  matter,  and  its  fertility 
is,  in  a  considerable  degree,  connect- 
ed with  this  property.     According  to 
Mr.  Schubler,  mould  absorbs  eleven 
times,  and  clay  nine  times  as  fast  as 
sand. 

I      Absorption  of  Heat.  —  Black,  well- 

i  tilled,  and  drained  soils  become  more 
rapidly  heated,  and  to  a  greater  de- 
gree than  such  as  are  wet,  of  a  light 
colour,  or  baked.  In  the  same  way, 
those  that  heat  rapidly,  cool  rapidly, 
and  are  more  subject  to  frosts.  By 
experiments,  mould  cools  in  one  third 
the  time,  and  clay  in  two  thirds  the 
time  of  sand  ;  so  that,  if  they  be 
equally  heated,  the  sand  will  be  warm 
for  hours  after  the  mould   is  cold. 

I  Hence  the  latter  absorbs  dew  and  con- 
tracts frost  much  more  quickly  than 

,  sandy  soils. 


EBU 


EGG 


Adhesiveness,  or  the  toughness  of 
lands,  is  of  moment  in  working.  Mr. 
Piisey  measured  the  force  necessary 
to  draw  the  same  plough  through  dif- 
ferent soils,  and  found  it  for  a 

peat  soil    ....  280  pounds, 

sandy  loam  .     .     .  250      " 

loamy  sand    .     .     .  230       " 

clay  loam      .     .     .  400       " 

strong  clay   .     .     .  661       " 
When  this  is  considerable  in  pomt 
of  expense,  it  appears  that  it  requires 
nearly  three  times  as  much  money  to 
turn  a  clay  as  it  does  a  sandy  soil. 

The  physical  qualities,  when  im- 
perfect, can  be  modified.  Sand,  ve- 
getable matter,  charcoal,  and  lime, 
are  used  to  lighten  soils  ;  clay  and 
marls  to  stiffen  those  already  too  po- 
rous. The  character  of  any  field  de- 
pends, in  a  great  measure,  upon  the 
subsoil;  for  upon  a  very  porous  sub- 
soil a  stiff  clay  is  good  to  retain  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  whereas  very 
light  lands  are  greatly  Improved  by 
an  impervious  subsoil. 

EARTH  E.\TING.  Horses  and 
oxen  frequently  eat  a  small  amount 
of  earth.  This,  if  persevered  in,  in- 
dicates disordered  digestion.  It  is 
supposed  by  Youatt  that  the  earth 
may  serve  as  a  gentle  purge. 

EARTH  NUTS.  Numerous  bulbs 
are  edible,  and  hence  are  called  earth 
nuts.  The  principal  is  the  Pindar, 
which  see. 

EARTH-WORM.  Lumbrictts  ter- 
restris.  Earth  -  worms  are,  on  the 
whole,  serviceable  to  soils,  by  loosen- 
ing and  perforating  them,  and  are  said 
to  injure  plants  and  seeds  but  little. 
They  indicate  rich  soil.  Salt,  applied 
at  the  rate  often  bushels  the  acre,  or 
a  heavy  liming,  destroys  them  effect- 
ually for  a  season. 

EARTHY  MANURES.  Marl, 
lime,  clay,  and  sand  are  so  called. 
They  should  rather  be  termed  amend- 
ments, since  they  serve  to  give  the 
soil  new  mechanical  qualities. 

EARWIG.  Forficula  auricularis. 
A  troublesome  insect  in  Europe,  but 
rare  in  the  United  States. 

EBl.'LLITION.  Boiling.  The 
boiling  point  of  different  fluids  is  oft- 
en of  great  importance.    Water  boils 


at  212^  alcohol  at  UG",  sulphuric 
acid  at  600^,  Mercury  at  6G2-,  lin- 
seed oil  at  640%  oil  of  turpentine  at 
316^,  nitric  acid  at  248^,  and  ether 
at  100-. 

EDULCORATION.  A  chemical 
term,  meaning  the  repeated  washing 
by  pure  water  of  precipitates  or  pow- 
ders until  they  are  freed  from  soluble 
impurities. 

EFFERVESCENCE.  The  dis- 
turbance made  in  a  fluid  by  the  es- 
cape of  gas. 

EFFLORESCENCE.  Some  salts, 
like  carbonate  of  soda  or  soda  ash, 
by  exposure  to  air  lose  their  trans- 
parency, and  become  white,  crum- 
bling into  powder.  This  is  termed 
efflorescence.  The  same  expression 
also  designates  the  appearance  of 
crystals  upon  earthy,  rocky,  or  other 
mineral  surfaces. 

EGGS.  The  white  is  a  solution  of 
albumen  with  soda,  and  contains  85 
per  cent,  of  water  ;  the  yellow  con- 
sists of  28  75  fat,  17  5  albumen,  55 
salts,  and  the  rest  water.  They  are 
eminently  nutritive.  Eggs  are  pre- 
served by  being  packed,  with  the 
small  end  downward,  in  salt ;  they 
are  also  dipped  into  a  cream  of  lime. 
The  box  in  which  they  are  packed 
should  be  turned  upside  down  every 
two  or  three  weeks,  to  hinder  the 
yolks  from  settling.  The  duty  on 
eggs  in  England  of  two  cents  a  dozen 
may  render  their  exportation  profita- 
ble ;  immense  numbers  are  now  sent 
there  from  France.  Eggs  are  read- 
ily hatched  by  artificial  heat,  and  a 
machine  called  the  "  Eccaleobion" 
has  been  exhibited  for  this  purpose, 
in  which  steam  is  used. 

EGG  PLANT.  Solanum  melange- 
na.  The  purple  kind  is  used  for  culin- 
ary purposes,  and  is  much  esteem- 
ed by  many  persons :  the  white,  bear- 
ing a  fruit  very  similar  to  a  hen's 
egg,  is  ornamental.  The  seed  must 
be  sown  in  a  hot-bed  in  March,  and 
the  plants  taken  with  a  ball  of  earth, 
and  set  out  in  warm  weather  (April 
or  .May),  about  two  feet  apart ;  they 
require  a  rich,  warm  soil,  and  bear, 
in  August  and  September,  fruit  often 
as  large  as  a  large  muskmelon.  The 
249 


ELA 

fruit  of  the  white  is  usnl  in  France 
as  food.  As  they  contain  an  acrid 
principle,  care  is  taken  in  the  cooking 
to  remove  it ;  tiiis  is  done  by  warm- 
ing thin  slices  in  water,  or  allowing 
it  to  steep  in  salt  and  water  over 
night,  draining  ofT  the  fluid,  washing 
well  in  fresh  water,  and  then  frying 
in  batter,  &c.  An  ounce  of  good 
seed  yields  4000  plants.  The  ut- 
most care  is  necessary  to  preserve 
the  young  plants  from  being  chilled 
to  death  in  the  Northern  States:  it  is 
altogether  a  tender  vegetable. 

The  S.  i7isa7iiuni,  or  downy  egg 
plant,  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  the 
United  States. 

EGYPTIAN  CORN.  Sorghum. 
An  annual  resembling  broom  corn, 
but.  producing  a  large,  exposed  ear, 
with  small,  brown  grains,  condensed 
together.  It  is  to  be  planted  and 
managed  like  corn,  but  may  be  set 
rather  closer.  The  yield  of  grain  is 
from  75  to  100  bushels  ;  it  is  recom- 
mended for  poultry.  The  fodder  ap- 
pears to  be  inferior  to  that  of  Indian 
corn,  and,  excepting  the  yield,  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  anything  to  in- 
duce the  cultivation. 

ELAIN  (from  eUiov,  oil).  The 
fluid  oil  existing  in  fats,  &c.,  which 
may  be  separated  by  pressure,  by  cold, 
or  by  digestmg  in  seven  or  eight  times 
its  weight  of  boiling  alcohol,  which 
acts  upon  the  fat  or  tallow  in  such  a 
way  that  the  elain  floats  above  the 
alcoholic  solution,  and  the  solid,  or 
stearin,  sinks  below  when  cold.  See 
Fats. 

ELASTICITY.  The  power  cer- 
tain bodies  possess  of  returning  back 
to  their  original  bulk  or  position  when 
bent  or  compressed.  Gases  are  the 
most  elastic  bodies  known,  fluids  the 
least,  and  metals  difTer  exceedingly 
in  this  respect. 

Heating  metals  to  a  certain  point 
and  suddenly  cooling  by  immersion 
in  water  imparts  elasticity  in  some 
cases ;  steaming  timbers  also  in- 
creases the  quality,  for  the  time,  in  a 
great  measure. 

"  The  principal  phenomena  of  elas- 
tic bodies  are  the  following  ;   1.  That 
an  elastic  body  (the  elasUcity  being 
250 


ELD 

supposed  perfect)  exerts  the  same 
force  in  endeavouring  to  restore  it- 
self as  that  with  which  it  was  com- 
l)ressed  or  bent.  2.  The  force  of 
elastic  bodies  is  exerted  equally  in 
all  directions,  but  the  effect  chiefly 
takes  place  on  the  side  on  which  the 
resistance  is  the  least.  3.  When  an 
elastic  solid  body  is  made  to  vibrate 
by  a  sudden  stroke,  the  vibrations 
are  performed  in  equal  times,  to 
whatever  part  of  the  body  the  stroke 
may  be  communicated.  Thus,  sono- 
rous bodies  always  emit  sounds  of 
the  same  pitch  ;  and  the  difference 
of  the  pitch  depends  on  the  greater  or 
less  frequency  of  the  vibrations  of 
the  sonorous  body.  4.  A  body  per- 
fectly incompressible  cannot  be  elas- 
tic, therefore  bodies  perfectly  solid 
can  have  no  elasticity  ;  and  hence, 
also,  the  small  degree  of  elasticity 
belonging  to  the  liquids,  which  are  em- 
inently incompressible." — (Brandc.) 

ELATER  (from  e/.arrjp,  a  Icaper). 
A  genus  of  spring  beetles  ;  they  are 
vegetable  feeders,  the  larvaj  doing 
occasionally  much  mischief  to  garden 
plants  by  gnawing  the  roots.  The 
Elatcr  noctducus  is  our  common  fire- 
fly, the  E.  lineatus  the  wire-vvorra  in- 
sect. 

ELATERIUM.  Momordica  clete- 
riuni.  Squirting  cucumber.  An  in- 
digenous annual  vine,  bearing  a  small 
fruit  like  the  cucumber,  the  juice  of 
which  is  a  drastic  purge. 

ELBOW.  The  shoulder-joint  of 
cattle.     A  bend  in  carpentry. 

ELDER.  Two  varieties  are  in- 
digenous to  the  United  States  ;  Sam- 
buciis  Canadensis,  the  common  pest 
of  hedge-rows  and  margins  of  ponds, 
and  .S'.  pubesccns,  bearing  a  red  berry, 
common  in  the  mountains  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  black  elder  is  of  con- 
siderable economical  value  ;  the  juice 
of  the  berries,  fermented  with  sugar, 
forms  an  agreeable  wine  ;  adecoction 
of  the  fresh  leaves  is  very  obnoxious 
to  insects,  and  may  be  extensively 
used  in  the  garden  ;  it  is  also  offen- 
sive to  moles.  Sheep  are  said  to  se- 
lect the  leaves  as  a  natural  remedy 
in  rot.  The  plants,  which  grow  from, 
eight  to  fifteen  feet  high,  are  recom- 


ELE 


Er,E 


mended  as  a  cheap  hedge.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  a  great  nuisance  on 
wet  lands,  from  the  rapidity  of  its 
growth,  but  may  i)e  destroyed  by  cut- 
ting down  two  or  three  times  during 
the  summer,  and  grubbing  in  the  fall. 

ELDER.  BOX.  A  common  name 
for  the  ash-leaved  maple. 

ELECAMPANE,  hmla  Hdrnivm. 
A  naturalized  composite  perennial, 
yielding  roots  with  a  bitter,  aromatic 
taste.     It  is  of  little  importance. 

ELECTIVE  AFFINITY.  A  chem- 
ical term,  meaning  the  preference  ex- 
erted by  a  body  to  combine  with  an- 
other in  place  of  one  already  in  union. 
Thus,  potash  will  unite  with  sulphu- 
ric acid,  although  it  be  already  com- 
bined with  iron  ;  the  iron  is  separa- 
ted, and  gives  place  to  the  potash, 
wliich  is  preferred  or  elected.  It  is 
governed  by  electrical  forces,  like  all 
other  cases  of  chemical  union. 

ELECTRICITY.  A  peculiar  in- 
fluence or  force,  which  is  made  evi- 
dent by  attracting  light  bodies,  pro- 
ducing a  spark,  or  jarring  the  body  of 
animals.  Some  consider  it  material, 
although  its  weight  cannot  be  meas- 
ured ;  hence  the  term  imponderable, 
applied  to  electricity,  light,  and  heat. 

"This  truly  extraordinary  power  of 
matter,  independent  of  the  interest 
that  always  belonged  to  it,  has  of 
late  years  acquired  much  importance, 
from  its  influence  over  chemical  phe- 
nomena and  its  connexion  with  those 
of  magnetism.  When  a  clean  glass 
tube  is  rubbed  with  the  dry  hand,  or 
with  a  piece  of  silk,  it  attracts  arrd  re- 
pels any  light  substances — such  as 
feathers,  bran,  or  little  pieces  of  pa- 
per— which  are  brought  near  it ;  a 
stick  of  sealing- w^ax  rubbed  upon  dry 
flannel  exhibits  the  same  appearan- 
ces, and,  to  a  superficial  observer, 
seems  to  be  exactly  in  the  same  state 
as  the  glass  ;  and  they  are  said  to  be 
electrically  excited.  But,  on  more 
close  examination,  it  is  found  that 
when  the  light  bodies  are  atlractcd  by 
excited  glass,  they  are  repelled  by  exci- 
ted sealing-wax,  andiricc  versa,  so  that 
the  glass  and  wax  are  said  to  be  in 
opposite  electric  states  ;  and  hence  the 
terms  vitreous  and  resinous,  or  positive 


and  negative  electricity.  But  these 
two  states  are  always  coexistent  ; 
thus,  when  the  glass  is  rubbed  by  silk 
the  glass  becomes  positive,  but  the 
silk  becomes  negative  ;  and  in  the 
case  of  sealing-wax  rubbed  by  flan- 
nel, the  wax  is  negative,  but  the  flan- 
nel is  positive. 

"  A  similar  excitation  of  electrici- 
ty is  seen  in  an  infinity  of  other  ca- 
ses ;  as  when  we  rub  a  cat's  back 
with  the  hand,  or  a  piece  of  silk  rib- 
and is  drawn  briskly  between  the  fin- 
gers, or  a  sheet  of  paper  rubbed  with 
India  rubber,  or  a  metal  rod  with  a 
silk  handkerchief.  These,  and  other 
extraordinary  phenomena  connected 
with  them,  are  hypothetically  refer- 
red to  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  form 
of  matter,  called  the  electric  fluid;  it 
is  supposed  to  appertain  to  all  mat- 
ter, but  to  become  evident  only  when 
in  redundance  or  deficiency.  When 
glass  is  rubbed  with  silk,  the  equilib- 
rium of  the  electric  fluid  is  disturbed, 
the  silk  imparts  it  to  the  glass  ;  and 
hence  the  former,  losing  electricity, 
becomes  minus  or  negative,  and  the 
latter,  acquiring  electricity,  becomes 
plus  or  positive.  This  is  commonly 
called  '  Franklin's  theory,'  having 
been  proposed  and  defended  by  that 
celebrated  electrician.  Others  have 
assumed  the  existence  of  two  fluids 
as  essential  to  the  explanation  of 
electrical  phenomena  ;  both  equally 
subtile,  elastic,  and  universally  diffu- 
sed, and  each  highly  repulsive  as  to 
its  own  particles,  and  attractive  of 
those  of  the  opposite  kind.  Electri- 
cal quiescence  is  referred  to  the  com- 
bination of  these  fluids  and  their  con- 
sequent mutual  neutralization  ;  and 
electrical  excitation  is  the  conse- 
quence of  either  being  free  or  in  ex- 
cess. It  is  supposed  that  they  are 
sejjarated  by  friction,  and  by  all  those 
other  causes  which  give  rise  to  the 
appearance  of  free  electricity.  Either 
of  these  hypotheses  may  be  adopted 
as  facilitating  the  explanation  of  elec- 
trical phenomena,  and  as  conferring 
meaning  (in  terms  which  would  oth- 
erwise be  unintelligible:  of  the  two, 
the  sini[)l(>st,  or  that  which  refers  the 
piienomena  to  one  fluid,  js  perhaps 


ELECTRICITY. 


tlie  most  generally  applicable.  Both 
are,  apparently,  equally  consistent 
with  facts  ;  but  the  existence  of  any 
fluid,  or  form  of  matter,  as  the  cause 
of  electrical  phenomena,  is  at  best 
extremely  problematical. 

"  There  are  two  series  of  distinct 
phenomena  rei)rcsente(l  by  electrified 
bodies  :  the  one  seems  to  result  from 
the  accumulation  of  electricity  upon 
the  surface  of  bodies  ;  they  are  com- 
monly included  under  the  term  elcctri- 
cilij  of  tension,  and  are  well  exhibited 
by  the  common  electrical  machine 
and  its  prime  conductor.  It  affects 
all  neighbouring  bodies  ;  and  they  are 
thrown  by  it  into  a  polar  electrical 
state,  by  what  is  termed  induction  : 
it  has  a  tendency  to  pass  off  in  sparks 
through  the  air,  or  gradually  to  escape 
from  points.  The  thumlor-storm  fur- 
nishes a  magnificent  specimen  of  this 
state  of  electricity.  The  other  state 
of  sensible  electricity  is  that  exhibit- 
ed by  electricity  in  mo/ion ;  as  when 
a  current  of  electricity  is  passing 
through  a  w'ire  or  other  conducting 
medium  ;  in  this  case  a  \ast  quantitij 
of  electricity  may  be  concerned  in  the 
phenomena  without  any  apparent  in- 
tensity  ;  but  while  the  current  is  con- 
tinuous it  produces  magnetic  phe- 
nomena of  a  most  extraordinary  char- 
acter ;  and  when  the  perfect  conduct- 
or is  broken  by  the  intervention  of 
certain  other  media,  they  suffer,  in 
some  cases,  chemical  decomposition, 
and  in  others  become  heated,  and 
even  ignited.  The  phenomena  of 
electricity  in  motion  are  best  exhib- 
ited by  the  Voltaic  apparatus. 

"  In  all  electrical  experiments,  re- 
markable differences  are  observed  in 
respect  to  the  transfer  of  the  electric 
fluid  through  different  bodies  :  some, 
such  as  the  metals,  allow  its  free  and 
nearly  unimpeded  passage  through 
their  substance ;  while  others  receive 
and  retain  it  more  superficially,  such 
as  glass,  resin,  and  other  substances 
which  exhibit  attractive  and  repul- 
sive powers  when  rubbed.  Hence 
the  division  of  bodies  into  conductors 
and  non-conductors. 

"Many  most  important  electrical 
phenomena  depend,  apparently,  upon 


induction,  a  subject  which  has  been 
ably  studied  by  Faraday.  We  shall 
here  enter  into  such  details  only  as 
are  required  to  render  some  of  the 
principal  terms  employed  in  discuss- 
ing electrical  phenomena  intelligible. 
"If  P-f- represent  a  metallic  sphere 
in  a  highly  positive  -n-  r  t. 
electric  state,  and  N  @ 
P  a  metallic  conduct- 
or in  its  vicinity  in- 
sulated upon  a  glass 
stem,  it  will  be  found  that  the  ex- 
tremity N  of  N  P  is  negative,  while 
the  other  extremity,  P,  is  positive, 
and  that  these  opposite  electricities 
are  greatest  at  the  extremities  of  the 
conductor,  and  gradually  diminish  to- 
wards the  centre  line,  C,  which  is 
neutral.  This  extraordinary  state  of 
excitation  in  N  P  is  entirely  depend- 
ant upon  the  proximity  of  P  -}-  ;  for 
if  P  -j-  be  withdrawn,  N  P  loses  all 
appearance  of  electricity  ;  and  the 
degree  of  excitement  in  it  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  extent  to  which 
P  4"  is  excited,  and  (within  certain 
limits)  to  its  nearness  to  N  ;  so  that 
fluctuations  in  the  electricity  of  N  P 
will  be  observed  in  proportion  as  P  -|- 
is  brought  towards  or  removed  from 
N,  provided  they  are  not  brought  into 
contact,  and  that  no  spark  passes. 
These  phenomena  have  been  theoret- 
ically explained  upon  the  supposition 
that  the  free  electricity  in  P  -j-  dis- 
turbs the  equilibrium  of  the  natural 
electricity  of  N  P,  and,  by  repelling  it 
from  N  to  P,  leaves  the  former  minus 
and  the  latter  plus.  Or,  if  we  assume 
the  existence  of  two  electric  fluids, 
then  the  free  positive  electricity  of 
P  -\-  repels  the  positive  fluid  of  N  P, 
and  attracts  its  negative  fluid,  throw- 
ing it  into  an  electro-polar  state.  If 
N  P,  instead  of  being  insulated,  be 
connected  by  its  extremity,  P,  with 
the  ground,  the  accumulation  at  P 
is  prevented,  while  N  retains  its  de- 
ficient or  negative  state  ;  or,  upon  the 
other  theory,  the  positive  fluid  at  P  is 
neutralized  by  a  supply  of  negative 
fluid  from  the  earth  ;  and  if,  after 
having  effected  this  by  momentarily 
touching  N  P  with  the  finger,  we  sud- 
denly remove  P  -{-,  the  insulated  con- 


ELECTRICITY. 


ductor,  N  P,  will  be  left  with  an  ex- 
cess of  negative  electricity. 

"  It  will  be  obvious,  from  the  above 
statement,  that  when  light  bodies,  es- 
pecially if  they  be  conductors,  are  at- 
tracted by  eleetritied  surfaces  in  their 
vicinity,  they  are  thrown  by  induc- 
tion into  opposite  electrical  states  ; 
and  when  the  hand  is  brought  near 
the  excited  conductorof  the  electrical 
machine,  it  becomes  negative,  and 
remains  so  until  the  equilibrium  is 
restored  by  the  passage  of  a  spark  ; 
which  phenomenon  is  supposed  to  be 
the  result  of  the  combination  of  the 
two  electric  fluids. 

"  Many  important  phenomena  of 
electrical  accumulation  are 
explained  by  reference  to  the 
principles  of  induction,  and 
among  them  the  action  of  the 
I.rydcn  jar,  or  vial.  A  thin 
i;hiss  jar,  or  bottle,  A,  is  coat- 
ed inside  and  out,  to  within 
three  or  four  inches  of  its  mouth,  with 
some  conducting  substance  ;  tin  foil, 
being  especially  convenient  for  the 
purpose,  is  generally  used  ;  and  a 
metaUic  rod,  projecting  a  few  inches 
from  the  aperture,  and  surmounted 
by  a  brass  ball,  B,  communicates  with 
the  interior  coating. 

"  When  the  ball  is  applied  to  the 
prime  conductor  of  the  electrical  ma- 
chine, and  the  outer  coating  commu- 
nicates with  the  ground,  the  interior 
acquires  a  positive  and  the  exterior 
a  negative  charge  ;  and  on  making  a 
communication  by  means  of  a  con- 
ductor between  the  inner  and  outer 
coatings,  the  electricities  are  annihi- 
lated with  the  production  of  a  bright 
spark  and  explosion,  and  by  a  most 
disagreeable  sensation,  called  the 
electric  shock,  if  the  body  be  made 
part  of  the  circuit.  When  several 
jars  are  so  arranged  that  their  inte- 
rior and  e.xterior  coatings  are  all  sep- 
arately connected,  the  assemblage 
constitutes  the  electrical  battery. 

"  In  the  common  electrical  machines, 
electricity  is  excited  by  the  friction  of 
the  plate  or  cylinder  of  glass  upon  the 
cushions  or  rubbers  ;  and  the  glass 
becomes  positive,  and  communicates 
the  same  state  to  the  opposed  con- 
Y 


ductor,  generally  termed  the   prime 
conductor  of  the  machine  ;  the  rubber 
becomes  negative,  and  is  sometimes 
connected  with  a  second  conductor. 
"  The   annexed  figures   represent 
the    two    com- 
mon  forms  of 
the     electrical 
machine.    The 
first  is  the  cyl- 
inder machine, 
commonly  call- 
ed Nairne's  ma- 
chine.   B  is  the 
glass   cylinder, 
which  is  made 
to  revolve  upon  its  axis  by  the  mul- 
tiplying wheels,  F  C,  the  necessary 
friction  for  the  electric  excitation  be- 
ing produced  by  the  cushion  and  silk 
flap,  D.     A  A  are  the  positive  and 
negative  conductors :  the  latter,  bear- 
ing the  cushion,  is  adjusted  as  to  its 
requisite  pressure  upon  the  cylinder 
by  the  screw  at  E.     The  conductors 
are  respectively  supported  and  insu- 
lated by  the  glass  pillars  G  G,  which 
should  be  coated  with  lac  varnish  ; 
and  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  rests  upon 
the  pillars  H  H,  which  are  also  of 
glass.     The  second  figure  represents 
the    flatc   machine,  usually   termed 
Cuthbertson's  machine,  in  which  A 
is  the  prime  con- 
ductor, borne  by 
a  stout  glass  stem 
which  is  attached 
to  the  frame  of  the 
machine.   B  B  are 
the  upper  and  low- 
er pairs  of  cush- 
ions, by  which,  to- 
gether   with    the 
silk  flaps,  C  C,the 
necessary  friction 
is  obtained.     E  is  the  disk  of  plate 
glass,  which  is  made  to  revolve  upon 
its  axis  by  the  winch  F.     In  this  ma- 
chine, as  the  cushions  or  rubbers  are 
not  insulated,  the  negative  electrici- 
ty cannot  be  separately  accumulated 
or  exhibited,  as  in  the  cylinder  ma- 
chine. 

"  There  are  many  other  and  highly 
important  causes  of  electric  excita- 
tion than  those  above  adverted  to ; 
253 


ELE 


ELE 


such  as  contact  of  diflercnt  metals." 

See  Galramxm. — {linuidr's  Dirt.) 

ELECTKICITV  APPLIED  TO 
AGRICT'ETdKE.  Much  interest  lias 
been  taken  of  lato  in  the  application 
of  this  agent  to  forwarding  garden 
vegetables,  and  indeed  field  crops. 
Two  plans  are  pursued.     Wires  are 


Wire. 


A  number  of  these,  at  distances  of 
tvvo  to  four  feet,  are  arranged  through 
the  field,  and  the  grain  or  plants  sown 
on  the  soil  or  in  drills.  It  is  stated 
on  good  authority  that  rye,  oats, 
wheat,  &c.,  so  treated  are  singularly 
developed  and  advanced  in  maturity: 
it  may  be  worthy  of  trial.  In  this 
case  the  atmospheric  electricity  is 
supposed  to  act. 

The  second  plan  is  a  galvanic  ar- 
rangement, but  may  be  best  intro- 
duced here.  Earge  plates  of  sheet 
copper  and  zinc  are  used,  the  size 
depending  upon  the  distance  at  which 
they  are  placed :  18  inches  deep  and 
three  feet  long  may  be  used  at  a  dis- 
tance of  50  feet ;  these  are  sunk  into 
the   soil  vertically,  excepting  three 


supported  upon  atrellis  running  north 
and  south,  at  a  height  of  four  or  six 
feet ;  at  the  ends  of  each  trellis  they 
are  bent  down  to  the  ground  and 
about  three  inches  below  it,  and  are 
conveyed  at  this  depth  through  the 
soil,  from  one  to  the  other  end,  so  that 
the  wire  forms  a  parallelogram,  thus  : 


Surface  of  the  earth. 


inches  of  the  top,  which  is  left  ex- 
posed ;  from  one  to  the  other  pass- 
es a  stout  copper  wire,  which  is 
well  soldered  to  both  and  sustained 
by  a  few  sticks  or  a  trellis.  Such  an 
arrangement  may  be  made  to  enclose 
four  or  five  drills  of  potatoes,  carrots, 
parsnips,  &c.  The  fluid  of  the  earth, 
acting  on  the  zinc,  produces  a  corro- 
sion, which  gives  rite  to  the  galvanic 
or  electric  current  that  traverses  the 
soil,  and  is  said  to  cause  plants  to 
grow  very  rapidly.  This  experiment, 
tried  with  potatoes  by  Mr.  Ross  on 
Long  Island,  was  very  successful,  in 
his  opinion  ;  it  is  so  manageable  and 
cheap  as  to  be  worthy  of  considera- 
tion to  market  gardeners.  The  whole 
will  appear  thus  : 


Wire  supported  by  sticks  above  the  soil. 


Surface  of  the  soil. 


Zinc  plate. 


ELECTRODE  (from  rjlEKTpov,  and 
6(5of,  a  way).  The  surfaces  l)v  wjiich 
electricity  passes  into  and  out  of  oth- 
er media  have  been  called  by  Mr. 
Faraday  electrodes.  The  term  has 
also  sometimes  been  derived  from 
j;/l?/crpoi',  arnhcr,  and  eido^.,  like,  and 
applied  to  substances  wjiich,  like  am- 
ber, becoiTie  electric  by  friction. 

E  L  E  C  T  R  0-D  Y  NAM  I  C  S  ( from 
riACKTpov,  and   ih'vnui^,  porcer).     The 
phenomena  of  electricity  in  motion. 
2.54 


Copper  plate. 


ELECTROLYTE  (from  v^eKrpov, 
and  ?.v(j,  I  set  free).  Sulistanees  sus- 
ceptible of  direct  decomposition  by 
the  action  of  the  electric  current : 
hence,  also,  the  verb  electrolyze,  i.  e., 
to  resolve  compounds  into  their  ele- 
ments by  the  agency  of  electricity. 
Faraday  has  shown  that  in  many 
supposed  cases  of  electrolysis  the 
evolution  of  elements  is  the  conse- 
<iuence  of  a  secondary  action  ;  tlie 
sulphur,  for  instance,  which  is  thus 


ELE 


ELE 


evolved  at  the  negative  pole  from 
sulphuric  acid,  is  the  result  of  the  ev- 
olution of  hydrogen  at  that  pole.  In 
all  cases  of  true  electrolytic  action, 
sulphur  appears  at  the  anode. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.  When 
a  current  of  electricity  is  traversing 
any  substance,  or  when  electricity  is 
in  motion,  magnetism  is  at  the  same 
time  developed.  This  fact  was  first 
observed  by  Professor  Oersted  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  has  become  the  source 
of  an  important  series  of  discoveries 
included  under  the  above  term.  The 
excitation  of  magnetism  depends 
upon  quantity  of  electricity,  and  is 
best  observed  in  the  wire  which  clo- 
ses the  voltaic  circle,  especially  of 
one  or  more  pairs  of  large  plates.  If 
a  magnetic  needle  be  brought  near  a 
wire  through  which  an  electric  cur- 
rent is  passing,  it  will  immediately 
deviate  from  its  usual  position,  and 
assume  a  new  one,  dependant  upon 
the  relative  position  of  the  needle  and 
the  wire.  On  placing  the  electric 
wire  above  and  parallel  to  the  mag- 
net, the  pole  next  the  negative  end 
of  the  battery  always  moves  to  the 
west  ;  and  when  the  wire  is  placed 
under  the  needle,  the  same  pole  turns 
to  the  east.  When  the  electric  wire 
is  on  the  same  horizontal  plane  with 
the  needle,  no  declination  takes  place ; 
but  the  magnet  shows  a  disposition 
to  move  in  a  vertical  direction,  the 
pole  next  the  negative  side  of  the 
battery  being  depressed  w'hen  the  wire 
is  to  the  west  of  it,  and  elevated  when 
it  is  to  the  east. 

The  magnetic  phenomena  of  a  wire 
transmitting  electricity  are  such  as 
appear  to  depend  upon  the  circula- 
tion of  magnetism  at  right  angles  to 

„  the   electric   cur- 

TTi-.—       t        - w  rent,  so  that  if  N 

s  P  represent    the 

wire  transmitting  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  direction  of  the  hori- 
zontal darts,  a  current  of  magnetism 
will  be  established  in  the  direction 
of  the  vertical  dart,  appearing  to 
move  round  the  axis  of  the  electric 
current;  hence  the  term  vertiginous 
or  rotary  magnetism,  applied  to  these 
phenomena ;  and  hence  the  motion 


I  of  the  pole  of  the  magnet  round  the 

electric  wire,  or  of  the  electric  wire 

round  the  pole  of  the  magnet,  when 

they  respectively  are  so  arranged  as 

;  to  be  able  to  move  freely  in  any  di- 

i  rection.     If  a  steel  needle  be  placed 

I  in  contact  with  the  electric  wire,  and 

parallel  to   it,   it   acquires   opposite 

magnetisms  upon  its  two  sides  ;  but 

if  it  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 

connecting  wire,  it  becomes  polar, 

and  permanently   magnetic.     If  the 

electric  wire  be 

twisted    into    a 

spiral,   and    the        _     

steel  needle  pla-  ''"'"  '~'  "* 
ced  within  it  (as  in  the  cut),  it  is 
retained  there,  and  becomes  a  more 
powerful  magnet  in  consequence  of 
the  repetitions  and  direction  of  the 
electric  and  magnetic  currents,  as 
will  be  evident  from  the  annexed  fig- 
ure, where  a  represents  a  glass  tube 
with  the  wire  n  p  conveying  the  elec- 
tric current  twisted  round  it,  the  darts 
at  the  ends  of  which  show  the  ingress 
and  egress  of  the  electricity,  and  the 
transverse  darts  the  direction  of  the 
magnetic  current.  If  the  cylinder 
round  which  the  wire  conveying  the 
electric  current  is  twisted  be  of  steel, 
it  becomes  a  permanent  magnet ;  if  of 
pure  soft  iron,  it  becomes  a  temporary 
magnet,  so  long  as  the  electric  current 
is  in  motion,  and  s  and  n  are 
powerfully  opposed  poles.  If 
the  bar  be  bent,  as  in  the  an- 
nexed cut,  a  powerful  horse- 
shoe magnet  is  obtained 
when  the  ends,  p  n,  of  the 
copper  wire  twisted  round 
it  are  connected  with  the  voltaic  cir- 
cle ;  and  a  single  pair  of  plates  is  suf- 
ficient for  the  purpose. 

ELECTROMETER  (from  ?/?.?«- 
Tpov,  and  fxerpov,  a  measure).  An  in- 
strument for  ascertaining  the  pres- 


i\ 


ence  and  intensity  of  electric  excita- 
tion.  The  simplest  form  of  electrom- 
255 


ELE 

eter  consists  of  two  very  sm.ill  pith 
balls  suspended  from  a  small  con- 
ductor by  very  fine  wire  or  tliread  ; 
upon  the  principle  that  bodies  simi- 
larly electrified  repel  each  other,  these 
diverge  upon  the  reception  of  very 
minute  quantities  of  electricity.  Two 
thin  slii)s  of  gold  leaf  are  also  simi- 
larly applied  ;  and,  to  prevent  the  in- 
fluence of  the  agitation  of  the  air  upon 
them,  they  are  suspended  in  any  con- 
venient way  under  a  glass  shade. 
The  other  forms  of  electrometers 
generally  act  upon  the  same  princi- 
ple, being  respectively  adjusted  to 
the  varying  degrees  of  quantity  and 
intensity. 

ELECTROPHORUS  (from  vT^ek- 
Tfiov,  and  <pepu,  I  carry).  This  instru- 
ment consists  of  a  flat,  smooth  cake 
of  resin.  A,  which  is  rendered  nega- 
tively electrical  by  friction  ;  a  plate 
of  brass  with  a  glass  handle  is  then 
placed  upon  it,  and  be- 
comes electropolar  by  in- 
duction. The  brass  plate, 
having  been  touched  by 
the  finger  while  lying 
upon  the  resin,  is  afterward  lifted  off 
by  its  glass  handle,  and  gives  a  spark 
of  positive  electricity.  The  same 
operation  may  be  indefinitely  repeat- 
ed. This  instrument  is  sometimes  a 
convenient  substitute  for  the  electri- 
cal machine,  and  is  elegantly  applied 
to  inflame  a  jet  of  hydrogen  gas  in 
Volta's  inflammable  air  lamp. 

ELECTROPOLAR.  A  term  ap- 
plied to  conductors,  one  end  or  sur- 
face of  which  is  positive,  and  the  oth- 
er negative  :  a  state  which  they  com- 
monly exhibit  when  under  the  influ- 
ence of  induction. 

ELECTROSCOPE  (homvleKTpov, 
and  oKOTTEu,  I  see).  An  instrument 
for  rendering  electrical  excitation  ap- 
parent by  its  effects.  The  gold  leaf 
electrometer  and  other  similar  ar- 
rangements are  electroseopes. 

ELECTUARY.  Any  medicine  of 
a  thick  or  solid  consistence,  made  up 
with  sugar. 

ELEMENTS.  In  chemistry,  bod- 
ies which  have  never  been  decompo- 
sed or  resolved  into  their  components 
by  means  we  possess.  Hydrogen, 
256 


ELM 

oxygen,  sulphur,  nitrogen,  phospho- 
rus, chlorine,  and  the  metals  are  the 
commonest  elements.  There  are  54 
already  known. 

ELEVATION.  In  architecture, 
the  representation  of  the  vertical  view 
of  any  building,  &c. 

ELLAGIC  ACID.  The  insoluble 
gray  powder  which  subsides  from  an 
infusion  of  galls  ;  it  is  isomeric  with 
gallic  acid,  C7  H3  O5.— (Pe/ourc.) 

ELM.  Ulmus.  The  principal  spe- 
cies are,  the  Americana,  white  ;  and 
fidva,  slippery  ;  the  Thomas,  U.  racc- 
mosa  ;  river,  nemoralis,  and  Whahoo, 
alata,  are  also  indigenous.  Mr.  Nutt- 
al  mentions  a  species  resembling 
the  sub-evergreen  Chinensis,  found  on 
the  Red  River.  The  Chinese  is  an 
ornamental  tree,  to  be  had  at  the  nur- 
series. 

The  white  elm  is  found  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Georgia,  delighting  in  rich, 
wet  lands ;  in  perfection,  it  reaches 
100  feet,  with  a  stem  of  4^  feet  diam- 
eter. The  bark  is  gray  and  deeply 
furrowed.  The  tree  is  of  great  beau- 
ty and  stateliness,  the  heart  wood 
dark  brown,  and  ornamental,  but  so 
brittle  as  to  be  of  inferior  value.  It 
is  used  improperly  for  naves,  and  oc- 
casionally in  Maine  for  keels.  The 
bark,  soaked  in  water  and  pounded, 
furnishes  bass  for  the  bottoms  of 
chairs. 

The  slippery,  red,  or  moose  elm  is 
commonly  diffused,  prefers  a  rich  but 
dry  soil ;  it  may  attain  60  feet,  by  18 
or  20  inches  in  diameter.  The  wood 
is  of  a  dull  red,  and  consists  in  a 
great  measure  of  heart :  it  is  coarse, 
and  splits,  but  is  highly  esteemed  for 
blocks,  railings,  and  building  purpo- 
ses, as  it  stands  moisture  tolerably 
well.  The  bark  is  brown,  and,  boiled 
in  water,  yields  a  nmcilaginous  solu- 
tion used  in  medicine  and  as  a  drink. 
It  resembles  the  European  Dutch  elm, 
but  neither  this  nor  the  preceding  pos- 
sess the  admirable  qualities  of  the  U. 
campeslris  of  Europe. 

The  Whahoo  is  smaller,  and  a 
Southern  tree  ;  the  wood  is  deep 
chocolate,  fine,  hard,  and  durable  :  it 
is  esteemed  for  naves.  It  is  remark- 
able, as  well  as  the  Thomas  elm,  for 


EMB 


EMB 


a  corky  excrescence  on  the  bark. 
Many  of  this  genus  are  highly  orna- 
mental, as  the  white,  campcstris,  mon- 
tana,  macrophylla,  gracilis,  effusa,  and 
Chincnsis. 

ELUTIIIATION.  The  separation 
of  substances  by  washing  them  in 
large  quantities  of  water,  so  that  the 
heavier  particles  fall  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  lighter  ones,  remaining  some 
time  suspended,  are  gradually  depos- 
ited in  a  finely-divided  state. 

E  L  Y  M  U  S.  The  genus  of  lyme 
grasses.  They  are  perennial,  large 
and  coarse,  mostly  water  or  seashore 
plants.  The  E.  arcnarms  is  of  ser- 
vice in  binding  together  loose  sea- 
shore sands,  and  resisting  the  en- 
croachments of  the  sea.  The  salt- 
marsh  grasses  are  frequently  of  this 
genus. 

ELYTRUM  (from  elvrpov,  a 
sheath).  The  outer  hard  wings  of 
beetles. 

EMACIATION.  The  act  of  be- 
coming lean.  It  is  a  symptom  of 
diseased  intestines  or  stomach,  and 
should  be  attended  to  at  once  when 
set  in  ;  but  a  sudden  change  of  food 
from  that  which  is  oily  to  starchy  is 
attended  with  considerable  falling  off. 

EMARGINATE.  In  botany,  notch- 
ed, having  a  sharp  indentation  on  the 
Ipnf  (to 

EMASCULATE.     To  castrate. 

EMBANKMENT.  "It  is  often 
necessary  to  raise  mounds  or  dikes 
along  the  course  of  rivers,  to  keep 
them  within  their  channels,  and  pre- 
vent their  flooding  the  lands  which 


lie  near  them,  when  the  waters  rise 
above  their  usual  level.  Those  allu- 
vial lands  which  lie  near  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  and  are  below  the  line  of 
high  water,  cannot  be  cultivated  to 
advantage  unless  they  are  secured 
from  inundation  by  proper  embank- 
ments ;  and  as  these  alluvial  depos- 
ites  are  generally  very  fertile,  it  am- 
ply repays  the  expense  of  construct- 
ing dikes  and  keeping  them  in  repair 
The  whole  of  the  provinces  of  Hoi 
land  and  Zealand,  and  several  other 
districts  in  the  Low  Countries,  could 
not  be  inhabited  if  the  sea  were  not 
kept  out  by  strong  embankments; 
and  tlie  destruction  of  a  dike  fre- 
quently desolates  great  tracts  of  coun- 
try. The  art  of  constructing  dikes, 
and  of  keeping  them  in  repair,  is 
therefore  one  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  the  proprietors  of  low  lands 
situated  as  above  described. 

"The  first  thing  to  be  attended  to  in 
forming  embankments  is  to  enable 
them  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the 
highest  floods  which  are  likely  to  oc- 
cur, and  to  prevent  the  effect  of  the 
waves  and  currents  in  washing  them 
away.  When  it  is  the  simple  press- 
ure of  a  column  of  water  which  is  to 
be  withstood,  a  simple  earthen  bank 
made  of  the  soil  immediately  at  hand, 
provided  it  be  not  of  a  porous  nature, 
is  sufficient.  Its  form  should  be  a 
very  broad  base,  with  sloping  sides 
and  with  a  flat  top,  which  may  serve 
as  a  path,  or  even  a  carriage-road,  if 
the  bank  be  of  considerable  dimen- 
sions.    The  side  towards  the  water 


should  slope  more  gradually  than  to- 
wards the  land,  where  it  may  form 
an  angle  of  45^  with  the  horizon.  A 
ditch  is  usually  dug  along  the  inside 
of  the  bank,  and  sometimes  on  both 
sides,  when  the  dike  is  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  usual  channel  of  the 
water,  and  is  only  a  precaution  against 
unusual  floods.  The  inner  ditch  col- 
lects the  water  which  is  produced  by 
Y  2 


rains  or  may  find  its  way  by  filtration 
through  the  bank  or  the  soil. 

"  To  raise  these  simple  dikes,  no- 
thing is  requisite  but  to  carry  the 
earth  from  below,  and  consolidate  it 
by  treading  or  ramming  it  in  a  moist 
slate,  that  no  interstices  be  left.  But 
where  a  considerable  river  winds 
through  an  extensive  plain,  and  is 
apt  to  change  its  bed  by  the  wearing 
257 


EMBANKMENT. 


away  of  the  banks  in  some  places 
and  the  deposition  of  mud  in  others, 
more  skill  and  more  expensive  works 
are  required  to  keep  it  within  its 
banks  and  to  prevent  the  effects  of  a 
rapid  current  in  destroying  them.  In 
this  case  strong  piles  are  driven  deep 
into  the  ground,  and,  instead  of  earth- 
en dikes,  stone  walls  are  opposed  to 
the  force  of  tlie  water. 

"  The  embanking  of  a  considerable 
river  often  requires  the  course  of  the 
stream  to  be  changed,  and  instead  of 
the  winding  course  which  rivers  nat- 
urally take  through  plains,  straight 
channels  are  artificially  made  for 
them.  At  first  sight  it  would  seem 
that  a  straight  channel  is  the  natural 
course  of  a  stream  ;  but  this  is  far 
from  being  the  case :  a  straight  course 
can  never  be  maintained  without  ar- 
tificial means  ;  water  never  flows  in 
straight  lines,  but  always  in  curves. 
The  slightest  inequality  in  the  bottom 
or  sides  partially  obstructs  its  course, 
and  produces  a  circular  motion  in  the 
water  ;  and  this,  acting  on  soft  banks, 
soon  hollows  them  out,  which,  in- 
creasing the  eddies,  accelerates  the 
change  in  the  current.  When  a  river 
is  turned  into  a  new  channel,  the 
banks  must  be  strengthened  with 
piles  of  masonry,  and  the  foundations 
of  the  works  must  be  laid  below  the 
gravel  or  stones  whicli  may  have  ac- 
cumulated, that  they  may  not  be  un- 
dermined by  the  percolation  of  the 
water. 

"  When  the  dikes  are  only  intended 
to  check  the  waters  at  the  time  when 
they  flow  over  their  natural  banks,  it 
is  best  to  raise  them  at  some  distance 
from  the  river  on  each  side,  and  par- 
allel to  its  course  ;  because,  in  sud- 
den floods,  the  water,  having  a  great- 
er space  to  flow  through,  will  not  rise 
so  high,  and  will  sooner  recede.  The 
natural  banks  must  be  carefully  at- 
tended to  in  this  case,  that  they  may 
remain  nearly  the  same,  without  be- 
ing subjected  to  that  continual  change 
which  we  have  noticed  before.  Those 
who  have  long  attended  to  these 
changes  and  their  immediate  causes 
will  find  no  difficulty  in  checking  them 
in  the  outset  by  very  easy  and  simple 
258 


means.  Whenever  a  bank  begins  to 
be  undermined,  a  few  piles  driven  in 
judiciously,  and  some  stones  thrown 
into  the  river  above  the  place  where 
its  banks  begin  to  wear  away,  will 
cause  a  change  in  the  current,  and 
throw  it  over  to  the  opposite  side. 
Indeed,  if  this  is  done  injudiciously, 
the  banks  opposite  will  begin  to  wear 
away  ;  but  by  continued  attention, 
and  prevention  rather  than  correc- 
tion, any  river  having  a  moderate  cur- 
rent may  be  kept  within  its  proper 
bed. 

"  It  sometimes  happens  that  rivers, 
near  their  mouths,  form  shallow  es- 
tuaries, and  occupy  much  ground 
which  might  be  usefully  employed. 
In  this  case  an  entirely  new  outlet 
may  sometimes  be  made,  through 
which  the  river  may  at  once  dis- 
charge itself  into  the  sea  ;  and  the 
whole  course  will  probably  be  soon 
filled  up  by  the  deposition  of  soil  and 
mud  brought  in  by  the  tides  ;  for  it  is 
the  current  which  clears  the  channel, 
and  when  this  is  taken  away  the  chan- 
nel soon  fills  up.  In  the  course  of  a 
short  time  the  old  mouth  of  the  river 
will  be  so  filled  up  as  scarcely  to  ad- 
mit the  tide ;  and  an  embankment 
across  it  may  lay  a  large  fertile  tract 
of  land  quite  dry. 

"  Where  embankments  are  made 
against  the  sea,  greater  skill  is  re- 
quired to  resist  the  force  of  the  waves. 
If  there  are  materials  at  hand  to  lay 
a  bank  of  stones  imbedded  in  clay, 
with  a  broad  base,  and  the  sides  slo- 
ping very  gradually  upward,  a  very 
safe  barrier  may  be  opposed  to  the 
waters.  It  is  not  the  direct  impulse 
which  is  the  most  destructive  :  waves 
striking  against  a  sloping  surface  lose 
their  force  and  rise  over  it ;  but  it  is 
in  returning  that  they  draw  the  ma- 
terials with  them,  and  scoop  out  the 
foundations.  If  the  stones  are  well 
joined  together,  the  retiring  wave  will 
have  no  effect  in  loosening  them  ;  but 
if  any  one  of  them  can  be  singly  re- 
moved from  its  place,  they  will  soon 
disappear  one  after  another,  till  a 
breach  is  made  ;  after  which  a  single 
storm  may  destroy  the  whole  embank- 
ment.   In  various  places  the  ingenu- 


EMBANKMENT. 


ity  of  scientific  men  has  been  exer- 
cised to  invent  various  modes  of  re- 
sisting the  force  of  the  sea.  In  some 
exposed  points  piers  of  solid  oak  have 
been  made,  which  oppose  a  smooth 
surface  obliquely  to  the  force  of  the 
waves  ;  in  others,  rows  of  piles  have 
been  driven  in,  forming  lines  at  right 
or  oblique  angles  to  the  line  of  the 
shore,  in  order  to  intercept  the  waves 
and  break  their  force  before  they 
reach  the  bank.  In  a  place  where 
the  rounded  stones  called  shingles 
were  usually  thrown  up  by  the  waves, 
and  the  bottom  was  a  strong  clay, 
their  retreat  has  been  intercepted  by 
rows  of  strong  piles  driven  in  a  line 
along  and  parallel  to  the  shore,  and 
covered  with  boards  nailed  to  them 
on  the  land  side.  By  this  means  the 
sea  has  been  made  to  provide  the 
materials  of  the  embankment,  and  to 
lay  them  down.  In  one  night  the 
shingles  have  been  thrown  over  the 
piles,  and,  being  retained  by  the  board- 
ing, have  formed  a  perfect  wall.  A 
second  row  of  piles  between  the  first 
and  the  sea,  and  a  third  if  required, 
forms  a  sea-wall  which  might  defy 
any  storms.  We  mention  this  as  an 
example  of  the  advantage  which  may 
be  taken  of  particular  circumstances, 
by  which  a  great  expense  may  some- 
times be  saved.  In  other  situations, 
where  the  shingle  is  not  thrown  up, 
and  the  wall  is  not  so  immediately 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  waves, 
an  excellent  facing  of  the  wall  is  made 
by  several  rows  of  piles  from  five  to 
fifteen  feet  long,  driven  along  the  side 
of  the  earthen  bank  in  the  form  of 
steps  rising  above  each  otlier.    These 


piles  are  driven  very  close  together, 
and  the  distance  between  the  rows  is 
about  two  feet.  This  interval  is  filled 
with  stones,  and  bushes  are  pinned 
down  over  them  by  means  of  wooden 
pins  driven  horizontally  through  holes 
made  in  the  piles.  This  contrivance 
effectually  prevents  the  washing  away 
of  the  bank. 

"  Where  the  land  lies  very  flat  for  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  shore, 
it  is  of  advantage  to  have  two  com- 
plete banks,  one  within  the  other,  so 
that  if  the  outer  bank  is  broken 
through,  the  second  will  keep  back 
the  waters,  until  the  first  can  be  re- 
paired. The  ground  between  the  two 
lines  of  banks  is  usually  left  in  pas- 
ture. In  this  case  the  damage  done 
by  an  inundation  of  salt-water  will 
not  be  so  great  as  if  the  land  were 
arable  ;  and  unless  it  remain  flooded 
for  a  considerable  time,  the  herbage 
suffers  little,  if  anything,  from  it. 

"  The  water  which  accumulates 
within  the  banks  and  is  collected  in  the 
internal  ditch  and  those  which  divide 
the  marshes  must  be  let  off"  occasion- 
ally by  means  of  channels  and  sluices 
at  the  time  when  the  tide  is  out,  and 
the  water  outside  the  bank  is  lower 
than  that  which  is  within  it.  In  small 
embankments  a  wooden  trunk  or  pipe 
may  be  laid  through  the  bank,  with 
a  valve  opening  outward,  by  which 
means  the  superfluous  water  may  flow 
out,  and  none  flow  back.  It  is  use- 
ful to  carry  this  trunk  a  considerable 
way  outside  the  bank,  if  it  empties 
itself  immediately  into  the  sea,  in  or- 
der that  it  may  not  be  choked  up  with 
sand  or  shingles.  Cast-iron  pipes  art 
259 


EM  13 


EMU 


conveniently  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  they  may  be  carried  out  so  far 
as  to  empty  themselves  below  low- 
water  mark.  But  when  the  embank- 
ment is  very  extensive,  and  there  are 
streams  flowing  through  the  part 
which  is  embanked,  larger  flood-gates 
and  more  extensive  works  are  neces- 
sary. These  being  opened  and  shut 
as  occasion  may  require,  serve  to 
keep  the  channel  clear,  by  producing 
occasionally  a  considerable  rush  of 
water  to  carry  away  mud  and  sand, 
which  would  otherwise  have  accu- 
mulated at  the  mouth  of  it.  When 
the  level  of  the  land  which  is  embank- 
ed is  below  the  usual  level  of  the  wa- 
ters whicli  are  without,  the  water  is 
raised  by  means  of  engines  over  the 
banks,  as  is  tlie  case  in  the  fens. 

"  In  the  forming  of  the  banks,  where 
the  soil  may  not  be  quite  impervious 
to  water,  it  is  useful  to  begin  by  dig- 
ging a  ditch  in  the  line  of  the  intend- 
ed bank,  of  such  a  depth  as  to  reach 
an  impervious  subsoil.  This  ditch  is 
to  be  tilled  up  with  clay  or  tempered 
earth,  and  as  the  bank  is  raised,  the 
middle  of  the  bank  should  be  com- 
posed of  the  same  materials,  which 
will  thus  form  a  vertical  wall,  A  B,  up 
to  the  top  ;  and  the  more  porous  earth 
being  heaped  up  against  the  sides  of 
this  wall  will  form  the  slopes  of  the 
bank  ;  thus  the  whole  will  be  perfect- 
ly impenetrable  to  the  water.  The 
clay  should  be  well  trod  in  with  the 


feet  in  a  moist  state,  and  no  pieces 
of  wood,  or  even  straw,  should  be  in 
it,  for  a  straw  may  be  the  cause  of 
the  water  finding  a  passage  through 
a  bank,  and  this  passage  gradually 
widening  will  soon  produce  a  hole, 
which  may  in  the  end  cause  the  de- 
struction of  the  bank.  Moles  and 
worms  are  great  enemies  to  dikes. 
260 


In  Holland  the  storks  are  held  in 
great  veneration,  and  are  never  mo- 
lested, because  they  are  supposed  to 
destroy  a  species  of  worm  which  oft- 
en does  great  mischief  to  the  dikes  by 
perforating  them." — (V^.  L.  Rham.) 

EMBROCATION  (from  efiGpexa,  I 
moisten).  A  spirituous,  saponaceous, 
or  oily  application  rubbed  on  the  skin 
to  relieve  pain  or  numbness. 

EMBRYO  (from  e/iGpvov,  I  hud 
forth).  The  growing  point,  eye,  or 
chit  of  a  seed.  The  young  of  ani- 
mals in  the  act  of  development,  or 
foetus. 

EMBRYOTOMY  (from  Eii6pvov, 
and  TEfivu,  I  cut).  The  cutting  of 
the  embryo  or  foetus  out  of  the  womb 
in  such  cases  as  endanger  the  life  of 
the  parent. 

EMERY.  A  sand  of  corundum  ot 
extreme  hardness,  capable  of  wear- 
ing down  all  minerals  and  metals  ex- 
cept the  diamond. 

EMESIS  (from  tfiEu,  I  vomit).  The 
act  of  vomiting. 

EMETIC.  A  drug  producing  vom- 
iting. Ipecacuanha,  tartar  emetic, 
salt,  and  green  vitriol  are  the  com- 
monest emetics. 

EMETIC,  TARTAR.  Tartrate  of 
potash  and  antimony,  a  white,  solu- 
ble salt,  emetic  in  doses  of  one  to 
two  grains,  and  purgative  and  sudo- 
rific in  doses  of  half  a  grain.  It  re- 
duces the  activity  of  the  circulation, 
and  is  therefore  an  admirable  febri- 
fuge. 

EMETINE.  The  active  principle 
of  ipecacuanha. 

EMOLLIENTS.  Medicines  which 
soothe  and  soften  any  part  of  the 
body,  as  warm  water,  &c. 

EMPHYEMA  (from  tv,  and  nvov, 
pus).  A  collection  of  purulent  mat- 
ter in  the  chest,  produced  chiefly  by 
inflammation. 

EMPHYSEMA  (from  efi(bvaaio,  1 
inflate).  A  collection  of  air  in  the  cel- 
lular tissue  ;  hence  emphysematous. 

EMPYREUMA  (from  ifnrvpevu,  1 
kindle).  An  odour  of  burned  matter ; 
hence  cmpyreumatic. 

EMULSIN.  A  modification  of  al- 
bumen found  in  almonds  and  other 
seeds,  and  capable  of  acting  in  a  pe- 


END 


EOC 


culiar  manner  on  amygdalin  to  pro- 1 
(luce  volatile  oil  of  bitter  almonds.      1 

EMULSION.  A  milky  liquid  in 
which  an  oil  is  suspended,  as  in  milk. 

E.MUNCTORIES.    The  vessels  of ; 
tlie  skin  which  exhale  perspiration 
are  so  called. 

ENAMEL.  The  hard  ivory  por- 
tion of  teeth.  Glass  and  oxide  of  tin 
fused  together. 

ENCRINITES.  Fossil  crinoideans 
resembling  a  lily. 

ENCYSTED  (from  ei^,  in,  and  kvc- 
Tic,a.bag).  Fluid  or  other  tumours  en- 
closed in  a  sack  of  membrane.  It  is 
necessary,  in  removing  them,  to  cut 
out  or  destroy  the  sack  also. 

ENDEMIC  (from  ev,  and  drj/ioc,  a 
people).  A  disease  or  peculiarity  be- 
longing to  a  particular  people  or  race. 

ENDIVE.  Chichonum  cndiva. 
The  varieties  are  the  green  and 
white  curled,  yellow,  and  broad 
leaved.  The  green  curled  is  earliest : 
sow  in  April  and  May,  and  for  gen- 
eral crops,  in  June  or  July,  at  inter- 
vals, to  suit  the  table  or  market. 
When  the  seedlings  are  three  inches 
high,  transplant  to  a  good  soU,  and 
set  a  foot  apart  each  way  ;  tie  up  to 
blanch  when  full-sized.  They  must 
be  attended  to  and  treated  like  lettuce. 
One  ounce  of  seed  furnishes  four  to 
five  thousand  plants.  It  is  a  bitter 
salad,  used  raw,  and  also  in  stews  : 
with  care  it  may  be  preserved  like 
cabbages  through  the  winter. 

ENDOCARP  (from  ev6ov,  within, 
and  Kaprro^,  a  fruit).  The  middle 
part  of  a  fruit :  it  forms  the  flesh  of 
the  apple,  peach,  cherry,  6ic. 

ENDOGENS  (from  evdov,  and 
yeivofiai,  I  grow).  Plants  or  trees 
which  do  not  enlarge  their  trunks  by 
any  addition  of  wood  exterior  to  that 
existing  the  year  before.  One  of  the 
great  divisions  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, including  palms,  grasses,  and 
numerous  bulbous  plants.  The  leaves 
are  furnished  with  straight  veins,  the 
flowers  usually  divided  into  three 
parts  or  some  multiple  of  that  number. 

ENDOPLEURA  (from  evdov,  and 
7r?.evpa,  the  side).  In  botany,  the  in- 
ternal integument  of  a  seed. 

E  N  D  O  R  H I Z  .E  (from  evdov,  and 


^iCa,  a  root).  A  term  invented  by 
Richard  for  the  embryo  of  nionocoty 
ledons,  in  which  the  radicle  has  to 
rupture  the  integument  at  the  base 
of  a  seed  prior  to  entering  into  the 
earth,  appearing  as  if  it  came  from 
within  the  mother  root. 

ENDOSMOSE  (from  ev6ov,  and 
uafioc,  impdsion).  A  term  invented 
by  Dutrochet  to  designate  the  pas- 
sage of  fluids  through  membranes. 
Penetration  is  an  analogous  term. 
Whenever  two  fluids  are  separated 
by  a  membrane  or  tissue  without 
sensible  pores,  both  of  which  moisten 
it,  there  is  a  passage  of  each  fluid, 
one  into  the  other :  but  this  is  often 
with  different  rapidities,  the  fluid  af- 
fecting the  tissue  most  passing  with 
the  greatest  rapidity.  The  move- 
ment continues  until  the  mixture  on 
each  side  is  similar.  This  also  oc- 
curs with  gases.  It  is  controlled  by 
electricitv,  as  Dr.  Draper  has  shown. 

ENDOSPERMIUM  (from  evdov, 
and  anepfia,  seed).  A  term  invented 
by  Richard  to  denote  the  albumen  of 

seeds 

ENDOSTOME  (from  ev6ov,  and 
a-rrofia,  the  mouth).  The  passage 
through  the  inner  integument  of  a 
seed  immediately  below  the  part  call- 
ed the  foramen. 

ENDOTHECIUM.  The  fibrous 
cellular  tissue  lining  an  anther. 

ENEMA.  A  glyster,  an  injection 
thrown  up  the  bowels  to  produce 
purging,  allay  pain,  &c. 

ENNEANDRIA,  ENNEAN- 
D  R  O  U  S.  Having  nine  stamens. 
See  Botany. 

ENSIFORM.  Sword-shaped.  A 
term  used  in  descriptive  botany,  &c. 

ENTERITIS  (from  evrepa,  the  in- 
testines). Inflammation  of  the  intes- 
tines.    See  Horse,  Ox,  &o. 

ENTOMOLOGY  (from  evtohq,  in- 
sects, and  ?.oYoc,  a  discourse).  The  sci- 
ence treating  of  insects.  See  Insects. 

ENTOZOA  (from  evtoc,  and  (oov, 
an  animal).  A  tribe  of  worms,  many 
of  which  are  parasitic  to  the  intes- 
tines and  other  parts  of  animals. 

EOCENE  (from  iju^,  the  dawn,  and 
Kaivor,  recent).  The  lowest  portion 
of  the  tertiary  epoch  of  geologists,  in 
2fil 


EllE 

wliich  a  few  recent  remains  only  are 
found. 

EPIDEMIC  (from  etn,  vpon,  and 
irj/xo^,  the  people).  A  disease  wliich 
spreads  through  a  community,  a  sta- 
ble, &c. 

EPIDERMIS  (from  errt.and  ihpfia, 
the  skin).  A  light  covering  over  the 
skin  of  animals.  The  outer  mem- 
brane of  plants. 

EPIDOTE.  A  common  fibrous, 
green,  or  dark  mineral,  belonging  to 
primary  rocks,  containing  silica,  37; 
alumina,  21  ;  lime,  15  ;  iron,  24  per 
cent. 

EPIGCEOUS  (from  em,  and  y?},  the 
earth).  Growing  near  the  earth,  or 
on  the  earth. 

EPIGASTRIC  (from  etvi,  and  yaa- 
TTjp,  the  stomach).    Over  the  stomach. 

EPIGLOTTIS  (from  em,  and  yhor- 
ra,  the  tongue).  A  small  cartilage  at 
the  root  of  the  tongue,  which  protects 
the  windpipe. 

EPIGYNOUS  (from  ettl,  and  ywn, 
a  female).  Any  part  of  a  flower  grow- 
ing upon  the  top  of  the  ovarium  or 
fruit. 

EPILEPSY  (from  fTriAa/zCoFw,  / 
seize  vpon).  Falling  sickness,  attend- 
ed with  sudden  fits,  stupor  :  it  soon 
becomes  periodical,  and  finally  ter- 
minates life.  Bleeding,  reduction  of 
food,  and  care  are  necessary  in  full 
habits,  but  it  frequently  arises  from 
injuries  on  the  head.  It  is  a  nervous 
disease,  little  under  control. 

EPIPHYLLUS  (from  e-l,  and  (^vl- 
Tmv,  a  leaf).     Growing  on  a  leaf 

EPISPASTIC  (from  ETTiaTrau,  I 
draw  upon).     A  blistering  drug. 

EPISPERM  (from  ettj,  and  axEpfia, 
a  seed).  The  testa,  or  outer  coating 
of  seeds. 

EQUISETUM.  The  scouring  rush; 
hence  equisetacea. 

EQUIVALENTS.    See  Atom. 

EREM ACAUSIS  (from  iipena,  slow, 
and  /coiifftf,  comlnistion).  A  term  in- 
vented by  Liebig,  to  express  the 
smouldering,  or  dry  rot,  of  organic 
matter  freely  exposed  to  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  and  merely  moistened  with 
water.  It  is  altogether  different  from 
fermentation,  which  requires  little 
air.  By  eremacausis,  acids,  as  the 
262 


ESC 

acetic,  nitric,  &c.,  are  producea. 
When  much  nitrogen  exists  in  the 
decaymg  matter,  it  is  called  nitrifica- 
tion, especially  if  lime  or  potash  be 
present.  The  process  of  eremacausis 
is  much  to  be  preferred  to  fermenta- 
tion in  the  preparation  of  putrescent 
manures,  for  less  gaseous  matter  is 
formed,  and  there  is  less  loss  ;  it  is, 
moreover,  the  natural  decay  occur- 
ring in  the  soil.     See  Nitre-Beds. 

ERGOT.  A  disease  of  the  grain 
of  rye,  and  sometimes  other  grains, 
in  which  it  turns  black,  and  acquires 
an  acrid,  fungous  taste.  It  is  con- 
sidered due  to  an  insect  or  parasitic 
fungus.  The  diseased  grain  is  very 
poisonous,  producing  a  dry  gangrene, 
attended  with  sloughing  of  the  hoofs, 
horns,  ears,  &c.,  of  cattle.  It  is  of 
great  service  in  medicine  as  a  ute- 
rine stimulus. 

ERICA.  The  genus  of  heaths. 
Ericacece,  a  family  of  shrubby  plants, 
as  the  heaths,  rhododendrons,  aza- 
lias,  &c. 

ERINACEUS.  A  genus  of  insec- 
tivorous animals,  including  the  hedge- 
hog. 

ERIOPHORUM.  The  genus  of 
cotton  grasses. 

ERODED.  Gnawed,  a  descriptive 
terra  in  botany  and  zoology,  mean- 
ing any  jagged  edge. 

ERRATIC  ROCKS.     Boulders. 

ERRHINES  (from  ev,  in,  and  piv, 
the  nose).  Bodies  which  excite  snee- 
zing. 

ERUCA.     A  larva,  or  w'orm. 

ERVUM.  The  generic  name  of 
the  tare  and  lentil  plants.  ' 

ERYSIPELAS  (from  Epvu,Idraw, 
and  7rf?Mc,  adjoining).  An  inflamma- 
tion of  the  skin,  attended  with  blis- 
ters and  a  burning  heat ;  it  indicates 
a  bad,  feeble  constitution. 

ERYTHRIC  ACID  (from  epv- 
dpoc,  red).  The  red  body  produced 
by  acting  on  uric  acid  by  nitric  acid  ; 
it  has  also  been  called  rosacic  acid, 
Murexidc. 

ESCHAR.     A  scab,  cicatrix. 

ESCHAROTIC  (from  scxapau,  1 
scab  over).      Caustic. 

ESCULENT.  Edible  plants, 
roots,  &c. 


EUP 


EVE 


ESPALIERS.  "  In  horticulture, 
trees  trained  by  lattice-work  or  other 
supports  on  the  borders  of  beds,  or 
as  hedges  to  enclose  plots  of  ground. 
They  may  serve  to  defend,  in  a  great 
measure,  many  tender  plants  from  the 
inclemencies  of  wind  and  weather. 
The  trees  chiefly  planted  for  espa- 
liers are  apples,  pears,  and  plums. 
The  principal  objects  aimed  at,  how- 
ever, in  espaliers  are  to  expose  the 
foliage  and  fruit  of  the  plants  or 
trees  more  perfectly  to  the  light  and 
sun,  to  prevent  the  branches  from  be- 
ing blown  about  by  the  winds,  and  to 
economize  space  by  confining  them 
within  definite  limits." — Loudon. 

ES  P  A  K  S  ETTE.      Sainfoin. 

ESSENTIAL  OILS.  Oils  which 
impart  flavour  and  odour  to  plants, 
and  are  readily  volatilized  by  heat. 
Many,  as  peppermint,  rose,  lemon, 
&c.,  are  easily  distilled  by  placing  the 
fresh  herbs,  «Scc.,  in  water  and  apply- 
ing heat. 

ETERIO.  A  compound  fruit,  the 
ovaries  of  which  are  distinct  and  in- 
dehiscent,  upon  a  dry  or  fleshy  re- 
ceptacle, as  the  strawberry,  rasp- 
berry, &c. 

ETHER.  Commonly  this  name  is 
applied  to  a  highly  volatile,  inflam- 
mable, and  aromatic  fluid,  obtained 
by  distilling  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and 
sulphuric  acid.  13ut  it  also  repre- 
sents a  class  of  organic  compounds 
having  properties  similar  to  ether  and 
alcohol,  and  containing  a  common 
base  or  radical.  Ethyl  or  Ethule  {G^ 
H,-,) ;  of  this  common  sulphuric  ether 
is  an  oxide. 

ETIOLATION.  Blanching  of  ve- 
getables. This  is  done  by  excluding 
light  either  by  earthing,  as  in  the 
case  of  celery,  or  tying  up  the  leaves, 
as  with  lettuce,  endive,  &c. 

EUDIOMETER  (from  ivdia,  calm 
air,  and  fxtrpov,  a  measure).  An  in- 
strument for  the  analysis  of  air  and 
gases,  especially  for  the  determina- 
tion of  the  amount  of  oxygen.  Dr. 
Ure's  is  the  most  esteemed.  Dr.  Hare, 
of  Philadelphia,  is  the  author  of  a 
very  convenient  eudiometer. 

EUPHORBIA.  A  genus  of  plants 
commonly    yielding    a   milky   acrid 


juice  ;  many  resemble  the  cactaccae. 
Euphorbiacccc,  the  natural  family,  in- 
cluding the  euphorbia,  crotons,  cas- 
tor-oil. India-rubber  tree,  &.c. 

EUPION.  An  inflammable,  grea- 
sy liquid,  obtained  from  tar. 

EUSTACHIAN  TUBE.  A  tube 
passing  from  the  interior  of  the  ear 
to  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  ;  the  stop- 
page, by  disease,  is  one  cause  of  deaf- 
ness. 

EVAPORATION.  The  passage 
into  vapour  of  fluids  or  solids.  For 
its  production,  heat  must  be  absorb- 
ed ;  hence  the  rapidity  of  evaporation 
is  proportionate  to  the  heat  applied. 
Water  and  other  fluids  evaporatmg 
from  the  earth,  or  any  surface,  al- 
ways produce  cold  by  carrying  away 
a  part  of  the  heat  of  the  solid  ;  hence 
moist  soils  arc  cold.  The  activity  of 
evaporation  is  also  influenced  by 
winds,  which  will  double  the  amount 
of  water  vaporized  in  a  given  time  ; 
hence  winds  dry  rapidly  and  produce 
great  cold.  It  is  also  necessary  for 
free  evaporation  that  the  air  be  not 
already  full  of  vapour.  See  Dew  Point. 
When  any  atmosphere  is  surcharged 
with  the  vapour  of  a  particular  fluid, 
no  more  can  evaporate  ;  but  the  va- 
pours of  other  fluids  rise  freely. 

Plants  are  much  affected  by  evap- 
oration ;  their  leaves  are  always 
throwing  out  large  volumes  of  vapour 
of  water,  derived  from  the  ascending 
sap  ;  in  this  way  their  juices  are 
thickened  and  fitted  for  nourishment. 
When  the  air  is  too  dry,  they  lan- 
guish under  excessive  evaporation  ; 
when  it  is  moist  and  hot  for  some 
days,  they  become  diseased,  and  smut, 
rust,  and  similar  fungi  attack  them 
very  destructively. 

The  moisture  collected  in  the  air 
by  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
earth,  being  cooled  by  northerly 
winds,  becomes  condensed  into  rain 
or  snow,  and  falls  back  to  the  earth 
again.     See  Clouds. 

EVERGREEN.  Plants  which  put 
out  a  succession  of  fresh  leaves  in- 
stead of  observing  periods  of  rest. 
They  are  best  set  out  in  the  fall  or 
very  early  in  spring. 

EVERLASTENG  PEA.  Lathyrua 
263 


EXO 


EXT 


latifolius.  A  perennial  plant  of  the 
vetch  kind,  which  grows  naturally  in 
some  places  ;  is  easily  cullivated,  and 
annually  yields  a  great  burden  of  ex- 
cellent provender,  and  might  be  cul- 
tivated to  advantage  as  a  green  food 
for  cattle  on  any  of  the  more  strong 
sorfs  of  soil. 

EXACERBATION.  An  increase 
of  violence  in  the  symptoms  of  fe- 
vers. 

EXCORIATION.  A  bruise  or 
abrasion  of  the  skin  :  protection  from 
air  by  a  linen  rag,  and  mild  oil  lina- 
menls  are  most  serviceable. 

EXCRESCENCE.  Any  unnatu- 
ral growth  or  tumour. 

EXCRETION.  In  physiology,  the 
separation  of  useless  or  injurious  por- 
tions of  matter  from  the  system,  as 
urine,  expired  air,  feces,  perspiration. 
The  excretions  of  plants  have  called 
forth  much  discussion.  De  Candolle 
imagined  that  the  inability  of  plants 
to  grow  for  a  long  time  on  the  same 
spot  was  due  to  the  deposite  of  ex- 
cretions. Mr.  Gyde  has  examined 
this  matter  thoroughly,  and  shown 
that  the  excretions  are  not  injurious  ; 
the  amount  is  very  small,  and  iden- 
tical in  composition  with  the  sap ; 
he  also  found  that  a  plant  might  be 
watered  with  a  solution  of  its  excre- 
ment with  great  benefit. 

EXFOLIATION.  The  separation 
of  diseased  bone  from  that  which  is 
sound  in  the  progress  of  a  disease. 

EXHALATION.  Evaporation  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  more  espe- 
cially from  a  living  or  solid  surface. 

EXHAUSTION.  In  physics,  the 
removal  of  air  or  gases  from  the  in- 
terior of  bodies. 

EXOGENOUS  (from  ef,  outside,  and 
yeivof^ai,  I  grow).  A  term  applied  to 
those  plants  a  transverse  slice  of 
whose  stem  exhibits  a  central  cellular 
substance  or  pith,  an  external  cellular 
and  fibrous  ring  or  bark,  and  an  inter- 
mediate woody  mass,  and  certain  fine 
lines  radiating  from  the  pitK  to  the 
bark  through  the  wood,  and  called 
medullary  rays.  They  are  called  ex- 
ogens,  because  they  add  to  their 
wood  by  successive  external  addi- 
tions, and  are  the  same  as  what  are 
264 


otherwise  called  dicotyledons.  They 
constitute  one  of  the  primary  classes 
into  which  the  vegetable  world  is  di- 
vided, characterized  by  their  leaves 
being  reticulated  ;  their  stems  having 
a  distinct  deposition  of  bark,  wood, 
and  pith ;  their  embryo  with  two  co- 
tyledons ;  and  by  their  flowers  usu- 
ally formed  on  a  quinary  type.  Our 
forest-trees  and  most  garden  vegeta- 
bles are  of  this  kind. 

EXORRHIZ.'E  (from  e^,  and  /it^'o, 
a  root).  Exogenous  or  dicotyledon- 
ous plants,  the  roots  of  which  extend 
directly  from  the  embryo. 

EXOSMOSE  (from  e^,  and  uafioc, 
ivipulsion).  The  passage  outward  of 
fluids,  &c.,  the  reverse  oi  Endosmose, 
which  see. 

EXOSTOSIS  (from  cf,  and  ooteov, 
a  bone).  A  tumour  on  a  bone.  In  bota- 
ny, any  knot  or  tumour  on  a  trunk  or 
large  root :  the  wood  is  often  finely 
curled. 

EXOTICS.     Foreign  plants. 

EXPANSION.  The  increase  in 
dimensions  produced  by  heat.  In 
the  arts,  it  is  a  serious  drawback  on 
perfect  workmanship,  for  beams,  me- 
tallic tires,  &c.,  by  tbe  constant  expan- 
sions from  heat,  and  contraction  by 
cold,  are  always  acting  upon  masses 
of  masonry  injuriously.  Gases  ex- 
pand most  rapidly  and  extensively, 
fluids  next,  and  metals  least. 

EXPECTORANTS,  Medicines 
which  assist  in  throwing  off  the 
phlegm  of  the  throat,  as  ipecacuan- 
ha, tartar  emetic,  horehound,  squills. 
They  are  useful  in  dry  coughs. 

EXPRESSED  OILS.  Such  as  are 
obtained  by  pressure,  as  olive,  lin- 
seed, rape,  castor,  almond,  as  distin- 
guished from  volatile  or  essential  oils. 

EXTRACT.  The  solid  remaming 
after  boiling  down  an  infusion  or  de- 
coction to  dryness.  The  heat  used 
should  be  from  steam.  The  term 
extractive  is  applied  to  that  portion 
which  is  of  a  brown  colour,  soluble 
in  water,  and  forms  a  colouring  mat- 
ter with  alum  solution. 

EXTRAVASATION.  In  surgery, 
whenever  blood  or  other  fluids  are 
thrown  out  from  the  veins  into  the 
skin,  brain,  or  other  parts,  it  is  term- 


FAL 

ed  an  extravasation.  It  frequently 
arises  from  a  blow. 

EXTRORSAL.  Bent  or  turned 
from  the  direct  position  :  a  descrip- 
tive term  in  botany. 

E  X  U  V  I  .E.  The  skins  cast  by 
snakes,  lobsters,  insects,  &c.,  in  the 
chancres  they  pass  through. 

E  Y  E,  I N  P  L  A  N  T  S.  The  bud, 
embrvo,  or  growing  point. 

EYE  OF  THE  HORSE.  "The 
eye  of  the  horse  appears  to  be  natu- 
rally more  disposed  to  disease  than 
that  of  any  other  animal.  The  dis- 
eases of  the  eye,  although  few  in 
number,  are  frequent  in  their  appear- 
ance, obstinate,  and  generally  baffle 
all  the  skill  of  the  veterinarian.  The 
following  are  the  principal :  common 
inflammation,  specific  ophthalmia  or 
moon  blindness,  cataract,  and  gutta 
Serena  or  amaurosis.  For  the  last 
there  is  no  cure.  Moon  blindness, 
as  it  is  termed,  is  brought  on  in  a 
great  measure  by  close  confinement 
in  dark,  heated,  and  unwholesome 
stables.  No  specific  remedies  can 
be  given  for  these  diseases." — {You- 
att).     See  Blindness,  Cataract. 

EYES  IN  CHEESE.  Putrescent 
holes  or  places  caused  by  imperfectly 
preparing  the  curd. 


FAGOT.    A  bundle  of  small  wood. 

FAGUS.  The  generic  name  of 
the  beech. 

FALCATE  (from  falx,  a  sci/the). 
Shaped  like  a  scythe  :  a  descriptive 
term  used  in  botany  and  zoology. 

FALCO.     The  genus  of  hawics. 

FALLOPIAN  TUBE.  A  tube  com- 
municating between  the  womb  and 
ovarium  of  the  mammalia. 

FALLOW.  Originally,  this  term 
meant  the  exposure  of  the  naked 
soil  to  rest,  after  ploughing  several 
times,  to  destroy  weeds  and  repair 
its  fertility.  This  practice  is  now 
considered  almost  useless,  as  requi- 
ring much  time  and  expenditure  oth- 
erwise better  employed.  A  crop  of 
oats,  clover,  rye,  buckwheat,  lucern, 
lupins,  turnips,  or  other  cheap  vege- 
table in  flower  is  now  ploughed  in, 
and  called  a  green  fallow.  In  this 
Z 


FAR 

way  land  is  rapidly  improved,  espe- 
ciaily  if  a  liming  is  given.  To  turn 
in  heavy  herbage  the  ox-chain  is 
fastened  to  the  clevis  and  land-side 
handle  of  the  plough,  and  this  press- 
ing down  the  plants,  allows  them  to 
be  buried. 

Green  fallowing  is  the  most  rapid 
and  cheap  method  of  bringing  up  poor 
lands  ;  it  incorporates  into  the  soil 
the  nitrogen  bodies  wanted  for  high 
cultivation,  enables  the  improver  to 
proceed  without  the  expense  of  cat- 
tle for  raising  manure,  and  saves  the 
time  necessary  to  wait  for  the  ma- 
nure. The  herbage  so  turned  in 
yields  more  vegetable  mould  than  it 
would  otherwise  form  if  applied  in 
any  other  way.  Fallows  can  be  made 
at  any  time,  in  summer  for  a  fall 
crop,  or  in  autumn  for  spring. 

FAN,  WHEAT.     The  Wi?inowing 
Machine,  which  see. 
FARCY.     See  Horse. 
FARDING  BAG.     The  paunch  or 
abomasus  of  the  ox. 

FARINA.  The  flour  or  meal  of 
grain.     Farinaceous  is  a  derivative. 

FARM.     "  The  first  thing  to  be 
considered  in  taking  a  farm  is  the 
capital  which  the  tenant  is  possessed 
of,  or  of  which  he  can  procure  the 
use  at  a  reasonable  rate.     If  a  man 
takes  a  farm  without  the  means  of 
stocking  it  properly,  and  is  restrained 
in  his  first  outlay,  he  will  never  be 
able  to  cultivate  it  with  benefit  to 
himself:  he  will  be  obliged  to  sell  his 
produce  at  a  loss,  to  over-work  his 
i  cattle,  and  to  keep  a  smaller  quanji- 
I  ty  of  stock,  and,  consequently,  make 
:  less  manure  than  is  required  to  keep 
j  the  farm  in  a  productive  state. 
j      "  When  it  is  ascertained  what  ex- 
''  tent  of  farm  may  be  safely  underta- 
I  ken  with  a  given  capital,  the   most 
important  object  to  be  attended  to  is 
the  condition  and  fertility  of  the  soil, 
\  not  only  with  respect  to  the  natural 
quality  "of  the  land,  but  the  actual 
state  it  is  left  in  by  the  preceding 
system  of  cultivation.     A  moderate- 
ly fertile  soil,  in  good  condition,  will 
give  a  greater  profit  for  several  years 
than  a  better  soil  which  is  partially 
exhausted  and  rendered  foul  by  inju- 
265 


FARM. 


dicious  management  and  over-crop- 
ping. For  this  purpose,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  a.sccrtain  what  has  been  the 
state  of  the  crops  lor  several  years 
before,  how  the  land  has  been  plough- 
ed, and  whether  the  crops  have  been 
heavy  with  or  without  manure.  In 
the  mean  time,  the  nature  of  the 
weeds  which  abound  on  the  land  will 
give  some  clew  to  its  state  ;  and  an 
experienced  person  will  collect  from 
various  minute  appearances  in  the 
soil  whether  it  has  been  fairly  man- 
aged or  exhausted.  It  is  in  general 
more  advantageous  to  take  a  farm 
in  a  district  with  which  you  are  well 
acquainted.  It  will  be  a  great  ad- 
vantage if  you  have  had  an  opportu- 
nity of  seeing  the  land  at  all  times, 
observing  it  in  different  seasons  and 
states  of  the  weather,  and  especially 
of  seeing  the  crops  thrashed  out,  and 
ascertaining  the  quantity  of  corn 
which  is  usually  yielded  from  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  straw,  for  lands  very 
similar  in  outward  appearance  will 
produce  a  very  different  return  when 
the  crops  are  thrashed  out.  A  want 
of  attention  to  these  circumstances 
is  the  cause  that  a  man  who  comes 
from  a  distant  part  of  the  country 
and  takes  a  farm  on  his  own  judg- 
ment seldom  succeeds  so  well  as 
might  be  expected,  even  with  a  su- 
perior knowledge  of  agriculture.  He 
naturally  compares  the  soil  with  some 
similar  soil  which  he  has  been  ac- 
quainted with.  If  he  comes  from  a 
district  where  the  soil  is  sandy,  and 
where  clay  is  in  request,  he  will  give 
the  preference  to  very  stiff  loams  ; 
if  he  comes  from  a  cold  wet  clay,  he 
will  prefer  the  sandy  ;  and  the  chan- 
ces are,  that  he  is  mistaken  in  his 
judgment,  and  finds  it  out  when  he 
has  already  embarked  his  capital  in 
a  losing  concern.  Next  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil  is  to  be  considered 
the  convenient  situation  of  the  farm, 
the  disposition  of  the  fields,  and  the 
adaptation  of  the  farm-buildings  to 
the  most  profitable  occupation  of  the 
land.  The  roads,  especially  those 
which  lead  to  neighbouring  towns, 
■whence  manure  may  be  obtained,  are 
a  most  important  object ;  and  if  there 
266 


is  water-carriage,  it  greatly  enhances 
the  value  of  the  farm.  The  roads  to 
the  fields,  and  the  distance  of  these 
from  the  farm-yard  ;  the  convenience 
of  having  good  pasture,  or  land  easi 
ly  laid  down  to  grass,  near  the  home 
stead,  and  especially  the  situation 
of  the  farm-buildings  with  respect  to 
the  land,  and  the  abundance  of  good 
water,  are  all  circumstances  which 
must  be  well  considered,  and  which 
will  greatly  influence  the  probable 
profits,  and,  consequently,  the  rent 
which  may  be  fairly  offered.  A  cen- 
tral situation  is  no  doubt  the  most 
advantageous  for  the  farm  buildings, 
as  greatly  diminishing  the  labour  in 
harvest  and  in  carrying  out  manure. 
But  there  may  be  circumstances 
which  render  some  spot  nearer  the 
extremity  of  the  land  more  eligible, 
and  it  is  only  when  entirely  new 
buildings  are  to  be  erected  that  there 
is  a  choice.  The  old  farm  buildings 
are  generally  in  low  and  sheltered 
situations,  but  it  is  a  great  inconve- 
nience to  have  to  carry  the  manure, 
which  is  the  heaviest  thing  carted  on 
a  farm,  up  a  steep  hill.  The  best 
situation  is  on  a  moderate  slope, 
neither  in  the  lowest  nor  highest 
ground. 

"  The  yard  or  yards  in  a  large  farm 
should  be  sheltered  on  the  north  side 
by  the  barns,  which  need  not  be  so 
extensive  as  used  formerly  to  be 
thought  necessary.  If  there  is  a 
thrashing  machine,  a  single  floor  to 
thrash  the  seeds  upon,  and  to  employ 
the  men  occasionally  in  winter,  is 
quite  sufficient.  Every  farm  which 
is  so  extensive  as  to  require  more 
than  one  floor  to  thrash  the  corn  on 
ought  always  to  have  a  thrashing- 
mill  attached  to  it.     See  Barn. 

"A  small  yard,  distinct  from  the 
other,  with  sheds  for  the  cattle  to 
shelter  themselves  under  in  wet  and 
stormy  weather,  is  a  great  advantage, 
and  may  be  added  at  a  trifling  ex- 
pense to  any  set  of  farm  buildings. 
The  cart-shed  should  be  in  the  stack- 
yard, which  properly  occupies  a  space 
north  of  the  barn.  There  should  be 
a  sufficient  number  of  stands  with 
proper   pillars   and   frames  to  build 


FARM. 


stacks  on.  Each  stack  should  be  of 
such  a  size  as  to  be  conveniently  ta- 
ken into  the  barn  to  be  thrashed  out. 
The  round  form,  and  the  square, 
which  becomes  nearly  round  wtien 
built  up,  are  most  convenient.  Nine 
stone  or  cast-iron  pillars,  with  caps 
over  them,  are  placed  on  brick  found- 
ations, and  support  a  strong  frame 
on  which  the  stack  is  built.  In  the 
centre  of  the  stack  there  is  usually  a 
pyramidical  open  frame,  to  allow  the 
air  to  circulate  through  the  stack  and 
prevent  the  heating  of  the  grain.  On 
each  side  of  the  yard  should  be  placed 
the  stables,  cow-houses,  and  feeding- 
stalls,  with  a  pump  of  good  water 
near  the  last,  and  convenient  places 
to  put  hay,  straw,  and  turnips  in,  with 
a  machine  to  cut  them.  A  great  deal 
of  time  and  labour  is  saved  by  a 
proper  arrangement  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  farm  buildings.  An  un- 
der-ground cistern  near  the  cow- 
house and  stables,  into  which  the 
urine  and  washings  of  the  cow-house 
may  run  by  means  of  a  sink  or  drain, 
is  a  most  useful  appendage,  which  is 


too  little  thought  of  in  England, 
whereas  it  is  one  of  the  most  indis- 
pensable parts  of  a  Flemish  farm.  It 
supplies  a  kind  of  manure  which  can 
be  applied  to  the  land  at  all  times, 
which  invigorates  sickly  crops,  and 
may  often  produce  an  abundant  re- 
turn, where  otherwise  there  would 
be  a  complete  failure.  There  are 
many  plans  of  farm  buildings  given 
in  works  on  agriculture,  which  com- 
bine all  that  is  useful  on  a  large  scale. 
Most  of  these  plans  have  been  exe- 
cuted at  a  great  expense  for  the  farm- 
ing establi-shments  of  men  of  large 
fortunes.  But  the  proprietor  who  de- 
sires to  erect  buildings  most  proper 
for  the  occupation  of  his  land  must 
study  economy,  and  lay  out  no  more 
in  buildings  than  is  necessary.  They 
should  be  so  substantial  as  not  to  re- 
quire frequent  repairs,  without  un- 
necessarily increasing  the  original  ex- 
pense of  materials  and  labour.  Light 
thatched  roofs  are  sufHcient  for  the 
sheds  and  smaller  buildings,  and  even 
for  the  cow-houses  and  stables. 
"  We  here  give  a  plan  of  plain  farm 


Buildings  for  a  Farm  o/300  acres. 


FARM. 


H 


. — — . — . 
.. — " 


. r 

^ u 


buildings  for  the  occupation  of  200 
or  300  acres  of  land,  of  which  two 
thirds  are  arable,  fit  for  corn,  barley, 
clover,  and  wheat.  There  should  be 
two  distinct  farm-yards  with  proper 
sheds,  and  in  each  there  should  be  a 
cistern  for  the  urine  from  the  stables 
and  the  drainings  from  the  dung. 

"  These  two  examples  of  farm 
buildings  will  be  sufficient  to  give 
some  idea  of  what  may  be  proper  for 
farms  of  an  intermediate  size.  A 
principal  thing  to  be  attended  to  is  to 
have  plenty  of  room  for  cattle  ;  and 
where  old  barns  remain  much  larger 
than  is  required,  according  to  the 
present  mode  of  stacking  corn  in  the 
368 


yard,  they  can  be  very  advantageous- 
ly converted  into  cow-stalls  or  ox-sta- 
bles. 

"  WTiere  many  sheep  are  kept,  it  is 
of  great  advantage  to  have  a  sheep- 
yard,  with  low  sheds  all  round,  at  the 
time  when  the  ewes  lamb,  especially 
when  the  season  is  wet  and  chilly, 
which  hurts  them  more  than  a  dry 
frost.  The  second  yard,  B,  is  well 
adapted  for  that  purpose,  and  an  ad- 
ditional temporary  shed  against  the 
partition  which  divides  it  into  two 
will  convert  either  division  into  an 
excellent  sheep-yard. 

"  In  valuing  a  farm,  the  habitation 
is  seldom  taken  into  the  account,  but 


FARM. 


the  buildings  immediately  connected 
with  the  cultivation  necessarily  add 
to  or  diminish  the  price. 

"  Farm  Accounts. — In  proportion  as 
the  management  of  a  farm  requires 
more  skill,  and  the  various  opera- 
tions become  more  complicated,  so 
the  necessity  of  great  accuracy  in 
the  accounts  beconies  more  evident. 
The  manner  in  which  farm  accounts 
should  be  kept  deserves,  therefore, 
particular  attention. 

"  Many  farmers,  who  are  not  devoid 
of  intelligence,  and  who  are  anxious 
to  ascertain  their  gain  or  their  loss 
in  cultivating  the  land  which   they 


have  hired,  have  no  other  means  of 
ascertaining  this  than  the  balance  of 
their  account  of  receipts  and  expen- 
diture. If  they  have  separated  the 
accounts  of  their  private  establish- 
ment from  that  of  their  farm,  they 
think  that  they  have  done  all  that  is 
required,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year 
they  can  tell  accurately  how-  much 
they  have  gained  or  lost  by  their 
farm  ;  but  ask  them  to  account  for 
this  gain  or  loss,  and  they  can  give 
no  answer.  If  a  tradesman,  who  has 
a  capital  in  business  equal  to  that  of 
a  farmer  of  a  considerable  number 
of  acres,  were  to  keep  accounts  in 
269 


FARM. 


this  manner,  and  become  a  bankrupt, 
no  one  would  bcsitale  in  sayinj,'  that 
he  failed  because  he  kept  no  regular 
accounts,  llo  bad  no  greater  stake 
than  the  farmer,  and  his  transactions 
were  perhaps  less  varied  :  if  he  kept 
no  clerk,  he  should  have  attended 
better  to  the  accounts  himself  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  farmer;  and 
if  a  man  who  has  a  floating  capital 
of  $10,000  does  not  think  it.  worth 
his  while  to  employ  a  clerk  to  keep 
his  accounts,  not  having  time  to  do 
so  himself,  it  is  no  great  wonder  if 
he  is  involved  in  difficulties.  But 
it  may  be  said  that  agricultural  ac- 
counts are  very  simple,  and  that  any 
one  can  keep  them.  So  are  mer- 
chants' accounts  at  tirst  sight.  No- 
thing is  simpler  than  to  put  down 
what  is  bought  and  sold,  what  is  the 
profit  on  each  transaction,  and  the 
sum  is  the  profit  of  the  whole  ;  but 
merchants  know  that  to  keep  this 
very  simple  account  many  books, 
many  entries,  many  checks,  and  con- 
sequently many  clerks  are  required. 
In  a  lesser  degree  this  is  true  in  a 
farm.  It  is  easy  to  know  what  is 
bought  and  sold,  what  is  expended 
or  produced,  but  it  requires  very  mi- 
nute accounts  to  ascertain  what  part 
of  the  farm  gives  a  profitable  return, 
and  what  is  the  cau.se  of  loss.  There 
may  be  a  profit  on  the  crops  and  a 
loss  on  the  stock,  or  vice  versa.  The 
money  expended  on  improvements  or 
adventitious  manure  may  have  pro- 
duced an  increase  which  is  propor- 
tionate to  the  outlay,  and  which  af- 
fords a  good  interest ;  but  it  may 
also  be  a  decided  loss.  How  is  this 
to  be  ascertained,  except  it  be  by  ac- 
curate accounts  1  In  whatever  man- 
ner the  accounts  are  kept,  whether 
by  the  farmer  himself  or  by  a  clerk, 
method  is  of  great  importance  ;  and 
whatever  may  be  said  against  it  by 
those  who  do  not  know  its  value, 
there  is  no  system  of  accounts  which 
can  be  compared  with  the  well-known 
method  of  double  entry.  The  prin- 
ciple of  this  method  is  so  simple  that 
the  slowest  arithmetician  cannot  be 
confused  by  it,  and  it  is  so  perfect 
that  no  error  can  escape  its  scrutiny. 
270 


As  applied  to  agricultural  accounts, 
which  are  simple  in  their  nature,  it 
becomes  so  clear  that,  if  once  adopt- 
ed, it  is  impossible  that  it  should  ever 
be  abandoned.  The  satisfaction  of 
a  perlect  proof  of  the  correctness  of 
the  accounts  is  so  great  that  no  one 
who  has  ever  experienced  it  will  be 
satisfied  with  any  other  method. 

"  In  the  accounts  of  a  farm  there  are 
many  separate  items  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  There  may  be  a  sep- 
arate account  kept  for  every  field  ; 
there  should  always  be  one  for  every 
crop  of  which  the  rotation  consists. 
There  is  an  account  of  the  labour  of 
men  and  horses  ;  of  the  produce  of 
the  dairy  ;  of  the  stock  purchased  to 
be  fattened,  or  sold  again  in  an  impro- 
ved state.  The  more  subjects  there 
are  to  furnish  items  for  an  account, 
the  more  difficult  it  is  to  strike  a 
balance,  but  with  a  httle  attention 
and  perseverance  it  may  be  done  ; 
and  he  who  keeps  very  correct  ac- 
counts will  always  be  the  first  to  dis- 
cover any  impending  evil,  and  to  take 
measures  to  provide  against  it. 

"The  basis  of  all  the  accounts  is  a 
daily  journal  of  every  transaction, 
which  must  be  collected  from  all  the 
labourers  and  agents  employed.  M. 
de  Dombasle,  at  his  celebrated  farm 
of  Roville,  in  France,  has  all  his  prin- 
cipal men  and  apprentices  assembled 
every  evening  after  the  day's  work 
is  over.  Each  man  gives  an  account 
of  the  work  done  by  him  or  under 
his  superintendence,  which  is  written 
down  by  the  clerk.  The  orders  for 
the  next  day  are  then  given,  and  ev- 
ery one  returns  to  his  lodging  or  his 
home.  In  the  course  of  the  next  day 
the  clerk  enters  all  that  is  in  the 
journal  into  a  book,  where  every  per- 
son employed  has  an  account:  every 
field  has  one  ;  every  servant  and  do- 
mestic animal  has  one ;  and  every 
item  which  can  be  separated  from 
the  rest  is  entered,  both  as  adding  to 
the  account  or  taking  from  it.  For 
example,  the  milk  of  the  cows  is  en- 
tered daily  ;  the  quantity  of  butter, 
butter-milk,  and  skimmed  milk  which 
it  produces  is  also  entered  ;  and 
these  two  accounts  check  one  an- 


FAR 


FAR 


Other.  Any  error  is  immediately  de- 
tected, and  the  knowledge  of  this 
prevents  mistakes.  An  entry  should 
be  made  of  every  particular  operation 
in  each  field,  tliat  the  farmer  may 
know  which  is  his  most  profitable 
land.  The  number  of  ploughings,  the 
quantity  of  manure,  the  state  of  the 
weather,  and  all  other  circumstances 
which  may  influence  the  return  should 
be  carefully  noted,  in  order  that  it 
may  he  clearly  seen  whether  any  ex- 
periment or  deviation  from  the  usual 
routine  is  advantageous  or  otherwise. 
Thus  all  real  improvements  may  be 
encouraged,  and  uncertain  theories 
detected  by  the  result. 

"  The  most  important  circumstance 
which  influences  the  profits  of  a  farm- 
er is  the  cost  of  his  team  and  the 
wages  of  his  men.  These  vary  in 
different  situations  so  much  that  they 
greatly  influence  the  price  which  he 
can  afford  to  give  for  the  land.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country  the  horses 
are  pampered  and  kept  so  fat  that 
they  can  scarcely  do  a  day's  work  as 
they  ought ;  in  others  they  are  over- 
worked and  badly  fed.  Either  ex- 
treme must  be  a  loss  to  the  farmer. 
In  the  first  case,  the  horses  cannot 
do  their  work,  and  they  consume  an 
unnecessary  quantity  of  provender  ; 
in  the  other,  they  are  soon  worn  out, 
and  the  loss  in  horses  that  become 
useless  or  die  is  greater  than  the  sa- 
ving in  their  food  or  the  extra  work 
done  by  them.  A  horse  properly  fed 
will  work  eight  or  ten  hours  every 
day  in  the  week,  resting  only  on 
Sundays  ;  by  a  judicious  division  of 
the  labour  of  the  horses,  they  are 
never  over-worked,  and  an  average 
value  of  a  day's  work  is  easily  ascer- 
tained. This,  in  a  well  regulated 
farm,  will  be  found  much  less  than 
the  common  valuations  give  it.  There 
have  been  printed  forms  invented,  in 
order  to  render  the  accounts  more 
simple,  as  well  as  more  comprehen-  [ 
sive.  Forms  may  be  of  use  to  enter  > 
minute  details  ;  and  each  superin-  i 
tendent  may  have  a  form  of  entry  for 
the  work  which  he  performs  or  su- 
perintends ;  but  the  ledger  should  be 
kept  exactly  as  that  of  a  mercantile  j 


man,  and  he  frequently  balanced  to 
ensure  correctness.  This  is  a  thin<^ 
which  cannot  be  too  strongly  recom- 
mended to  young  farmers." 

FARM- YARD  MANURE.  The 
excrements  of  cattle  mixed  with  ve- 
getable litter  accumulated  in  the  farm- 
yard. Stran-,  peat,  sea-weed,  the 
haulms  of  crops,  leaves,  and  any  or- 
ganic matter  may  be  added  to  swell 
the  bulk.  It  is  usual  to  make  the 
yard  somewhat  inclined,  so  that  the 
fluid  portions  may  run  into  a  tank  at 
the  bottom.  The  reservoir  should 
be  tight,  either  of  cement  or  temper- 
ed clay ;  it  may  be  furnished  with 
pumps,  to  return  the  fluid  over  the 
solid  matters  several  times  during  its 
preparation.  The  dung  should  be 
I  piled  in  ridges  of  five  feet  high  and 
as  many  wide,  and  kept  trodden  to- 
gether ;  it  should  not  be  permitted  to 
heat  too  much  or  be  kept  too  wet.  It 
is  very  much  improved  by  an  addi- 
tion of  charcoal,  gypsum,  and  lime, 
applied  occasionally  to  the  layers  as 
they  are  brought  out  from  the  houses. 
In  well-tilled  soils  twenty  to  thirty 
cart-loads  the  acre  are  applied  for  a 
rotation  of  three  or  four  years.  Corn, 
wheat,  potatoes,  or  tobacco  usually 
receive  the  manure.  Sandy  soils  re- 
quire less  manure,  but  more  frequent- 
ly repeated. 

Farm-yard  manure  wastes  rapidly 
by  exposure  and  the  action  of  rain, 
its  soluble  salts  being  removed,  and 
the  volatile  ammoniacal  portions  ri- 
sing into  the  air.  Great  benefit  would 
be  found  from  the  erection  of  slab  or 
thatched  sheds  for  the  protection  of 
the  heaps. 

It  is  of  service  to  all  crops,  be- 
cause, being  made  up  of  the  offal  of 
vegetables  and  food,  it  contains  all 
the  neces'sary  salts  and  organic  mat- 
ters ;  but,  in  the  usual  way  of  prep- 
aration, it  is  also  the  depository  of 
the  seeds  of  weeds  and  insects,  and 
tends  to  render  the  husbandry  foul. 
By  preparing  with  lime,  and  man- 
aging it  in  the  dry  way,  eremacausis 
is  produced,  which  destroys  the  seeds 
and  eggs,  at  the  same  time  that  it  di- 
minishes the  waste  by  volatilization. 
The  value  of  the  manure  is  depend- 
871 


FARM- YARD  MANURE. 


ant  upon  the  food  used,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  (hinfj:  to  straw,  the  litter 
absorbing  tlic  lluid  parts  and  runninji 
into  decay,  but  reducing  the  vaUie  of 
any  given  Avcight  of  the  manure. 
Where  animal  garbage  or  fisli  can 
be  obtained,  the  value  is  much  in- 
creased. (See  Manures.)  But  in  the 
common  yard  dung  the  fluid  parts 
are  altogether  the  richest  portions. 

Yard  manure  should  be  taken  out 
and  ploughed  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  possible,  before  it  is  much  re- 
duced by  rotting,  nor  should  it  be  in 
the  soil  very  long  before  the  seeds, 
for  it  wastes  away  rapidly.  Well-rot- 
ted dung  is  necessary  for  particular 
plants,  but  is  by  no  means  economi- 
cal. In  many  cases  an  application 
to  the  hill  is  best,  as  in  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, corn,  and  tobacco. 

Soiling  is  a  certain  means  of  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  manure  at 
the  same  time  that  expenses  are  less- 
ened ;  it  is  to  be  considered  an  es- 
sential in  good  arable  husbandry.  It 
is  common  to  keep  the  horse,  cow, 
and  pig  dung  separate  ;  but  there  is 
little  benefit  in  this. 

Compositioji  of  Farm-yard  Manure. 
— "  The  elementary  composition  of 
farm  dung  is  a  point  which  is  not 
undeserving  of  consideration,"  says 
Boussingault.  "  The  animals  which 
had  produced  the  dung  were  thirty 
horses,  thirty  oxen,  and  from  ten  to 
twenty  hogs.  The  absolute  quantity 
of  moisture  was  ascertained  by  first 
drying  in  the  air  a  considerable  weight 
of  dung,  and,  after  pounding,  continu- 
ing and  completing  the  drying,  in  vac- 
uo, at  230°  Fahrenheit. 

"  The  dung  prepared  in  the  winter 
of  the  year 

SO''}  >j)er  cent,  of 
22-2  i  diT  matter. 
19-6 


1837-8  contained     . 
1838-9 
In.summer  of  1839 

Medium   .     . 

Water      .     . 


20-7 
79-3 


"Analysis  yielded  the   following 
results : 

Times  of  preparation.  Garb.  Hjd.  Oxyj:.  Azote.  Ashes. 

Winter  of  1837-8  324  3-8  258  1-7  363 

"  32-5  41  260  1-7  35  7 

"  38-7  4'5  28-7  17  26-4 

Spring  of  1838  304  40  19  1  24  381 

1839  400  4-3  27-6  24  25  7 

"            "  345  4-3  27-6  20  31-5 

272 


"  On  the  average,  farm  dung,  dried 
at  SSS*^,  contains  : 

Carbon 35-8 

Hydrogen 42 

Oxygen 258 

Azote 20 

Salts  and  earths  .     .     .  32-2 
100-0 

"  When  moist,  its  composition  is 
represented  by 

Carbon 7'41 

Hydrogen 0-87 

Oxygen 5-34 

Azote 0  41 

Sails  and  earths      .     .     6-67 

Water 7930 

100^ 
•'  The  constitution  of  dung  heaps 
must  of  necessity  vary  ;  those,  how- 
ever, which  have  a  common  origin 
do  not  seem  to  present  very  great 
differences  in  the  proportion  of  their 
elements. 

'•  Excretions  of  the  Horse.  —  The 
horse  was  fed  upon  hay  and  oats. 
The  urine  and  the  excrements  togeth- 
er contained  762  per  cent,  of  moist- 
ure. In  twenty-four  hours  the  excre- 
tions weighed,  moist,  342  pounds; 
dry,  81  pounds. 

"  Their  composition  was  found  to 
be: 

In  the  dry  mat*.     Moist  ditto. 

Carbon 386  »19 

Hydrogen      ....     50  1-20 

Oxygen 38-4  8-66 

Azote :     2-7  413 

Salts  and  earth       .     .  17-3  4- 13 

Water 17-3  7617 

100-0  1000 

"  Excretions  of  the  Cow. — The  COW 
was  fed  upon  hay  and  raw  potatoes. 
The  urine  and  the  excrements  to- 
gether contained  86  4  of  moisture. 
The  weight  of  the  excretions,  in 
twenty-four  hours,  was,  moist,  80  5 
pounds  ;  dry,  10-9  pounds. 

"Their  composition,  by  analysis, 
was : 

Dry. 

Carbon 398 

Hydrogen      ....     4-7 

Oxygen 35'5 

Azote 2-6 

Salts  and  earth      .     .  17-4 

Water      ....     .  17-4 

1000 

"  Excretions  of  the  Pig. — The  pigs 
upon  which  the  observations  were 
made  were,  from  six  to  eight  months 
old.     They  were  fed  upon  steamed 


Wet 
539 
0-64 
4-81 
0-36 
2-36 
6644 
100  00 


FARM- YARD  MANURE. 


potatoes.  The  urine  and  the  excre- 
ments lost,  by  drying,  8'Z  per  cent,  of 
moisture.  'J"he  average  of  the  ex- 
cretions yielded  by  one  pig  in  twenty- 
four  hours  was,  moist,  91  pounds; 
dry,  1  6  pounds. 
"  Composition  : 

Dr}--  Moist. 

Carbon 36-7  6-97 

Hydrogen      ....     48  0-86 

Oxvgen 32  5  5  85 

Azote 3-4  0  61 

Salts  and  earth      .     .  206  8701 

Water      ....     .  20-6  82-00 

1000  lUO-00 

"  The  litter  that  is  generally  em- 
ployed is  wheat  straw.  This  straw, 
in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  used, 
contains  26  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

"  Its  composition  is  ; 

Dried.  rn,iri.-d. 

Carbon 484  358 

IIvdro?en      ....     53  39 


Oiygen 38-9  28-8 

A,5ote 04  00-3 

Sails  and  earth      .     .     70  52 

Water      ....     .    70  260 

1000  1000 

"  At  Bechelbronn  each  horse  re- 
ceives daily,  as  litter,  4  4  pounds  ; 
each  cow,  6  6  pounds  ;  each  pig,  4-1 
pounds  of  straw. 

"To  the  stables  and  the  cow-houses 
together  are  given,  every  twenty-four 
hours,  13"-i  0  pounds  of  straw  for  thir- 
ty horses;  198  0  pounds  for  thirty 
horned  cattle  ;  66  0  pounds  for  six- 
teen pigs  ;  making  396  0  pounds  of 
straw,  estimated,  when  dry,  at  292-6 
pounds. 

"  The  composition  of  the  materials 
which  constitute  the  dung  produced 
in  one  day  are  set  forth  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  : 


Excretions  yielded         Weight 
in  24  hours  by           when  dry-. 

Weight  t             Elements  of  the  dry  matter. 

Water 
constitu- 
ting the 
wet  matter. 

state.     1  Carb.  ^Hydrog. 

0..ygea[Azo,e.||f;f,,f: 

lbs. 
Thinv  horses  ....    24508 
Thirty  horned  cattle    32636 
Sixteen  pigs    ...  .1     26-40 
Straw  used  in  litter  |  29260 

lbs.        1     lbs.     ,      Ib^. 

1028-28'  94-60   1232 

2416-48  130  24   1540 

146-74     1012;    1-32 

396-00     41-66,  1562 

lb?.      1    lbs.         lbs. 

8910|  6-60    42-46 

116161  8-58    56-98 

8-58  1  0-88  1    5-50 

113-741  1-10  1  20-46 

lbs. 

783-20 

2089-12 

120-34 

103-40 

"  The  average  or  mean  composition  of  this  mixture  may  be  taken  as  fol- 
lows : 


In  the  drj-  state.                      |                             In  the  wet  state.                             | 

Carbon. 

Hydrog. 

O.^ygen. 

Azote.  |Salt.^.|  Carbon.  |  Hydrog.j  Oxygen. 

Azote. 
0-4 

Salts. 
¥2" 

Water. 

42-3 

50 

36.7 

1-9   |l4-l|    9-4    \    1-2    1    8  2 

77-6 

That  of  the  resulting  Dung. 

35-8 

4-2 

25-8 

2  0   |32-2  1    7-4    1    0-9    |    5-3 

0-4 

6-7 

79-3 

"  On  comparing  the  composition  of  ' 
the  dung-heap  with  that  of  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  litter  collected  in  a  day, 
little  difference  is  observed  ;  the  lar- 
ger quantity  of  saline  and  earthy  mat-  1 
ters  discovered  in  the  fermented  ma-  ; 
nure  is  readily  explained  from  the  ad-  j 
ditions  of  ashes  incorporated  with  it,  : 
and  also  by  the  accidental  admixture  I 
of  earthy  matters  proceeding  from 
the  sweepings  of  the  court,  the  earth  | 
adhering  to  the  roots  consumed  as 
food,  &c. — refuse  of  ever}'  kind,  the  ■ 
residue  after  cleansing  the  various  [ 
kinds  of  fodder  for  tlie  stable  and 
stall,  &c.,  all  go  to  the  dung-heap. 
Lastly,  and  with  reference  to  the  ele- 
ments that  are  liable  to  be  dissipated 
in  the  state  of  gas,  or  which  may  be  j 
changed  into  water,  the  azote  is  pre-  j 


cipitated  in  larger  quantity  in  the  pre- 
pared manure  than  in  the  unferment- 
ed  litter  and  excretions.  This  is  at 
once  seen  on  comparing  the  compo- 
sition of  these  two  products  after  the 
saline  and  earthy  matters  have  been 
deducted. 

Carb.  Hydrog.  0.tyg.  Azote. 
The  composition  of 

fresh  litter  is  .  .  .  49-3      5-8      42-7      2 
That  of  dung   ....  528      6-1       33-1      3.0 

"  Dung  is,  therefore,  somewhat 
richer  in  carbon  than  litter,  and  it 
contains  less  oxygen. 

"  Fermented  dung  contains  less 
oxygen  than  that  which  comes  from 
the  stable  ;  it  ought  also  to  contain 
less  hydrogen  ;  but  this  analysis  does 
not  proclaim. 

"Azote  is,  in  fact,  the  element 
which  it  is  of  highest  importance  to 
273 


FAR 


FAR 


augment  and  to  preserve  in  dunp;. 
The  organic  substances  which  arc 
the  most  advantageous  in  producing 
manures  are  precisely  those  which 
give  origin,  by  their  decomposition, 
to  the  largest  proportion  of  azotized 
matters,  soluble  or  volatile.  I  say 
by  their  decomposition,  because  the 
mere  presence  of  azote  in  matters 
of  organic  origin  does  not  suffice  to 
constitute  them  manure.  While  we 
admit  the  high  importance,  indeed 
tlie  absolute  necessity  of  azotic  prin- 
ciples in  manures,  then,  we  must  not 
therefore  conclude  that  these  princi- 
ples are  the  only  ones  which  contrib- 
ute to  fertilize  the  earth. 

"  It  is  unquestionable  that  tlie  al- 
kaline and  earthy  salts  are  farther 
indispensable  to  the  accomplishment 
of  the  phenomena  of  vegetation  ;  and 
it  is  far  from  being  sufficiently  shown 
that  the  organic  principles  void  of 
azote  play  a  merely  passive  part 
when  added  to  the  soil.  But  with 
few  exceptions,  the  fixed  salts,  wa- 
ter or  its  elements,  and  carbon,  su- 
perabound  in  manure.  The  chemical 
nature  of  the  salts  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  fodders  used.  The  element 
which  exists  there  in  smallest  pro- 
portion is  azote,  which  is  the  one, 
also,  that  is  most  apt  to  be  dissipa- 
ted during  the  alteration  of  the  bodies 
that  contain  it.  For  these  reasons, 
azote  is  really  the  element  whose 
presence  it  is  of  highest  moment  to 
ascertain  ;  its  proportion  is  that,  in 
fact,  which  fixes  the  comparative 
value  of  different  manures. 

"  Since  it  is  by  undergoing  modifi- 
cation in  the  course  of  their  decoin- 
position  by  putrefaction  that  those 
azotized  substances  which  arc  fa- 
vourable to  vegetation  are  developed 
in  quaternary  compounds,  it  will  be 
readily  understood  that,  all  things 
else  being  equal,  a  manure  which  is 
completely  resolved  into  soluble  or 
gaseous  products  in  the  course  of  a 
single  season  will  exert,  in  virtue  of 
this  alone,  the  whole  of  its  useful  in- 
fluence upon  the  first  crop.  It  is  en- 
tirely different  if  the  manure  decom- 
poses more  slowly  ;  its  action  upon 
the  first  crop  will  be  less  obvious,  but 
274 


its  influence  will  continue  longer. 
Tiicre  are  manures  which  act,  it  may 
he  said,  at  the  moment  they  are  put 
into  the  ground  ;  there  are  others, 
the  action  of  which  continues  during 
several  years.  Nevertheless,  two 
manures,  although  acting  within  pe- 
riods so  different  in  point  of  extent, 
will  produce  the  same  final  result  if 
they  severally  contain  the  same  dose 
of  azotic  elements,  if  they  are  of  the 
same  intrinsic  value. 

"  The  durability  of  manures,  the 
length  of  time  during  which  they  will 
continue  to  exert  their  influence,  is 
a  matter  of  great  importance.  It  oft- 
en depends  on  their  state  of  cohe- 
sion, or  on  their  insolubility,  though 
climate  and  the  nature  of  the  soil 
have  also  a  marked  influence  on  their 
decomposition  and  consequent  ef- 
fects. It  is  not  easy,  in  the  present 
state  of  knowledge,  to  predict  with 
certainty  how  long  the  beneficial  ef- 
fects of  a  given  manure  will  continue 
to  be  felt ;  but  we  know  well  enough 
what  will  hasten  the  decomposition 
of  manure  and  what  will  retard  this 
result,  and  so  apportion,  as  it  were, 
the  fertilizing  principles  among  the 
different  crops  in  the  rotation." 

In  Switzerland  it  is  common  to  ap- 
ply a  small  quantity  of  the  solution 
of  green  vitriol  or  copperas  (sulphate 
of  iron)  to  the  yard  manure.  One 
pound  of  copperas  in  solution  will  an- 
swer for  about  three  hundred  weight 
of  the  manure.  This  converts  the 
carbonate  into  sulphate  of  ammo- 
nia, and  removes  any  bad  odour.  It 
also  improves  the  quality  of  the  ma- 
nure very  considerably. 

FARRIER.  One  who  shoes  hor- 
ses, or  treats  their  diseases  ;  the  lat- 
ter department  is  now  coining  into 
the  hands  of  educated  men,  called 
veterinary  surgeons. 

FARROW.     A  litter  of  pigs. 

FASCID.  In  anatomy,  a  tendinous 
expansion  Iving  between  muscles. 

FASCICULUS,  or  FASCICLE. 
In  botany,  an  inflorescence  in  which 
the  flower-stalks  of  various  lengths 
form  a  summit  somewhat  level,  and 
the  uppermost  buds  expand  first,  as 
in  the  sweet  William. 


FAT 


FAT 


FAT.  A  solid  oil,  which  combines 
with  soda  and  forms  soap.  In  tlie 
body  it  is  stored  in  cells,  in  mem- 
branes existing  under  the  skin,  over 
the  intestines  and  kidneys.  The  va- 
rieties in  consistence  of  different 
fats  depends  upon  the  proportion  of 
the  stearin  and  elain  they  contain  ; 
the  former  being  the  solid  part,  the 
latter  the  fluid  or  oily.  They  are  in- 
soluble in  water,  partly  soluble  in  al- 
cohol, and  partly  in  ether. 

Fats  answer,  in  animals,  several 
important  functions.  They  serve  to 
maintain  the  warmth,  by  excluding 
atmospheric  cold  ;  lubricate  joints 
and  tlie  spaces  between  muscles,  and 
afford  the  means  of  sustaining  ani- 
mal heat  by  their  consumption  in  the 
body  during  severe  weather.  In  well- 
fattened  animals  it  is  deposited  even 
between  the  fibres  of  the  muscles. 

Chemically,  they  are  hydro-car- 
bons, and  consist  of  oily  acids  com- 
bined with  glycerine.  Stearin  con- 
sists of  carbon,  79;  hydrogen,  11-7; 
and  oxygen,  9  3  per  cent.,  and  gives 
us  a  fair  representation  of  the  com- 
position of  the  rest.  The  fats  of  ve- 
getables are  identical  with  those  of 
animals,  excepting  where  a  peculiar 
odorous  body  is  added,  as  in  goat  fat, 
whale  oil,  &c.  For  the  various  in- 
gredients of  fats,  see  Elain,  Stearin, 
Magarine,  Olein,  Butter,  (fcc. 

The  purification  of  fats  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  soaps  and  candles  is  ef- 
fected by  first  mincing  it  in  fine  pie- 
ces, melting  in  warm  water,  and 
straining  through  a  sieve.  It  may 
be  farther  purified  by  remelting  in 
water  acidulated  with  2  per  cent,  of 
sulphuric  acid,  stirring  it  constantly, 
allowing  it  to  cool,  and  skimming  off 
the  tallow,  which  should  be  after- 
ward remelted  with  an  abundance  of 
fresh  water.  In  this  way  it  becomes 
very  white  and  hard. 

■  The  rancidity  of  fats  and  oils  is  due 
to  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the 
air  and  the  production  of  new  pun- 
gent bodies,  termed  hircic,  capric, 
&c.,  acids.  This  is  also  the  reason 
why  butter  spoils  unless  well  worked 
before  storage  to  remove  ail  the  air 
contamed  in  it. 


FATTENING   ANIMALS.      The 

accumulation  of  tat  is  unquestionably 
dependant  upon  the  food  in  part,  but 
it  also  depends  upon  the  disposition 
and  management  of  the  animal.  A 
docile  breed,  as  the  Durham  ox  or 
China  hog,  is  more  easily  fattened 
than  one  that  is  restless.  A  dispo- 
sition to  rest  and  sleep  is  very  neces- 
sary, and  is  encouraged  by  placing 
the  animals  in  darkened  stalls,  allow- 
ing them  to  be  seldom  troubled,  and 
supplying  rich  food  often  during  the 
day.  As  the  fat  accumulates,  the 
skin  feels  very  silky  and  the  animal 
becomes  lethargic  ;  in  this  state  it 
should  be  slaughtered,  for  otherwise 
they  become  liable  to  sudden  death. 
Great  attention  is  necessary  to  the 
cleanliness  of  the  animal,  the  skin  of 
which  should  be  curried  and  washed 
to  prevent  disease.  The  food  is  grad- 
ually increased  in  nutritiousness  and 
amount  of  oil  it  contains,  until  the 
fattening  is  perfect.  It  is  seldom 
that  the  accumulation  of  weight  ex- 
ceeds two  to  two  and  a  half  pounds 
the  day,  notwithstanding  the  ration 
is  doubled,  or  three  and  a  half  to  four 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  animal 
given  in  hay,  or  its  equivalent.  Small 
beasts  are  fattened  more  economi- 
cally than  large  ones,  and  unless  the 
skin  handles  well,  or  is  soft  and  elas- 
tic to  the  touch,  the  prospects  for 
rapid  fattening  are  not  good.  The 
length  of  time  necessary  to  finish  the 
fattening  is  four  or  five  months  ia 
oxen,  but  is  less  during  warm  thaa 
cold  weather. 

FATTENING  FOOD.  The  expe- 
rience of  farmers  has  always  been  in 
favour  of  the  doctrine  that  oily  prov- 
ender IS  required  to  produce  fat  ; 
beech -nuts,  linseed -oil  cakes,  and 
corn  enjoy  the  highest  reputation, 
and  are  most  charged  with  oil.  Lie- 
big  has,  however,  advanced  the  doc- 
trine that  farinaceous  vegetables,  as 
the  potato,  carrot,  &c.,  are  fattening 
from  the  starch  they  contain  ;  but  al- 
though this  may  be  true  physiologi- 
cally, yet  in  ordinary  farm  manage- 
ment it  is  found  cheaper  and  more 
expeditious  to  use  fodders  already 
containing  the  fat,  rather  than  to 
276 


F.\i; 


FEE 


wait  for  the  slower  transformation 
out  of  starch. 

Fattening  food  should  be  well  pre- 
pared by  grinding,  and  steaming  for 
hogs.  A  mush  that  had  become 
slightly  sour  was  found  to  fatten  more 
expeditiously  by  Arthur  Young  than 
the  fresh  food.  The  following  table 
gives  the  comparative  values  of  prov- 
enders for  fattening,  by  showing  the 
amount  of  oil  they  contain : 

Indian  com     .     .  9    to  10    percent,  of  oil. 

Oats 4     to  5  "  " 

Wheat   .          .     .  2i  to  2i  "  " 

Bran       ....  4     to  5  "  " 

Oilcake      ...  9    to  10  "  " 

Clover  hay       .     .  4  "  " 

Meadow  hay   .     .  3A  to  4  "  " 

Pease  andbeans   .  2|  to  3  "  " 

Beech  mast     .     .  15     to  17  "  " 

Sunflower  seed    .  15  "  " 

Linseed       ...  11     to  22  "  " 

Hemp  seed      .    .18    to  25  "  " 

Straw     ....  1     to  li  "  " 

These  numbers  are  not  constant, 
for  the  amount  of  oil  depends  upon 
the  season,  increasing  witli  the  brill- 
iancy and  dryness  of  the  weather. 
Potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  man- 
gel wurzel,  contain  less  than  one 
quarter  per  cent.,  and  are  therefore 
not  adapted  for  fattening  alone. 

The  same  values  are  true  for  but- 
ter and  milk,  except  that  oil  cake  im- 
parts a  bad  flavour.  Poultry  and 
pigs  are  now  som.etimes  fattened  in 
part  on  animal  fat,  as  cracklings, 
greaves,  &c.  One  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful bodies  in  the  list  is  ground  lin- 
seed meal,  but,  considering  its  other 
qualities,  corn  is  the  most  esteemed. 
If  the  cake  or  oily  seeds  are  used,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  mix  meal,  oats, 
or  pease  with  them,  to  preserve  the 
health  of  the  animal ;  tive  pounds  of 
cake  area  sufficient  supply  for  the  day. 

FATHOM.     A  measure  of  six  feet. 

FAUCES.  The  part  of  the  throat 
at  the  root  of  the  tongue. 

FAULT.  In  geology,  an  interrup- 
tion in  the  continuation  of  a  stratum, 
the  bed  having  been  broken  by  an 
earthquake  and  separated.  The  crev- 
ice between  the  parts  is  often  filled 
with  clay,  which  forms  an  impervious 
barrier  to  drainage. 

FAUNA.  The  animals  of  a  coun- 
try. 

276 


FAUX.  The  opening  or  throat  of 
monopetalous  flowers,  like  the  snap- 
dragon, sage,  d:c. 

FAVOSUS  (from  farus,  a  honey- 
comb).    Marked  like  a  honey-comb. 

FEATHER-BOARDING.  Weath- 
er-boarding, the  edges  of  the  boards 
overlapping. 

FEATHER-GRASS.  Slipa  pen- 
nala.     A  very  inferior  grass. 

FEATHERS.  The  covering  of 
birds,  answering  the  purpose  and  be- 
ing of  the  same  composition  as  the 
hair  and  fur  of  animals.  Goose- 
feathers  for  beds  are,  in  Europe, 
plucked  in  the  spring,  midsummer, 
and  September,  each  parcel  being 
dried  in  an  oven.  If  they  become 
foul,  it  may  be  remedied  by  boiling 
them,  enclosed  in  bags,  in  an  abun- 
dance of  water  for  a  few  minutes. 
The  quill  is  prepared  by  dipping  in 
a  quantity  of  sand  heated  to  150" 
Fahrenheit,  and  afterward  rubbing  it 
strongly  with  flannel  until  it  becomes 
clear. 

Waste  feathers,  as  a  manure,  are 
precisely  of  the  same  value  as  woollen 
rags,  which  see. 

FEBRIFUGE.  Any  medicine 
which  allays  the  heat  and  violence  of 
fevers,  as  lemonade,  Seidlitz  pow- 
ders, tartar  emetic,  &c. 

FECES.     Excrements,  dregs. 

FECUIA.     Starchv  matter. 

FECUNDATION.  In  horticulture, 
the  act  of  sprinkling  the  yellow  pow- 
der {pollen)  of  the  stamens  of  one 
flower  upon  the  stigma  or  female  or- 
'  gan  of  another,  to  produce  new  vari- 
I  eties  of  seed,  is  called  artificial  fecun- 
dation or  impregnation.  The  late 
1  Mr.  Andrew  Knight  obtained  in  this 
j  way  many  choice  fruits.  Varieties 
of  plants,  especially  melons,  are  fre- 
i  quently  injured  and  lost  by  planting 
:  ihern  near  each  other,  from  fecunda- 
tion arising  from  the  pollen  of  one 
kind  being  carried  to  another  by  in- 
I  sects  or  the  wind.  Hence  annuals 
i  of  the  same  species  set  out  for  seed 
should  be  placed  far  apart. 

FEED.  The  quantity  of  proven- 
der or  ration  allowed  a  horse,  cow, 
&.C.  Growing  animals  require  three 
per   cent.  ;    working   horses,    two  ; 


FEL 


FEN 


milch  cows,  three  ;  and  Tattening  an- 
imals three  and  a  half  to  four  per 
cent,  of  their  weight  in  hay  or  its 
equivalent.     See  Fodder. 

FEELERS.  The  antenna3  of  in- 
sects, or,  according  to  entomologists, 
organs  fixed  to  the  mouth,  used  for 
prehension. 

FELINE  ANIMALS.  Beasts  of 
the  tiger,  lion,  and  cat  race.  They 
are  carnivorous,  furnished  with  sharp 
incisor  teeth,  and  retractile  claws. 

FELL.     The  hide  of  an  animal. 

FELLING  TIMBER.  Much  dis- 
cussion has  arisen  as  to  the  time  of 
felling  timber,  some  contending  for 
winter,  others  for  summer.  Duha- 
mel,  who  examined  the  matter  thor- 
oughly, came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  time  of  cutting  was  of  little  or  no 
importance  on  the  durability  of  the 
timber.  The  rule  now  established  is, 
that  soft  woods,  as  the  elm,  poplar, 
maple,  willows,  are  best  cut  in  win- 
ter, the  harder  trees  in  summer,  and 
old  trees  may  be  cut  at  any  time. 

FELLINIC  ACID.  One  of  the 
acids  found  in  bile  by  Berzelius. 

FELLMONGER'S  POAKE,  or 
CLIPPINGS.  The  clippings  of  skins 
and  the  scrapings  of  leather.  It  con- 
tains hair,  skin,  and  lime,  and  is  best 
introduced  into  composts  to  increase 
the  amount  of  nitrogen.  A  direct  ap- 
plication is  wasteful,  for  it  decays 
rapidly. 

FELLOES.  The  curved  pieces  of 
wood  which  form  the  circumference 
of  wheels  :  ash  is  preferred  for  this 
purpose. 

FELON,  or  FETLOW.  In  farri- 
ery, a  term  for  a  sort  of  inflammation 
in  animals  similar  to  that  of  whitlow 
in  the  human  subject. 

FELDSPAR.  A  common  mineral 
abounding  in  granite  and  transition 
rocks ;  it  is  crystalline,  of  a  pearly  lus- 
tre, and  of  various  colours,  usually 
of  a  yellowish  or  reddish  aspect.  It 
is  a  silicate  of  potash  and  alumina, 
containing  from  eleven  to  fourteen 
per  cent,  of  real  potash,  and  furnish- 
ing, by  slow  decay  in  the  soil,  that 
important  alkali  to  plants.  Albite  is 
a  variety  containing  soda.  An  abun- 
dance of  decaying  vegetable  matter 

A    A 


in  the  soil,  or  the  addition  of  heavy 
dressings  of  lime,  assists  the  disen- 
gagement of  the  potash,  and  thus  ad- 
vances fertility.  No  soil  which  con- 
tains much  feldspathic  sand  can  be 
deficient  in  potash. 

FEMUR.  The  thigh  bone  ;  hence 
Femoral. 

FEN.  A  boggy  or  marshy  place. 
See  Bog: 

FENCES.  Erections  to  protect 
land  from  the  trespass  of  cattle.  They 
are  called  live  fences,  or  hedges,  when 
made  of  shrubs.     See  Hedges. 

^\'ood,  being  so  common,  is  usual- 
ly employed  in  the  United  States  ; 
but  walls  of  blasted  rock  or  loose 
stones  are  frequently  seen.  Stumps 
form  an  admirable  fencing  material. 
Banks  of  earth,  dug  from  a  ditch  and 
covered  with  sods,  or  a  ditch  only, 
are  also  used  ;  in  the  prairies  they 
would,  perhaps,  be  cheaper  than  rail 
fencing.  These  structures  are,  how 
ever,  very  expensive,  and  should  be 
diminished  by  the  introduction  of  the 
system  of  soiling. 

Wooden  fences  are  commonly 
erected  in  the  zigzag  direction  ;  the 
cross  fence,  consisting  of  one  piece 
set  slanting  upon  two  others  stuck 
into  the  ground,  and  made  to  cross 
near  the  top,  is  much  less  permanent. 
The  post  and  rail  is  very  superior, 
but  more  expensive,  but,  by  using  pre- 
served timber,  might  be  made  imper- 
ishable. See  Preservation  of  Tim- 
ber. Railings  are  readily  rived  from 
straight  pine,  but  look  much  neater 
when  sawn.  In  Virginia  the  law  re- 
quires a  fence  of  ten  rails,  with  ri- 
ders, which  is  unnecessarily  high  ; 
five  rails,  with  riders,  being  used  in 
Jersey.  The  rails  are  cut  twelve  feet 
long.   A  rod  costs  from  50  to  70  cents. 

Hurdles,  or  light  moveable  fences, 
consisting  of  panels,  about  four  feet 
long  and  four  feet  and  a  half  high,  are 
much  used  in  Europe  to  confine 
sheep,  each  panel  being  furnished 
with  two  end  pieces  long  enough  to  be 
stuck  fast  into  the  earth.  They  arc 
tied  together,  when  set  up,  with 
wiihes.  Sometimes  they  are  made 
of  osier,  but  usually  of  any  small 
wood.  By  means  of  them,  turnips 
277 


FENCES. 


spring  rye,  &c..,  can  be  depastured. 
A  light  post  and  rail  fence  may  he 
made  moveable  l)y  furnishing  the 
posts  with  feet.  Light  iron  and  wire 
hurdles  are  now  introduced  in  Eng- 
land, and  also  iron  rods  passed 
through  wooden  posts  for  permanent 
fences. 

Walls  are  put  up  at  fifty  cents  to 
one  dollar  the  rod.  The  following 
is  from  Law : 

"  The  stone  wall  may  either  be  form- 
ed of  stones  built  without  cement,  or 
it  may  be  built  with  mortar  like  com- 
mon masonry  ;  but  the  last  of  these 
methods  is  rarely  practised  with  the 
common  fences  of  a  farm.  The  ce- 
menting of  the  stones  with  mortar 
adds,  indeed,  to  the  durability  of  the 
wall,  but  then  the  expense  is  too 
great  in  common  cases.  The  wall, 
therefore,  for  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  the  farm,  may  generally  be  built 
of  stones  alone,  though  sometimes 
with  a  little  mortar,  merely  for  ce- 
menting the  coping,  and  occasional- 
ly for  pinning  or  closing  the  inter- 
stices of  the  outside.  When  stones 
cannot  be  obtained,  brick  may  be  sub- 
stituted. 

"  The  materials  for  building  the  dry 
stone  wall,  as  this  kind  of  wall  is 
termed,  may  be  sandstone,  whin- 
stone,  or  any  other  stones  of  suffi- 
cient durability.  Loose  stones  taken 
from  the  surface,  termed  land  stones, 
answer  sufficiently  well,  if  they  be 
of  proper  size,  and  not  too  much 
rounded  ;  but  in  the  latter  case  they 
present  too  smooth  a  surface,  and 
cannot  be  kept  m  their  places  with- 
out mortar. 

"  The  implements  to  be  used  in 
building  the  dry  stone  wall  are  a  ma- 
son's hammer,  a  spade  or  shovel  for 
clearing  the  ground  for  a  foundation,  a 
pick  or  mattock,  and  a  frame  of  two 
upright  posts  fixed  together,  so  as  to 
correspond  with  a  vertical  section  of 
a  portion  of  the  wall. 

"  The  line  of  the  intended  fence  be- 
ing fixed  upon  and  marked  on  the 
ground,  the  stones  for  building  should 
be  brought  forward,  and  laid  down  on 
both  sides,  if  possible,  of  the  line  of 
fence,  but  if  not,  on  one  side. 
278 


"  Pins  being  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  wall, 
the  workman  proceeds  thus  :  he  car- 
ries his  wooden  frame  to  some  dis- 
tance along  the  line  to  be  built  upon  ; 
he  sets  it  perpendicular,  which  he  is 
enabled  to  do  by  means  of  a  plumb- 
line  attached  to  it.  He  then  fixes 
another  similar  frame  at  the  place 
where  the  wall  is  to  commence  ;  he 
stretches  two  cords  between  these 
two  frames  on  the  outside,  and  as 
these  cords  correspond  with  the  out- 
side of  the  wall  at  a  given  height,  he 
has  a  guide  for  building  it  of  the 
required  dimensions.  After  having 
built  one  portion,  he  uses  only  one 
frame,  the  wall  itself  serving  after- 
ward the  part  of  a  frame  ;  for  the 
cords  being  fixed  to  both  sides  of  the 
wall,  and  then  attached  to  the  frame 
which  is  placed  in  advance,  the  work- 
man has,  as  before,  a  guide  by  which 
he  proceeds  in  building. 

"  The  foundation  of  the  wall  should 
be  laid  on  firm  ground,  and  when 
there  is  not  green  sward  to  build 
upon,  the  loose  earth  should  be  taken 
out  by  the  spade,  until  a  solid  found- 
ation is  arrived  at.  In  building,  the 
largest  and  flattest  stones  should  be 
used  for  the  foundation  ;  and  it  is 
very  desirable,  if  the  materials  used 
will  allow,  to  place  stones  at  inter- 
vals of  sufficient  size  to  lie  across 
the  breadth  of  the  wall,  so  as  to  bind 
the  wall  together,  and  render  it  more 
secure. 

"  Different  kinds  of  coping  may  be 
placed  upon  the  wall  to  defend  it. 
One  of  these  consists  merely  of  turf, 
two  sods  being  laid  upon  the  wall, 
with  the  earthy  sides  placed  towards 
each  other.  Another  species  of  cop- 
ing consists  of  large  stones,  which, 
being  closely  built  and  wedged  togeth- 
er, are  cemented  by  mortar.  This  is 
a  complete  and  durable  species  of 
coping ;  but  when  it  is  used,  a  row 
of  flat  stones  should  be  laid  on  the 
top  of  the  wall  immediately  beneath 
the  coping,  and  made  to  project  a  lit- 
tle on  each  side  of  it. 

"  A  wall,  sufficient  for  the  purposes 
of  the  farm,  may  be  32  inches  wide 
at  bottom,  16  inches  wide  at  top,  and, 


FEN 


I'ER 


including  the  coping,  4^-  feet  high. 
Two  good  cavt-Ioads  of  stones  will 
suffice  for  building  a  yard. 

"  When  a  fence  is  required  within 
sight  of  a  dwelling,  and  it  is  desira- 
ble for  it  to  be  concealed,  a  deep 
ditch  is  sometimes  dug,  and  a  fence 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  it  at  such  a 
depth  as  not  to  appear  above  the  lev- 
el of  the  ground.  This  is  called  a 
sunk  fence.  Sometimes  a  wall  is 
built  against  a  perpendicular  side  of 
a  ditch,  and  some  very  light  fence  is 
placed  obliquely  outward  near  the 
top  of  it  and  level  with  the  ground. 
This  is  called  a  ha-ha  fence,  a  name 
given  to  it  from  the  surprise  excited 
in  a  person  unacquainted  with  it, 
when  he  suddenly  finds  himself  on 
the  top  of  a  wall  with  a  deep  ditch 
before  him.  When  it  is  desired  to 
keep  off  sheep  or  cattle  from  a  lawn 
or  pleasure-ground  without  obstruct- 
ing the  view  of  the  park  or  the  fields, 
the  ha-ha  fence  is  very  useful." 

Some  persons  recommend  division 
fences  for  every  ten  acres,  but  this  is 
ridiculously  small,  for  it  is  not  to  be 
forgotten  that  the  fence  requires  some 
room,  hinders  close  ploughing,  and 
this  probably  reduces  the  enclosure  by 
one  third  to  one  half  an  acre,  which, 
in  a  farm  of  two  hundred  acres,  would 
amount  to  ten  acres.  Thirty  or  for- 
ty acre  lots,  except  on  small  farms, 
are  small  enough. 

FENESTRATE.  In  entomology, 
the  appearance  produced  by  the  trans- 
parent spots  on  the  wings  of  some  in- 
sects. In  botany,  the  absence  of  tis- 
sue between  the  veins  of  a  leaf 

FExNNEL,  COMMON.  Meum  (ce- 
niculum.  This  is  a  well-known  bienni- 
al plant,  cultivated  in  kitchen  gardens 
as  a  garnish,  and  used  as  a  domestic 
medicine.  The  taste  and  aromatic 
qualities  of  the  garden  fennel  are  well 
known.  The  sweet  and  warm  seeds 
are  a  common  carminative  for  infants. 

FENNEL,  SWEET.  Famculum 
duke.  This  species  of  fennel  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  a  native  of  Italy  and  Por- 
tugal, where  it  is  cultivated  as  a  pot- 
herb, as  well  as  for  the  seeds  and  the 
oil  which  these  afford.  It  is  a  small- 
»r  plant  than  the  common  fennel.  The 


stem  is  somewhat  compressed  at  the 
base.  The  fruit  is  much  longer  than 
that  ofthecoinmon  fennel,  being  near- 
ly five  lines  long,  less  compressed, 
somewhat  curved,  and  paler,  with  a 
greenish  tinge. 

FENUGREEK.  Trigonellafmnum- 
gracum.  Fenugreek  is  a  species  of 
trefoil,  sometimes  cultivated  in  fields 
for  its  seed  ;  but  it  yields  a  very  un- 
certain crop.  The  stem  is  a  foot 
high,  erect,  with  round,  branched 
stalks,  trifoliate  leaves,  toothed  ;  the 
flowers  small  and  white  ;  the  fruit  a 
sessile,  straight,  erect,  acuminate, 
flat  pod,  containing  a  number  of  yel- 
lowish seeds  havmg  a  strong,  disa- 
greeable smell,  and  an  unctuous,  far- 
inaceous, and  somewhat  bitter  taste. 
These  seeds  are  useful  in  cataplasms 
and  fomentations. 

FENUGREEK,  UUSSIAN.  Trig, 
onella  nithenica.  A  hardy  perennial, 
native  of  Siberia,  with  yellow  papil- 
ionaceous blossoms  in  July  and  Au- 
gust. It  loves  a  strong  loamy  soil 
and  an  open  situation.  It  is  propa- 
gated either  by  parting  the  roots  in 
spring  or  from  seed. 

FER.MENT.  A  substance  ia  the 
state  of  decay  which  is  capable  of 
communicating  fermentation  and  sim- 
ilar changes  to  other  bodies.  Fer- 
ments contain  nitrogen,  and  are  pri- 
marily derived  from  albumen,  fibrin, 
or  casein,  which,  when  moi.st,  decay 
spontaneously.  The  product  of  the 
ferment  depends  upon  temperature, 
amount  of  water,  access  of  air,  and 
other  conditions.  These  actions  can 
only  originate  in  organic  matter,  but 
ferments  act  upon  inorganic  substan- 
ces, as  mixtures  of  gases,  &c.  Fer- 
ments become  exhausted  in  acting 
upon  other  bodies,  from  their  own 
decay.  For  common  ferment,  see 
Yecmt. 

FERMENTATION.  When  a  fer- 
ment, as  yeast,  is  brought  in  contact 
with  grape  sugar,  and  several  other 
principles,  mixed  with  water,  and  at 
a  temperature  of  70-  or  upward,  the 
sugar  is  changed,  and  gives  off  car- 
bonic acid,  alcohol  being  produced  ; 
this  change  is  attended  with  consid- 
erable movement  in  the  mixture,  and 
279 


TER 


FER 


is  called  fermentation.  The  product 
of  (enncntation  is  various :  \vli(;n  alco- 
hol is  foruieil  it  is  called  vinous  ;  when 
starch  is  converted  into  sugar,  as  in 
bread-making,  saccharine.  Lactic  acid 
fermentation  is  when  that  substance 
is  produced  from  sugar  ;  -putrefactive 
fermentation,  which  occurs  in  dung- 
hills, takes  place  when  nitrogen  is  an 
ingredient  in  the  decaying  matter. 

Fermentation  is  a  chemical  change, 
whereby  complex  organic  bodies  are 
converted  into  more  simple  forms  ; 
thus,  sugar  is  changed  into  carbonic 
acid  and  alcohol.  It  differs  from 
crcmacavsis,  in  the  circumstance  that 
oxygen  is  only  absorbed  in  the  begin- 
ning, and  that  the  changes  take  place 
in  an  abundance  of  water.  The  prin- 
cipal products  of  fermentation  are 
water,  carbonic  acid,  alcohol,  and  car- 
buret of  hydrogen.  When  nitrogen 
is  present,  ammonia,  with  fetid  gass- 
es,  containing  sulphur  and  phospho- 
rus, are  also  exhaled.  The  heat  is 
a  result  of  these  changes.  The  de- 
cay is  hastened  by  warmth  and  an 
abundance  of  yeast ;  it  is  retarded  by 
excessive  moisture,  and  so  high  a 
temperature  as  to  coagulate  the  fer- 
ments. Those  bodies  which  absorb 
oxygen  rapidly,  as  green  vitriol,  hin- 
der fermentation  by  intercepting  the 
first  change  :  these  are  called  anti- 
septics. Mineral  acids  also  destroy 
the  activity  of  ferments. 

Sugar,  starch,  woody  fibre,  &c., 
cannot  ferment  spontaneously,  for 
they  contain  no  nitrogen  ;  thej'  are, 
however,  called  fermentable.  The  jui- 
ces of  fruits,  trees,  canes,  &c.,  rapidly 
ferment,  because,  besides  sugar,  they 
contain  albumen,  casein,  or  fibrin, 
which,  decaying  easily,  conveys  the 
change  to  the  fermentable  matter 
present ;  but  their  fermentation  may 
be  hindered  by  adding  a  little  lime, 
boiling  down  to  a  sirup,  or  otherwise 
coagulating  or  solidifying  the  de- 
structive nitrogen  principles. 

In  consequence  of  the  continuance 
of  fermentation,  irrespective  of  ac- 
cess of  air,  fluids  in  this  state  must 
not  be  barrelled  up  tightly,  or  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  may  burst  the  vessel ; 
but  by  lowering  the  temperature  to 
280 


45°  Fahrenheit  (by  placing  in  a  ce^ 
lar),  separating  all  the  yeast,  or  fu- 
migating the  cask  with  vapour  of  sul- 
phur, it  may  be  considerably  or  alto- 
gether arrested.  The  vinous  fer- 
mentation runs  into  the  acetous  if 
the  substances  are  freely  exposed  to 
air,  as  cider  or  beer  in  an  open  cask. 
See  Beer,  Cider. 

FERNS,  FILICES.  Flowerless 
plants,  with  beautifully -developed 
leaves,  bearing  their  seed-vessels  on 
the  lower  side.  They  are  crypto- 
gamia  in  the  system  of  Linnaeus,  and 
acotyledonous  in  that  of  Jussieu. 
They  have  little  economical  value, 
grow  in  wet  or  rocky  situations,  and 
serve  well  enough  for  packing,  in  the 
place  of  straw,  or  to  increase  the 
amount  of  yard  manure. 

FERROCYANATE  OF  POT- 
ASH. A  yellow,  crystalline  salt,  also 
called  Prussiate  of  potash,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  is  used  as  a  test  for  pe- 
roxide of  iron  in  solution,  with  which 
it  strikes  a  beautiful  blue,  being,  in- 
deed, Prussian  blue.  It  is  also  used 
in  the  laboratory  as  a  test  for  copper 
and  other  metals,  and  to  form  various 
compounds  of  cyanogen  from. 

F  £  R  R  U  G I  :N"  O  U  S  {from ferrum, 
iron).  Containing  iron,  or  of  the  col- 
our of  rust.  Ferruginous  waters  are 
also  called  chalybeates,  and  much  es- 
teemed as  tonics.  Ferruginous  soils, 
when  friable,  are  frequently  \ery  fer- 
tile and  improveable. 

FERRUGO.  Also  Rubigo,  Rust : 
it  is  a  species  of  uredo. 

FERRET.  A  useful  animal  of  the 
weasel  kind  ;  the  Mustelafuro  (Fig.) 
of  naturalists.     It  is  domesticated  in 

^^"-^-^-^ 


Europe  for  the  destruction  of  rats, 
rabbits,  and  other  small  vermin,  and 
might  be  usefully  employed  in  the 
United  States  in  granaries. 

"  It  procreates  twice  a  year,  and 
brings  from  six  to  eight  young  ;  smells 
very  fetid.  The  ferret  is  very  sus 
ceptible  of  cold,  and  must  be  kept  4k 


FET 


FEV 


B  box  provided  with  wool  or  olhor 
warm  materials,  and  may  be  fed  with 
bread  and  milk.  Its  sleep  is  long  and 
profound,  and  it  awakes  with  a  vora- 
cious appetite,  which  is  most  highly 
gratified  by  the  blood  of  small  and 
young  animals.  Its  enmity  to  rats 
and  rabbits  is  unspeakable,  and  when 
either  are,  though  for  the  first  time, 
presented  to  it,  it  seizes  and  bites 
them  with  the  most  phrensied  mad- 
ness. When  employed  to  expel  the 
rabbit  from  its  burrows  it  must  be 
muzzled,  as  otherwise  it  will  suck 
the  blood  of  its  victim,  and  instantly 
fall  into  a  profound  sleep,  from  which 
it  will  awake  only  to  the  work  of  de- 
struction, committing  in  the  warren, 
where  it  was  introduced  only  for  its 
services,  the  most  dreadful  waste  and 
havoc.  It  is  possessed  of  high  irri- 
tability, and  when  particularly  exci- 
ted, is  attended  with  an  odour  ex- 
tremely offensive." — {Loudon.) 

Ferrets  are  used  in  granaries  and 
out-buildings  to  destroy  rats.  They 
are  muzzled  and  slipped  into  the  hole, 
from  which  they  drive  the  animals, 
which  are  then  caught  by  terriers  or 
other  vermin  dogs.  It  is  customary 
to  hunt  in  the  morning,  when  the 
rats  are  less  active  and  asleep  in  their 
holes. 

FESCUE  GRASSES.  The  genus 
Festuca,  containing  several  valuable, 
permanent  grasses,  of  which  the  F. 
pratoisis,  meadow  fescue,  and  dari- 
ttscula,  hard  fescue,  are  the  best.  See 
Grasses.  The  characters  of  the  ge- 
nus are,  triandria,  digynia,  flowers  in 
panicles,  corolla  armed,  seeds  ad- 
nate  ;  calyx  two-valved,  many-flow- 
ered ;  spikelets  compressed,  round- 
ish, awnless,  or  with  a  terminal  awn  ; 
corolla  sub-round,  upper  valve  acute, 
with  a  sharp  bristle  at  the  tip,  or  mu- 
cronate,  seed  growing  to  the  corolla. 
The  vahiable  kinds  are  either  indi- 
genous, or  have  become  naturalized ; 
all  the  festucas  are  nutritious. 

FETLOCK.  -'The  part  of  the  leg 
where  the  tuft  of  hair  grows  behind 
the  pastern  joint  of  horses  :  those  of 
low  size  have  scarcely  any  tuft.  In 
working  horses,  which  have  them 
large,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
A  .\  'i 


Ihem  clean  in  order  to  prevent  the 
grease.  The  fetlock  joint  is  a  very 
complicated  one,  and  from  the  stress 
which  is  laid  on  it,  and  its  being  the 
principal  seat  of  motion  below  the 
knee,  it  is  particularly  subject  to  in- 
jury. An  affection  of  this  part  should 
be  well  fomented  and  immediately 
blistered." — {Clatcr.) 

FEVERS.  A  disease,  one  of  the 
most  general  symptoms  of  which  is 
increased  heat  of  the  body,  and  often 
the  sensations  of  heat,  dryness,  and 
even  burning  of  the  skin  are  exces- 
sive, independent  of  any  proportional 
increase  of  temperature.  Their  ori- 
gin is  in  the  nervous  system.  In  fe- 
vers there  is  generally  great  consti- 
tutional derangement,  unaccompa- 
nied by  local  or  perceptible  organic 
disease.  Fevers  generally  begin  with 
languor  of  body  and  mind  ;  chilliness, 
amounting  to  shivering,  though  the 
skin  often,  at  the  same  tune,  feels  hot ; 
the  pulse  is  quicker  than  it  should 
be  ;  respiration  hurried  or  laboured  ; 
pains  are  complained  of  in  various 
parts,  and  especially  about  the  head, 
back,  and  loins  ;  the  appetite  falls  off, 
or  there  is  nausea  and  vomiting;  the 
mouth  is  dry  ;  the  bowels  generally 
constipated,  and  the  urine  small  in 
quantity  and  deep  in  colour.  These, 
which  constitute  the  first  stage,  or 
ordinary  febrile  symptoms,  are  suc- 
ceeded by  alternate  flushings,  a  quick- 
er and  fuller  pulse,  rapid  alternations 
of  shivering  and  burning  heat,  and  by 
mental  anxiety  and  wandering,  which, 
under  a  great  variety  of  aspects  and 
modifications,  constitute  the  second 
stage ;  they  are  succeeded  by  the 
third  stage,  in  which  the  leading  ap- 
pearances are  a  cleaner  tongue,  a 
more  natural  pulse,  a  moist  skin, 
calm  mind,  and  the  urine  becomes 
more  copious  in  quantity,  and  de- 
posites  a  sediment  as  it  cools.  The 
symptoms  of  fever  generally  undergo 
an  increase  every  evening,  wliich  is 
called  an  exacerbation ;  and  this  fluc- 
tuation often  takes  place  more  than 
once  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  the 
violence  of  the  attacks  increasing 
with  their  occurrence,  and  forming 
what  is  called  a  continued  fever.  Af- 
281 


FIE 


FIG 


ter  some  days,  a  crisis  takes  place,  '  on  an  arable  farm  ;  they  are  seldom 
that  is,  the  symptoms  cither  take  a  less  than  20  acres,  and  in  large  farms 
favourable  or  an  unfavourable  turn,  become  50  or  more. 
If  the  exacerbation  and  remission  of  j  FIELD  MICE  (Avicola  agrestis, 
symptoms  are  well  marked,  and  oc-  i  Cuvier,  the  short-tailed ;  Mus  sylvati- 
cur  once  or  oftener  in  the  day,  the  !  «<s,  Linnajus,  the  long-tailed  species), 
fever  is  called  a  remittent ;  if  the  fe-  i  They  are  a  great  nuisance  to  or- 
ver  leaves  the  patient  after  some  chards,  stripping  off  the  bark  near 
hours'  duration,  and  returns  at  sta-    the  ground,  and  causing  the  death  of 


ted  intervals,  it  is  called  an  intermit 
tent,  as  ague.  Fevers  are  also  va- 
riously denominated,  according  to  the 
prevalent  symptoms,  as  inflammatory, 
typhus  or  putrid,  nervous  fever,  &,c.  ; 
or  according  to  cutaneous  appearan 


the  trees.  Tarring  the  parts  is  said 
to  protect  them  ;  the  introduction  of 
a  new  ring  of  sound  bark,  the  two 
being  made  to  fit  closely,  after  the  in- 
jury, will  often  save  the  trees.  Crows, 
hawks,  owls,  weasles,  cats,  and  ter- 


ces  connected  with  them,  such  as  rier  dogs,  as  well  as  traps,  are  often 
scarlet  fever  an&  yellow  fever.  [insufficient   to   subdue    these   pests. 

In  the  first  stage,  sweating  med-  ;  The  following  method  was  found  very 
icines  and  purges,  with  bleeding,  j  successful  in  England  after  all  others 
are  useful ;  subsequently,  medicines  ,  had  failed  :  pits  were  dug  18  inches 
which  calm  the  nervous  system  are  deep,twofeetlong,and  ISincheswide 
used.  Calomel,  in  a  dose  of  10  grains  at  the  bottom,  but  with  the  sides  in- 
for  a  man,  is  often  useful;  but  in  '  clined,  so  as  to  be  only  16  inches  long 
fevers  attended  with  great  debility,  |  at  the  top  and  nine  inches  wide.  The 
bleeding  is  injurious,  and  stimulants,  holes  were  made  20  feet  apart  each 
especially  carbonate  of  ammonia  {sal  ,  way,  and  were  so  successful  that  oft- 
volatile),  and  wines,  are  essential.        j  en  15  mice  were  taken  in  one  during 

FEVERFEW.  Species  of  Py-  a  single  night:  the  mice  failing  in, 
rethriim ;  they  are  very  similar,  and  ;  were  unable  to  escape  up  the  inclined 
may   replace   chamomile,  especially  \  sides. 

the  P.  parthenium.  Several  bear  or- j  FIG.  Ficus  carica.  Upward  of  40 
namental  flowers.  They  occasion-  i  varieties  are  published  of  this  fruit ; 
ally  become  troublesome  perennial  '  of  these,  the  Marseilles,  early  white, 
weeds,  difficult  to  extirpate,  except  large  white  Genoa,  purple  Genoa,  and 
by  repeated  harrowings.  Brunswick  are  worthy  of  cultivation. 

FIBRE,  VEGETABLE.    See  Lig-  \  Most  of  these  bear  two  crops  in  the 


FIBRIN.  The  principal  constitu- 
ent of  muscles ;  it  also  exists  in 
blood  and  some  vegetables.  When 
pure,  it  is  white,  inodorous,  and  in- 
soluble, and,  if  perfectly  dry,  can  be 


season,  from  August  to  October.  In 
the  Northern  States  they  require  pro- 
tection by  glass  or  matting  during 
winter,  but  may  be  cultivated  as 
standards  in  Virginia  and  other  parts 
of  the  South.     The  Malta  is  worthy 


kept  for  any  time,  but  when  moist,  it  of  cultivation  in  the  South  as  a  crop, 
putrefies  rapidly.     See  Protein.  i  the  fruit  drying  of  itself  on  the  tree 

FIBULA.  The  outer  thin  bone  of  if  left,  and  becoming  a  fine  sweet- 
the  fore  leg.  I  meat.     Figs  are  readily  propagated 

FIC0IDEJ3.  Tropical  plants  re-  j  by  cuttings,  layers,  suckers,  roots,  or 
serabling  the  cactuses,  inhabiting  seeds.  The  layers  will  bear  in  one 
sandy  plains.  or  two  years.     As  standards,  they 

FICUS.  The  generic  name  of  are  planted  six  to  eight  feet  apart,  in 
the  fig;  hence  _;?cana,  resembling  the  a  dry,  loamy  soil.  The  fruit  is  hast- 
fig.  :  ened  in  ripening  by  pricking  with  a 

FIELD  LARK.  All  the  family  of  quill  dipped  in  sweet  oil,  and  is  pre- 
larks  are  devourers  of  grain,  and  served  for  commerce  by  immersing 
therefore  injurious  to  the  farmer.  for  a  moment  in  boiling  lye. 

FIELDS.  The  enclosures  made  ,  The  fig  is  peculiarly  manageable, 
283 


FIL 


FIL 


the  size  and  abundance  of  the  fruit 
being  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  orchardist.  By  girding  the  stem- 
root,  pruning,  summer  pruning  the 
ends  of  the  bearing  branches,  the 
abundance  and  beauty  of  the  fruit  are 
increased.  In  a  stove  it  may  be  made 
to  bear  through  the  winter,  so  as  to 
supply  a  constant  succession.  In 
pruning  the  ends  of  branches  the 
juice  will  escape,  unless  the  twig  be 
lirst  pressed  between  the  thumb  and 
finger  till  the  tissues  give  way,  and  al- 
lowing it  to  wither  before  removal. 
Fig-trees  are  very  liable  to  become 
iu.vuriant  in  foliage,  bearing  little 
fruit  ;  this  habit  cannot  bo  remedied 
b}'  pruning  the  branches  only,  for  this 
is  calculated  to  increase  their  num- 
ber ;  it  is  best  rectified  by  training 
the  branches  horizontally,  or  even 
bending  them  downward  by  wires 
made  fast  to  their  extremities  and 
to  the  ground  or  stem  of  the  tree. 
Standards  are  pruned  into  a  single 
stem  and  horizontal  branches.  The 
fig  is  remarkably  free  from  insects. 
The  tree  is  frequently  taken  up  and 
laid  down  under  three  or  four  inches 
of  earth  for  the  winter,  being  set  up 
in  April.  The  wood  is  extremely 
hard  and  durable,  being  used  for  pol- 
ishing metals  when  charged  with  em- 
ery. 

FILARIA.  A  genus  of  intestinal 
worms,  resembling  a  thread  in  ap- 
pearance. 

FILATURE.  A  reel  arrangement 
for  raw  silk.     See  Silk. 

FILBERT.  Conjlusavellana.  This 
sweet  and  valuable  nut  could,  with 
the  fig,  be  readily  made  an  object  of 
exportation,  or,  at  least,  raised  suffi- 
ciently to  supply  the  great  demand  at 
home.  As  it  is  not  much  known,  we 
insert  a  description  of  the  best  varie- 
ties : 

1.  Red  Filbert. — Stem  of  the  fruit 
red,  superior  in  flavour  to  the  white, 
but  less  prolific  :  requires  light  loam. 

2.  \\'HrrE  Filbert. — An  abundant 
bearer  and  hardy  plant.  The  husk 
of  the  fruit  is  long  and  tubular,  con- 
tracted near  the  top,  so  as  to  hinder 
the  fruit  falling  out. 

3.  GosFOBD. — An  improved  hazel, 


the  fruit  deeply  marked  and  almost 
conical. 

4.  Barcelona,  or  Large  Cob. — A 
large  nut,  much  esteemed  for  keep- 
ing, but  often  a  shy  bearer. 

5.  The  Frizzled  Filbert. — The 
husk  is  frizzled  and  ornamental.  It 
is  a  modern  esteemed  variety. 

The  C.  Americana  is  an  indigenous 
species,  bearing  a  sweet  but  small  nut. 
The  white  is  the  market  variety  in 
England,  and  the  Barcelona  in  Spain. 
Filberts  require  a  deep,  light,  but  nat- 
urally fertile  soil,  without  putrescent 
manures.  They  should  be  grown  as 
dwarf  standards,  set  eight  feet  apart ; 
the  suckers  and  lower  shoots  which 
they  constantly  throw  out  should  be 
restrained.  They  are  propagated 
most  readily  from  suckers,  but  may 
be  grafted  on  seed  stocks  early  in 
April.  The  amount  of  fruit  yielded 
depends  in  a  great  measure  upon  pru- 
ning ;  for,  naturally,  the  tree  expends 
itself  in  producing  under-wood.  Af- 
ter raising  the  standard,  with  a  low 
stem  of  twelve  to  eighteen  inches, 
the  branches  must  be  pruned  to  the 
horizontal  or  pendant  form  :  the  lead- 
ing shoots  are  annually  shortened  by 
two  thirds  ;  the  front  twigs  are  also 
summer-pruned,  and  all  the  spurs  that 
have  fruited  removed  in  the  winter 
or  spring.  It  bears  on  spurs  thrown 
out  from  the  last  year's  wood.  The 
fruit  is  ripe  when  the  husk  is  turned 
brown  ;  if  intended  for  long  keeping, 
the  filberts  are  allowed  to  hang  until 
fully  brown,  then  dried  by  exposure 
to  the  sun,  and  placed  in  barrels  with 
dry  sand.  An  acre  yields  800  to  1000 
pounds  of  fruit.  They  bear  in  the 
fourth  or  fifth  year. 

The  nut  is  assailed  by  a  curculio 
in  autumn,  which  may  be  seen  boring 
the  fruit  to  deposite  its  egg,  and  can 
be  destroyed  by  shaking  the  tree  and 
allowing  chickens  to  eat  the  insect 
when  fallen  to  the  ground. 

The  filbert  and  hazel-nut  ( C.  sylves- 
tris)  are  di.stinct  species,  but  by  cul- 
tivation have  become  nearly  mixed. 

FILIFOR.M.     Thread-like. 

FILLY.     A  young  mare. 

FILTRATION.  The  separation 
of  the  dear  portions  of  a  solution  or 
283 


FIR 


PIS 


mixture  from  tlie  precipitate  or  drccs, 
by  passing  tiirough  a  close  tissue. 
For  cheniicai  purposes,  w/ii/c  blotting 
papci,  called  jUlcriiifi^  paper,  is  used, 
ibldcd  into  a  conical  Ibnn,  and  placed 
on  a  funnel.  The  fluid  which  runs 
through  is  called  the  filtrate.  In  quan- 
titative analysis  the  filters  are  weigh- 
ed before  use,  and  when  properly 
dried  with  the  precipitate,  and  re- 
weighed,  give  the  amount  of  the  lat- 
ter with  the  best  results.  Sometimes 
the  paper  is  burned  with  the  precipi- 
tate, the  known  weight  of  its  ash- 
es being  deducted  from  the  whole 
weight.  For  common  purposes,  stout 
cotton  cloth  or  porous  earthen-ware 
are  used. 

FIMBRIATE  (from  fimbria,  a 
fringe).  Any  long,  fringe-like  mar- 
gin to  animal  or  vegetable  organs. 

FIX.  The  cutting  plate  fixed  be- 
fore the  mould-board  of  a  plough,  and 
answering  for  a  coulter. 

FINCHED.  la  stock,  marked  with 
white  streaks. 

FINGER  GRASS.  Digilaria 
sanguinalis.  An  unimportant  plant, 
sometimes  erroneously  called  cocks- 
foot.    See  Gra.sscs. 

FINGERS  AND  TOES.  See  An- 
hury. 

Finos,  second  best  wool  from 
Merinos. 

FIORIN.  Agrostis  stolonifera.  A 
creeping,  bent  perennial  grass.  It 
Avas  over-estimated  by  Richardson, 
and  is  unsuited  for  rotations,  from  its 
vivacious  nature.     See  Grasses. 

FIR.  The  European  popular  name 
for  the  larger  pine-trees.     See  Pine. 

FIRE-BLIGHT,  FIRING.  When 
the  leaves  of  a  growing  plant  or  tree 
become  brown  and  dead,  either  in 
part  or  entirely,  it  is  said  to  be  fired 
or  fire-blasted.  It  is  distinctly  due 
to  three  causes  :  1st.  When  it  occurs 
in  the  lower  leaves  of  a  tall  vegeta- 
ble, the  leaves  have  performed  their 
office,  and  are  no  longer  supplied  with 
sap,  and  therefore  die  ;  2d.  It  attacks 
growing  leaves  in  spots  or  blotches  : 
this  is  especially  the  case  with  to- 
bacco, hops,  &c.  In  these  cases  the 
weather  has  been  wet  and  moist  for 
some  time,and  becomes  suddenly  very 
284 


hot ;  the  firing  occurs  in  July  and 
August,  during  the  hottest  season. 
There  is  no  doubt  here  that  the  first 
excess  of  sap  during  the  wet  days 
has  ruptured  the  skin  of  the  leaf  or 
otherwise  disorganized  it,  and  the  hot 
sun  dries  up  the  part,  causing  its 
death.  3d.  The  fire-blight  of  pear 
and  other  fruit  trees  is  demonstrably 
due  to  numberless  aphides,  which, 
suddenly  assailing  the  upper  branch- 
es, destroy  the  leaves  by  their  punc- 
tures, which  then  become  brown  by 
the  action  of  the  sun.  The  only  re- 
.source  is  to  prune  the  branches  so  in- 
fested, and  destroy  them  at  once. 

FIRE-DAMP.  The  inflammable 
gas  of  bituminous  coal-mines.  Car- 
burets of  hvdrogen. 

FIRE-FANGED.  Dried  up.  ^^^^en 
manure,  or  composts,  in  which  heat 
is  generated,  become  too  hot,  the 
parts  assume  a  baked  appearance  and 
ashy  colour,  and  are  said  to  be  fire- 
fanged.  The  composts  should  be  ta- 
ken to  pieces,  mixed  with  a  quantity 
of  moist  garden  or  fine  soil,  and  put 
up  in  less  heaps. 

FIRE-FLY.  Elatcr  noctiluca.  An 
herbivorous  insect  of  the  click  or 
spring  beetle  genus. 

FIRING,  in  farriery,  a  heathen- 
ish application  of  red-hot  irons,  prac- 
tised by  ignorant  and  brutal  men,  for 
the  removal  of  sprains,  &c.  Its  use 
almost  amounts  to  a  confession  of 
ignorance. 

FIRKIN.  A  measure  of  253S  cu- 
bic inches,  or  7^  imperial  gallons,  be- 
ing the  fourth  part  of  a  beer  barrel. 
Butter  is  packed  in  barrels  called  fir- 
kins, but  weighed,  not  measured. 

FIRLOT.  A  provincial,  Scotch 
dry  measure.  The  wheat  firlot  is 
only  yyjths  of  the  bushel ;  the  barley 
firlot  is  nearly  H  bushel. 

FISH.  On  the  seacoast  fish  is 
abundantly  used  as  manure.  The 
most  common  way  is  to  spread  the 
fish,  and  plough  under  in  the  course 
of  a  few  days.  The  application  made 
by  the  English  farmers  is  from  twen- 
ty-five to  forty  bushels  per  acre,  but 
on  Long  Island  much  more  is  employ- 
ed. This  is.  however,  an  extrava- 
gant way  of  using  them.    The  best 


ris 


FIS 


way  is  that  adopted  by  Mr.  Seely  and  ; 
Dr.  Akerly  on  Staten  Island,  of  strew- 
ing them  in  layers  on  compost  beds 
with  peat,  ashes,  slacked  lime,  char- 
coal, and  vegetable  matter.  During 
a  few  months  the  animal  matter  of 
the  fish  is  decomposed,  and  con- 
verted into  rich  ammoniacal  manures 
without  any  ofTensive  smell,  and 
when  it  comes  to  be  added  to  the  soil, 
twenty  bushels  go  farther  and  do 
more  service  than  forty  otherwise  ap- 
plied. All  fish,  sea  urchins,  crabs, 
shell- fish,  &c.,  are  of  the  greatest 
use,  the  animal  matter  being  nearly 
identical  in  ultimate  composition. 

The  fish  owes  its  fertilizing  effects 
to  the  animal  matter  and  bone  earth 
it  contains.  The  former  is  precise- 
ly similar  to  flesh  or  blood,  consist- 
ing of  25  per  cent,  fibrin,  the  rest 
being  water.  100  pounds  in  decay- 
ing produce  2J  pounds  of  ammonia, 
hence  400  pounds  rotted  in  compost 
are  enough  for  an  acre.  It  may  be  ap- 
plied with  seed  in  drills,  broad-cast 
over  grass,  wheat,  &c.  The  great 
effect  is  due  to  the  ammoniacal  por- 
tion, for  it  renders  the  herbage  dark- 
green,  and  starts  it  very  rapidly.  Ar- 
thur Young  mentions  several  cases 
where  fish  caused  the  straw  to  grow 
so  rapidly  and  long  as  to  lodge ;  it 
should,  therefore,  be  applied  to  well- 
tilled  lands,  which  yield  full  grain. 
The  refuse  of  fish  prepared  for  salt- 
ing is  a  valuable  manure. 

The  refuse  blubber,  after  pressing 
whale  oil,  coarse  lats,  train  oil,  has 
been  used  very  successfully  in  com- 
posts on  lands,  but  is  very  inferior 
to  whole  fish,  which  is,  indeed,  one  of 
the  finest  manures  known.  In  these 
cases  composts  are  made  with  fine 
earth,  coal  ashes,  or  as  above. 

FISH-PONDS.  Breeding  and  pre- 
serving fish  in  ponds  is,  in  Germany 
and  other  states  of  Europe,  an  ex- 
tensive and  lucrative  employment.  In 
the  United  States  it  is  a  matter  of 
luxury  worthy  of  attention.  Feeding 
or  preserving  ponds  are  without  any 
remarkable  peculiarity,  except  suffi- 
cient depth  to  allow  enough  water  to 
remain  unfrozen  during  winter ;  by 
embanking  any  spring  branch  such  a 


pond  can  be  produced.  Breeding 
ponds  are  not  always  so  successful ; 
they  should  contain  shoals  for  the 
young,  be  fed  by  a  pure  stream,  oft- 
en of  soft  water,  and  running  upon 
a  clean  bottom  ;  the  shoals  should  be 
covered  with  rushes,  and  kept  free 
from  fowl,  eels,  and  newts.  The 
number  of  young  produced,  even  by 
six  spawncrs  and  three  or  four  males 
to  the  acre,  is  such  that  predacious 
fish  are  introduced  to  thin  them  ;  for 
this  purpose,  trout  and  perch  are  much 
better  than  pike  or  pickerel,  which 
latter  find  their  way  to  the  shoals  and 
devour  the  spawn  as  well  as  the 
young.  The  contents  of  the  breed- 
ing pond  may  be  let  off  into  a  series 
of  feeding  ponds  lying  on  a  lower  lev- 
el. Perch  and  trout  succeed  togeth- 
er, but  not  with  pike.  Carp  and  tench 
are  very  easily  raised  in  the  same 
pond.  Mr.  Pell  has  cultivated  shad 
in  fresh  water,  and  the  flounder  has 
also  been  naturalized  in  England.  As 
a  matter  of  course,  on  the  seashore, 
salt-water  ponds  and  fish  can  be  pro- 
cured. Pike  and  pickerel  may  bo 
raised  and  preserved  in  a  series  of 
three  or  four  ponds,  being  fed  upon 
any  small,  common  fish,  which  should 
be  replaced  as  often  as  they  are  much 
destroyed. 

The  spawning  season  is  from  May 
to  June,  according  to  the  fish,  and 
the  young  should  remain  until  the 
next  year  before  removal  to  the  sec- 
ond pond,  where  they  remain  two 
years,  and  are  left  to  mature  in  the 
third.  The  last  pond  is  often  provi- 
ded with  a  flood-gate,  so  that  it  can 
be  effectually  dragged  by  placing  a 
net  in  this  situation  before  letting  ofi 
the  waters.  Another  arrangement 
for  securing  the  large  fish  only  is  to 
give  the  last  pond  such  a  figure  as  to 
allow  a  trap  to  be  placed  between  two 
parts,  so  that  all  of  a  certain  size  are 
confined  above  or  taken  by  the  trap. 
The  sides  of  the  ponds  should  be  shel- 
tered by  willows,  elms,  or  other  or- 
namental trees.  The  removal  of  the 
fish  from  one  pond  to  another  is 
made  by  dragging  with  fine  nets. 

The  size  of  the  fish  will  depend 
upon  the  amount  left  to  the  acre.    In 
285 


FIS 


FLA 


the  second  or  nursing  ponds  1000  to  [ 
1200  carp  and  1500  tench  will  be  ' 
enougli  per  acre,  and  in  tlie  third  pond  i 
400  to  500  will  be  enougli  :  these  va-  | 
rieties  will  inhabit  muddy  waters. 
The  perch  and  trout  require  clear  wa- 
ters ;  600  to  the  acre  is  an  abun- 
dance. The  varieties  of  fine  bass, 
especially  the  Otsego,  should  be  cul- 
tivated. Eels  are  worthy  of  ponds, 
and  can  be  raised  without  any  diffi- 
culty. Pike  are  to  be  cautiously  6x- 
cluded  from  ponds  containing  any  of 
the  foregoing  fish,  and  all  breeding 
places.  The  tench,  carp,  gold-fish, 
and  gudgeon  are  frequently  fed  with 
meal,  bread,  and  similar  vegetable 
matters,  when  raised  in  small,  heav- 
ily-stocked ponds.  One  pond  answers 
well  enough  with  all  these  kinds  ex- 
cept pike  and  pickerel. 

FISSIPAROUS  GENERATION. 
That  kind  of  generation  which  exists 
in  polypes,  hydras,  &,c.,  in  which  the 
parent  throws  out  buds,  or  gemmules, 
which  grow  like  itself,  and  are  finally 

FISSIROSTRALS.  A  tribe  of 
perching  birds  with  a  very  wide  gape, 
as  the  swallow. 

FISTULA.  "  A  long,  sinous  ulcer, 
often  communicating  with  a  larger 
cavity,  and  having  a  small  external 
opening. 

"All  animals  are  liable  to  fistulas, 
but  the  horse  more  particularly  so  ; 
they  attack  the  withers  and  the  poll. 
They  are  produced  by  blows,  by  brui- 
ses from  the  saddle,  and  whatever 
causes  inflammation  ;  also  by  the 
presence  of  extraneous  substances. 

"  In  curing  this  disease,  it  is  requi- 
site, in  the  first  instance,  to  ascertain 
the  direction  the  fistula  pursues,  and 
whether  it  materially  interferes  with 
any  of  the  larger  blood-vessels,  so  as 
to  render  a  full  incision  into  the  parts 
a  matter  of  too  much  hazard  to  be 
attempted.  When  secure  from  any 
danger  of  this  nature,  the  most  effect- 
ual practice  is  to  lay  the  fistula,  or 
fistulas,  when  more  than  one,  so  thor- 
oughly open  as  to  have  a  complete 
view  of  their  internal  surfaces.  It  is 
not,  however,  necessary  in  the  sim- 
ple sinus,  where  the  matter  is  in  a 
286 


healthy  state,  and  requires  only  a  suf- 
ficient passage,  but  in  cases  where 
the  discharge,  by  having  been  long 
detained,  indurates  and  corrodes  the 
contiguous  parts  ;  as  the  means  fully 
adequate  to  remove  the  former  avail 
little  in  the  radical  cure  of  tne  latter, 
a  more  severe  practice,  of  course,  be- 
comes necessary. 

"  When  the  fistular  cavities  have 
been  fully  laid  open  by  the  knife,  they 
should  be  dressed  with  powerful  caus- 
tic compositions,  until  the  wound  pre- 
sents a  healthy  appearance.  Clean- 
liness, with  more  mild  applications, 
should  now  be  had  recourse  to,  taking 
care  that  the  wound  be  not  closed  be- 
fore the  cavities  are  properly  and  uni- 
formly healed." 

FIXED  AIR.  Carbonic  acid.  So 
called  from  its  fixed  condition  in 
chalk,  marble,  &c. 

FIXED  OILS.  Such  as  are  not 
volatile.     See  Expressed  Oils. 

FLAGELLIFORM  (from  flagel- 
lum,  a  whip).  A  runner,  or  trailing 
stem,  is  so  called. 

FLAIL.  A  wooden  implement  for 
threshing  grain,  consisting  of  a  han- 
dle, fastened  by  leather  thongs  to  a 
moveable  stick  or  swiple.  It  is  a 
slow  means  of  thrashing  grain,  and 
seldom  used  except  for  beans,  which 
are  rapidly  beaten  out. 

FLAKE  WHITE.  Pure  white- 
lead. 

FLAME.  The  burning  gases  or 
vapours  given  off  from  fuel. 

FLANDERS  HUSBANDRY. 
"  Flanders  was  remarkable  for  the 
cultivation  of  its  soil  long  before  any 
other  country  north  of  the  Alps  or 
Pyrenees.  This  was  the  natural  con- 
sequence of  its  commercial  prosperi- 
ty ;  and  although  very  little  change 
has  taken  place,  and  very  few  im- 
provements have  been  introduced  for 
more  than  a  century,  it  still  ranks 
foremost  among  agricultural  coun- 
tries. 

"  It  is  not  the  richness  of  the  soil 
which  is  the  cause  of  the  abundant 
harvests  which  the  Flemish  peasants 
reap,  but  their  indefatigable  industry. 
The  greater  part  of  the  land  in  Flan- 
ders is  naturally  poor  ;  and  in  exten- 


FLANDERS  HUSBANDRY. 


sive  districts,  which  now  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  greatest  richness  at 
harvest-time,  the  original  soil  was 
once  little  better  than  the  blowing 
sands  which  are  met  with  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  sea.  Neither 
is  it  a  genial  climate  which  brings  for- 
ward the  fruits  of  the  earth  in  abun- 
dance ;  for  the  climate  is  inferior  to 
that  of  France  or  the  southern  parts 
of  Germany. 

"  The  soil  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes.  The  tirst  consists  of  the  al- 
luvial clay-loams  near  the  coast  ;  tiie 
second,  of  various  sands  and  light 
loams  which  are  found  in  the  interi- 
or. The  most  fertile  is  that  of  the 
lowlands  which  have  been  reclaimed 
from  the  sea  by  embankments  :  it  is 
chiefly  composed  of  a  muddy  deposite 
mixed  with  fragments  of  marine  shells 
and  fine  sea-sand.  These  lands  are 
called  polders,  and  their  great  natu- 
ral fertility  causes  them  to  be  culti- 
vated with  less  art  and  industry 
than  those  lands  which  are  much  in- 
ferior. 

"  The  cultivation  in  the  polders  has 
nothing  remarkable  to  entitle  it  to 
much  notice.  Barley  seems  peculi- 
arly suited  to  the  soil,  and  very  heavy 
crops  of  this  grain  are  obtained,  es- 
pecially in  those  polders  which,  hav- 
ing been  more  lately  embanked,  are 
not  much  exhausted.  Eight,  and  even 
ten  quarters  per  acre  have  been  ob- 
tained with  little  or  no  manure,  and 
the  second  crop  of  barley  sown  in 
succession  has  often  been  the  best. 
Oats  are  also  very  productive  and  of 
good  quality,  from  ten  to  twelve  quar- 
ters per  acre.  But  these  heavy  crops 
soon  reduce  the  natural  fertility,  and 
after  a  few  years  the  produce  is  great- 
ly diminished,  and  the  land  requires  to 
be  recruited  by  manure  and  cleansed 
by  fallows.  The  usual  rotation  of 
crops  in  the  polders  consists  of,  1. 
Winter  barley  after  a  fallow  ;  2. 
Beans  ;  3.  Wheat ;  4.  Flax  ;  5.  Clo- 
ver ;  6.  Potatoes.  If  the  potatoes 
have  a  favourable  season,  and  the 
land  can  be  cleared  of  weeds,  the  ro- 
tation begins  again  without  a  fallow 
year  ;  but  this  is  seldom  the  case, 
and  the  land  is  usually  fallowed  once 


in  six  years.  The  crops  here  men- 
tioned are  occasionally  varied  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  and  manure,  as 
well  as  the  small  quantity  of  dung 
made  on  the  farm  will  permit.  The 
polder  farmer  seldom  thinks  of  pur- 
chasing manure,  and  even  the  ashes 
made  by  burning  weeds  are  usually 
sold,  to  be  sent  to  the  poorer  sandy 
soils,  where  their  effects  are  more 
perceptible.  When  the  polders  have 
been  too  much  exhausted,  they  are 
frequently  laid  down  to  grass,  and  in 
a  few  years  a  very  rich  pasture  is 
produced.  If,  instead  of  sowing  only 
a  few  refuse  hay-seeds  from  the  lofts, 
proper  grass  seeds  were  sown,  after 
land  has  been  cleaned  by  a  fallow,  the 
pasture  would  much  sooner  come  to 
perfection,  and  several  years  would 
l)e  saved  ;  but  the  improved  modes 
of  converting  arable  land  into  pas- 
ture, so  advantageously  practised  in 
the  north  of  England  and  in  Scot- 
land, are  almost  entirely  unknown  in 
Flanders.  The  extent  of  the  farms 
in  the  polders  is  from  100  to  250  acres. 
The  farmers  in  general  are  in  good 
circumstances,  and  the  buildings  sub 
stantial. 

"  In  the  interior  of  East  and  West 
Flanders  the  soil  varies  considerably ; 
but  the  principal  part  is  of  a  sandy 
nature.  The  sand,  and  a  heavier 
loam  which  scarcely  deserves  the 
name  of  clay,  are  found  much  inter- 
mixed, which  is  owing  to  an  alterna- 
tion of  layers  of  sand  and  loam,  which 
are  found  by  digging  to  a  considera- 
ble depth.  These  layers  are  not  of 
great  thickness,  and  the  accidental 
circumstance  of  the  washing  away  of 
the  sand  in  some  places  and  the  dep- 
ositions from  the  rivers  in  others 
easily  accounts  for  this  variety.  Some 
of  the  elevations,  which  are  nowhere 
considerable,  consist  of  a  very  poor 
sand,  and  suggest  the  idea  of  their 
having  once  been  the  sands  of  the 
sea  blown  into  hills,  as  is  observable 
on  the  coast.  These  hills,  if  they 
may  be  so  called,  are  naturally  so 
barren,  that  they  were,  not  very  long 
since,  covered  with  heath,  or  at  best 
planted  with  fir-trees  ;  but  they  have 
gradually  been  cultivated  and  impro- 
287 


FLANDERS  III.SBANDKV, 


ved,  and  only  a  few  remain  in  their 
original  stale  of  heath  or  wood. 

"  The  poorer  sands  have  heen 
brought  into  cultivation  chiefly  by 
the  persevering  industry  of  small  pro- 
prietors and  occupiers.  Without  an 
abundance  of  manure  nothing  can  be 
effected  there,  and,  consequently,  ev- 
ery attention  is  paid  to  the  procuring 
and  collecting  of  it.  The  first  pro- 
cess is  always  to  trench  the  ground 
deep  with  the  spade,  and  level  it  by 
means  of  the  mollebaert,  an  instru- 
ment peculiarly  Flemish,  of  which  a 
drawing  and  description  are  given  in 
the  article  Barren  Land.  The  next 
step  is  to  procure  liquid  manure, 
which  consists  of  the  urine  of  cows 
and  horses,  the  drainings  from  dung- 
hills, and  the  emptyings  of  privies. 
The  numerous  towns  and  villages 
which  are  scattered  over  Flanders, 
and  the  canals  which  intersect  the 
country  in  all  directions,  facilitate 
the  collecting  and  transporting  of 
manure.  A  regular  trade  is  carried 
on  in  everything  which  can  enrich 
the  land  ;  nothing  which  can  be  of 
any  use  for  this  purpose  is  lost  or 
wasted.  In  every  farm  there  is  a 
large  vaulted  cistern,  in  which  the 
liquid  manure  is  collected,  and  where 
it  is  occasionally  stirred  to  excite  fer- 
mentation, and  make  it  more  effica- 
cious when  it  is  carried  upon  the  land. 

"  Experience  has  taught  that  ma- 
nure put  on  light  land  in  a  liquid  state 
is  much  more  immediately  effective 
than  when  the  solid  dung  is  ploughed 
in,  but  that  its  effects  are  also  much 
less  durable.  This  has  led  to  the 
practice  of  frequently  renewing  the 
manure,  and  pouring  the  liquid  over 
the  growing  crops  as  a  top-dressing. 
Considerable  care  is  required  to  give 
the  proper  quantity,  and  to  regulate 
the  strength  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  for  too  great  a  dose  might 
destroy  the  crop,  or  produce  great 
luxuriance  on  the  leaf  at  the  expense 
of  the  fruit  or  seed.  The  urine  and 
other  hot  substances  impregnated 
with  saline  particles  are,  therefore, 
diluted,  if  the  weather  is  dry,  before 
they  are  used,  or  they  are  poured 
over  the  soil  some  time  before  the 
388 


seed  is  sown,  that  they  may  sink  in 
and  be  more  diffused. 

"  At  a  distance  from  large  towns 
it  would  be  impossible  to  obtain  the 
requisite  quantity  of  manure,  and, 
accordingly,  it  is  made  on  the  farm. 
The  cattle  are  the  principal  source 
of  the  supply ;  but  every  expedient 
is  resorted  to  in  order  to  increase  the 
quantity  and  improve  the  quality. 
Every  kind  of  vegetable  or  animal 
matter  is  carefully  collected,  and 
made  to  undergo  the  putrefactive 
fermentation  by  being  mixed  with 
others  already  partially  decomposed. 
Nothing  excites  heat  and  putrefaction 
more  than  urine  when  it  is  poured 
over  substances  subject  to  decompo- 
sition. In  every  farm-yard  there  is 
a  cavity  or  pit  into  which  the  objects 
to  be  acted  upon  can  be  thrown,  and 
into  which  the  urine  or  drainings  of 
the  dunghill  can  be  made  to  flow  ;  by 
frequently  moving  and  stirring  the 
mass,  the  decomposition  goes  on  rap- 
idly, heat  is  evolved,  and  the  fibres 
and  dried  juices  of  vegetables  are 
decomposed,  and  become  soluble  in 
water,  in  which  state  their  effect  on 
vegetation  is  greatest.  The  place  in 
which  this  is  going  on  is  called  in 
French  a  croupissoir,  and  in  Flemish 
a  smoor  hoop.  It  is  generally  thought 
most  advantageous  that  the  manure 
should  be  ploughed  into  land  in  an 
active  state  of  fermentation  ;  and  in 
order  to  secure  this,  it  is  in  some 
places  laid  on  the  land  in  heaps,  and 
each  heap  is  moistened  with  urine. 
This  soon  renews  the  fermentation  ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  heap  begins  to 
heat  it  is  spread  out,  and  the  manure 
is  immediately  ploughed  under. 

"  When  the  supply  from  the  yard 
and  from  the  vaulted  cistern,  together 
with  what  can  be  purchased,  is  not 
suflicient,  recourse  is  had  to  the  ref- 
use cakes  of  colza  from  which  the 
oil  has  been  pressed  out.  These  are 
dissolved  in  urine,  or  in  water,  and 
put  into  the  cistern  to  decompose. 
When  it  is  in  a  proper  state,  it  is 
used  chiefly  on  the  land  on  which  flax 
is  intended  to  be  sown,  as  it  is  a  very 
rich  manure,  and  perfectly  free  from 
the  seeds  of  noxious  weeds. 


FLANDERS  HUSBANDRY. 


"  In  the  tillage  of  the  land  the  Flem- 
ings use  few  and  very  simple  instru- 
ments. The  common  plough  for  light 
lands  is  a  small,  light  foot-plough,  so 
called  from  a  piece  of  wood  inserted 
in  the  beam,  which  is  somewhat  in 
the  shape  of  a  foot,  or,  rather,  of  the 
wooden  siioe  in  common  use  in  Flan- 
.ders.  It  has  no  wheels,  and  is  drawn 
by  one  or  two  horses.  It  is  the  pa- 
rent of  the  Rotherham  plough,  from 
which  most  of  the  improved  ploughs 
for  light  soils  are  derived.  It  is  the 
most  perfect  plough  for  light  sands, 
acting  like  a  shovel  at  the  fore  part 
of  the  turn-furrow,  which  is  concave, 
and  completely  turns  over  the  soil. 

"  An  instrument  peculiarly  Flem- 
ish is  the  traincau.  This  is  a  wooden 
frame  of  a  triangular  shape,  covered 
with  boards,  which  is  drawn  over  the 
ground  to  smooth  the  surface  and 
press  HI  the  seed.  Tiie  harrows  in 
common  use  are  also  triangular,  and 
made  entirely  of  wood  ;  the  pins  are 
driven  obliquely,  and  point  forward, 
so  as  readily  to'enter  into  the  ground 
when  the  harrows  are  drawn  by  the 
angle.  The  blunt  end  of  the  pins 
projects  about  an  inch  or  more  on  the 
side  from  which  they  are  driven  in  : 
thus,  by  reversing  the  instrument,  a 
shuhter  degree  of  harrowing  is  giv- 
enT^'hioh  has  an  effect  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  harrows  and  the 
traineau. 

"  The  mollebaert.  another  Flemish 
instrument  for  levelling  ground,  has 
been  already  noticed.  The  Hainault 
scythe  and  hook  are  generally  used 
for  reaping  corn.  The  instrument  is 
held  in  the  right  hand  and  the  hook 
in  the  left :  by  a  swing  of  the  arm 
tlie  corn  is  cut  close  to  the  ground 
towards  that  wliich  is  standing  ;  the 
hook  collects  it  and  rolls  it  up  into  a 
slieaf,  which  is  taken  up  by  means  of 
the  leg  and  the  scythe,  and  laid  down 
to  be  tied.  It  is  better  than  a  fag- 
ginghook,  and  does  the  work  more 
easily.  These  are  the  only  instru- 
ments in  common  use  which  differ  at 
all  from  those  of  other  countries. 
None  of  the  more  complicated  modern 
inventions  have  been  introduced,  nor 
would  they  be  readily  adopted,  how- 

E   3 


ever  ingenious  or  useful  they  might 
be ;  for  an  adherence  to  old  estab- 
lished methods,  and  a  repugnance  to 
what  is  new,  are  nowhere  so  firmly 
rooted  as  among  the  Flemish  peas- 
antry. 

"  The  most  important  instrument 
in  Flemish  agriculture  is  the  spade, 
which  is  used  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  in  England,  and  in  some  in- 
stances is  the  only  instrument  of  till- 
age. The  trenching  spade  is  made 
light  and  long,  and  is  well  adapted  to 
the  loose  sandy  soils.  The  first  step 
to  improvement  is  generally  a  com- 
plete and  deep  trenching;  and  in  the 
Waes  district  a  sixth  part  of  the 
whole  farm  is  trenched  every  year ; 
and  where  this  is  not  done,  the  inter- 
vals between  the  stitches  in  which 
the  land  has  been  ploughed  are  dug 
out  with  the  spade  a  foot  or  sixteen 
inches  deep,  and  the  earth  thrown 
evenly  over  the  beds  in  which  the 
seed  has  been  sown.  By  shifting 
these  intervals  a  foot  every  year,  the 
whole  of  the  land  which  lies  in  stitch- 
es six  feet  wide  is  dug,  and  the  upper 
and  under  soil  mixed  regularly.  This 
process  is  extremely  useful  in  produ- 
cing an  even  crop,  especially  of  flax, 
the  roots  of  which  strike  deep. 

"The  rotations  adopted  in  light 
sands  and  loams  are  various.  In  the 
poorest  and  least  improved,  buck- 
wheat, rye,  and  oats  are  the  chief 
crops,  with  potatoes  and  clover, 
which  require  more  manure.  Every 
crop  is  manured  except  buckwheat, 
which  grows  well  in  the  poorest  soils, 
and  becomes  too  luxuriant  to  give 
much  seed  in  rich  and  highly  manured 
lands.  Bones  have  not  been  introdu- 
ced except  by  way  of  experiment ; 
but  when  their  value  on  light  soils 
shall  be  more  generally  known,  espe- 
cially in  raising  turnips,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  they  will  be  extensively 
used.  This  may  lead  to  the  folding 
of  sheep  to  eat  them  on  the  land,  and 
thus  introduce  an  important  improve- 
ment into  Flemish  husbandry. 

"  On  the  better  kinds  of  light  soils, 

which  are  not  well  adapted  for  wheat, 

the  usual  course  is,    1st,  rye,  with 

turnips  in  the  same  year  after  the  rye 

2.S9 


FLANDERS  IIUSBANDUY. 


IS  cut ;  2d,  oats  ;  3d,  l)uck\vlu>at ;  4th, 
potatoes  or  cariols  ;  Gtli,  rye  and  tur- 
nips ;  Gtli,  llax  ;   7lli,  clover. 

"  \\'1k'ii  llic  sand  hcconies  a  good 
liglit  loam,  vviicat  is  introduced  in  the 
rotation,  after  potatoes  or  after  clo- 
ver:  the  latter  is  thought  the  best 
practice,  as  the  roots  of  the  clover 
both  enrich  and  consolidate  the  soil. 

"  Rye  recurs  more  frequently  than 
■would  be  thought  prudent  if  it  were 
not  for  the  turnips  sown  after  it, 
which  seem  to  correct  the  effect  pro- 
duced on  the  soil  by  the  seeding  of 
the  rye  ;  so  that  rye  and  turnips  are 
sometimes  followed  by  rye,  in  which 
clover  is  sown  in  the  next  spring. 
Thus  rye  and  turnips  may  alternate 
in  light  lands,  as  beans  and  wheat 
sometimes  do  in  rich  heavy  clays. 
The  turnips  are  never  eaten  on  the 
land  where  they  grow,  but  are  al- 
ways drawn  and  housed  in  the  end 
of  September,  the  green  tops  being 
cut  off  and  given  to  the  cows  and 
pigs,  and  the  roots  stored  in  dry  cel- 
lars. The  land  is  then  immediately 
ploughed  after  some  dung  has  been 
put  on  ;  and  if  oats  are  the  next  crop, 
which  are  sown  in  spring,  it  remains 
so  all  winter. 

"  \Mien  the  land  is  of  a  better  qual- 
ity, although  still  in  the  class  of  light 
loams,  wheat  recurs  more  frequently, 
and  the  rotation  is  varied  as  follows  : 
rye  and  turnips,  potatoes,  wheat, 
rye  and  turnips,  oats,  llax,  clover, 
wheat.  If  the  soil  is  fit  for  barley, 
this  grain  is  substituted  for  rye. 
Carrots  are  frequently  sown  in  the 
barley,  and  also  in  the  flax :  they 
strike  deep  into  the  rich  light  earth, 
but  come  to  no  size  while  the  princi- 
pal crop  is  on  the  ground.  As  soon 
as  this  is  taken  ofi',  the  land  is  har- 
rowed and  carefully  weeded  by  hand  ; 
liquid  manure,  diluted  if  the  weather 
is  dry  and  warm,  is  spread  over  the 
surface,  and  in  a  short  time  the  car- 
rots throw  out  their  green  tops  and 
swell  in  the  ground  :  by  the  end  of 
September  a  considerable  crop  of 
them  may  be  dug  up.  The  best  va- 
riety for  this  puri)0se  is  a  large  white 
carrot,  which  rises  some  inches  out 
of  the   ground :  it  has  been  lately 


brought  into  notice  in  England,  and 
\\  dl,  no  doubt,  soon  be  more  gener- 
ally cultivated.  There  is  another 
variety,  which  is  yellow,  and  also  at- 
tains a  good  size  ;  but  it  is  inferior 
to  the  first  in  good  ground.  The 
quantity  of  roots  raised  for  the  winter 
provision  of  the  cattle  is  considera- 
ble, and  forms  a  very  important  part 
of  the  husbandry  of  Flanders,  where 
all  the  cattle  are  constantly  kept  in 
the  stables  in  winter,  and,  except 
where  there  are  natural  pastures,  in 
the  summer  also. 

"  Flax  is  everywhere  a  most  im- 
portant croj),  for  it  much  exceeds  all 
other  crops  in  value.  Where  it  can 
be  raised  of  a  tolerable  quality,  every 
other  crop  has  a  reference  to  this  ; 
and  the  rotation  is  arranged  accord- 
ingly. There  is  no  country  where 
more  attention  is  paid  to  flax  than 
in  Flanders,  especially  in  the  neigh- 
bourliood  of  Courtray.  The  land  is 
brought  into  the  highest  state  of  rich- 
ness and  cleanness  before  flax  is 
sown  in  it ;  and  the  most  abundant 
manuring  with  rape-cake  and  urine 
is  thought  essential  to  raise  this  crop 
in  perfection. 

"On  the  heavier  loams,  colza  or 
rape  is  an  important  crop  for  the  seed, 
from  which  the  oil  is  expressed.  It 
is  sown  in  a  bed  in  July  or  August, 
and  planted  out  in  rows  two  feet  apart 
in  October.  The  seed  ripens  early  in 
the  next  summer,  and  a  good  crop  of 
turnips  may  be  had  after  it.  The 
summers  being  in  general  warmer 
and  drier  than  in  England,  the  Flem- 
ish farmer  is  enabled  to  thrash  out 
his  rape-seed  on  a  cloth  in  the  field 
soon  after  the  stems  have  been  cut 
and  laid  gently  on  the  ground  to  dry 
the  pods.  Any  delay  in  this  opera- 
tion would  cause  a  great  loss  :  with 
every  care  and  attention,  much  seed 
is  always  scattered  in  harvesting,  be- 
cause the  pods  do  not  ripen  equally, 
and  some  will  have  shed  their  seeds 
before  others  are  sufficiently  ripe  to 
be  gathered. 

"  Potatoes  were  introduced  into 
Flanders  about  the  year  1740,  and, 
from  being  at  first  only  cultivated  as 
a  rarity,  soon  became  an  important 


FLA^■DERS  HUSBANDRY. 


part  of  the  food  of  men  and  beasts. 
There  is  nothing  pecuhar  in  the  Flem- 
ish moile  of  cultivating  this  useful 
root.  The  sets  are  planted  with  a 
blunt  dibble  :  sometimes  they  are  laid 
in  the  furrows  and  covered  with  the 
plough ;  they  are  always  earthed  up 
round  the  stems,  sometimes  by  a 
plough  with  a  mould-board  on  each 
side,  but  generally  by  hand  with  a 
broad  hoe.  The  manure  usually  i)Ut 
on  the  land  in  which  potatoes  are  to 
be  set  is  double  the  quantity  used  for 
a  corn  crop  ;  and  a  good  soaking  of 
the  soil  with  urine  is  thought  to  in- 
vigorate the  growth  of  the  plant 
greatly.  The  produce,  however,  is 
not  much  more  abundant  than  it  is 
usually  in  those  parts  of  England 
where  potatoes  are  raised  in  consid- 
erable quantities  in  the  fields — about 
300  bushels  on  an  acre.  There  is 
a  small  yellow  potato  in  Flanders, 
\vhich  is  excellent  when  boiled,  and 
which  grows  well  in  a  stiff  loam,  but 
it  is  not  so  productive  as  the  large 
cattle  potato. 

"  The  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet 
has  been  resumed  lately,  after  it  had 
been  entirely  abandoned.  There  are 
now  several  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  beet-root  sugar  ;  but  it  is  not 
a  favourite  culture  with  the  farmers, 
not  even  for  their  cattle,  as  it  is  too 
long  on  the  ground.  They  prefer 
turnips  and  carrots,  which  can  be 
raised  on  the  same  land  which  has 
borne  another  valuable  crop  the  same 
year. 

"  In  the  heavier  loams,  which  are 
chiefly  to  be  met  with  in  West  Flan- 
ders and  about  Alost,  the  following 
rotation  is  adopted  :  flax,  clover,  bar- 
ley or  oats,  beans,  wheat,  rye  and 
turnips,  potatoes,  colza  and  carrots, 
fla.x ;  or  flax,  colza,  wheat,  rye  and 
turnips,  oats,  clover,  wheat,  rye. 

'•  Beans  are  not  a  favourite  crop, 
and  are  not  carefully  cultivated.  They 
are  sometimes  sown  very  thick,  mix- 
ed with  pease  and  tares,  to  be  cut  up 
in  a  green  state  for  the  cows  and 
pigs  ;  and  in  this  way  they  produce 
a  great  quantity  of  green  food,  and 
clean  the  ground  by  excluding  the  air 
and  smothering  the  weeds.     On  a 


farm  of  thirty-six  bonniers,  in  a  very 
good  Ijamy  soil  near  Courtray,  the 
land  was  divided  into  six  equal  parts 
of  six  bonniers  each,  and  the  crops 
were  distributed  as  follows  : 


Clover. 

Wheat. 

Wheat. 

Carrots. 

T3„.,„c 

Potatoes. 

1 

Rye 

and 

Turnips. 

Flax. 

Oats. 

Colza. 

"  The  manure  used  for  these  crops 
was  partly  dung  from  the  yard  and 
cows"  urine,  but  chiefly  the  sweep- 
ings of  the  streets  and  the  emptyings 
of  privies  from  Courtray. 

"  In  a  very  rich  loam,  not  far  from 
Ypres,  the  following  crops  were  no- 
ticed in  regular  rotation;  1,  turnips 
with  chicory  and  carrots  ;  2,  oats  ;  3, 
clover  ;  4,  wheat ;  5,  flax  ;  6,  wheat ; 
7,  beans  ;  8,  wheat ;  9,  potatoes  ;  10, 
wheat;  11,  oats.  All  these  crops  are 
of  an  exhausting  nature,  and  it  re- 
quires a  very  rich  soil,  aided  by  abun- 
dant manuring,  to  bear  this  rotation 
for  any  continuance ;  but  each  of 
these  crops  had  a  good  portion  of 
manure. 

"  Great  attention  is  paid  to  prepare 
the  land  so  as  to  secure  a  good  crop 
from  a  small  quantity  of  seed.  The 
seed  usually  sown  in  Flanders  is 
about  one  third  less  than  in  England, 
even  when  the  seed  is  drilled,  which 
it  never  is  in  Flanders.  The  ground 
is  rendered  mellow  and  rich  by  the 
tillage  and  the  liquid  manure  ;  and 
the  seed,  which  has  been  carefully 
selected,  is  covered  by  earth  spread 
over  it  with  the  spade  :  it  is  after- 
ward rolled  or  trod  in  with  the  feet. 
Every  grain  vegetates ;  and  should 
there  be  any  slowness  in  the  growth, 
the  urine-tank  supplies  an  excellent 
stimulant.  It  is  in  the  springing  of 
the  blade,  after  the  farina  in  the  seed 
is  exhausted,  that  the  liquid  manure 
291 


FLA 


FLA 


seems  to  produce  the  greatest  effect. 
When  tlie  stem  is  shot  up,  it  may, 
perliaps,  too  much  cncouraj^e  the  in- 
crease of  green  leaves,  and  tlierehy 
hinder  the  formation  of  the  (lower 
and  the  seed  :  experiments  made 
with  hquid  manure  lead  to  this  con- 
clusion. 

"  There  are  some  very  rich  pas- 
tures in  Flanders  about  Furncs  and 
Dixmudc,  where  excellent  butter  is 
made.  A  great  many  beasts  are  fed 
in  the  summer,  and  a  moderately- 
sized  ox,  turned  out  in  good  condition 
in  April  or  May,  will  fatten  on  an 
acre  of  land  by  August  or  September. 
Tlie  best  cows  and  oxen  are  of  the 
Dutch  breed ;  those  which  are  bred 
in  Flanders  are  inferior.  The  butter 
about  Dixmudc  is  churned  from  the 
cream  only,  although  the  most  com- 
mon practice  is  to  churn  the  whole 
milk  after  it  has  stood  some  time  and 
begins  to  be  acid.  It  is  always  set 
in  shallow  pans  immediately  after 
milking,  and  left  so  twelve  hours. 
The  cream  is  then  skimmed  off,  or 
the  whole  milk  is  poured  into  deep 
vessels  till  it  is  fit  to  be  churned. 
The  churning  is  performed  in  a  bar- 
rel-churn or  a  plunge-churn  :  in  ei- 
ther case,  in  the  larger  dairies,  it  is 
moved  by  a  horse,  which  turns  a 
wheel  connected  with  the  churn. 

"  The  breed  of  horses  in  Flanders 
is  large  and  heavy,  but  deficient  in 
activity  and  clumsy  in  form.  The 
mares  were  once  in  repute  for  heavy 
carriages,  but  at  present,  an  equipage 
drawn  by  Flanders  mares  would  be 
an  object  of  wonder,  if  not  of  ridicule. 
Many  horses  have  been  imported  into 
England  from  Flanders  as  cart-hor- 
ses ;  but  they  were  preferred  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  price  at  which  they 
could  be  obtained,  and  of  the  a[)pa- 
rent  bulk  of  them. 

"  The  Flemish  sheep  are  coarse  in 
the  wool,  and  much  mferior  in  the 
carcass  to  the  Leicester  or  South- 
Down.  Some  good  sheep  have  been 
imported,  which  may  much  improve 
the  native  breeds.  The  pigs  are  as 
badly  shaped  as  can  well  be  imagined, 
long  in  the  neck  and  head,  and  high 
on  their  legs.  They  are  badly  fed 
292 


when  young,  and  fatten  slowly,  al- 
though in  time  they  acquire  consider- 
able weight.  A  better  breed  has  been 
introduced,  which  will  soon  super- 
sede the  old. 

"  The  farm-buildings  are  very  good 
and  convenient  in  general.  The  farms 
are  small,  compared  with  those  in 
other  countries ;  120  acres  are  consid- 
ered a  very  considerable  occupation. 
In  the  M'aes  country,  where  the 
spade  is  extensively  used  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  land,  the  farms  are 
very  small,  fifty  acres  being  among 
the  largest,  and  the  average  is  not 
above  filteen.  A  farm  of  this  descrip- 
tion requires  only  one  horse  to  cart 
the  manure  and  plough  the  land  ;  four 
or  five  cows  are  the  usual  comple- 
ment, with  two  or  three  pigs.  The 
cows  are  fed  on  clover  in  summer, 
and  on  barley  or  oats  cut  green  ;  in 
winter,  on  potatoes,  beet  root,  tur- 
nips, and  carrots,  which  are  chopped 
up  together  and  boiled  in  a  copper. 
This  is  given  milk-warm  three  times 
a  day,  and  is  called  brassin  ;  when 
grains  can  be  procured  from  the  brew- 
ers, they  are  added  to  the  mess.  The, 
cows  never  move  from  their  stalls  : 
after  having  had  three  or  four  calves, 
a  cow  is  generally  fattened  and  sold 
off;  and  a  young  heifer,  of  which  a 
couple  are  reared  every  year,  supplies 
her  place."— (M^.  L.  itham.) 

FLATULENCY.  A  diseased  col- 
lection of  gases  in  the  stomach  or 
bowels ;  change  of  food,  slight  pur- 
ging, and  tonics  are  best  to  remove  it. 

FLAX.  Linum  usita/issimvm  (a). 
An  annual  of  the  cruciferous  family, 
the  stems  of  which,  when  turning 
yellow,  yield  the  finest  staple,  and  a 
coarser  article  when  ripe.  The  per- 
ennial flax  (L.  pcrcnnc)  is  coarser, 
but  sometimes  cultivated  (h).  The 
seeds,  usually  called  linseed,  yield 
the  valuable  oil  of  that  name  by  press- 
ure, and  are,  when  bruised  and  boil- 
ed, one  of  the  richest  fattening  fod- 
ders for  cattle.  The  cake,  after  press- 
ing for  oil,  is  also  a  rich  provender, 
scarcely  equalled  by  any  other  for  fat- 
tening. An  acre  yields  six  to  twelve 
bushels  of  seed  and  400  pounds  of 
flax,  the  former  worth  §1  25  to  §1  GO 


FLA 


FLA 


tlie  bushel,  and  the  lint  eight  to  ten 
cents  tlie  pound. 

It  requires  a  mellow,  rich  soil,  full 
of  vegetable  matter,  ploughed  deep  ; 
two  bushels  of  seed  are  sown  to  the 
acre,  and  slightly  covered  with  a  bush 
harrow  ;  when  the  object  is  to  obtain 
fine  green  flax,  but  half  a  bushel  will 
answer  for  seed  only,  and  one  and  a 
half  for  coarse  flax  and  seed.  Sow 
early  in  May,  and  for  the  flnest  staple 
gather  just  after  flowering,  when  the 
stems  are  yellow ;  for  seed  when 
dry :  the  amount  of  coarse  stems  is 
often  very  great,  producing  as  much 
as  half  a  ton  of  flax  and  tow  to  the 
acre.  The  plants  should  be  weeded 
when  three  inches  high.  The  follow- 
ing view  of  the  profit  is  from  the  Cul- 
tivator, vol.  i.  : 

"  In  1835,  Major  Kirby,  of  Brown- 
ville,  sowed  six  acres,  partly  upon 
stubble  and  partly  upon  green  sward, 
with  one  ploughmg— half  a  bushel  of 
seed  to  the  acre.  The  ground  was 
well  stocked  with  Canada  thistles, 
which  throve  remarkably ;  yet,  not- 
withstanding, the  six  acres  produced 
him  108  bushels  12  pounds  seed,  and 
seven  tons  and  three  quarters  of 
dressed  flax.     The  proceeds  of  the 

crop  amounted  to $270 

And  the  culture,  pulling,  and 
thrashing — the  rotting  being 
done  by  the  manufacturer — 

to  about 70 

Leaving  a  profit  of    ...     .  8200 
or  33i  per  acre." 
B  E  2 


For  the  production  of  seed  the  soil 
must  be  a  very  rich  wheat  land,  well 
broken  and  manured.  It  is  a  very 
exhausting  crop,  but  if  taken  when 
yellow,  or  belure  seed,  and  the  offal 
and  steeping  fluid  returned,  it  is  not 
so  injurious  to  lands.  Tlie  seed  con- 
tains from  11  to  22  per  cent,  of  oil, 
according  to  the  season  and  richness 
of  soil.  See  Linseed.  By  steeping, 
and  other  jireparations,  flax  is  re- 
duced to  70  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  stems,  and  by  hackling,  to  50 
pounds. 

FLAX,  PREPARATION  OF. 
"  When  the  flax  begins  to  get  yellow 
at  the  bottom  of  the  stem,  it  is  time 
to  pull  it,  if  very  fine  flax  is  desired, 
such  as  is  made  into  thread  for  lace 
or  fine  cambric ;  but  then  the  seed 
will  be  of  little  or  no  value.  It  is 
therefore  generally  left  standing  until 
the  capsules,  which  contain  the  seed, 
are  fully  grown  and  the  seed  formed. 
Every  flax  grower  judges  for  himself 
what  is  most  profitable  on  the  whole. 
The  pulling  tlien  begins,  which  is 
done  carefully  by  small  handfuls  at  a 
time.  These  are  laid  upon  the  ground 
to  dry,  two  and  two  obliquely  across 
each  other.  Fine  weather  is  essen- 
tial to  this  part  of  the  operation. 
Soon  alter  this  they  are  collected  in 
larger  bundles  and  placed  with  the 
root  end  on  the  ground,  the  bundles 
being  slightly  tied  near  the  seed  end ; 
the  other  end  is  spread  out  that  the 
air  may  have  access,  and  the  rain 
may  not  damage  the  flax.  When  suf- 
ficiently dry  they  are  tied  more  firmly 
in  the  middle,  and  stacked  in  long, 
narrow  stacks  on  the  ground.  These 
stacks  are  built  as  wide  as  the  bun- 
dles are  long,  and  about  eight  or  nine 
feet  high.  The  length  depends  on 
the  crop  ;  they  are  seldom  made  above 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  long.  If  the 
field  is  extensive,  several  of  these 
stacks  are  formed  at  regular  distan- 
ces ;  they  are  carefully  thatched  at 
top,  and  the  ends,  which  are  quite 
perpendicular,  are  kept  up  by  means 
of  two  strong  poles  driven  perpen- 
dicularly into  the  ground.  Tliis  is 
the  method  adopted  by  those  who  de- 
fer the  steeping  till  another  season. 
293 


FLAX,  PREPARATION  OF. 


Some  carry  the  flax,  as  soon  as  it  is 
dry,  under  a  slied,  and  take  off  the 
capsiilos  with  tlie  seed  by  ripplmg, 
vvliich  is  drawing  the  flax  through  an 
iron  comb  fixed  in  a  block  of  wood  : 
the  capsules,  which  are  too  large  to 
pass  between  the  teeth  of  the  comb, 
are  thus  broken  oft",  and  fall  into  a 
basket  or  cloth  below.  Sometimes, 
if  the  capsules  are  brittle,  the  seed  is 
beaten  out  by  means  of  a  flat  wood- 
en bat.  The  bundles  are  held  by  the 
root  end,  and  the  other  end  is  laid  on 
a  board  and  turned  round  with  the 
left  hand,  while  the  right  hand  with 
the  bat  breaks  the  capsules,  and  the 
linseed  falls  on  a  cloth  below.  The 
flax  is  then  immediately  steeped,  but 
the  most  experienced  flax-steepers 
defer  this  operation  till  the  next  sea- 
son. In  this  case  it  is  put  in  barns, 
and  the  seed  is  beat  out  at  leisure  in 
winter.  When  flax  is  housed,  care 
must  be  taken  that  it  be  thoroughly 
dry  ;  and  if  the  seed  is  left  on,  which 
is  an  advantage  to  it,  mice  must  be 
guarded  against,  for  they  are  very 
fond  of  linseed,  and  would  soon  take 
away  a  good  share  of  the  profits  by 
their  depredations. 

"  Steeping  the  flax  is  a  very  impor- 
tant process,  which  requires  expe- 
rience and  skill  to  do  it  properly. 
The  quality  and  colour  of  the  flax  de- 
pend much  on  the  mode  of  steeping  ; 
and  the  strength  of  the  fibre  may  be 
injured  by  an  injudicious  mode  of 
performing  this  operation.  The  ob- 
ject of  steeping  is  to  separate  the 
bark  from  the  woody  part  of  the 
stem  by  dissolving  a  glutinous  mat- 


ter which  causes  it  to  adhere,  and 
also  destroying  some  minute  vessels 
which  are  interwoven  with  the  longi- 
tudinal fibres,  and  keep  them  togeth- 
er in  a  kind  of  web.  A  certain  ler- 
mentation  or  incipient  putrefaction  is 
excited  by  the  steeping,  which  must 
be  carefully  watched  and  stopped  at 
the  right  time.  The  usual  mode  of 
steeping  is  to  place  the  bundles  of 
flax  horizontally  in  shallow  pools  or 
ditches  of  stagnant  water,  keeping 
them  under  water  by  means  of  poles 
or  boards  with  stones  or  weights  laid 
upon  them.  Water  nearly  putrid  was 
supposed  the  most  efficacious,  and 
the  mud  was  often  laid  over  the  flax 
to  accelerate  the  decomposition  ;  but 
this  has  been  found  to  stain  the  flax, 
so  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  bleach 
it  or  the  linen  made  from  it  after- 
ward. The  method  adopted  by  the 
steepers  of  Courtray,  where  steeping 
flax  is  a  distinct  trade,  is  different. 
The  bundles  of  flax  are  placed  alter- 
nately with  the  seed  end  of  tlie  one 
to  the  root  end  of  the  other,  the  lat- 
ter projecting  a  few  inches  ;  as  many 
of  these  are  tied  together  near  both 
ends  as  form  a  thick  bundle  about  a 
foot  in  diameter.  A  frame  made  of 
oak  rails,  nailed  to  strong  upright 
pieces  in  the  form  of  a  box  10  feet 
square  and  four  deep,  is  filled  with 
these  bundles  set  upright  and  closely 
packed.  The  whole  is  then  immers- 
ed in  the  river,  boards,  loaded  with 
stones,  being  placed  upon  the  flax  till 
the  whole  is  sunk  a  little  under  the 
surface  of  the  w^ater.  The  bottom 
does  not  reach  the  ground,  so  that  the 


211 


FLAX,  PREPARATION  OF. 


water  flows  over  and  under  it.  There 
are  posls  driven  in  the  river  to  keep 
the  box  in  its  pkiee,  and  each  steej)- 
er  has  a  certain  portion  of  tlie  bank, 
which  is  a  vahiable  property.  Tlic 
Ihix  takes  somewhat  h)nKer  time  in 
steeping  in  this  manner  tlian  it  docs 
in  stagnant  and  putrid  water,  and  it 
is  asserted  by  those  who  adhere  to 
the  old  method  that  tiie  flax  k)ses 
more  weigiit ;  but  the  colour  is  so 
much  liner,  that  flax  is  sent  to  be 
steeped  in  the  Lys  from  every  part 
of  Flanders.  When  it  is  supposed 
that  the  flax  is  nearly  steeped  suffi- 
ciently, which  depends  on  the  tem- 
I)erature  of  the  air,  the  flax  being 
sooner  steeped  in  warm  wcatiier  than 
in  cold,  it  is  examined  carefully  ev- 
ery day,  and  towards  the  latter  part 
of  the  time  several  times  in  the  day, 
in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the 
fibres  readily  separate  from  the  wood 
the  whole  length  of  the  stem.  As 
soon  as  this  is  the  case  the  flax  is 
taken  out  of  the  water  :  even  a  few 
hours  more  or  less  steeping  than  is 
necessary  will  make  a  ditTerence  in 
the  value  of  the  flax.  If  it  is  not 
steeped  enough,  it  will  not  be  easily 
scutched,  and  the  wood  will  adhere 
to  it.  If  it  has  been  too  long  in  the 
water,  its  strength  is  diminished,  and 
more  of  it  breaks  into  tow.  The 
bundles  are  now  untied,  and  the  flax 
is  spread  evenly  in  rows  slightly 
overlapping  each  other  on  a  piece  of 
clean,  smooth  grass  which  has  been 
mown  or  fed  ofT  close.  Fine  weather 
is  essential  to  this  part  of  the  pro- 
cess, as  rain  would  now  much  injure 
the  flax.  It  is  occasionally  turned 
over,  which  is  done  dexterously  l)y 
pushing  a  long  slender  rod  under  the 
rows  and  takmg  up  the  flax  near  the 
end  which  overlaps  the  next  row, 
and  turning  it  quite  over.  Thus,  when 
it  is  all  turned,  it  overlaps  as  before, 
but  in  the  contrary  direction.  It  re- 
mains spread  out  upon  the  grass  for 
a  fortnight,  more  or  less  according  to 
the  season,  till  the  woody  part  be- 
cofnes  brittle  and  some  of  the  finest 
fibres  separate  from  it  of  their  own 
accord.  It  is  then  taken  up,  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  quite  dry  it  is  tied  up 


again  in  bundles  and  carried  into  the 
barn,  to  be  broken  and  hackled  at  leis- 
ure during  tlie  winter. 

"  In  the  domestic  manufactures  the 
flax  is  broken  or  scutched  at  home 
wlnni  the  weather  i)revents  out-door 
work.  Tlie  common  brake  consists 
of  four  wooden  swords  fixed  in  a 
frame,  and  another  frame  with  three 
swords,  which  play  in  the  interstices 
of  the  first  by  means  of  a  joint  at  one 
end.  Tlie  flax  is  taken  in  the  left 
hand  and  placed  between  the  two 
frames,  and  the  upjier  frame  is  pushed 
down  briskly  upon  it.  It  breaks  the 
flax  in  four  places,  and  by  moving 
the  left  hand  and  rapidly  repeating 
the  strokes  with  the  right,  the  whole 
handful  is  soon  broken.  It  is  then 
scutched  by  means  of  a  board  set  up- 
right in  a  block  of  wood  so  as  to  stand 
steady,  in  which  is  a  horizontal  slit 
about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  the 
edge  of  which  is  thin.     The  broken 


Upright  board  to  cIlmt  l.iu  llax  of 

flax,  held  in  handfuls  in  the  left  hand, 
is  inserted  in  this  slit,  so  as  to  pro- 
ject to  the  right,  and  a  flat  wooden 
sword,  of  a  peculiar  shajic,  is  held  in 
the  right  hand  ;  with  this  the  flax  is 
repeatedly  struck  close  to  the  u[)riglit 
board,  while  the  jiart  which  lies  in 
the  slit  is  continually  changed  by  a 
motion  of  the  left  hand.  This  opera- 
tion beats  jfT  all  the  pieces  of  the 
wood  which  s.ill  adhere  to  the  fibre 
without  breaking  it,  and  after  a  short 
time  the  flax  is  cleared  of  it  and  fit 
to  be  hackled  ;  but  the  operations 
296 


FLAX,  PREPARATION  OP'. 


Fl.il  ovlfitd  or  sciittlier. 

of  breaking  and  scutching  are  tedious 
and  laborious  uiien  thus  executed  by 
hand.  A  mill  is  now  used  (where 
large  quantities  of  flax  arc  required 
for  manufactures),  having  three  flu- 
ted cylinders,  one  of  which  is  made 
to  revolve  by  horse  or  water  power, 
and  carries  the  other  two  round.  The 
flax  plants  are  passed  between  these 
cylinders  while  thus  revolving,  and 
the  stalk,  or  hooii,  as  it  is  technically 
called,  is  by  this  means  completely 
broken  without  injuring  the  fibres. 
The  scutching  is  accomplished  in  the 
same  mill  by  means  of  four  arms  pro- 
jecting from  a  horizontal  axle,  ar- 
ranged so  as  to  strike  the  boon  in  a 
slanting  direction  until  the  bark  and 
other  useless  parts  of  the  plant  are 
beaten  away.  In  the  last  process  by 
which  flax  is  prepared  for  the  spin- 
ner, the  hackling,  the  instrument  em- 
ployed, called  the  hackle,  is  a  square 
piece  of  wood,  studded  with  rows  of 
iron  teeth  about  four  inches  long, 
and  disposed  in  a  quincunx  order. 
The  fineness  of  the  hackle  is  chosen 
with  reference  to  the  quality  of  the 


flax,  and  hackles  differing  in  this  re- 
s[)ec-t  from  each  other  arc  used  at 
dinerent  stages  of  the  dressing,  the 
coarsest  first,  and  the  finest  to  give 
the  last  degree  of  smoothness  and 
finish  to  the  flax.  The  operation  of 
hackling  is  performed  by  the  work- 
man grasping  a  handful  of  flax  by  the 
middle,  and  drawing  first  one  side  or 
end  and  then  the  other  through  the 
teeth  of  the  hackle,  until  every  parti- 
cle of  extraneous  matter  is  removed, 
and  the  whole  of  the  filaments  are 
arranged  in  distinct,  even,  and  paral- 
lel fibres." 

The  following  machine  (see  Fig.), 
patented  by  Mr.  Bundy,  is  of  great 
service  in  the  domestic  preparation 
of  flax,  and  is  constructed  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  implements 
driven  by  power.  The  frame  is  of 
wood,  and  sustains  two  conical  roll- 
ers, of  which  A  is  seen  ;  B  is  a  beam 
moving  around  a  joint  at  C,  and  car- 
rying an  upper  roller,  D  ;  it  is  eleva- 
ted by  tlie  spring  E,  and  pulled  down 
by  the  treadle  F,  which  is  connected 
to  the  upper  piece  by  a  metallic  rod,G. 
The  rollers  are  commonly  grooved, 
each  runs  on  its  own  pivot,  and  H  is 
an  iron  comb  for  rippling.  When 
used,  a  handful  of  the  rotted  flax  is 
passed  between  the  rollers  and  held 
in  both  hands ;  the  foot  being  now  ap- 


296 


FLA 


FLE 


plied  to  the  treadle,  the  upper  roller 
descends  and  presses  on  the  fibres ; 
the  flax  is  next  drawn  to  the  right 
and  left  until  sufficiently  broken  and 
cleared  of  liarl  ;  the  foot  is  then 
raised  and  the  fibres  withdrawn  to 
give  place  to  a  new  lot. 

Besides  the  water  and  dew  rotting 
described,  flax  is  prepared  by  steam- 
ing and  by  boiling  in  salt  water.  Boil- 
ing in  lye  or  in  soap  and  water  is 
also  employed,  both  to  prepare  the 
flax  and  improve  the  hackled  staple. 
AValer  and  dew  rotting  together  re- 
quire about  three  weeks  ;  the  water 
should  be  free  from  iron,  which  stains 
the  staple. 

Diseases. — Flax  is  not  very  subject 
to  diseases  ;  mildew  and  rust  some- 
times assail  it  in  very  damp  seasons, 
and  on  a  badly-drained  soil ;  it  is  also 
.preyed  upon  by  a  fly,  but  weeds,  and 
especially  dodder,  are  most  injurious 
to  the  cultivation. 

FLAX,  SPECIAL  MANURES 
FOR.  Although  a  troublesome  crop, 
flax  is  not  severe  upon  the  soil  when 
raised  for  its  fibre  only,  and,  when 
well  prepared,  commands  a  good 
price.  The  great  requisite  for  the 
fibre  is  a  soil  rich  in  decaying  vege- 
table matter,  but  not  rank  with  nitro- 
gen. When  seed  is  required,  bone 
earth,  and  especially  the  soluble  phos- 
phates in  urine  and  guano,  or  poultry 
dung,  are  extremely  valuable. 

By  Dr.  Kanes's  analysis,  the  stems 
pulled  before  seeding  contained 

Plant?.  Seeds,  Leuchtweisa. 

Potash  and  soda     .     .  19  60  .     .     .  26  56 

Lime  and  magnesia    .  20'12  .     .     .  25"49 

Phosphoric  acid     .     .  10-84  .     .     .  40-11 

Sulphuric  acid  .     .     .     2-56  .     .     .     100 

Sand  aad  other  acids   .  46-68  .     ,     .     6'S4 

locT"  loo 

From  these  examinations,  the  great 
exhausting  power  of  the  seeds,  by  re- 
quiring so  much  phosphoric  acid,  is 
explained,  as  well  as  the  value  of  the 
foregoing  manures.  Gypsum  and  ash- 
es are  also  indicated  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  fibre.  When  the  steep- 
ing is  carried  on  in  ponds,  the  fluid 
becomes  a  rich  manure  for  the  crop, 
containing — as  has  been  shown  by 
Dr.  Kane  —  nearly  all  the  nitrogen 
and  most  of  the  saline  matters,  the 


I  prepared  flax  being  nearly  pure  lig- 
i  nin  ;  the  fluid,  therefore,  as  well  as 
all  the  waste  from  hackling  and  break- 
ing, should  be  preserved  and  used  as 
manure.  The  waste  of  linseed  cake, 
or  the  dung  of  cattle  fattened  there- 
on, is  peculiarly  appropriate  as  a  ma- 
nure for  a  crop  of  linseed  ;  and  when 
the  oil  is  drawn  on  the  farm  and  sold, 
the  cake  left  contains  all  the  enrich- 
ing matters  of  the  soil  taken  up  by 
the  seeds.  Most  plants  of  the  flax 
family  will  yield  more  or  less  coarse 
staule 

FLAX,  NEW  ZEALAND.  See 
New  Zealand  Flax. 

FLAX,  OREGON.  Mr.  Parker, 
travelling  in  Oregon,  describes  fields 
of  a  perennial  flax  precisely  resem- 
bling the  L.  perennc  {b) ;  the  roots 
are  so  firm  that  it  cannot  be  pulled, 
but  may  be  mowed,  yielding  annual 
crops. 

FLAX,  PURGING.  An  English 
weed  (L.  catharticum),  the  root  of 
which  IS  purging. 

FLAXSEED.     See  Linseed. 

FLAX,  FALSE.    See  Yellow  Seed. 

FLAX,  TOAD.  A  weed.  The 
Thesium  lunbeltatum.  Linaria  vulga- 
ris is  also  called  yellow  toad  flax. 

FLEAS.  A  species  of  the  genus 
Pulex  ;  they  are  wingless,  but  under- 
go regular  transformations.  Clean- 
liness, especially  in  the  removal  of 
old  straw  and  similar  bodies  in  which 
they  harbour,  washing  the  skins  of 
animals,  anointing  with  mixtures  of 
oil  and  pennyroyal  or  elder  leaves, 
are  effectual  means  to  reduce  their 
numbers. 

FLEABANE.  A  name  given  to 
many  weeds,  as  the  erigcrons,  inn- 
las.  &c. 

FLEA  BEETLE.  The  genus  Hal- 
tica,  species  of  which  infest  turnips, 
cucumbers,  &c. 

FLEAM.  The  knife  or  lancet  used 
in  bleeding  cattle  and  horses. 

FLECKED.  Pied,  or  of  mixed  col- 
ours. 

FLEECE.  The  wool  of  a  sheep. 
See  Sheep  and  Wool. 

FLEMISH  HUSBANDRY.  See 
Flanders  Husbandry . 

FLESH.     Commonly  the  mixed 
S97 


FLI 


FT,0 


mnsrlc  and  fat  of  animals,  but  more 
strictly  Itu^  iniisclo  or  lean  only.  Loan 
meat  consists  of  20  per  cent,  fibrin, 
with  three  per  cent,  of  albiimrn,  col- 
ouring matter,  and  salts  :  the  rest, 
77  per  cent.,  h(in<r  water :  it  diflers 
very  little  from  Idood.  Waste  llesh 
or  garbage  should  be  added  to  the 
compost  heap,  with  lime  and  earth  ; 
100  pounds  yield  3.^  pounds  of  ammo- 
nia during  decay,  and  therefore,  when 
composted,  400  pounds  will  be  enough 
for  the  acre. 

FLEXIBILITY.  The  capacity  of 
bending  without  breakage.  It  is  a 
relative  property,  depending  upon 
temperature,  thickness,  &c. 

FLEXORS.  The  name  of  those 
muscles  which  produce  the  flexion 
or  bending  of  the  arm  or  leg. 

FLEXUOSE.  Full  of  headings  to 
the  one  side  and  the  other. 

FLIES.  Insects  furnished  with 
two  wings  (Diplera),  and  living  by 
suction,  or  on  animals  and  meats. 
Several  distinct  families  exist,  viz., 
the  Tachinadcr,  which  deposite  their 
eggs  in  caterpillars  ;  the  Sarcophago!, 
which  are  viviparous,  producing  liv- 
ing maggots,  and  living  on  putrid 
meats.  One  fly  often  produces  20,000 
young.  The  Stromoxys  genus,  inclu- 
ding the  sharp  stinging  horseflies, 
which  lay  their  eggs  in  dung ;  the 
Muscadcr,  or  house  and  meat  flies, 
which  infest  butchers'  stalls  and 
houses :  the  latter  lay  eggs  in  dung. 
The  house  fly  is  readily  destroyed  by 
exposing  plates  of  infusion  of  quassia, 
green  tea,  &c.,  sweetened,  or  intro- 
ducing some  active  poison,  as  arse- 
nic or  corrosive  sublimate,  into  mo- 
lasses and  water :  they  also  avoid 
dark  rooms. 

FLIGHTS.  The  husk  or  glumes 
of  oats  are  so  called. 

FLINT.  A  variety  of  silica,  con- 
taining water  and  stained  with  iron, 
found  interstratified  with  chalk  in 
Europe,  but  not  discovered  in  Amer- 
ica. 

FLINT    GLASS.     A  glass   com- 
posed of  fine  sand  and  red-lead,  hav- 
ing a  high  refractive  power,  and  used 
by  opticians. 
FLITCH  OF  BACON.    The 
298 


side,  or  slioulder,  and    middling  to- 
getlier. 

FLOAT.  A  raft  of  timber  to  bo 
floated.  To  cover  meadows  with  wa- 
ter. 

FLOAT  BOARDS.  The  boards 
attached  to  the  circumference  of  an 
under  shot-wheel. 

FLOCCUS.  The  loose  hair  at  the 
end  of  the  tail  of  some  animals. 

FLOODGATE.  Any  contrivance 
or  gate  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water ; 
a  sluice.  A  common  floodgate  is  de- 
picted in  Irriiraiion. 

FLOODING.     See  Irri<ration. 
FLORETS.     The  flowers  of  a  ca- 
pitulum.  like  the  sunflower. 

FLORIDA  ARROW-ROOT.  See 
Sa^o. 

FLOSS  SILK.  The  silk  broken 
off  from  cocoons  in  the  filature,  which 
is  carded  and  worked  like  cotton,  for 
coarse  fabrics. 

FLOUR.  The  meal  of  wheat,  for 
the  most  part.  The  amount  of  flour 
made  by  a  variety  of  grain  is  a  prime 
consideration,  some  kinds  producing 
more  than  others.  On  an  average, 
a  bushel  of  sixty  pounds  yields,  of 
family  flour,  forty-eight  pounds ;  of 
pollard,  eight  pounds ;  bran,  three 
pounds,  and  a  loss  of  about  one 
pound.  The  finest  is  that  from  wheat 
cut  in  the  dough,  which  also  weighs 
from  three  to  five  pounds  more  the 
bushel,  is  whiter,  and  softer  to  the 
touch.  The  true  value  of  flour  is, 
however,  its  gluten,  which  is  the  nu- 
tritious portion.  Common  kinds  rare- 
ly exceed  twelve  per  cent.  ;  but  of 
choice  kinds,  some  furnish  thirty ; 
the  amount  is  determined  by  wash- 
ing a  piece  of  dough  on  a  fine  hair 
seive  until  water  runs  through  it 
without  milkiness ;  the  remaining 
portion,  which  is  very  tenacious,  con- 
sists of  impure  gluten  ;  it  should  be 
dried  at  300,  and  weighed.  There 
is  not  a  finer  flour  than  that  produced 
from  the  white  flint  varieties  of 
wheat,  and  white  May. 

A  barrel  of  flour  should  contain  196 
pounds.  The  sack,  which  is  used  in 
England,  contains  280  pounds. 

FLOUR  MILL,  A  HAND.  The 
figure  represents  a  very  neat  hand 


FLO 


FLU 


flour  mill,  ■which  is  fully  competent 
to  produce  fine  flour.  It  is  patent- 
ed by  Nichols  and  Marsh.  Price,  840. 
FLOWER.  In  botany,  the  expand- 
ed bud.  For  its  difTerent  parts,  see 
Botany.  In  descriptions,  flowers  are 
divided  into  apetalous,  monopetalous, 
polypetalous,  and  composite  ;  the 
first  includes  those  without  corolla ; 
the  second,  consisting  of  one  petal 
apparently,  are,  in  truth,  formed  by 
the  union  of  several,  and  hence  term- 
ed synpetalous  ;  this  class  is  subdivi- 
ded into  numerous  kinds,  as  labiate, 
like  the  sage  flower ;  personate,  like 
antirrhinum  ;  wheel-shape,  like  borage ; 
campanulate,  like  a  bell  ;  hypocraleri- 
forin,  like  the  tobacco  blossom.  Pol- 
ypetalous flowers  consist  of  several 
distinct  petals,  and  are  called  rosa- 
ceous, when  like  the  rose  flower :  cary- 
ophyllous,  like  the  pink  ;  liliaceous,  like 
the  lily  ;  cruciferous,  like  flax  or  cab- 
bages ;  papilionaceous,  like  the  pea  ; 


orchideous,  like  the  genus  orchis,  &c. 
Composite  flowers  are  like  the  sun- 
flower, lettuce,  thistle,  &c.  The  es- 
sentia! parts  of  the  flower  are  the  sta- 
mens and  pistils  ;  if  botli  are  present, 
it  is  hermaphrodite  ;  if  one  is  absent, 
they  are  either  male  or  female  blos- 
soms ;  and  the  absence  of  both  con- 
stitutes the  blossom  a  barren  flower. 
By  development,  single  flowers  be- 
come doui)le,  but  they  also  become 
barren,  the  stamens  being  converted 
into  petals.  Tlie  colour  of  flowers  is 
very  mucli  in  the  hands  of  the  florist ; 
for,  by  hybridizing  species  of  differ- 
ent colours,  the  seed  produced  often 
gives  rise  to  varieties  of  new  tints. 

Flowers,  in  chemistry,  are  fine  crys- 
tals, obtained  by  sublimation. 

FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.  The 
cryptogamous  plants  of  Linnaeus  ; 
the  acotyledons  of  Jussieu. 

FLUE.  A  channel  or  way  along 
which  the  smoke  or  heat  of  a  fire 
passes.     See  Hot-house. 

FLUID.  A  body  the  particles  of 
which  move  freely  among  one  an- 
other, and  which  transmit  pressures 
equally  in  all  directions.  Fluids  are 
divided  into  elastic  and  non-elastic, 
or  gaseous  and  liquid  ;  the  former 
containing  air  and  vapours,  the  lat- 
ter water,  &c. 

FLUKE.  Dtstoma  hepaticum. 
Gourd-worm.  A  flat,  entozoal  worm, 
infesting  the  livers  of  sheep  and  some 
other  animals  ;  it  is  often  seen  in 
those  wiiich  have  died  of  the  rot. 

FLUORINE.  A  hypothetical 
body,  supposed  to  resemble  chlorine, 
found  in  fluor  spar.  With  hydrogen, 
it  forms  a  very  corrosive  acid,  the 
hydro-fluoric,  which  acts  upon  glass, 
forming  fluo-silicic  acid,  and  is  a 
powerl'ul  caustic.  It  exists,  in  mi- 
nute quantity,  in  bones.  Its  com- 
pounds are  called  fluorides. 

FLUOR  SPAR.  A  beautiful  crys- 
talline mineral,  abundant  in  Derby- 
shire, England,  and  hence  called  Der- 
byshire spar.  It  is  common  in  New- 
York  and  the  Eastern  States ;  con- 
sists of  fluoride  of  calcium.  The 
mineral  is  of  many  colours,  and  cu- 
bical or  octahedral  in  form.  It  is  used 
as  a  flux,  and  to  procure  hydro-fluoric 
299 


FOA 

acid,  and  has  been  recommended  as 
a  manure. 

FLUTINGS.  The  grooves  of  col- 
umns. 

FLUVIALES.  A  tribe  of  water 
plants,  of  endogenous  structure,  near- 
ly resemhling  sca-wceds.  Sea  wrack 
{Zostera  innrnta)  is  used,  when  dry, 
to  stuff  cushions  and  for  packing. 

FLUX.  In  chemistry,  substances 
which  arc  in  themselves  very  fusible, 
or  which  promote  the  fusion  of  other 
bodies.  When  cream  of  tartar  is  de- 
flagrated with  half  its  weight  of  nitre, 
a  mixture  of  charcoal  and  carbonate 
of  potash  remains, which  is  often  call- 
ed black  flux :  when  an  equal  weight 
of  nitre  is  used,  the  whole  of  tlie  char- 
coal is  burned  off,  and  carbonate  of 
potassa  remains,  which,  when  thus 
procured,  is  called  %chi.te  flux. 

Flux,  in  diseases,  any  unusually  in- 
creased discharge,  as  diavrhcea. 

FLY.  In  agriculture,  any  winged 
insect  injurious  to  crops,  as  the  tur- 
nip, wheat,  Hessian  fly,  &c.,  for 
which  see  the  plants  respectively. 

Fly.  In  machinery,  an  appendage 
given  to  machines  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  and  equalizing  the  motion, 
as  in  the  windlass,  jack,  pile  engine, 
&c.  ;  and  sometimes  for  collecting 
force  in  order  to  produce  a  very  great 
instantaneous  impression,  as  in  a 
coining  press.  Generally  it  is  form- 
ed of  a  heavy  disk  or  hoop,  attached 
to  the  axis  ;  sometimes  of  heavy 
knobs  at  the  extremities  of  a  bar  hav- 
ing the  same  position.  The  fly  is  of 
great  use  in  all  cases  where  the  pow- 
er or  the  resistance  acts  unequally 
in  the  different  parts  of  a  revolution. 

FLYING  BUTTRESS.  A  beau- 
tiful and  useful  portion  of  a  Goth- 
ic structure,  consisting  of  arches 
thrown  off  from  a  mass  of  masonry 
against  a  wall,  to  support  it  from 
pressure  acting  from  above,  as  by  the 
roof 

FLY  POWDER.  Black  suboxide 
of  arsenic,  used  to  kill  flies,  but  dan- 
gerous, from  its  poisonous  nature. 

FOAL.     A  young  horse. 

FOALIXG.  The  act  of  parturi- 
tion or  bringing  forth  young  in  the 
mare.  Good  feeding  and  moderate 
300 


FOD 

exercise  are  found  to  be  the  best  pre- 
ventives against  slinking,  which  is 
most  prevalent  when  half  the  time 
of  pregnancy  has  ela[)scd.  If  a  mare 
has  been  regularly  exercised,  and  ap- 
parently in  health  while  she  was  in 
foal,  little  danger  will  attend  the  act 
of  parturition.  If  there  be  false  pres- 
entations of  the  fffitus,  or  difficulty 
in  producing  it,  it  will  be  better  to 
have  recourse  to  a  well-informed 
doctor,  rather  than  injure  the  mother 
by  the  violent  and  injurious  attempts 
which  are  often  made  to  relieve  the 
animal.  As  soon  as  the  mare  has 
foaled,  she  should  be  turned  into 
some  well -sheltered  pasture,  with  a 
hovel  or  shed  to  run  into  when  she 
pleases  ;  and  as,  supposing  she  has 
foaled  in  April,  the  grass  is  scanty, 
she  should  have  a  couple  of  feeds  of 
corn  daily.  The  mare  may  be  put  to 
moderate  work  a  month  after  foaling. 

FOCAL  DISTANCE.  In  optics 
the  distance  between  the  centre  of  a 
lens  or  mirror  and  the  point  into 
which  the  rays  are  collected. 

FOCUS.  A  point  where  heat,  light, 
sound,  &c.,  are  collected,  either  by  the 
action  of  glass  or  reflecting  surfaces. 
In  geometry,  certain  points  in  the 
curves,  called  conic  sections,  which 
are  also  foci  for  radiant  emanations. 

FODDERS.  All  substances  used 
as  food  for  animals.  In  some  parts 
of  the  United  States  it  is,  however, 
confined  to  the  leaves  stripped  from 
corn.  Coarse  fodders  are  those  which 
resemble  straw,  &c.,  occupying  much 
bulk. 

The  comparative  value  of  fodders  is 
a  prime  question  in  husbandry,  and 
which  can  hardly  have  been  said  to 
assume  a  trustworthy  estimate  until 
recently,  when  careful  experiments 
have  been  made  by  Thaer,  Raumer, 
Block,  and  Boussingault.  In  the  an- 
nexed table,  by  the  latter,  are  shown 
the  results  obtained  by  chemical  ex- 
amination and  practical  feeding.  In 
the  first,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in 
100  parts  is  found,  which  gives  the 
quantity  of  fibrin,  albumen,  and  ca- 
sein, by  multiplying  by  63  ;  thus,  in 
the  table,  the  nitrogen  in  good  hay  is 
1-34  per  cent.,  which  is  equivalent  to 


FODDERS. 


Table  of  the  nutritive  equivalents  of  different  kinds  of  fodders. 


1 

£. 

l|i 

1" 

c 

t 

Kinds  of  Food. 

"H  ^ 

tL  ^ 

?r-  ^ 

o 

^ 

c? 

£ 

^ 

Various. 

1  i 

a^ 

ill 

CH 

c 

s 

P 

(S 

3~ 

i 

zi- 

Ordinary-  ua'.ur*i  meadow  Ijay    . 

"TFT 

1.34 

1.15 

loo 

"ioo 

loo 

Too 

~ioo 

~ioo 

Do.  of  line  quality 

H.O 

1.50 

1.30 

98 





Do.  select     .... 

lti.8 

■2.40 

QM 

58; 









Do.  freed  from  woody  stems 

14.0 

2.44 

■2.10 

55  









Lurern  h.ay  .... 

K.6 

l.6(i 

1.38 

83  

90 

— 

90 

100 

90,  90Domba8le,Crud. 

Red  clover  hay,  2d  year's  growth 

lO.I 

1.70 

1.54 

75'    ipo 

90 

— 

90 

lOC 

Red  clover  cut  in  flower,  green,  do.  , 

76.0 



0.64 

Sill  430 





450 

4:5 

New  wheat  straw,  crop  ISll 

26.0 

0-36 

0.27 

426.  200 

360 

150 1   4oO 

300 

500  Rieder. 

Old  whe.it  straw 

8.n 

0.53 

0.4y 

■2.^5  



1 



Do.  do.  lower  parts  of  the  stalk 

S.:! 

0.43 

0.41 

280  









Do.  do.  upper  part  of  do.  and  ear     . 

9.4 

1.42 

1.33 

86 









New  rye  straw     .        .        .        .        . 

IK.7 

0.30 

0  21 

479    200 

500 

InO 

666 

Old  do 

i:.6 

0.50 

0.42 

•250 







Oat  straw      .... 

21.0 

0J6 

0.:i0 

383'  200 

■200 

150 

190 

200 

400  Schwerte, 

Barley  do 

11.0 

0.30 

0.25 

460    19-3 

180 

150 

150 

200 

400        do. 

Pea  do 

8.5 

1.95 

1.79 

64     165 

200 

150 

130 

150 

90  Pohl. 

Millet  do 

I'.l.O 

0.96 

0.78 

147 

250' 





Buckwheat  do.     . 

U.fi 

0.54 

0.48 

■240 

200! 





Lentd  do 

9.2 

1.18 

1.01 

114    160 

200i 

130 

1.50 

Vetches  cut  in  flower  and  dried 

hay 

Potato  tops  .... 

into  j 

11.0 

1.16 

1.14 

10l|_ 

125 



100 

76.0 

2.30 

0J5 

209  

300 

_. 





Field  beet  leaves  . 

88.9 

4.50 

0..50 

230    600 







600 

Carrot  do 

70.9 

2.94 

0.S5 

135 



— _ 



Jerusalem  artichoke  stems 

■86.4 

■2.70 

03- 

311  







325 

I.inie-tree,  young  shoots     . 

65.0 

3.25 

1.45 

79      73 







C.-inada  poplar  do. 

62.5 

2.2M 

0.86 

134'     67  







Oak  do 

57.4 

2.16 

0.92 

1-25      83  





___ 

Acacia  do.  (autumn)   . 

.T.3.6 

1.56 

0.72 

160  









Drum  cabbage 

9.'.S 

3.70 

0.28 

411    S-V) 

.500 

2.30 

429 

600 

Swedish  turuip 

91.0 

l.»^ 

0.17 

676 r 

300 



300 

250 

Turnip 

92.S 

1.70 

0.13 

885  .va 

600 

290 

52n 

4r.o 

Fieldheet  (IfvW;  . 
Do.  white  Sileeian 

87.x 

1.70 

0.21 

543    366 

400 

250 

460 

250 

M.6 

1.43 

0.18 

669    366  





Tarrots 

87.6 

2.40 

0.30 

382    205 

250 

225 

300 

250 

;',80  Bousaingnult. 

.T.ras.alem  artichokes  (1839) 

7;'.2 

1.60 

0.33 

.348  









zao          do. 

Do.  (1S36)    .... 

7.i.i 

2.20 

0.42 

274  









Potatoes  (1S38)    . 

es.'i 

1.50 

0.36 

319    216 

200 

J  50 

200 

200 

■350  Boussingault. 

Do.  ,  ISSf!)     .... 

79.4 

1.80 

0.37 

311 





: 

Do.  after  keeping  in  the  pit 

76.8 

1.18 

0.30 

3*3    400  • 

— _ 





Cider  apjde  pulp  dried  in  the  air 

6.4 

0.63 

0..59 

195  



— ■— 





Beet  root  from  the  sugar  mUl 

70.0 



0.38 

303 









Vetches  in  seed    . 

14.6 

5.13 

4.37 

26      30 

54 



66 

40 

Freld  beans  .... 

7.9 

S.iO 

.5.11 

23      30 

64 

50 

73 

40 

"White  peas  (dr>-) 

8.6 

4.20 

3.84 

27      30 

.54 

48 

66 

40 

■VNTiite  haricots     . 

5.0 

4.30 

4.58 

25 

89 







Lentils 

9.0 

4.40 

4.00 

29 









New  Indian  com .... 

18.0 

2.00 

l.f>t 

70 

52 







59  Boussingault. 

Buckwhe.at  .... 

12.5 

2.40 

2.10 

55 

64 







Barley  (1S.16) 

13.-2 

2.02 

L76 

65      33 

61 

53 

76 

50 

IJarlevmeal. 

1S.0 

2.46 

■2.14 

54  









Oats  (ISiS)    .... 

20.8 

2.-20 

1.74 

68 

71 



86 

60 

Do.  (lS.Tfi)     .... 

li.4 

■2.-22 

1.U2 

60  







11. .5 

2.27 

2.00 

S8 











\Vheat  ri&W.  Alsace)  . 

10.5 

■2.33 

2.09 

55 

27 

52 

46 

64 

40 

16.6 

3.18 

2.65 

43 











Recent  Bran 

37.1 

•2.13 

1.36 

85 

105 









(  Some  specimens  are 
I     twice  as  rich. 

Ulieat  husks  or  chaff  . 

7.6 

0.94 

0.85 

135 

160 

_i 





Rice    Piedmont) 

13.4 

1J9 

1.-20 

96 









Gold  of  ple.asure  seed  (Madia)   . 

8.0 

4.00 

3.67 

31i 







Do.  cake 

11.2 

.5.70 

6.06 

23  









Lin^ee.lrake          .... 

13.4 

6.00 

5.20 

'2-2 1     42 

180 







Cr,l7.a  do.        .         .                  .         . 

10.5 

5..50 

4.92 

231 









Madia  do 

6.5 

5.93 

5.51 

21; 









Hemp  do 

.5.0 

4.78 

4.21 

27! 





n. 



Poppy  do 

6.P 

5.70 

5.36      21   



—  - 





Nt.tdo 

6.0 

5.59 

5.24       22  









Beech  mast  do.     . 

6.2 

3.53 

3.31       35  









Arachis  (Pindars)  do.  . 

6.C 

R.K9 

8.331      14 









Dry  acorns   .... 





0.80     143  







— — . 

Refuse  of  llie  wine-press,  air  dried     . 

4.''.2 

3.31 

1.71       68  

6-: 



ZIZ 

75 

Cc 


301 


FODDERS. 


8J  nearly  of  fibrin.  The  practical 
values  are  ascertained  by  weitrbing 
the  feed  and  aniiTial,  and_  giving 
enougli  of  all  fodders  to  maintain 
him  in  good  condition.  They  are  less 
Irnc  than  the  tiicorelical  or  chemical 
values,  because  not  so  well  perform- 
ed ;  but  the  tlieoretical  values  have 
t)een  fully  sustained  by  subsequent 
examination.  One  hundred  pounds  of 
ordinary  hay  are  made  the  standard, 
other  fodders  being  compared  with 
this  in  theirpower  of  sustaining  life  in 
animals.  The  fodders  are,  however, 
of  different  values,  im  fattening,  wool- 
growing,  &c.,  and  are  treated  of  as 
such  under  these  heads.  The  dif- 
ference exhibited  in  the  above  valu- 
ations, by  different  authors,  is,  in  a 
great  measure,  due  to  variations  in 
the  nutritiousness  of  the  provender; 
thus,  straw,  pea  haulm,  &c..  are 
many  times  more  nutritious  when  cut 
greenish  than  when  dead  ripe.  In 
the  same  way,  some  wheat  contains 
10  and  some  30  per  cent,  of  gluten  ; 
and  here  is  a  difference  of  1  to  3. 

The  following  articles,  used  as  hu- 
man food,  are  equivalent  to  one 
hundred  of  good  flour.  The  term 
meal  is  meant  to  indicate  that  the 
substances  were  perfectly  dried  and 
pulverized  :  the  equivalents  are  con- 
structed upon  the  relative  amounts 
of  nitrogen  in  fair  samples  of  each  : 

Wheat  flour  (good  (jualitv;  ....  100 

Wheat .'....  107 

Barley  meal 119 

Barley 130 

Rye Ill 

Buckwheat 108 

Indian  Corn LSS 

Yellow  peas 67 

Hor.se-beans 44 

White  French  beans 56 

Rice 171 

Lentils 57 

White-heart  cabbage 810 

Cabbage  meal 63 

Potatoes 613 

Potatoe  meal 126 

Carrots 757 

Carrot  meal 95 

Turnips 1335 

Mealy  bananas 700 

Mam  hot  (casava  plant) 700 

Yam  (dioscorea) 300 

In  the  economy  of  food,  not  only 

ought  a  proper  selection  to  be  made 

to  suit  the  object  of  the  farmer  as 

oily  provender  for  fattening,  fodder 

302 


;  rich  in  gluten  for  draught  animals, 

\  but  the  greatest  attention  should  be 

paid  to  warmth,  exposure,  and  the 

losses  of  free  pasturage.     See  Soiling 

and  Food. 

FODDERS,  THE  TI.ME  OF  CUT- 
TING. The  old  careless  practice  of 
allowing  corn,  wheat,  beans,  &lc.,  to 
stand  until  dead  ripe  is  giving  place 
to  the  more  rational  method  of  cut- 
ting when  the  iierbage  is  turning  yel- 
low, and  the  stem  is  dried  an  inch  or 
two  above  the  ground.  Not  only  is 
the  grain,  whether  wheat,  oats,  or 
corn,  much  heavier,  but  whiter,  and 
preferred,  but  the  straw,  haulm,  or 
fodder  is  increased  in  value  from  four 
to  ten  times  ;  thus,  while  the  dry, 
brown  stems  of  pease  are  of  no  val- 
ue in  husbandry,  it  is  the  opinion  of 
the  best  Scotch  farmers  that  the  same 
stems,  taken  when  just  yellowed,  are 
twice  as  valuable  as  hay  ;  and  chem- 
ical examination  shows  this  to  be  a 
true  estimate.  Hay  cut  in  flower  is 
worth  twenty  per  cent,  more  than 
that  cut  in  seed,  and  twice  as  much 
as  that  with  dry  stems  :  the  same  is 
true  for  clovers,  lucern,  and  all  coarse 
fodders.  Straw  is  obtained  nearly  as 
good  as  hay  when  cut  in  the  light 
greenish  yellow  state  ;  but  when  seed 
grain  is  wanted,  tiie  straw  must  be 
allowed  to  drv  perfectly. 

FODDERS,  THE  PRESERVA- 
TION OF.  The  preparation  of  hay 
will  be  explained  under  that  head. 
In  putting  it  up  for  winter  use,  there 
are  two  plans,  either  to  house  it  in  a 
barn  or  stack  it.  Against  the  latter 
considerable  prejudice  exists,  chiefly 
because  of  the  loss  occurring  from 
the  exposure  of  the  outer  stems.  But 
stacking  is  a  perfect  means  of  pres- 
ervation, and  in  all  senses  equal  to 
storage  in  a  barn,  if  properly  man- 
aged ;  it  is  only  when  little  stacks, 
imperfectly  covered,  and  placed  on 
the  ground,  are  used,  that  the  sys- 
tem is  objectionable.  The  hay,  (kc, 
when  stored,  should  be  withered,  but 
not  crisp,  and  thoroughly  dry :  in 
putting  up,  a  peck  of  salt  lo  the  load 
is  of  great  service  in  hindering  mil- 
dew and  flavouring  the  hay.  Large 
mows  must  be  provided,  with  means 


FODDERS. 


of  ventilation,  by  having  beams  or  1 
rods  passing  through  the  barn,  unless 
the  hay  be  well  niacie  and  cured  be- 
fore storage.  When  well  cured,  hay  | 
should  be  of  a  greenish  yellow,  fine 
odour,  and  altogether  free  from  black- 
ness or  mildew. 

Much  advantage  is  gained  by  ma- 
king up  stacks  of  succulent  fodders, 
like  buckwheat,  Jerusalem  artichoke 
stems,  broad-cast  corn,  clover,  pea, 
and  bean  stems,  with  straw,  piling 
one  layer  on  the  other ;  the  fod- 
der may  thus  be  put  up  fresher  with- 
out being  sun-burned,  and  the  straw 
is  improved,  at  the  same  time  that 
heatmg  is  obviated.  Salting,  in  these 
cases,  is  an  additional  preservative. 

There  is  no  greater  injurjto  coarse 
fodders  than  allowing  them  to  lie  in 
swarth  until  crisp  and  black  from  dry- 
ing ;  their  nutritive  matter  is  thus 
reduced  very  considerably,  and  the 
hay  becomes  unmanageable.  If,  from 
using  grass  too  green,  it  should  heat, 
the  stack  must  be  taken  down  and 
freely  exposed  to  the  air  as  soon  as 
the  accident  is  discovered,  otherwise 
it  may  fire,  or,  at  least,  the  fodder 
contracts  a  pitchy  taste  disagreeable 
to  cattle. 

FODDERS,  THE  PREPARA- 
TION OF.  A  great  deal  has  been 
said  of  late  concerning  the  cooking 
and  steaming  of  food  for  horses,  oxen, 
and  farm  animals.  Much  is  the  off- 
spring of  ignorance  and  superficial  ex- 
amination. The  preparation  of  corn 
and  hard  grains,  when  given  to  oxen 
and  pigs,  by  grinding,  is  unquestiona- 
bly a  matter  of  great  economy,  where- 
by at  least  one  half  is  saved  in  the 
former  case.  Mechanical  reduction 
by  grinding,  pounding,  cutting,  and 
crushing,  is  also  of  great  value  in 
other  fodders,  in  roots,  succulent 
stems,  and  herbs  ;  but  the  assertion 
that  the  act  of  steaming,  irrespective 
of  the  fineness  of  the  food,  is  of  great 
service,  or  even  that  it  will  pay  for 
fuel  in  the  case  of  the  horse  and  oxen, 
is  disproved  by  the  examination  of  nu- 
merous Scotch  farmers  and  by  Bous- 
singault.  Every  kind  of  comminu- 
tion is  valuable,  because  oxen  are 
incapable  of  pulverizing  grains,  and 


horses  frequently  bolt,  or  swallow 
whole,  the  carrots,  beets,  parsnips, 
&c.,  which  it  is  customary  to  furnish 
them.  This  also  refers  to  sheep.  It 
is  true  that  in  winter  some  httle 
warmth  is  obtained  from  the  fluid  if 
given  hot,  but  this  is  not  enough  to 
pay  for  the  trouble.  A  machine  for 
rasping  beets,  potatoes,  &c.,  is  worth 
infinitely  more  than  a  cooking  contri- 
vance. 

With  pigs  the  matter  seems  to  be  dif- 
ferent ;  well-made  experiments  show 
that  boiling  or  steaming  food  hast- 
ens their  fattening ;  but  this  is  scarce- 
1}'  understood.  Boiling  does  not  de- 
velop any  nutrition  ;  on  the  contrary, 
Dr.  Beaumont  has  shown  that  diges 
tion  is  retarded  ;  but  boiling  is  of  ser- 
vice where  oily  food,  as  Indian  corn, 
linseed,  hemp  seed,  cotton  seed,  &c.,  is 
given,  for  the  heat  causes  the  parti- 
cles of  fat  of  the  meal  to  form  an 
emulsion  with  the  hot  water  and  gum 
of  the  seed,  and  it  is  readily  taken  up 
by  the  animal's  intestines,  whereas 
oil,  in  large  quantity,  is  not  so  read- 
ily absorbed  by  the  body,  but  partly 
rejected.  From  the  same  cause,  in 
the  last  stage  of  fattening  oxen,  corn 
or  linseed  meal,  boiled  into  a  jelly  or 
porridge,  will  assist  fattening,  while 
it  is  in  no  way  calculated  as  a  regu- 
lar fodder  for  draught  oxen.  In  so 
far  as  boiling  or  steaming  assists  di- 
gestion, comminutes  food,  by  making 
It  mealy,  as  potatoes,  or  produces  an 
emulsion  with  the  oil  it  contains,  so 
far,  and  no  farther,  does  it  do  service 
on  the  farm.  Practical  men  state 
the  gain  in  oily  meals,  with  pigs,  at 
about  one  third,  but  not  so  much,  if 
at  all,  in  coarse  fodders.  For  cook- 
ing, nothing  is  superior  to  Mott's 
stove,  which  heats  rapidly  and  econ- 
omizes fuel.  For  a  steamer,  any  com- 
mon kettle,  the  nozzle  of  which  emp- 
ties into  a  box  either  of  thick  wood 
with  a  tight  lid,  or  into  a  barrel,  will 
answer  ;  the  barrel  may  be  surround- 
ed with  tow  or  cloth  to  keep  in  the 
first  heat.  The  figure  represents  such 
a  contrivance  :  A  is  a  kettle,  com- 
municating by  the  pipe,  B,  furnished 
with  a  stop-cock  at  C,  into  the  box, 
D,  the  lid  of  which  overlaps,  and  is 
303 


FOL 


luaiJe  last  by  hooks,  E.  It  is  also 
furnished  with  a  stop  cock,  F,  below, 
to  let  off  the  condensed  water. 

Such  a  contrivance  can  be  set  up 
in  the  feeding-house  on  a  table,  and 
easily  used,  the  food  being  conveyed 
down  an  inclined  plane  to  the  feed- 
ing-troughs, or  along  a  hose,  if  it  be 
fluid.  A  rapid  way  to  make  water 
boil  is  to  place  it  in  a  tube  of  tinned 
iron  or  copper,  wound  into  a  spinal 
form,  and  running  around  the  fire  ; 
in  this  way  the  amount  of  surface  is 
greatly  increased,  and  the  whole 
brou<:ht  near  to  the  fire. 

FGilTUS  (from /to,  I  bring  forth). 
A  quickened  child  in  the  womb. 

FOG.  A  collection  of  vapour  near 
the  earth's  surface,  produced  by  the 
cooling  of  the  moisture  in  the  air. 
Fogs  lie  in  the  morning  and  evening 
over'  damp,  ill-drained,  or  marshy 
lands,  and  are  unhealthy,  producing 
ague  and  bilious  fevers. 

FOGGE.  Long  grass  and  partial- 
ly cropped  grass  remaining  on  mead- 
ows.    Also  the  grass  after  a  crop. 

FOGGING.  An  uncommon  prac- 
tice of  leaving  the  grass  of  upland 
meadows  uncut  during  the  year,  and 
turning  cattle  and  sheep  upon  it  in 
the  fall  and  winter. 

FOIL.     A  thin  sheet  of  metal. 

FOLD.  A  temporary  enclosure 
made  with  hurdles  or  rails,  to  con- 
fine sheep.  A  portion  may  be  shel- 
tered with  pine  or  other  branches, 
and  littered  with  straw. 

FOLDING.  The  practice  of  en- 
closing sheep,  cows,  &c.,  in  folds, 
either  for  the  night  to  manure  the 
land,  or  on  turnips,  grass,  spring  rye, 
wheat,  &c.,  to  eat  it  regularly  and 
manure  at  the  same  time.  Folding 
during  summer  is  wasteful ;  for  the 
304 


FOG 

greater  part  of  the  urine  is  lost,  and 
iiiucli  of  the  solid  e.\.crement  decays 
and  is  volatilized  or  removed  by  wasli- 
uig ;  driving  the  cattle  to  one  yard 
and  receiving  the  dung  on  stiaw, 
charcoal,  or  suitable  matters  for  com- 
posting it,  would  be  much  better  econ- 
omy. On  heavy  lands,  the  treading 
of  animals  is  frequently  mjurious  du- 
ring folding. 

FOLIATION,  or  VERNATION. 
The  manner  in  which  the  young 
leaves  are  folded  in  the  bud. 

FOLLICLE,  or  FOLLICULUS. 
In  botany,  a  one-valved,  one  cell- 
ed, many-seeded,  superior,  dehiscent 
fruit. 

FOMENTATION.  A  warm  bath- 
ing applied  to  a  part  of  the  body ;  in- 
fusions of  herbs  are  often  used. 

FONTANEL.  A  small  space  ex- 
isting between  the  bones  of  the  head 
in  the  fcEtus. 

P^OOD.  A  substance  which  con- 
tains any  of  the  principles  which  ex- 
ist in  the  body,  is  digestible,  and  not 
combined  with  a  poisonous  ingredi- 
ent. There  are  three  principal  vari- 
eties of  food  :  1st.  That  capable  of 
repairing  the  waste  of  the  flesh  or 
muscle,  called  Azotizcd  food,  and  es- 
sential to  the  strength  of  animals, 
■-id.  That  which  sustains  the  heat  of 
the  body,  called  non-Azotized  food. 
3d.  That  which  repairs  the  waste  of 
fat,  and  called  Oleaginous  food,  the 
importance  of  which  is  inferior  to  the 
two  former,  except  for  fattening  ani- 
mals. 

I'he  azotizcd  elements  of  food,  so 
called  from  containing  azote,  or  nitro- 
gen, are  fibrin,  casein,  and  albumen  ; 
they  go  to  the  repair  of  muscles, 
membranes,  &c.,  which,  in  the  active 
state  of  the  body,  are  being  perpetu- 
ally consumed.  Seeds  and  meats 
contain  most  of  these  principles  ;  the 
former  from  10  to  20  per  cent.,  and 
lean  meat  23  to  25  per  cent.  The 
richest  seeds  are  beans,  pease,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  rye,  corn.  This  kind  of 
food  is  most  serviceable  for  draught 
animals  and  such  as  are  used  for 
strength  and  fleetness.  For  the  com- 
parative values,  see  the  table  in  arti- 
cle Fodders.     They  are  the  only  class 


FOO 


roR 


capable  of  sustaining  life  by  them- 
selves. 

Tlie  non-azolizcd  contain  no  nitro- 
gen. Starcli,  sugar,  and  gum  are 
the  principal  of  these  ;  they  are,  by 
digestion,  conveyed  into  the  system, 
and  clianged  so  as  to  produce  the 
heat  vvliich  maintains  life.  E.xposure 
to  cold  calls  lor  a  greater  consump- 
tion of  these  principles  than  in  a 
warm  situation.  Potatoes,  beets, 
carrots,  and  roots  generally  excel  in 
these  principles,  but  no  vegetable 
fodder  is  deficient  in  tliem.  These 
cannot  alone  sustain  life. 

Fatty,  or  oleaginous  food,  adds  fat 
to  the  body,  which,  in  sickness  and 
other  circumstances,  also  contributes 
to  the  maintenance  of  animal  heat. 
They  are  incapable  of  sustaining  life. 
See  Fattcnhig. 

The  food  usually  consumed  is  a 
mixture  of  these  in  diflerent  propor- 
tions ;  thus,  corn  meal  consists  of  9 
per  cent,  oil,  12  azotized  principles, 
50  non-azotized,  the  rest  being  water, 
husk,  and  saline  matter  ;  but  the 
true  value  of  any  food  is  directly  as 
the  nitrogen  principles  it  contains. 
See  Fodders. 

Besides  these  substances,  others 
are  in  less  measure  useful  as  food, 
viz.  :  salt,  which  assists  digestion  ; 
jelly,  or  gelatin,  which  repairs  waste 
in  the  cellular  tissue  ;  bone  earth  (as 
it  exists  in  the  food),  which  repairs 
the  waste  of  the  bones.  Vinegar,  al- 
cohol, the  juices  of  acid  fruits,  are 
also  food  of  the  non-azotized  kind. 

In  perfect  digestion,  these  varieties 
of  food  are  taken  up  into  the  system, 
and  the  husk,  certain  useless  salts, 
and  water  rejected  ;  but  it  often  oc- 
curs that  the  proportion  of  fat  or 
starchy  matters  is  so  great,  that  much 
is  rejected,  unaltered,  by  the  bowels. 

The  amount  of  food  necessary  to 
maintain  an  animal  in  ordinary  exer- 
cise is  rather  less  than  two  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  in  hay,  or  its  equiva- 
lent.    See  Feed.     A  man  requires  45 
ounces  of  wheat  bread,  or  11  of  beef 
or  mutton,  daily,  to  maintain  strength,  j 
An  ox  of  1000  pounds   requires  20  j 
pounds  of  hay,  or  the  loUowing  equiv- 1 
alents :  j 

Cc2 


120  lbs.  of  turnips, 
115      "       straw, 
75      "       carrots, 
67      "       putatnos, 


17  lbs.  of  clover  hay, 
12       "       l,arl<-y, 
10      "      oats, 
b(!au3. 


The  time  of  I'eeding  should  be  reg- 
ular :  an  liour  allowed  working  ani- 
mals to  digest,  water  given  afterward, 
and  changes  in  the  food  made  occa- 
sionally, but  not  suddenly,  especially 
to  green  fodders. 

FOOD  OF  PLANTS.  Plants  re- 
quire water,  carbonic  acid  gas,  oxy- 
gen, ammonia,  or  other  compounds 
containing  nitrogen  and  saline  mat- 
ters ;  these  they  derive  partly  from 
the  air  and  soil.     See  t/icfc  bodies. 

FOOT.  A  measure  of  12  inches. 
Horse's  foot.    See  Horse  and  Shoeing. 

FORAGE.     Provender,  fodder. 

FORAMEN,  In  anatomy,  a  hole 
or  perforation  through  a  bone. 

FORCE.  Anything  that  produces 
motion  or  pressure.  Mechanical  for- 
ces are  those  which  produce  palpable 
movements,  as  gravitation,  the  de- 
scent of  weights  upon  bodies,  &c. 
Chemical  forces  are  those  producing 
molecular  movements,  which  are 
only  perceptible  by  their  effects  ; 
they  are  heat,  light,  tithonicity,  elec- 
tricity ;  these,  however,  occasional- 
ly give  rise  to  more  extensive  move- 
ments. 

FORCEPS.  Instruments  acting 
in  the  same  way  as  pincers. 

FORCING.  In  horticulture,  for- 
warding the  grov.tli  of  plants,  fruits, 
&c.  ;  conducted  in  glazed  houses, 
pits,  frames,  or  in  cellars  for  mush- 
rooms, celery,  endive,  &c.  Heat  is 
one  great  essential ;  but  light  and  air 
are  also  of  the  first  importance  to 
success,  except  with  mushrooms,  or 
in  blanching.  Forcing  houses  and 
frames,  therefore,  face  the  south,  to 
receive  most  light ;  but  during  very 
cold  weather  the  sudden  action  of 
the  sun"s  iieat  is  to  be  guarded  against 
if  there  be  the  least  frost  within  the 
house  ;  hence,  in  green-houses  for 
vines  and  fruits,  it  is  common  to  cov- 
er the  glass  with  matting  during  the 
depth  of  winter,  to  protect  the  trees 
from  sudden  heat. 

FORCING  PITS.     Pits  of  brick, 
masonry,  or  wood  sunk  in  the  earth 
to  contain  the  fermenting  materials 
305 


FOR 


FOU 


to  produce  bottom  heat ;  tliey  are 
used  like  iVames,  and  in  every  re- 
spect resemble  tlieui  in  efTect.  The 
following  is  a  description  of  the  pit 
of  one  of  the  English  gardens  :  "  It  is 
four  feet  deep  within  ;  the  lowest  ten 
inches  of  solid  brick-work  sunk  in  the 
earth  ;  the  remainder  is  a  flue,  three 
inches  wide  in  the  clear,  carried  en- 
tirely round  the  pit ;  the  inner  wall 
of  which,  forming  the  sides  of  the  pit, 
is  four-inch  work,  well  bedded  in 
mortar,  and  pointed,  to  prevent  the 
steam  penetrating  ;  the  outer  wall  of 
the  flue  is  also  four-inch,  but  open- 
work, to  admit  the  steam  and  that  of 
dung  coatings  into  the  flue,  the  top 
of  which  is  rendered  tight  by  a  cov- 
ering of  tiles,  &c.  The  frame  rests 
on  the  external  wall  of  the  flue.  The 
cavity  of  the  pit,  which  is  kept  dry 
by  means  of  drains,  is  nine  feet  two 
inches  long,  two  feet  eight  inches 
wide,  and  four  feet  deep.  It  is  filled 
with  broken  bricks  to  within  eighteen 
inches  of  the  top ;  then  a  foot  of 
short  cold  dung,  six  inches  of  very 
rotten  dung,  trod  down  so  as  to  ad- 
mit half  an  inch  depth  of  coal  ashes, 
for  preventing  the  intrusion  of  any 
worms  that  may  be  in  the  dung,  com- 
plete the  structure."     See  Frame. 

FORCING  PUjMP.     See  Pump. 

FOREST.  A  natural  collection  of 
trees.  The  principal  trees  are  men- 
tioned under  their  respective  heads. 

FOREST  FLIES.  Flies  of  the 
genus  Hippobosca. 

FORFICULA.  The  genus  of  in- 
sects to  which  the  earwig  belongs. 

FORGE.  "  The  workshop  in 
which  iron  is  hammered  and  shaped 
by  the  aid  of  heat.  The  term  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  the  places  in  which 
these  operations  are  carried  on  upon 
the  comparatively  small  scale  ;  the 
great  workshops  in  which  iron  is 
made  malleable  for  general  purposes 
being  called  shingling  mills.  A  com- 
mon forge  consists  of  the  hearth  or 
fire-place,  which  is  merely  a  cavity  in 
masonry  or  brick-work  well  lined  with 
fine  clay  or  brick,  upon  which  the  ig- 
nited fuel  is  placed,  and  upon  the 
back  or  side  of  which  a  powerful  blast 
of  air  is  driven  in  through  the  nozzle 
30G 


of  a  double-blasted  bellows,  which,  in 
a  connnon  forge,  is  generally  worked 
by  a  hand  lever.  Forges  are  some- 
times constructed  so  as  to  be  porta- 
ble, when  the  bellows  is  most  con- 
veniently placed  under  the  hearth  : 
these  are  used  in  ships,  and  for  vari- 
ous jobs  on  railways,  &c." — (Brande.) 

F  O  R  K.  The  dung  and  digging 
fork  is  in  the  form  of  a  spade,  with 
three  or  more  flat  prongs :  it  is  em- 
ployed in  loose  soils  much  more  ex- 
peditiously than  the  spade  in  garden 
tillage.  The  hai/,  or  pitch-fork,  for 
turning  hay,  grass,  or  manure,  is  fur- 
nished with  a  long  handle  and  two 
roundish  teeth  :  sometimes  a  forked 
branch  is  used. 

FORMATION.  In  geology,  a 
group  of  deposites  or  strata  apparent- 
ly referable  to  a  common  origin  or 
period. 

FORMICA.  The  genus  of  ants, 
now  the  tvpe  of  a  tribe,  the  Formir.ida. 

FORMIC  ACID.  The  fluid  eject- 
ed by  ants  when  irritated  contains 
this  acid.  The  acid  is  formed  by  dis- 
tilling tartaric  acid  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  peroxide  of  manganese,  and 
consists  of  Cj  HO^-f  HO.  It  is  high- 
ly corrosive,  acid,  and  of  a  peculiar 
odour  ;  combines  with  bases  to  form 
formiates,  which  are  very  soluble. 
Formic  acid  contains  a  compound 
radical  formyl  (Cj  H). 

FORMULA.  In  chemistry,  the  ex- 
pression, by  symbols,  of  the  composi- 
tion of  any  substance,  as  (EO,  FOO3) 
f(jr  formic  ether. 

Fossa,  in  zoology,  a  depression 
on  a  bone. 

FOSSIL.  A  part  or  the  whole  of 
any  animal  or  plant  imbedded  in  the 
earth,  and  more  or  less  converted 
into  stony  matter. 

FOSSORES.  A  group  of  hymen- 
opterous  insects,  which  dig  or  exca- 
vate cells  in  wood  or  earth  to  depos- 
ite  their  eggs. 

FOSSORIAL  (from  fodio,  I  dig). 
Animals  which  dig  their  holes,  as 
moles. 

FOUNDATION.  In  architecture, 
the  lower  part  of  a  wall,  on  which  the 
wall  is  raised,  and  always  of  much 
greater  thickness  than  such  wall.    A 


FOX 


FRA 


practice  has  lately  been  introduced 
of  laying  foundations  on  a  bed  of 
Miiat  is  called  concrete,  which  is  a  mix- 
ture of  rough,  small  stones  or  large 
gravel  stones  with  sand  and  stone, 
lime  and  water,  with  just  enough  of 
the  lime  to  act  as  a  cementitious  me- 
dium with  the  best  effect.  See  Co?i- 
crcte. 

FOUNTAIN.  A  jet  of  water  or 
fluid.  The  simplest  way  of  forming 
a  fountain  is  to  conduct  water  by  a 
small  pipe  from  a  higher  elevation, 
where  a  tank  or  other  reservoir  ex- 
ists; the  open  end  of  the  tube  below 
being  made  tine,  the  fluid  is  driven 
out  with  a  pressure  proportionate  to 
the  height  of  the  reservoir,  and, 
springing  into  the  air,  produces  a 
fountain.  Groups  of  statuary  are 
beautifullv  displayed  in  fountains. 

FOVEATUS,  FOVEATE.  Hav- 
ing a  depression  or  pit  :  applied  to  the 
nectar)'  of  flowers. 

FOVILLA.  The  yellow^  fluid  con- 
tained in  pollen. 

FOWL.     See  Poultry. 
FOX.     Canis  wipes,  Lin.    The  de- 
struction committed  by  this  animal 
and  his  great  address  in  escaping  have 
tasked  the  farmer's  wits  to  destroy 
him.     Good  dogs  are  unquestionably 
the  best  remedy ;    but  traps  of  all 
kinds,  baited  with  flesh,  are  also  ex-  | 
tensively  employed.     The  fox  is  led  | 
to  these  by  trailing  the  entrails  of  a  \ 
sheep  or  hog  from  his  retreats  to  the 
trap.     In  the  same  way,  the  trail  may 
be  made  to  a  tree,  and  the  garbage  [ 
left,  the  farmer  ascending  a  tree  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  waiting  with 
a  gun  to  shoot  the  fox.     A  large  trap,  ' 
like  the  old  rat  trap,  may  be  fixed  in 
the  grass  of  a  field,  well  hidden,  and 
baited  with  a  fowl. 

FOX  EVIL.  A  disease  in  which 
the  hair  falls  out. 

FOXGLOVE.  Diiritalis  purpurea. 
An  exotic  biennial  plant,  with  hand- 
some flowers,  of  great  value  in  med- 
icine as  a  sedative  and  diuretic.  It 
is  extremely  poisonous,  but  is  culti- 
vated with  great  care  in  drills  eigh- 
teen inches  apart.  The  plants  should 
be  kept  free  from  weeds,  cultivated 
in  a  dry  soil,  and  freely  exposed  to 


the  sun.  The  leaves  are  collected 
when  full  grown,  in  the  second  year, 
and  just  before  flowering ;  they  should 
be  dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  and 
put  up  in  tinned  vessels.  The  leaves 
only  are  valuable. 

FOXTAIL  GRASS.  Grasses  of 
the  genus  Pennisetum,  formerly  He- 
traria.  The  mo5t  common  {P.  glau- 
cum)  is  the  coarse  grass  that  springs 
up  in  stubble.  None  of  them,  except  P. 
Germanictim,  Bengal  grass,  is  worth 
cultivation,  and  this  is  very  inferior 
to  the  ordinary  plants.  It  is  an  an- 
nual, sown  in  s[)ring,  and  grows  from 
two  to  four  feet  high  with  tlie  flower 
stems. 

FOXY.  Sour  or  harsh. 
FRACTURE.  In  farriery,  the 
breakage  of  a  bone  in  the  body.  Frac- 
tures are  called  simple  when  the  bone 
is  broken  without  tearing  the  mus- 
cles and  passing  through  the  skin,  and 
compound  in  the  latter  case.  The 
treatment  requires  care  and  atten- 
tion. The  broken  ends  of  the  bones 
are  first  to  be  nicely  brought  togeth- 
er by  the  surgeon,  and  then  bound  by 
splints.  The  splints  are  usually  slabs 
of  wood  of  a  proper  length  and  width 
to  fit  the  limb,  or  stiff  pasteboard 
soaked  until  it  bends  freely,  and  ad- 
justed to  the  limb  ;  the  splint  is  bound 
on  by  a  long  riband  of  cotton.  Splints 
should  be  sufficiently  long  to  reach  to 
the  joints  above  and  below  the  frac- 
ture, to  restrain  their  motion.  The 
animal  should  be  bled  if  feverish,  and 
kept  low.  It  is  sometimes  necessa- 
ry to  suspend  them  in  the  stable,  by 
passing  a  stout  cloth  under  the  body, 
and  fastening  its  ends  to  the  upper 
frame-work  of  the  stable.  In  from 
three  to  five  weeks  the  bones  are  usu- 
ally reunited. 

FRACTURE.  In  mineralogy,  the 
appearance  of  a  broken  mineral  which 
is  not  crystalline.  It  is  termed  res- 
inous, choncoidal,  vitreous,  earthy, 
&c.,  according  as  it  resembles  that  of 
resin,  a  shell,  glass,  or  earth. 

FR.\CTURES  IN  TREES.  When 
they  occur  in  the  smaller  branches, 
from  excess  of  iVuit,  they  readily  unite 
by  propping  up  to  the  natural  posi- 
tion, if  the  accident  occurs  before  the 
307 


FRA 


FRI 


fall ;  but  when  the  part  has  a  con- 
siderable diameter,  four  to  six  inch- 
es, it  is  best  to  prune  it,  and  cover 
tlie  wound  with  coal  tar  or  grafting 
day. 

FK.EXUM  {fromfranuin,  a  bridle.) 
A  membranous  fold,  which  binds 
down  one  part  of  the  body  to  another, 
especially  the  tongue  to  the  mouth. 

FRAG  ARIA.  The  generic  name 
of  the  strawberry. 

FRAME.  In  horticulture,  the  ar- 
rangement in  which  forcing  is  usually 
peribrmed.  A  frame  may  be  made 
of  stout  planks,  the  back  one  being 
two  feet  deep,  the  front  fifteen  inch- 
es, and  the  sides  sloped  ;  the  width 
across  may  be  six  feet,  and  the  length 
divided  into  partitions  every  three 
feet ;  over  each  partition  a  window 
or  sash,  capable  of  being  more  or  less 
withdrawn,  is  placed.  These  frames 
are  set  upon  the  hot-beds  of  ferment- 
ing matters,  and  seedlings,  melons, 
&c.,  raised  in  them. 

The  heating  material,  or  hot-bed, 
may  be  set  up  on  the  ground,  or  in  a 
shallow  pit  of  two  feet  depth.  The 
advantage  of  the  former  is  that,  as 
the  heat  diminishes,  the  old  dung  can 
be  cut  down  and  removed,  being  re- 
placed by  fresh,  which  supplies  new 
heat,  and  thus  the  temperature  can 
be  kept  up  for  a  long  time.  A  com- 
mon bed  for  early  vegetables  is  made 
by  laying  down  twenty  inches  to  two 
feet  of  fresh  horse  dung,  and  cover- 
ing with  six  to  eight  inches  of  fine 
mould,  tan,  or  compost,  putting  down 
the  sashes  of  the  frame,  and  allowing 
the  steam  to  pass  off  for  three  days  ; 
opening  the  Irame,  stirring  the  soil, 
and  sowing  the  seeds  in  drills,  or 
broad-cast.  The  frame  is  subsequent- 
ly to  be  opened  or  kept  shut,  accord- 
ing to  the  hardiness  of  the  young 
plants.  Beds  made  early  in  tlie  sea- 
son will  require  a  greater  depth  of  fer- 
menting matter.  During  cold  nights, 
cover  the  frames  with  matting,  that 
no  frost  may  penetrate.  It  is  com- 
mon to  sink  small  thumb  pots,  in 
part,  into  the  hot-bed,  instead  of  sow- 
ing the  seed  on  mould. 

A  cold  frame  is  no  more  than  the 
foregoing  sash  placed  over  a  spot  of 
308 


well-tilled,  rich  soil,  which  it  protects 
by  the  glass.  It  should  be  exposed  to 
the  southwest.  Hot-beds  and  frames 
should  always  be  placed  over  a  well- 
drained  spot. 

FRA.MING.  The  rough  timber- 
work  of  a  house. 

FRANKLIATA.  Gordonia  puhcs- 
cc7)s.  An  ornamental  tree  of  (Jeorgia, 
somewhat  resembling  the  dogwood 
when  in  flower. 

FRAXIM'S.  Thegenusoftheash. 

FREEM  ARTIX.  A  twin  cow  calf 
born  with  a  male  calf  If  it  resem- 
bles the  bull  it  is  barren,  and  is  often 
barren  when  having  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  a  heifer. 

FREEZING.  Congelation.  The 
conversion  of  water  into  ice.  It  takes 
place  at  32  '^  Fahrenheit,  or  below,  and 
is  much  promoted  by  a  sharp  wind, 
which  hastens  evaporation.  Water, 
in  freezing,  expands  one  ninth,  and, 
if  confined,  will  break  open  the  stout- 
est vessels.  Rocks  and  the  soil  are 
disintegrated  by  the  freezing  of  wa- 
ter in  them,  which,  expanding,  tears 
the  particles  asunder.  By  freezing 
some  mixtures  or  solutions,  the  wa- 
tery parts  may  be,  in  some  measure, 
separated,  and  the  spirituous  left  un- 
touched.    See  Frost. 

FRENCH  BEANS.     See  Beans. 

FRENCH  BERRIES.  Bernes  oj 
Avignon.  The  green  fruit  of  the 
Rhamnus  infcctonus,  a  species  of 
buckthorn,  cultivated  in  France  as  a 
yellow  dyeing  material.  It  requires 
a  southern  climate,  and  in  other  re- 
spects does  not  differ  from  the  buck- 
thorn. It  may  be  propagated  by  cut- 
tings or  seeds.  The  Persian  berries 
are  the  finest  for  colouring. 

FRENCH  CLOVER.     Lucern. 

FRET,  or  FRETTE.  In  architec- 
ture, a  species  of  ornament  consist- 
ing of  one  or  more  small  fillets.  The 
section  of  the  channels  between  the 
fillets  is  rectangular.     The  subjoined 


diagram  shows  two  sorts  of  simple 
frets  ;  but  they  are  often  much  more 
complicated. 

FRIABLE.     Powdery,  mealy,  or 
readily  broken  into  a  powder. 


FRI 

FRICTION.  The  resistance  of- 
fered to  motion  by  a  rough  surface. 
In  mechanics,  it  is  divided  into  */i- 
ding,  rolling,  and  pivot  friction.  Of 
these,  the  amount  of  friction  with 
the  same  wciglit  is  twelve  to  twenty 
times  greater  in  sliding  than  rolling, 
and  is  intermediate  in  pivot  friction. 
Friction  is  diminished  hy  polish,  by 
reduction  of  weight,  by  causing  the 
surfaces  to  be  of  dissimilar  substan- 
ces, as  metal  or  wood,  and  by  apply- 
ing grease  in  sliding  and  pivot  fric- 
tion, but  not  in  rolling  friction. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  to  convert 
a  sliding  or  pivot  motion  into  a  roll- 
ing one,  much  is  gained  ;  hence  the 
arrangement  of  friction  wheels,  which 
consist  of  two  or  more  wheels,  sup- 
porting a  pivot  or  axle,  and  which,  by 
turning,  produce  a  rolling  instead  of 
a  pivot  friction.  Friction  wheels  have 
been  recently  introduced  into  carriage 
axles  ;  the  axis,  instead  of  playing  in 
the  box,  is  surrounded  with  small, 
loose  rollers,  which  revolve  with  it, 
reducing  the  friction  to  a  remarkable 
extent. 

Rigidity  of  cordage  is  also  produc- 
tive,  like  all  kinds  of  friction,  of  loss 
(if  power,  and  is  to  be  guarded  against 
hy  using  flexible  ropes.  The  amount 
of  friction  depends,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, on  the  diameter  of  the  wheel 
over  which  it  passes,  the  extent  of 
rope  in  contact,  and  its  tension.  When 
there  is  more  than  one  fold,  it  be- 
comes enormous,  so  as  to  be  used 
as  a  mechanical  means  for  stopping 
boats,  &c. 

FRIEZE.  In  architecture,  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  entablature  be- 
tween the  architrave  and  cornice. 
It  is  plain  in  the  Tuscan,  but  adorn- 
ed in  other  styles. 

FRIGID  ZONE.  The  space  above 
7GI  degrees  of  north  or  south  lati- 
tude. It  is  scarcely  occupied  by  any 
plants  but  a  few  lichens. 

FRINGE-TREE.  Chionanthus  Vir- 
ginica.  A  beautiful  ornamental  tree, 
growing  wild  as  far  north  as  Delaware, 
and  bearing  white  flowers  in  May. 

FRINGILLID-E  {from  frmgilla,  a 
chaffinch.)  A  tribe  of  birds,  of  the 
Passerine  family,  with  stout,  conical 


FRO 

bills  (conirostres),  including  the  lin- 
nets, canaries,  finches,  all  of  which 
are  devourers  of  grain. 

FROGS.  Amphibious  animals,  of 
the  genus  Rana.  The  common  spe- 
cies {R.  tcmporaria  and  cscnicnta)  are, 
for  the  mOBt  part,  insectivorous.  They 
should  not  be  destroyed  by  the  gar- 
dener, except  when  in  great  numbers, 
as  they  clear  his  garden  of  slugs, 
snails,  and  other  small  pests.  The 
green  frog  (escuUnta)  is  a  great  del- 
icacy with  some  :  the  flesh  of  the  hind 
leg  is  the  part  eaten. 

FROG  OF  THE  HORSE.  A  tri- 
angular portion  of  horn  projecting 
from  the  sole  almost  on  a  level  with 
the  crust,  and  defending  a  soft  and 
elastic  substance  called  the  sensible 
frog.  The  sensible  frog  occupies  the 
whole  of  the  back  part  of  the  foot, 
above  the  horny  frog  and  between 
the  cartilages. 

FROG  HOPPERS.  FROG  SPIT- 
TLE. CUCKOO  SPITTLE.  Small 
insects  {Ccrcopidida)  wiiich  inhabit 
the  twigs  and  branches  of  plants, 
from  which  they  extract  so  nmch 
juice  that  the  place  on  which  they 
are  collected  appears  covered  with 
spittle. 

FROND.  The  leaves  of  ferns  are 
so  called. 

FRONTAL.  In  anatomy,  apper 
taining  to  the  forehead. 

FRONTLET.  In  ornithology,  the 
part  of  the  head  next  the  bill,  usually 
covered  with  bristles. 

FROST.  Correctly  speaking,  frost 
is  ice  produced  by  radiation.  Under 
the  article  Dciv  it  has  been  stated 
that  in  bright,  clear,  calm  nights,  all 
objects  exposed  to  the  air  become 
cooled  by  radiation  into  the  sky ;  if 
the  temperature  falls  to  32-,  then 
frost,  or  pellicles  of  ice,  are  produced 
instead  of  dew.  The  word  is  also 
used  in  common  to  express  freezing  ; 
but,  in  the  latter  case,  the  air  is 
usually  at  or  below  32^  Fahrenheit, 
whereas  night  frosts  often  occur  in 
the  spring  and  fall  when  the  air  is 
40 '  to  50  'Fahrenheit.  Frosts  fall  ear- 
lier on  dark,  rough  lands  than  those 
of  a  light  colour  and  indurated  con- 
dition. 

309 


FROST. 


Frosts  are  most  injurious  to  plants 
at  50"  Fahrenheit,  in  full  vigour  of 
growth  ;  hence  a  slight  frost  in  spring 
usually  destroys  expanding  buds  and 
the  young  shoots  of  vegetables.  It 
may  act  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but 
commonly  by  freezing  the  sap  of  the 
leaves,  which  produces  a  disorgan- 
ization of  its  tissues.  Frosts  by  ra- 
diation occur  sooner  in  elevated  sit- 
uations, at  a  distance  from  lakes  or 
rivers,  than  in  valleys  that  are  kept 
moist.  Whatever  intercepts  the 
clearness  of  the  sky  diminishes  or  ar- 
rests frosts ;  thus,  clouds,  a  large 
quantity  of  vapour  in  the  air,  smoke, 
or  matting,  straw,  glass,  boards,  &c. 
Hence,  gardeners  cover  tender  plants 
with  leaves,  straw,  pine  brushwood, 
or  protect  them  with  mats  or  glass  ; 
in  such  cases,  the  radiation  is  from 
the  mats,  &c.,  and  not  from  the 
plants.  Watering  plants  abundantly 
at  nightfall,  when  the  evening  ap- 
pears clear  and  frost  may  be  appre- 
hended, is  often  efficacious  ;  water- 
ing before  sunrise,  after  a  slight  frost, 
is  also  valuable,  for  the  vapour  of 
water,  in  both  cases,  acts  as  a  cover- 
ing to  the  vegetation  ;  in  the  even- 
ing it  diminishes  radiation  ;  in  the 
morning  it  gently  warms  and  thaws 
the  leaves  before  the  destructive  ac- 
tion of  the  sun  can  take  place.  Trees 
are  often  preserved  by  twining  a 
quantity  of  rope  among  their  branch- 
es and  allowing  the  ends  to  dip  in  wa- 
ter. On  a  larger  scale,  the  Indians 
of  Cusco  used  to  burn  large  quanti- 
ties of  moist  straw  and  leaves  at  sun- 
set when  a  frost  was  apprehended, 
and  thus,  by  obscuring  the  sky,  hin- 
der radiation.  During  the  winter  a 
coating  of  snow  is  a  remarkable  pro- 
tection to  a  crop,  maintaining  it  at  a 
regular  temperature,  while  the  ex- 
posed surface  would  have  been  much 
injured  by  severe  frosts.  A  bed  of 
snow,  eight  inches  thick,  frequently 
measures  10°  Fahrenheit  at  the  sur- 
face and  32°  Fahrenheit  at  the  earth, 
and,  being  a  very  bad  conductor  of 
heat,  changes  its  lower  temperature 
very  slowly. 

Flooding  meadows  to  such  a  depth 
that  the  earth  may  not  be  frozen  is 
310 


one  of  the  most  certain  and  elTective 
means  of  saving  grass  and  advancing 
it  in  maturity  for  the  next  spring,  the 
water  being  withdrawn  when  the 
weather  has  become  mild  and  free 
from  frost ;  lands  over  which  fogs 
lie  long  are  also  well  protected  from 
early  frosts.  Exposure  has  also  much 
influence  on  the  early  occurrence  of 
frosts  ;  lands  which  receive  the 
least  sun  and  are  exposed  to  chilling 
winds  being  visited  much  sooner  than 
those  looking  to  the  south  and  shel- 
tered. 

The  night  frosts  produced  by  radi- 
ation are  very  different  from  the  cold- 
ness of  the  air  in  winter.  The  cold 
of  winter  does  not  act  precisely  like 
early  frosts ;  valleys  are  sooner  affect- 
ed than  hillsides  unless  they  contain 
water,  and  this  is  supposed  by  Lind- 
ley  to  be  produced  by  the  descent  of 
cold  air  from  above  into  them,  but 
is  also  due  to  the  lesser  duration  of 
sunshine.  During  our  winters  the 
sun  usually  retains  much  power,  so 
as  to  produce  thawing  in  places  where 
his  direct  beams  fall ;  this  effect  ta- 
king place  suddenly,  and  often  upoa 
trees  or  vegetable  structures,  is  very 
injurious,  so  that  delicate  trees  are 
often  destroyed  in  orchards  facing 
the  southeast  from  this  cause,  espe- 
cially in  the  spring.  Sudden  thawing, 
whether  taking  place  on  a  leaf,  tree, 
or  root,  is  much  more  injurious  than 
freezing  ;  for  the  expansion  produced 
in  the  gases  of  the  plant  causes  them 
to  rupture  the  cells  and  become  mix- 
ed with  the  fluids,  thus  commencmg 
decomposition.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  potatoes,  &c.,  may  be  kept 
frozen  for  a  year  or  more  without  in- 
jury, if  they  be  thawed  gradually  by 
immersion  in  spring  water  ;  but  if 
they  be  exposed  to  a  hot  sun,  or 
thrown  into  hot  water,  they  become 
disorganized,  and  rot  at  once.  Hence 
the  policy  of  the  gardener  and  or- 
chardist  is  to  plant  orchards  and  ex- 
pose early  vegetables  and  products  in 
such  a  manner  that  changes  from 
heat  to  cold  may  be  gradual,  and 
not  sudden.  The  retardation  of  flow- 
ering in  a  northern  situation,  in  fruit- 
trees,  is  amply  compensated  by  the 


FRU 


FUM 


greater  certainty,  so  that   a  north- 1 
western  position  is  now  preferred  for 
an  orchard.     Gardens  in  which  annu- 
al vegetables  only  are  raised  should 
haN-e  a  southeastern  exposure. 

The  preservation  of  fruits,  roots,  &C., 
depends  more  on  placing  them  out  of 
the  reach  of  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature than  keeping  them  free  from 
frost ;  for  if  kept  frozen,  they  remain 
sound  all  the  winter,  and  are  to  be 
thawed  slowly,  by  first  immersing  in 
spring  water  (at  40°  Fahrenheit),  in 
the  shade  ;  but  in  these  cases  the 
freezing  must  have  been  gradual,  and 
not  sudden.     See  Barrow. 

The  spewing  of  larids.  or  efHores- 
cence  of  ice  which  occurs  on  stiff 
soils  during  winter,  is  produced  by 
the  thawing  of  an  inch  or  two  of  the 
surface  during  the  winter,  and  a  sud- 
den frost  subsequently  :  in  this  way 
the  water  confined  in  the  thawed  part 
being  converted  into  ice,  and  expand- 
ing, cannot  find  passage  downward, 
and  so  is  thrown  up,  along  with  a 
portion  of  earth,  above  the  surface. 
It  does  not  occur  to  any  extent  on 
well-drained,  warm  soils,  and  is  fre- 
quently injurious  by  casting  out  the 
seeds  of  wheat  and  winter  grains. 
Drainage,  and  the  use  of  the  strong- 
rooted  wheats,  with  early  sowing, 
are  the  preventives. 

The  spewing  and  disintegrating 
effects  of  frost  on  lands  are  of  eminent 
service,  when  they  are  fallow,  in  pul- 
verizing the  soil  and  preparing  it  for 
the  spring  crop.  Exposing  stiff  lands 
to  frost  by  ploughing  in  the  fall  is 
almost  an  essential  condition  of  good 
tillage  :  it  is  also  of  great  service  in 
destroying  the  roots  of  weeds  and 
grubs  of  worms. 

Porous  sandstone  rocks  are  often 
much  disintegrated  by  the  action  of 
freezing  water,  driven  into  their  pores 
by  rains. 

FRUCTIFICATION.  The  part  of 
plants  destined  to  produce  fruit  or 
sporules. 

FRUIT.  In  botany,  the  ovarium 
arrived  at  maturity.  It  is  called 
fleshy  or  indehisccnt  when  pulpy,  and 
dehiscent  when  dry.  The  divisions 
within  the  fruit  are  termed  carpels. 


Commonly  it  means  a  fleshy  fruit 
only.     Fruits  arc  rather  laxative. 

FRUITING.     Bearing  Iruit. 

FRUIT  LNSECTS.  See  the  fruits, 
as  Apple.  Plum,  &c. 

FRU.VIEXTACEOUS.  Resembling 
wheat,  or  made  of  wheat. 

FRUSTRU.M.  The  part  of  a  solid 
cone  left  after  cutting  off  the  top. 

FRUTESCENT.     Woodv. 

FRUTEX.  A  shrub,  a  small  tree, 
the  branches  of  which  start  from  the 
soil  without  any  regular  trunk. 

FUCUS.  A  genus  of  sea-weeds. 
Fucnid,  like  a  sea-weed. 

FUEL.  Substances  used  to  obtain 
heat  are  called  fuel.  The  heat  pro- 
duced by  burning  a  given  weight  of 
fuel  increases  with  the  dryness,  so- 
lidity, and  amount  of  carbon.  The 
immediate  effect  depends  upon  the 
rapidity  of  burning,  which  is  hastened 
by  a  rapid  draught  of  air,  long  chim- 
ney, and  other  means.  One  pound 
of  bituminous  coal  will  raise  60  lbs. 
of  water  from  32°  to  212°  Fahrenheit. 
The  proportionate  values  of  other 
kinds  of  fuel,  measured  by  the  same 
effect,  are  : 

Dry  wood  ....  35  pounds  of  water. 

Common  wood     .     .  26  "  " 

Charcoal    ....  73  "  " 

Pit  coal       ....  60  "  " 

Coke 65  "  " 

Peat 30  "  " 

Oil,  tallow      .     .     .  78  .  "  " 

Coal  gas     ....  76  "  " 

F  U  L  C  R  U  M.  The  point  about 
which  a  lever  moves.     A  prop. 

FULGORA.  A  genus  of  insects, 
the  fore  part  of  the  head  of  which  is 
produced  into  a  large  hollow  recep- 
tacle. Some  are  supposed  to  emit  a 
brilliant  light. 

FULGURATION.  In  chemistry, 
the  sudden  brilliancy  emitted  by  gold 
and  silver  as  it  cools  from  fusion  be- 
fore the  blowpipe. 

FULIGINOUS  (from  fuligo,  soot). 
Sooty,  of  the  colour  or  appearance 
of  soot. 

FULLERS'  EARTH.  A  clayey 
mineral,  readily  miscible  with  water, 
used  for  fulling  or  cleaning  cloth  of 
grease. 

FULLERS'  TEASEL.  See  Teasel. 

FU.MIGATION.  The  exposure  of 
substances,  or  the  air  of  a  room,  to 
311 


FUN 


FUS 


certain  vapours,  to  counteract  a  dis- 
ease or  to  piiriiy.  AVaiiii  vinegar  is 
commonly  employed  ;  tliorongli  ven- 
tilation is  also  necessary.  Tlie  chlo- 
rine given  otr  from  chloride  of  lime, 
or  generated  by  adding  muriatic  acid 
to  black  oxide  of  manganese,  is  the 
best  fumigating  substance.  It  has 
the  i)o\ver  of  neutralizing  the  most 
disagreeable  odours,  but  is  injurious 
to  health,  and  must  only  be  used  in 
vacant  apartments. 

FU.MITORY.  Fumaria  officinalis. 
Cultivated  chiefly  as  a  flower  :  cattle 
will  eat  the  herbage. 

FUNDI,  FUNDUNGI.  Paspalum 
exile.  Hungary  rice.  A  gramine- 
ous annual  plant  growing  18  inches 
high,  and  producing  an  abundance  of 
minute  seeds,  which  are  used  in  Af- 
rica as  rice.  It  is  sown  on  dry  natu- 
ral soils  in  May,  and  reaped  in  Septem- 
ber, the  seeds  being  readily  thrashed 
out. 

FUNGI.  The  race  of  mushrooms, 
toad-stools,  blight,  rust,  &c.  They 
consist  of  cells  only,  and  produce 
spores,  or  seeds,  without  flowers. 
Fungi  grow,  for  the  most  part,  on 
dead  or  living  vegetable  matters. 
Those  fungi  are  poissonous  that  have 
a  disagreeable  narcotic  smell.  The 
most  important  will  be  found  in  this 
book.  The  word  fungoid,  like  a  mush- 
room, is  a  derivative. 

FUNGICOLA.  A  genus  of  cole- 
opterous insects  dwelling  in  mush- 
rooms. 

F  U  N  G  I N.  The  white,  tasteless 
solid  remaining  after  mushrooms 
have  been  fully  digested  in  alcohol 
and  in  water.  It  is  an  azotized  mat- 
ter nearly  resembling  fibrin,  and  very 
nutritious. 

FUNGUS.  A  mushroom.  In  far- 
riery, proud  flesh,  a  fleshy  excres- 
cence growing  out  of  a  sore,  or  about 
the  edges  of  an  ulcer.  It  should  be 
reduced  by  the  use  of  caustic.  Lu- 
nar caustic  or  red  precipitate  is  the 
best  application. 

FUNICULUS.  In  anatomy,  the 
cord  which  attaches  the  foetus  to  the 
after-birth,  or  placenta,  also  called  the 
umbilical  cord.  The  thread  by  which 
tlie  seed  is  fastened  to  the  carpel. 
312 


FUNNEL.  A  trumpet-shaped  ves- 
sel open  at  both  ends,  used  to  trans- 
ler  fluids,  and  especially  in  chemis- 
try, to  lay  filters  upon. 

FUNNEL-SHAPED.  Infundibuli 
form,  a  term  descriptive  of  the  figure 
of  some  flowers. 

FUR.  The  skins  of  animals  well 
covered  with  hair.  The  unprepared 
dry  skins  are  called  peltries. 

FURFUR ACEOUS  (from  furfur, 
hraji).     Resembling  bran. 

FURLONG.  The  eighth  of  a  mile  : 
40  poles. 

FURNACE.  In  chemistry,  a 
small,  moveable  vessel  of  plumbago 
or  fire  clay,  in  which  charcoal  may 
be  burned  for  the  purpose  of  distilla- 
tions, heating  lubes,  &c.  It  is  usu- 
ally provided  with  several  parts  for 
the  convenience  of  carrying  on  the 
several  processes  and  obtaining  a 
high  heat. 

FURRIERS'  WASTE.  The  clip- 
pings of  skins  :  as  a  manure  it  is  sim- 
ilar to  old  rags. 

FURUNCULUS.     A  boil. 

FURROW.  The  movement  of  the 
earth  produced  by  the  action  of  a 
plough :  furrow  slice  is  the  slip  of 
eartli  turned  over. 

FURROW,  \^'ATER.  The  fur- 
row made  in  ploughed  lands  to  let  off 
surface  water. 

F  U  R  Z  E.  Shrubs  of  the  genus 
Ulex,  the  most  common  of  which,  V. 
Europeus,  is  also  called  gorse  and 
whin.  It  is  a  hardy,  leguminous  ev- 
ergreen, growing  abundantly  on  poor 
lands,  and  made  use  offer  hedging  and 
coarse  fodder  in  Europe.  It  grows 
rapidly,  so  that  it  can  be  cut  every 
four  years  for  fuel,  and  is  so  far  nu- 
tritious that  horses  are  often  main- 
tained on  furze  only ;  but,  considering 
the  abundance  of  excellent  fodder 
plants  we  possess,  the  introduction 
of  furze  is  scarcely  worthy  of  thought. 
As  a  fencing  material,  it  is  objection- 
able, from  the  room  it  requires,  but 
the  prickles  with  which  it  is  covered 
make  it  a  sure  defence. 

FUSIFORM.  Spindle-shaped,  ta- 
pering to  each  end  ;  a  descriptive 
term  in  botany. 

FUSION.    Melting.    In  fusion,  a 


GAL 

great  amount  of  heat  becomes  latent. 
The  point  of  fusion  difiers  extremely 
in  metals,  from  six  hundred  to  several 
thousand  degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

FUSTET.  The  wood  of  the  Rhus 
colinus.     Young  fustic. 

FUSTIC.  The  wood  of  the  Morus 
tinctoria,  a  species  of  mulberry.  It  i 
yields  a  dingy,  yellow  orange  dye  to 
water  ;  it  imparts  permanent  colours  I 
to  wool  when  mordanted  with  alum 
or  a  solution  of  tin.  It  mixes  well 
with  indigo  and  Saxon  blue,  forming 
a  green.  With  copperas  it  forms  ol- 
ives and  browns.  Five  to  six  parts 
of  the  old  wood  give  a  lemon  colour 
to  16  of  cloth.  The  colour  is  less 
altered  by  acids  than  other  yellows, 
but  it  is  inferior  in  brightness  to  weld. 
The  fustic-tree  grows  naturally  in 
the  West  Indies  and  America. 

FUSTIC,  YOUNG.  A  name  for 
the  Rhus  cotuius,  or  Italian  sumac, 
which  yields  a  greenish-yellow  dye, 
used  in  mixtures. 

G. 

GABLE.  The  triangular  piece  of 
wall  at  the  ends  of  a  house,  immedi- 
ately under  the  roof 

GADFLY,  BREEZE.  Dipterous 
insects  of  the  genus  JEstrus.  These 
insects  nearly  resemble  the  botflies  ; 
they  deposite  their  eggs  under  the 
skin  of  animals,  w4iich  they  pierce, 
giving  considerable  pain.  The  yel- 
low-eyed forest  flies  that  infest  hor- 
ses in  July  are  of  the  genus  Cnjsops. 

GAGE,  GAUGE.  In  physics,  an 
instrument  to  measure  any  result,  as 
wnid-gacre,  rain-sas^- 

GALACTOPOIETIC  (from  yala, 
milk,  and  tzouu,  I  make).  Substan- 
ces which  increase  the  flow  of  milk. 
The  affixes  gala  and  galacto  indicate 
milk  or  milky  ;  as  galactmneler.  See 
Lactometer. 

GALANGAL.  Ktempfcria  galan- 
ga.  A  root  formerly  used  in  medi- 
cine, and  imported  from  China. 

G  A  L B  A N  U  .M.  Galbanum  offici- 
nale. An  umbelliferous  herb  of  Af- 
rica. A  fetid  gum  resin  exudes  spon- 
taneously from  it  of  antispasmodic 
propeitif  s. 

GALBULA  A  genus  of  climbing 
D  D 


GAL 

birds  like  the  kingfishers  ;  they  live 
in  wet  forests,  and  are  insectivorous. 

GALBILUS.  A  fruit  of  a  round- 
ed form,  but  with  an  internal  conical 
arrangement  of  the  carpels  ;  as  that 
of  the  savine,  junipers,  and  yew. 

GALEATE.  Helmet-shaped.  In 
botany  the  term  is  applied  to  the  up- 
per arched  lip  of  personate  flowers. 

GALENA.  Sulphuretoflead.  An 
abundant  ore  of  a  bright  metallic  col- 
our and  cubical  form. 

GALERUCA.  A  genus  of  coleop- 
terous insects,  the  type  of  the  Gale- 
rucnlce,  including  the  Haltica.  They 
are  vegetable  feeders  in  the  perfect 
and  larva  state.  The  yellow-striped 
squash  beetle  (G.  vitata)  is  of  this 
genus. 

GALIUM.  A  genus  of  plants,  of 
which  cleavers  {G.  aparine)  is  a  spe- 
cies. G.  verum  is  used  as  rennet  to 
curdle  milk  in  cheese-making.  The 
family  of  plants  of  which  it  is  the 
type  {Galiacece)  includes  madder  and 
spurry.  The  whole  family  is  nutri- 
tious. 

j      GALL.     Bile.     Ox  gall  is  of  great 
I  service  for  removing  oil  spots  from 
cloth  and  carpets,  and  for  fastening 
'  and  brightening  colours.     The  gall- 
1  bladder  is  the  small  sack  situated  un- 
:  der  the  liver,  and  contains  gall.     It 
'  communicates  with  the  small  intes- 
I  tines  by  the  biliary  duct.     Gall  stones 
are  concretions  formed  in  this  blad- 
I  der,  which  consist,  for  the  most  part, 
i  of  hardened  bile  or  of  cholesterine. 
i      GALLIC  ACID.    A  crystalline,  in- 
odorous substance,   slightly  soluble 
:  and  styptic.     It  precipitates  per  salts 
'  of  iron  of  a  black  colour.    It  is  form- 
;  ed  by  exposing  a  solution  of  tannic 
acid  to  air,  bv  which  oxygen  is  ab- 
sorbed:   formula  C;  K3  Og.     Gallic 
acid  IS  of  little  importance,  and  sel- 
dom occurs  naturally  in  plants. 

GALLED.  Naked,  bare.  Exco- 
riations on  the  skin  of  animals  are 
often  called  galls  and  galled  spots. 

GALL-NUTS.  Excrescences  pro- 
duced on  the  leaves  and  leaf  stalks 
of  the  Querciis  infectoria  by  an  insect 
(cynips).  They  are  best  from  the 
Levant,  of  a  dark  colour,  heavy,  and 
of  the  size  of  a  bullet ;  but  other  galls, 
313 


GAL 


GAM 


with  a  prickly  surface,  are  formed  on 
the  Q.  cents,  &.c. 

Gall-nuts  contain  tannic  acid,  yel- 
low colouring  matter,  and  gallic  acid. 
The  decoction  produces  a  variety  of 
coloured  precipitates,  with  reagents  ; 
with  solution  of  tin,  a  yellow  ;  alum, 
a  yellow  gray  ;  acetate  of  copper,  a 
chocolate ;  red  sulphate  of  iron,  a 
blue  black.  They  are  used  in  making 
ink  and  dyeing.     See  Tamun. 

GALLINACEOUS.  Birds  resem- 
bling the  domestic  cock  ;  as  turkeys, 
pheasants,  pigeons. 

GALLON.  The  imperial  measure 
contains  277-274  inches,  or  10  pounds 
of  distilled  water  at  62°  Fahrenheit. 
It  is  equal  to  four  quarts,  or  eight 
pints.  The  old  wine  gallon  contained 
231  cubic  inches ;  the  beer  gallon,  282 
cubic  inches.  Each  of  these  stand- 
ards is  used  in  different  states.  The 
half  peck  is  a  gallon  in  dry  measure. 

GALLOWAY.  A  pony  of  13  to  14 
hands.  Originally,  a  small  breed  of 
horses.    A  variety  of  Scotch  cattle. 

GALLOWS  OF  A  PLOUGH.  A 
part  of  the  plough  head. 

GALLS.  In  farriery,  wounds  pro- 
duced by  the  friction  of  harness.  The 
little  tumours  formed  under  saddles 
are  called  warbles.  Washing  the 
galled  places  with  a  solution  of  sugar 
of  lead,  or  keeping  them  clean  with  a 
plaster  ofcommon  ointment,  or  dress- 
ing with  Turner's  cerate,  and  allow- 
ing no  farther  pressure  on  the  part 
until  it  is  healed,  are  the  proper  rem- 
edies. Wir.dgalls  are  little  tumours 
about  the  heels  of  horses  over-driven. 

GALVANISM.  That  form  of  elec- 
tricity produced  by  the  chemical  ac- 
tion of  one  body  on  another.  A  sim- 
ple galvanic  circle  or  arrangement 
consists  of  a  metal  subject  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  fluid,  and  a  second  not  in- 
fluenced thereby,  an  exciting  fluid, 
with  wires,  called  poles,  proceedmg 
from  each  metal.  The  most  com- 
mon materials  are  zinc,  copper,  and 
sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  twelve 
parts  water.  The  acid  acts  on  the 
zinc  only,  and  the  electricity  so  pro- 
duced is  conveyed  along  the  wires  or 
poles.  No  galvanism  passes  until  the 
pules  are  brought  in  contact  ;  any  flu- 
311 


id  or  body  between  them,  which  is  an 
imperfect  conductor,  is  heated  or  de- 
composed by  the  current.  A  galvan- 
ic pile  consists  of  a  series  of  the  two 
metals  so  arranged  that  the  coppers 
and  zincs  touch  in  pairs  :  two  poles 
at  the  extremities  discharge  the  elec- 
tricity produced  by  the  whole  appa- 
ratus. Other  metals  and  fluids  are 
used,  as  well  as  peculiar  arrange- 
ments contrived  for  the  production 
of  a  continuous  current.  For  the  ap- 
plication of  galvanism  to  agriculture, 
see  Electricity.  There  are  two  con- 
ditions of  the  galvanic  fluid  referred 
to  by  chemists,  i.  e.,  quantity  and  ten- 
sion. Quantity  is  produced  by  using 
very  large  surfaces  of  metal  and 
strong  exciting  fluids ;  tension  by 
emi)loying  numerous  pairs. 

GALVANOMETER.  "An instru- 
ment for  ascertaining  the  presence 
of  a  current  of  electricity,  especially 
galvanic  or  voltaic  electricity,  by  the 
deviation  which  it  occasions  in  the 
magnetic  needle.  The  ^  { 
simplest  form  of  gal-  [ 
vanometer  is  a  mag- 
netic needle  poised 
upon  a  point,  and  sur-  j\ 

rounded  by  one  or 
more  coils  of  copper  wire,  covered 
with  silk,  the  ends,  a  and  A,  being  ei- 
ther left  free,  or  terminating  in  two 
small  copper  cups  containing  mercu- 
ry, for  the  convenience  of  communi- 
cation with  the  source  of  electricity. 
When  this  needle  is  placed  parallel 
to  the  coil,  and  in  the  magnetic  me- 
ridian (as  represented  in  the  margin), 
it  immediately  deviates  when  the 
electric  current  passes  through  the 
coil;  and  the  deviation  is  either  to 
the  east  or  the  west,  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  current." — (Brande.) 

GAMA  GRASS.  Tripsacum  dac- 
tyloides.  A  coarse,  perennial,  indi- 
genous southern  grass,  growing  to 
four  or  five  feet.  It  is  very  produc- 
tive, and  may  be  propagated  by  seeds 
or  roots.  The  cultivation  is  scarce- 
ly thought  advantageous. 

GAMBOGE.  The  dry  juice  of  the 
Stalagmites  Cambogioides  and  other 
East  Indian  trees.  This  colour  is  a 
gum  resin  ;  it  is  poisonous,  a  drastic 


GAR 


GAR 


purge  and  emetic.  Water-colour 
painters  employ  it  extensively. 

GANGLICJN  (from  jayy/mv,  a 
knot).  A  natural  swelling  or  enlarge- 
ment on  a  nerve.  A  painful  tumour 
formed  on  the  sheatli  of  a  tendon. 

GANGRENE  (from  ypaetv,  to  feed 
upon).  Mortitication.  An  ulcer  which 
produces  the  death  of  the  part ;  this 
result  is  usually  the  consequence  of 
very  feeble  health.  Nutritious  stim- 
ulants are  to  be  administered. 

GANGRENE  IN  TREES.  A 
blackening  of  the  inner  bark,  various- 
ly produced,  leading  to  the  death  of 
the  tree  unless  cut  below  the  disease. 

GANGUE.  The  mineral  in  which 
ores  are  imbedded,  also  termed  the 
matrix. 


GAPE.  In  ornithology,  the  open- 
ing between  the  mandibles. 

GAPES.  A  disease  in  young  chick- 
ens and  turkeys  attended  with  much 
gaping.     See  Puullnj. 

GARDEN.  The  enclosure  allot- 
ted to  the  cultivation  of  culinary 
plants.  Its  great  productiveness  is 
a  lesson  in  favour  of  deep  spade  till- 
age. Those  parts  devoted  to  annu- 
als should  have  a  southern  exposure  ; 
but  trees  and  perennials  require  a 
sheltered  or  northwestern  aspect. 
Plants  which  flower  should  be  plant- 
ed far  apart.  The  soil  must  be  well 
drained.  Walls  and  trellises  in  gar- 
dens are  of  the  first  importance  to 
shelter  vegetables  and  allow  choice 
trees  to  be  trained. 


GARDEN  HUSBANDRY.  "This 
is  a  branch  of  horticulture,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  raise  fruits,  vegetables, 
and  seeds  for  profit  on  a  smaller 
extent  of  ground  than  is  usually  oc- 
tnipied  for  the  purpose  of  agricul- 
ture. 

"  The  best  examples  of  this  kind  of 
industr)'  are  found  among  the  market- 
gardeners  near  populous  towns,  par- 
ticularly London,  Paris,  and  Amster- 
dam. By  the  application  of  much 
manual  labour  and  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  manure,  they  accelerate  the 
growth  of  vegetables,  and  produce 
them  more  abundantly  than  where 
manure  is  not  so  easily  obtained,  or 


where  there  i.s  not  so  large  a  demand 
for  the  produce. 

"  The  gardeners  near  Paris,  some 
of  whom  have  gardens  within  the  out- 
er walls  of  the  city,  are  called  Marai- 
chcrs,  from  the  situation  of  their  gar- 
dens in  a  low  district  which  was  for- 
merly a  marsh  (marais).  The  indus- 
try of  this  laborious  class  is  prover- 
bial. Their  whole  life  is  devoted  to 
their  gardens.  They  work  the  whole 
day  in  the  greatest  heat  of  the  sun, 
and  long  before  the  rest  of  the  inhab- 
itants awake  they  are  on  the  way  to 
the  market  with  their  produce.  The 
soil  in  which  they  raise  their  vegeta- 
bles is  naturally  a  poor  sand,  but  by 
315 


GARDEN  lir.sBANDKV 


constant  manuring  it  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  very  ric'li  mould,  abound- 
ing in  humus.  From  its  porous  nature 
and  the  frequent  recurrence  of  dry 
summers,  it  would  jjroduce  little  with- 
out constant  and  abundant  watering. 
The  raising  of  water  from  numerous 
wells  dispersed  through  the  grounds, 
and  conveying  it  to  the  growing  plants, 
is  the  most  laborious  part  of  the 
work  :  during  the  whole  summer  this 
labour  is  incessant.  There  are  large 
stone  cisterns  in  whicii  the  water  is 
allowed  to  remain,  that  it  may  ac- 
quire the  temperature  of  the  air  ;  and 
from  these  it  is  carried  by  pipes  into 
various  channels  which  intersect  the 
garden  in  every  direction.  These 
gardeners  divide  the  season  into 
three  periods.  The  first  begins  in 
October,  when  they  sow  lettuces  in 
a  hot-bed,  which  are  pricked  out  a 
month  after,  and  planted  finally  in  a 
sheltered  border  about  the  end  of 
January,  the  ground  having  been 
well  dug  and  abundantly  manured 
with  very  rotten  dung  taken  from  the 
hot-beds.  At  the  same  time,  they  sow 
radishes  and  leeks  among  the  lettuces. 
The  radishes  are  sold  by  the  end  of 
March,  the  lettuces  in  May,  and  the 
leeks  in  June.  This  completes  the 
first  season.  The  ground  is  now 
dug  again,  and  manured  with  fresh 
long  stable-dung,  mixed  with  the 
earth  of  which  the  hot-beds  were 
formed  ;  in  this  they  plant  alternate 
rows  of  endive  or  scarolles  (both  va- 
rieties of  chicory),  and  of  cucumbers, 
which  produce  gherkins  for  pickling 
and  sauces.  The  endive  is  sold  in 
July,  and  the  small  cucumbers  con- 
tinue to  be  gathered  till  September. 
In  the  third  season,  which  is  the 
shortest,  another  digging  and  dung- 
ing is  given,  after  which  they  sow- 
radishes  and  small  winter-salad,  of 
which  the  French  have  a  great  vari- 
ety. Winter  endive  is  also  planted 
for  blanching.  From  this  statement 
it  appears  that  the  ground  produces 
a  constant  succession  of  culinary 
vegetables,  and  that  it  is  manured 
thrice  in  the  year.  The  great  object 
is  to  have  a  rapid  succession,  and  to 
allow  no  plant  to  occupy  the  ground 
316 


long.  Cabbages,  cauliflowers,  aspar- 
agus, artichokes,  and  other  vrgcta- 
blcs  which  remain  a  long  time  on  the 
ground,  are  cultivated  at  a  greater 
distance  from  Paris,  where  the  land 
lets  at  a  lower  rate.  These  plants 
will  bear  to  be  carried  to  a  greater 
distance  than  the  delicate  vegetables 
which  are  used  chiefly  in  a  raw  state 
as  salads.  The  only  perennial  plant 
in  the  gardens  of  the  Maraichers  is 
sorrel,  of  which  there  is  a  great  con- 
sumption. This  is  continually  dung- 
ed and  watered  to  accelerate  its 
growth,  and  is  cut  many  times  in  the 
season.  It  must,  however,  be  allowed 
that  this  forcing  with  manure  and 
water,  although  it  produces  large  and 
delicate  fibres,  does  not  give  the  fla- 
vour which  belongs  to  vegetables 
grown  in  common  earth,  and  which 
have  had  a  more  natural  growth. 

"The  market-gardens  near  London 
are  on  a  larger  scale,  and  if  they  pro- 
duce fewer  salads  and  pot-herbs,  they 
produce  better  and  more  substantial 
vegetables,  and  likewise  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  fruit. 

"  The  best  soil  is  a  moist  alluvial 
loam  deposited  from  repeated  over- 
flowings of  the  Thames,  which  are 
now  prevented  by  banks  or  dikes  ; 
but  an  increased  demand  for  vegeta- 
bles has  caused  much  inferior  soils 
to  be  cultivated  as  gardens,  and  in- 
creased labour  and  manure  have  sup- 
plied the  deficiency  in  natural  fertil- 
ity. The  gardeners'  year  properly 
begins  in  autumn,  when  the  land  is 
dug,  or,  rather,  trenched,  and  well 
manured.  Various  vegetables  which 
will  be  required  in  winter  are  now 
sown,  and  especially  those  which  are 
to  produce  plants  to  be  set  out  in 
spring ;  spinach,  onions,  radishes,  and 
winter  salads  are  sown,  and  when  the 
weather  is  severe,  are  protected  by 
a  slight  covering  of  straw  or  mats. 
In  February,  the  cauliflowers  which 
have  been  raised  in  frames  or  under 
hand-glasses  are  planted  out.  The 
cabbage  plants  are  pricked  out.  The 
radishes,  onions,  and  salads  go  to 
market  as  soon  as  they  are  of  suffi- 
cient size,  and  sugar-loaf  cabbages 
succeed  them.     As  the  cauliflowers 


GARDEN  HUSBANDRY. 


are  taken  ofT,  they  are  succeeded  by  ! 
endive  and  celery,  and  the  same  is 
the  case  with  the  cabbages.  Thus 
there  is  a  constant  succession  of  ve- 
getables, without  one  moment's  res- 
pite to  tlie  jiround,  whicli,  in  conse- 
quence of  continual  stirring  and  ma- 
nuring, maintains  its  productive  pow- 
er. Deep  trenching  in  some  degree 
prevents  that  peculiar  deterioration  of 
the  soil  which  would  be  the  conse- 
quence of  the  frequent  repetition  of 
sunilar  plants.  This  effect  is  most 
perceptible  when  the  plants  perfect 
their  seed,  which  is  seldom  or  never 
allowed  to  take  place  in  market  gar- 
dens ;  but  great  attention  is  paid  to 
the  species  of  plants  which  succeed 
each  other  on  the  same  spot.  The 
pruiciple  which  experience  and  the- 
ory unite  in  establishing,  is  that  of 
avoiding  the  too  frequent  recurrence 
of  plants  which  belong  to  the  same 
natural  families.  The  greater  vari- 
ety cultivated  in  gardens,  in  compar- 
ison with  the  common  produce  on  a 
farm,  enables  this  principle  to  be  fully 
acted  upon.  Those  gardeners  who 
overlook  this,  and  repeatedly  sow  or 
plant  the  same  kind  of  vegetables  in 
the  same  spots,  are  soon  aware  of 
their  error  by  the  diminution  of  the 
produce,  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 
and  by  various  diseases  which  attack 
the  plants,  however  abundant  may  be 
the  food  supplied  to  them  or  careful 
the  tillage. 

"  The  principle  on  which  the  gar- 
dens are  cultivated  is  that  of  forcing 
vegetation  by  means  of  an  abundant 
supply  of  dung,  constant  tillage,  and 
occasional  watering.  The  whole  sur- 
face is  converted  into  a  species  of 
liot-bed,  and  crop  succeeds  crop  with 
a  rapidity  which  is  truly  astonishing. 
Those  vegetables  which  arrive  at  a 
marketable  state  in  the  least  time  are 
always  the  most  profitable,  and  those 
also  for  which  there  is  a  constant  de- 
mand at  all  times  of  the  year.  Witli 
an  abundant  supply  of  manure,  the 
market  gardeners  have  no  fear  of  ex- 
hausting the  soil,  and  dissimilar  ve- 
getables may  grow  together  on  the 
same  ground.  Trees  bearing  fruit 
may  be  planted  in  rows,  especially 
Dd2 


those  of  the  dwarf  kind,  and  undei 
them  those  vegetables  which  do  not 
require  much  sun  may  be  raised  to 
advantage.  Raspberries,  gooseber- 
ries, and  currants  are  planted  in  the 
rows  between  the  trees.  These  rows 
being  thirty  or  forty  feet  apart,  leave 
ample  room  for  vegetables  ;  but  in 
those  gardens  where  the  finest  vege- 
tables are  raised,  and  particularly  in 
those  which  are  appropriated  to  the 
growth  of  seeds,  no  trees  are  permit- 
ted to  shade  the  ground  ;  even  the 
hedges,  if  there  are  any,  are  kept  low 
and  clipped,  that  they  may  not  give 
any  shade,  or  harbour  small  birds. 

"  A  garden  should  always  be  laid 
out  in  a  regular  form,  with  narrow  par- 
allel beds,  and  paths  between  them. 
One  or  more  roads,  of  sufficient  width 
to  allow  a  cart  to  pass,  should  inter- 
sect these  beds  at  right  angles,  for 
the  convenience  of  bringing  manure 
and  taking  off  the  produce.  The  beds 
should  not  be  above  six  feet  wide,  so 
that  a  person  may  easily  pull  up 
weeds  or  gather  the  vegetables  with- 
out treading  upon  the  beds.  The  sur- 
face soil  taken  from  the  paths  serves 
to  raise  the  beds,  and  in  retentive 
soils  may  carry  off  the  superfluous 
water  after  sudden  and  violent  rains. 
The  whole  ground  should  have  been 
trenched  two  spits  deep  or  more  ;  and 
this  trenching  should  be  frequently 
repeated,  to  mix  the  upper  with  the 
under  part  of  the  soil,  and  distribute 
the  decomposed  dung  throughout  the 
whole  depth.  Thus  in  time  a  rich 
j  black  mould  will  be  produced,  in  which 
I  every  kind  of  vegetable  will  grow 
I  most  rapidly.  For  early  plants,  and 
those  which  are  used  in  winter,  and 
require  to  be  protected  from  frost, 
narrow  beds  are  made  lying  in  a  di- 
rection east  and  west,  and  sloping  to- 
wards the  south,  wiln  the  north  side 
raised  high,  so  that  their  surface 
forms  an  angle  of  twenty  or  thirty  de- 
grees with  the  horizon.  This  gives 
the  plants  a  protection  from  the  north 
winds,  and  exposes  them  more  to  the 
influence  of  the  sun.  In  very  frosty 
weather,  these  beds  are  covered  with 
mats  or  loose  straw.  We  do  not 
mention  frames  covered  with  glass, 
317 


GARDEN  IIUSDANDRV, 


as  they  belong  to  a  liigher  kind  of 
horticulture  ;  hut  a  moderate  hot-bed 
made  with  fresh  dung,  and  covered 
with  mats  laid  over  hoops,  is  indis- 
pensalde  for  the  raising  of  early  ve- 
getables. By  these  means  radishes 
and  various  salads  may  be  raised  very 
early  in  the  spring,  and  sometimes  in 
mild  winters,  without  any  interrup- 
tion during  the  whole  year. 

"  An  abundant  supply  of  manure  is 
indispensable  in  a  market  garden,  and 
this  can  generally  be  obtained  in  large 
towns  at  a  trifling  expense.  Tlie 
neighbourhood  of  a  town  is  therefore 
a  necessary  circumstance  towards 
the  production  of  the  crop,  as  well  as 
its  sale.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
make  a  sufEcient  quantity  of  manure 
by  means  of  the  horses  which  are  em- 
ployed to  carry  the  produce  to  mar- 
ket, and  the  extent  of  land  usually 
laid  out  in  garden  ground  could  not 
raise  sufficient  food  for  cattle  with- 
out taking  up  a  space  which  may  be 
more  protitably  employed.  The  only 
animal  which  can  be  kept  to  advan- 
tage by  a  gardener  is  a  pig.  This 
animal  will  live  well  on  the  ofTal  of 
vegetables,  and  the  gardens  of  cotta- 
gers could  not  well  be  kept  in  a  fertile 
state  if  it  were  not  for  the  manure 
made  by  the  pigs. 

"  The  market  gardeners  about  Am- 
sterdam are  mostly  Jews,  and  the 
vegetables  which  they  bring  to  mar- 
ket are  similar  to  those  of  the  Lon- 
don or  Paris  gardeners  ;  but  they  ex- 
cel particularly  in  raising  cauliflow- 
ers, large  white  cabbages  for  making 
saur-kraut,  French  beans,  cucumbers, 
and  melons.  They  also  excel  in  the 
forcing  of  early  pease  and  beans,  and 
in  the  general  management  of  hot- 
beds. 

"The  profits  of  a  garden  near  a 
large  city,  of  the  extent  of  10  or  12 
acres,  are  as  great  as  that  of  a  farm 
of  ten  times  the  extent  cultivated  in 
the  best  manner,  without  the  help  of 
purchased  manure.  But  if  manure 
can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  rate, 
as  is  often  the  case  in  great  thorough- 
fares, where  many  horses  are  kept 
for  public  conveyances,  although 
there  be  no  immediate  demand  for 
318 


vegetables,  a  garden  may  be  very 
profitably  cultivated,  entirely  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  seeds.  The  de- 
mand for  seeds  of  all  the  most  com- 
mon productions  of  a  garden,  and  es- 
pecially of  flowers,  is  very  great,  and 
the  profit  of  those  who  retail  them 
in  small  quantities  is  so  great  that 
they  can  aflbrd  a  liberal  price  to  those 
who  raise  them  with  proper  care,  so 
as  to  keep  the  varieties  distinct. 

"  Many  plans  have  been  proposed 
for  the  distribution  of  the  crops  in  a 
garden  ;  but  none  of  them  are  suited 
to  every  situation.  Much  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  which  may 
be  better  suited  to  one  kind  of  prod- 
uce than  another,  and  also  to  the 
demand  far  any  peculiar  class  of  ve- 
getables. New  sorts  may  often  be  in- 
troduced with  advantage.  The  rais- 
ing of  any  useful  plant  with  great 
care  will  often  give  a  man  a  reputa- 
tion, which  makes  it  advantageous  to 
him  to  confine  himself  to  these  prin- 
cipally, and  raise  them  in  the  great- 
est perfection.  An  ingenious  man 
will  find  out  what  is  most  for  his  own 
advantage  ;  and,  from  the  list  of 
plants  which  may  be  cultivated  for 
ornament  or  for  use,  a  selection  may 
be  made  which  may  be  well  suited  to 
the  situation  of  the  ground  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  grower.  The 
practice  of  the  market  gardeners  may 
be  examined  with  advantage  ;  and 
long  experience,  with  the  test  of  prof- 
it, will  lay  down  better  practical  rules 
than  the  most  plausible  theories." 

The  implements  necessary  for  gar- 
den tillage  are  displayed  in  Xhe figure; 
the  plough  may  be  used  to  assist  in 
trenching,  and  improved  drills  for 
sowing  ;  but  the  spade,  rake,  and  hoe 
are  the  principal  tools ;  indeed,  labour 
is  the  great  essential  in  the  garden. 

"  The  application  of  the  garden 
husbandry  must  be  in  the  preparation 
of  the  soil  by  deep  trenching  and  dig- 
ging, carefully  drilling  or  dibbling  all 
the  seeds  in  rows,  stirring  the  soil 
between  the  growing  plants,  and 
keeping  the  ground  clear  of  weeds 
by  the  hand  and  the  hoe.  These  last 
are  the  most  essential  part  of  the 
cultivation.     By  daily   attention   to 


GAU 


GAR 


the  progress  of  the  plants,  and  con- 
tinual assistance  at  critical  periods, 
sometimes  thinning  out,  and  at  oth- 
er times  transplanting  to  produce  an 
equal  crop,  and  treating  every  plant 
as  if  it  were  a  raie  plant  in  a  garden, 
the  ground  may  be  made  to  produce 
m<ne  than  double  what  the  niost  at- 
tentive farmer  could  expect  on  a  lar- 
ger scale." 

These  short  rules  may  be  added 
for  garden  cultivation  : 

1.  Regulate  the  distribution  of 
your  plants  with  respect  to  shade  and 
sun.  Ordinary  standard  trees  should 
be  OK  the  north  and  west  sides,  near 
or  against  the  wall  or  fence,  so  as 
not  to  shade  too  nmch  from  the  sun. 

2.  Alternate  the  crops,  and  do  not 
plant  varieties  together,  lest  the  pol- 
len should  mix. 

3.  Plant  immediately  after  prepa- 
ring the  soil. 

4.  Seeds  and  young  plants  require 
to  be  kept  moist,  and  with  light  soil 
about  them. 

5.  Stirring  the  earth  about  well- 
set  plants  is  one  of  the  most  certain 
and  rapid  means  of  forwarding  vege- 
tables. 

6.  Trench  the  soil  over  sixteen  or 
eighteen  inches  deep  regularly  every 
four  or  live  years,  taking  a  fifth  part 
annually. 

The  following  remarks  from  Judge 
Buel  are  concise,  and  well  adapted  to 
farmers  : 

"  The  month  of  ;\Iay  is  an  impor- 
tant one  in  the  operations  of  the  gar- 
den. If  not  already  done,  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  sowing  the  seeds  of 
onions,  salads,  early  cabbage,  pease, 
radishes,  and  in  planting  some  early 
corn  and  potatoes.  The  beet,  carrot, 
parsnip,  and  summer  squash  may 
also  be  sown.  Cabbages  for  winter 
use  may  be  sown  in  time  from  the 
20lh  to  the  30th.  As  soon  as  the 
soil  and  the  season  are  warm  enough 
to  bring  up  corn,  which  here  is  gen- 
erally from  the  15th  to  the  20th,  plant 
your  melons,  pumpkins,  and  cucum- 
bers, though  it  will  do  equally  well  to 
plant  the  latter,  for  pickles,  in  the 
early  part  of  June.  The  15th  will  or- 
dinarily do  for  Lima  beans,  which  are 


the  best  of  the  bean  family.  Soak 
the  seed  of  these  in  warm  water  a 
few  hours,  and  cover  them  slightly 
when  planted.  My  practice  is  to  save 
this  crop  for  winter  use.  They  af- 
ford a  great  product.  When  frost  is 
apprehended  the  beans  are  all  picked, 
the  unripe  ones  shelled  and  dried  ; 
and,  if  soaked  before  cooking,  are 
nearly  as  good  as  when  first  gathered 
from  the  vines.  Perennial  products 
require  very  little  care  after  they  are 
once  established.  We  will  name  of 
fruits,  the  strawberry,  the  currant, 
gooseberry,  plum,  pear,  quince,  grape, 
and,  in  situations  where  they  will 
thrive,  the  apricot  and  peach.  But 
of  fruits  we  would  have  none  but  the 
best  sorts,  for  the  best  are  as  cheap 
as  the  worst,  are  as  easily  cultivated, 
and  are  infinitely  more  healthy  and 
grateful.  These,  if  well  selected,  will 
give  a  succession  of  fruit  from  June 
to  November,  and  in  a  preserved  state 
during  the  year.  Plants  to  begin  with 
will  cost  from  three  to  five  dollars. 
They  may  be  multiplied  by  grafting, 
budding,  &c.  The  trees  should  be 
so  arranged  as  to  shade  as  little  as 
possible  the  grounds  that  are  to  be 
tilled.  Half  a  dozen  roots  of  the  pie- 
plant (rhubarb)  will  furnish  abundant 
materials  for  pies  and  tarts,  in  no 
wise  inferior  to  the  gooseberry,  from 
April  to  Jul\%  or  until  the  fruit  is  suf- 
ficiently advanced  to  supply  its  place. 
These  should  be  planted  two  feet 
apart  in  good  soil.  A  bed  of  forty  by 
three  and  a  half  feet  will  supply  the 
table  with  delicious  asparagus  during 
a  part  of  April,  and  the  whole  of  May 
and  June,  if  kept  in  good  order.  For 
this  the  ground  should  be  dug  deep 
and  made  rich. 

"The  annual  products  which  go  to- 
wards subsisting  a  family,  and  which 
are  seldom  produced  but  in  the  gar- 
den, are  numerous,  as  the  onion,  beet, 
carrot,  parsnij),  cabbage,  pease,  beans, 
pot- herbs,  salads,  radishes,  squash, 
cucumber,  melon,  &c.  Some  of  these 
are  in  use  most  of  the  season,  and 
most  of  them  afford  valuable  winter 
stores." 

GARDEN  ENGINE.      This  is  a 
small  forcing  pump,  fixed  in  a  box, 
319 


CiAR 


CAS 


and  sustained  on  wheels.  It  is  work- 
ed by  the  handle,  A,  and  cither  used 
to  direct  a  current  of  water  by  the 
jet,  or  hose,  B,  or  to  water  vegeta- 


bles with  a  rose  screwed  to  the  end 
of  the  pipe,  C.  The  box  is  kept  full 
of  water. 

GARGET.  "In  farriery,  a  disease 
in  the  udders  of  cows,  arising  from 
inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
It  is  also  a  distemper  incident  to  hogs, 
and  which  is  known  by  their  hanging 
down  their  heads,  and  carrying  them 
on  one  side,  moist  eyes,  staggering, 
and  loss  of  appetite. 

In  order  to  remove  the  disease  in 
cows,  where  the  inflammation  is 
great,  the  cow  should  be  bled,  a  dose 
of  physic  administered,  the  udder  well 
fomented,  and  the  milk  drawn  gently 
but  completely  off,  at  least  twice  a 
day." — {Youatt  071  Cattle.) 

GARLIC.  The  genus  Allium,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  hot,  fetid  smell.  The 
common  cultivated  kind  is  the  A.  sa- 
tivum :  it  is  propagated  by  setting  the 
parted  cloves  in  April,  about  six  inch- 
es apart,  clearing  from  weeds,  and 
tying  up  the  leaves  with  bass  in  June  ; 
in  August  they  are  fit  to  be  taken  up. 
Chives  and  rochambole  are  of  this 
class  of  plants.  Garlic  is  an  expec- 
torant in  small  doses. 

GARNER.     A  granary. 

GARNET.  A  common  mineral, 
of  a  rich  colour,  containing  silica,  42  ; 
alumina,  20  ;  hme,  34  ;  iron,  4.  Some 
of  the  finest  crystals  are  set  as  jew- 
els. They  are  usually  found  in  the 
primitive  and  transition  rocks. 
320 


GAS.  A  general  name  for  all  elas- 
tic aeriform  bodies  not  condensible  by 
ordinary  cold.  The  extraordinary 
elasticity  of  gases,  the  rapidity  and 
regularity  with  which  they  expand  by 
heat,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
diffuse  into  one  another,  are  their 
chief  peculiarities.  Some  have  been 
condensed  into  fluids  and  solids  by 
powerful  pressure ;  but  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, hydrogen,  and  some  others  re- 
sist all  mechanical  force.  The  im- 
ponderables, heat,  light,  and  electri- 
city, have,  how-ever,  perfect  control 
over  the  elastic  condition  of  gases 
in  the  presence  of  chemical  bodies 
with  which  they  can  combine.  See 
the  particular  gases.  Gases  are  read- 
ily absorbed  by  porous  earths  and  bod- 
ies, especially  by  plants  and  charcoal. 

GASHOUSE  LIQUOR.  The  fluid 
which  distils  over  in  making  gas  from 
bituminous  coal.  It  consists  of  wa- 
ter holding  in  solution  carbonate, 
muriate,  and  sulphuret  of  ammonia, 
with  impurities.  One  hundred  gal- 
lons contain  25  pounds  of  these  salts. 
This  amount  may  be  applied  per  acre, 
diluted  with  five  limes  its  bulk  of  wa- 
ter, over  the  growing  crop.  Exper- 
iments made  in  England  on  grass- 
lands are  very  favourable,  it  having 
occasionally  trebled  the  yield.  The 
value  of  the  ammoniacal  salts  is  in- 
creased by  adding  a  little  sulphuric 
acid  to  the  liquor :  the  quantity  should 
not  be  enough  to  impart  a  sour  taste. 
The  amount  of  ammoniacal  sahs  in 
different  specimens  is  subject  to  great 
fluctuation,  and  depends  on  the  vari- 
ety of  coal  used.  The  liquor  maybe 
added  to  the  compost  heap,  or,  after 
neutralizing  it  with  sulphuric  acid, 
evaporated  nearly  to  dryness,  and 
left  to  become  dry  by  exposure  to  the 
air.    The  liquor  is  very  noxious  to  in- 

GASHOUSE  REFUSE.  Besides 
ammoniacal  liquor,  a  mixture  of  lime 
and  water  is  used  to  purify  the  gas. 
The  refuse  lime  is  strongly  impregna- 
ted with  sulphur,  and  contains  car- 
bonate of  lime  also.  It  has  been  used 
with  good  effects  as  a  manure  in  Eng- 
land. The  dose  should  not  exceed 
two  bushels  per  acre  when  applied  to 


GAS 


fJAT 


a  growing  crop.  Its  chief  value  is 
as  a  poison  to  insects,  and  for  their 
extermination  it  may  be  applied  to  a 
short  fallow  at  the  rate  of  ten  bush- 
els or  more.  A  solution  would  be 
very  serviceable  to  destroy  caterpil- 
lars in  the  garden.  It  acts  on  plants 
in  the  same  way  as  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  is  best  adapted  to  turnips,  cab- 
bages, and  leguminous  crops.  The 
quantities  added  in  England  are  oft- 
en as  great  as  twelve  cart-loads  to 
the  acre  ;  but  this  is  monstrous,  and 
the  persons  applying  it  are  obliged  to 
wait  some  time  before  they  plough 
the  land,  lest  it  should  destroy  the 
next  crop.  This  refuse  answers  well 
in  composts. 

GASOMETER.  A  vessel  to  col- 
lect gas. 

GAS  TAR,  or  COAL  TAR.  This 
is  a  good  black  paint  for  rough  work, 
especially  if  mixed  with  oils  or  grease 
by  heating  ;  it  protects  wood  very  ef- 
ficiently from  wet,  and  very  nearly 
resembles  common  tar.  It  has  been 
imperfectly  used  as  a  manure ;  the 
results  are  uncertain. 

GASTR.EU.M  (from  yaarrip,  the 
belly).  In  zoology,  the  whole  under 
surface  of  an  animal. 

GASTRIC  JUICE.  The  secretion 
of  the  stomach,  which,  by  dissolving 
fibrin,  albumen,  casein,  and  nutri- 
tious matters,  has  the  power  of  pro- 
ducing the  chyle,  which  repairs  the 
waste  of  the  body.  It  contains  pep- 
sin, and  is  sometimes  acid,  at  others 
alkaline. 

GASTRITIS.  Inflammation  of  the 
internal  or  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach. 


I  GATE.  The  most  common  de- 
fects of  gates  are, 

"  1st.  Insufficient  height,  so  that 
horses  and  large  cattle,  when  push- 
ing against  the  gate,  break  it,  how- 
,  ever  strong  it  is,  as  the  top  thereof 
'  comes  in  contact  with  that  part  of 
■  the  chest  of  a  horse  where  the  collar 
goes,  and  without  inconvenience  he 
leans  his  weight  against  the  opposing 
bar,  which,  if  a  few  inches  higher, 
presses  against  his  neck  and  wind- 
pipe, and  he  makes  no  impressioa 
upon  it. 

"  2d.  They  are  generally  hinge- 
bound,  so  that,  in  attempting  to  lift 
up  the  head,  which  is  often  required 
to  be  done,  the  ledges  and  braces  are 
either  pulled  from  the  back  head  or 
broken  therein  ;  the  person  lifting  the 
head  having  a  nine  feet  leverage, 
which  enables  him  to  do  this  mischief. 

"3d.  The  places  of  contact  between 
the  brace  and  the  uprights  and  the 
ledges  are  broad,  and  it  being  impos- 
sible to  keep  those  places  of  contact 
dry,  the  parts  become  prematurely 
decayed." 

The  great  points  to  be  attained  in 
a  gate  are  strength,  with  sufficient 
lightness,  and  for  these  purposes  no- 
thing is  better  than  iron.  The^^re 
represents  a  field  and  private  gate  of 
a  light  structure  and  considerable 
strength  :  it  is  of  iron. 

As  iron  is  the  best  material  for  the 
gate,  so  hewn  stone  forms  the  best 
posts ;  when  well  grouted  into  the  soil 
with  cement,  it  lasts  indefinitely  long, 
and  is  firm  and  unyielding.  The 
fastening  is  a  subject  for  the  invent- 
ive power  of  the  farmer,  and  must 


GEL 


GEO 


differ  with  the  object  in  view.  Tlie 
sagging  of  the  hciul  of  the  gate  may 
be  in  part  vcmedicd  by  making  the 
upper  timber  very  wide  near  the  hinge 
and  narrower  to  the  head. 

GATHERING.  A  common  term 
for  an  abscess  or  tumour. 

GATHERING  FRUIT.  The  pres- 
ervation of  fruits  for  winter  use  and 
transportation  obliges  the  orchardist 
to  take  great  care  that  in  gathering 
they  are  not  bruised.  The  hand  is 
the  most  ready  and  certain  means  of 
doing  this  ;  but  there  are  several  ef- 
fective implements.  One  of  the  sim- 
plest consists  of  a  disk  of  thin  wood 
set  around  with  wooden  teeth,  about 
four  inches  long,  the  enclosure  hav- 
ing a  diameter  of  eight  or  ten  inches  ; 
to  this  is  attached  a  long  handle 
which  fits  at  a  considerable  angle  ;  so 
that,  when  the  gatherer  is  used,  the 
surface  of  the  disk  is  nearly  horizontal. 
The  fruit  is  collected  by  reaching  out 
the  handle  until  the  disk  is  brought 
under,  then  raising  it  so  that  the  stem 
passes  between  two  of  the  teeth  ;  by 
these  the  fruit  is  to  be  drawn  off:  it 
then  rests  on  the  disk,  and  is  brought 
to  the  ground  without  any  injury. 
Such  an  implement  may  pull  six  or 
eight  apples  each  time  before  being 
lowered,  and  is  a  very  expeditious 
means  of  collecting  fruits.  It  can  be 
made  on  the  farm  in  a  very  short 
time. 

GAVELKIND.  The  practice  of 
dividing  real  estate  equally  among 
all  the  children  of  the  family. 

GAUGING.  Ascertainingthecapa- 
city  of  barrels,  &c.,  by  a  gauging  rod. 

GAULT.  Certain  clays  and  marls 
lying  under  the  upper  green  sand  in 
England. 

GEAR,  GEARING.  Harness, 
tackle.  The  apparatus  of  wheels  in 
a  machine. 

GEHLENTTE.  A  mineral,  con- 
sisting of  iron,  silica,  alumina,  and 
lime.  It  consists  of  small  gray  or 
yellow  crystals. 

G  E  I  N  E.  The  same  as  humus, 
geic  acid,  ulmin,  humic  acid.  See 
Humus. 

GELATIN.  That  species  of  ani- 
mal matter  which  forms  jelly  with 
323 


water  when  cold.  Isinglass,  glue, 
and  size  are  representatives  of  this 
body  in  different  states  of  purity.  It 
abounds  in  skin,  membranes,  horns, 
and  bones,  but  requires  long  boiling, 
at  a  high  temperature,  for  its  extrac- 
tion. A  very  dilute  solution  is  pre- 
cipitated by  infusion  of  galls,  the  prod- 
uct being  leather. 

Gelatin  is  not  capable  of  itself  to 
sustain  life.  Its  composition  is  C13 
Hio  Nj  O5,  by  Mulder.  When  moist, 
it  runs  into  the  putrefactive  decay, 
yielding  a  fetid  odour,  carbonic  acid, 
water,  and  ammonia.  It  is  a  power- 
ful ammoniacal  manure  in  this  state, 
and  is  best  economized  in  composts. 
Unboiled  bones  owe  some  part  of 
their  effects  to  the  decay  of  their  gel- 
atin, which  is  present  to  the  extent 
of  thirty  per  cent. 

GELDING.  A  castrated  animal. 
The  act  of  castrating.  The  most 
proper  seasons  are  either  the  early 
spring  months  or  those  of  the  au- 
tumn. 

GEMMA.  A  bud.  Hence  gemmip- 
arous,  bearing  buds,  or  parts  capa- 
ble of  development. 

GENA.  In  zoology,  the  cheek,  or 
part  of  the  face  between  the  eye  and 
mouth. 

GENERATION,  EQUIVOCAL  or 
SPONTANEOUS.  Being  produced 
without  known  parents.  Originating 
without  apparent  seed  or  germs. 

GENESEE  OIL.  A  petroleum 
found  floating  on  some  of  the  waters 
of  \A'estern  New-York,  Ohio,  Ken- 
tucky, &c. 

GENICULATE.  Bent  at  a  sharp 
angle,  like  the  flexed  knee. 

GENTIAN.  A  genus  of  highly  or- 
namental plants  ;  the  roots  of  some 
afford  fine  bitters,  especially  the  Gen- 
tiana  lutea  of  Switzerland. 

GENUS.  Plural,  Gcjiera.  In  nat- 
ural history,  a  distinct  but  lesser 
family  of  plants  or  animals  which  is 
grouped  under  one  general  name,  and 
contains  distinct  species. 

GEODES.  Mineral  masses  having 
a  hollow  centre. 

GEODESY  (from  yjj,  the  earth,  and 
JfliGj,  /  divide).  The  measurement 
of  the  earth's  surface. 


GEO 


GES 


GEOLOGY  (from  777,  and  >.oyoq,  a 
discourse).  The  science  which  in- 
vestigates the  present  appearance  of 
the  earth's  surface,  and  the  changes 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  The 
earth's  crust  is  divided  into  four  great 
divisions:  1st.  The  primitive  period, 
epoch,  or  era,  consisting  of  massive 
crystalline  rocks.  2d  Tlie  transition 
period  and  era,  containing  paving 
stones  with  few  Ibssils,  but  stratified. 
3d.  Secondary  rocks,  less  condensed, 
and  containing  many  fossils.  4th.  l 
The  tertiary  period,  era,  or  epoch, 
which  consists  of  stratif  arranged  in 
extensive  basins,  and  contains  many 
recent  fossils.  Besides  these,  drift 
materials,  called  diluvion,  and  the 
deposiles  of  lakes  and  rivers,  termed 
altuvion,  cover  extensive  tracts.  The 
causes  producing  change  are,  for  the 
most  part,  those  now  in  existence, 
as  winds,  the  sea,  rivers,  vegetable 
and  animal  growth,  volcanoes,  ice- 
bergs, glaciers,  bursting  of  lakes, 
&c.  See  the  geological  terms  ;  also 
Springs,  Drainage. 

The  study  of  geology  is  interesting 
to  the  farmer  in  furnishing  him  with 
certain  rules  for  drainage,  the  deter- 
mination of  springs,  and  of  the  quali- 
ty of  soils. 

G  E  O  .M  E  T  E  R  S.  Span  \vorms. 
Caterpillars  destructive  to  foliage. 

GEOMETRY.  The  science  of 
measures. 

GEORGIA  BARK.  The  bark  of 
the  Pmckneya  pubens,  a  handsome 
tree  of  Florida. 

"  The  wood  of  the  Georgia  bark  is 
soft,  and  unfit  for  use  in  the  arts  ; 
but  its  inner  bark  is  extremely  bitter, 
and  appears  to  partake  of  the  febri- 
fuge virtues  of  the  Cinchona,  for  the 
inhabitants  of  the  southern  parts  of 
Georgia  employ  it  successfully  in  the 
intermitting  fevers  which,  during  the 
latter  part  of  summer  and  autumn, 
prevail  in  the  Southern  States.  A 
handful  of  the  bark  is  boiled  in  a  quart 
of  water  till  the  liquid  is  reduced  one 
half,  and  the  infusion  is  administered 
to  the  sick  From  the  propr-rties  of 
"*•  its  bark  the  Pmckneya  has  taken  the 
name  of  Georgia  bark.  The  tree 
which  produces  it  so  nearly  resem- 


bles the  Peruvian  vegetable,  that 
some  botanists  have  included  them 
in  the  same  genus." — {Michaux.) 

GERM.  The  vital  part  or  em- 
bryo. 

GERMEX.  The  seed  vessel,  ova- 
rium. 

GERMINATION.  The  sprouting 
of  seed.  For  its  production,  a  tem- 
perature above  60^  Fahrenheit,  ac- 
cess of  oxygen,  and  moisture  are  ne- 
cessary ;  by  hindering  any  of  these. 
It  will  not  take  place,  but  the  seed 
remains  unchanged  or  rots.  In  ger- 
mination moisture  is  first  absorbed, 
and  then  oxygen  :  the  latter,  acting 
on  the  substances  of  the  seed,  pro- 
duces carbonic  acid  and  heat ;  starch 
becomes  changed  into  a  saccharine 
matter,  and  movements,  resembling 
circulation,  occur.  The  germ,  ex- 
panding in  both  directions,  puts  out 
a  root  and  seed  leaves.  Whatever 
hastens  these  changes  assists  germi- 
nation ;  hence  steeping  in  warm  wa- 
ter, planting  in  loose  soils  near  the 
surface,  and  securing  a  high  tempera- 
ture, all  advance  sprouting.  Dark- 
ness is  in  some  degree  favourable  to 
germination. 

GESTATION.  The  period  ani- 
mals carry  young. 

•'  According  to  the  observations  of 
M.  Teissier,  of  Paris,  in  582  mares, 
which  copulated  but  once,  the  short- 
est period  was  287  days,  and  the 
longest,  419  ;  making  the  extraordi- 
nary difference  of  32  days,  and  of  89 
days  beyond  the  usual  term  of  eleven 
months.  The  cow  usually  brings 
forth  in  about  nine  months,  and  the 
sheep  in  five.  Swine  usually  farrow 
between  the  120th  and  140th  day,  be- 
ing liable  to  variations,  influenced,  ap- 
parently, by  their  size  and  their  par- 
ticular breeds.  In  the  bitch,  on  the 
contrary,  be  she  as  diminutive  as  a 
kitten,  or  as  large  as  the  boarhound, 
pupping  occurs  on  or  about  the  63d 
day.  The  cat  produces  either  on  the 
55th  or  5Gth  day.  The  true  causes 
which  abridge  or  prolong  more  or 
less  the  period  of  gestation  in  the  fe- 
males of  quadrupeds,  and  of  the  in- 
cubation of  birds,  are  yet  unknown 
to  US. 

323 


GES 


GTf} 


TABLE    SHOWING   THE    PERIOD   OF    REPRODUCTION    AND    GESTATION    IN    DOMESTIC 

ANIMALS. 


Kinds  of  Animals. 


Proper  Age 
for  Uepro- 


Feriod  of  the 
Powerof  Re- 
production. 


Numlier  of 
Females  for 
one  Male. 


I'eriod  of  Gestation 


Mare 

Stallion 

Cow 

Bull. 

Ewe 

Tup. 

Sow. 

Boar 

She  Goaf 

ile  Goat 

She  Ass 

He  Ass 

She  Buffa; 

Bitch 

Dog. 

She  Cat 

He  Cat 

Doe  Rabb 

Buck  Rabbi 

Cock 

Turkey,  sitting'  \  Hen 
on  the  eggs  of  >  Duck 
the  )  Turkey 

Hen,  sitting  on  the  (  Duck 
eggs  of  the  J  Hen 

Duck        .         .         .         . 

Goose        .         .         .         . 

Pigeon      .         .        .        . 


10  to  12 
12  to  15 
10  to  14 
8  to  10 

6 

7 

6 

6 

6 

5 
10  to  12 
12  to  15 

8  to  9 

8  to  9 
5  to  6 

9  to  10 
5  to  6 
5  tof) 
5  to  6 


20  to  30 
30  to  40 
40  to  50 
6  to  10 
20  to  40 


30 
12  to  15 


Days. 

322 

240 

146 

109 

150 

365 

281 
55 

48 

20 


17 
24 
24 
26 
19 
28 
27 
16 


Davs. 
347 

283 
154 
115 
156 

380 

308 
60 

50 

28 


24 
27 
26 
30 
21 
30 
30 
18 


Days. 
419 

321 

161 

143 

163 

391 

335 
63 

56 

35 


28 
30 
30 
34 
24 
32 
33 
20 


"From  some  carefully  collected  and 
very  extensive  notes  made  by  Lord 
Spencer  on  the  periods  of  gestation 
of  764  cows,  it  resulted  that  the 
shortest  period  of  gestation  when  a 
live  calf  was  produced  was  220  days, 
and  the  longest  313  days;  but  he 
was  not  able  to  rear  any  calf  pro- 
duced at  an  earlier  period  than  242 


days.  From  the  result  of  his  ex- 
periments, it  appears  that  314  cows 
calved  before  the  284th  day,  and  310 
calved  after  the  285th,  so  that  the 
probable  period  of  gestation  ought  to 
be  considered  284  or  285  days.  The 
experiments  of  M.  Teissier  on  the 
gestation  of  cows  are  recorded  to 
have  given  the  following  results  : 


21  calved  between  the  240th  and  270th  day,  the  mean  time  being 
544    —  —  270th  and  299th   —  — 

10    —  —  299th  and  321st    —  — 


259J 
282 
303 


"  In  most  cases,  therefore,  between 
nine  and  ten  months  may  be  assumed 
as  the  usual  period  ;  though,  with  a 
bull  calf,  the  cow  has  been  generally 
observed  to  go  about  41  weeks,  and 
a  few  days  less  with  a  female.  Any 
calf  produced  at  an  earlier  period 
than  260  days  must  be  considered 
decidedly  premature,  and  any  period 
of  gestation  exceeding  300  days  must 
also  be  considered  irregular  ;  but  in 
this  latter  case  the  health  of  the 
produce  is  not  affected.  I  will  con- 
clude this  article  with  the  remarks 
of  Mr.  C.  Hilliard,  of  Northampton, 
who  states  that  the  period  of  gesta- 
324 


tion  of  a  cow  is  284  days,  or,  as  it  is 
said,  nine  calendar  months  and  nine 
days  ;  the  ewe  20  w-eeks  ;  the  sow 
16  weeks  ;  the  mare  1 1  months.  The 
well-bred  cattle  of  the  present  time 
appear  to  me  to  bring  forth  twins 
more  frequently  than  the  cattle  did 
50  years  ago.  The  males  of  all  ani- 
mals, hares,  excepted,  are  larger  than 
the  females.  Castrated  male  cattle 
become  larger  beasts  than  entire 
males." — {Blaine's  Encyc.) 

GIBBOSE.     Irregular,  humped. 

GIBBOUS.     Protuberant,  convex. 

GIG.  A  well-known  kind  of  light 
carriage  drawn  by  one  horse.    Gigs, 


CJIN 


GIZ 


or  gig  machines,  are  rotatory  cylin- 
ders, covered  with  wire  teeth,  for 
teasehng  woollen  cloth. 

GIL  I..  A  quarter  of  a  pint.  A 
small  valley  or  brook. 

GILLENIA.  One  of  the  species 
(G.  trifoliaia)  produces  a  root  which 
is  nearly  as  valuable  as  ipecacuanha 
as  an  emetic.  It  is  indigenous  in  the 
woods  of  the  Middle  States. 

GILLS.  These  organs  in  fishes 
answer  the  purpose  of  lungs.  The 
plaits  under  mushrooms  of  the  genus 
Agarxcits  are  called  gills. 

"G  I  N.  Distilled  spirit,  flavoured 
with  juniper  berries.  In  machinery, 
an  arrangement  for  tearing  green 
seed  cotton  wool  from  the  seeds.  It 
consists  of  a  cylinder  closely  set  with 
saws,  which  pass  through  a  grating 
in  an  inclined  side-hopper,  and  thus 
drag  off  portions  of  wool,  which  are 
conveyed  half  round  the  cylinder, 
and  then  cleared  off  by  a  revolving 
brush,  while  the  freed  seeds  slide 
through  to  the  bottom  of  the  hopper 
and  escape.     See  Cotton. 

It  is  also  a  machine  used  for  rai- 
sing great  weights,  driving  piles,  &c. 
It  usually  consists  of  three  long  legs 
or  spars,  which  support  a  pulley  at 
the  top,  round  which  a  rope  is  passed 
for  elevating  the  weight. 

GINGER.  Zingiber  officinale. 
This  plant  is  of  the  family  Scilamina:, 
a  native  of  Hindostan,  but  also  culti- 
vated in  the  West  Indies.  The  root 
is  a  rhizome,  similar  to  that  of  the 
Jlag ;  it  is  perennial,  but  the  leaves 
are  annual.  The  root  in  the  West 
Indies  is  taken  up  when  a  year  old, 
immersed  in  boiling  water  to  hinder 
future  germination,  dried,  and  sold. 
Sometimes  it  is  prepared  by  taking 
off  the  outer  skin,  and  in  this  state 
is  called  ichitc  ginger.  It  might  be 
tried  in  our  Southern  States  ;  all  that 
is  required  is  a  well-tilled,  light  soil, 
with  weeding.  Probably  the  roots 
would  not  be  so  large  as  the  Jamai- 
ca, but,  from  the  high  price  of  ginger, 
would  probably  pay  well. 

GINGER,  WILD.  A  native  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Asarum ;  it  is  of 
little  note. 

GINGLYMUS  (from  yr/y/.v/io^,  a 

E  E 


hinge).    The  hinge  joint  in  animals, 
as  the  knee  and  elbow. 

GINSENG.     Panax  quinqiicfolium 
(see  Fig.).     The  root  is  fleshy  from 


one  to  three  inches  long,  and  about 
as  thick  as  a  finger,  of  a  yellow  col- 
our, and  somewhat  resembling  in  fla- 
vour liquorice.  It  is  almost  desti- 
tute of  medical  virtue,  but  is  esteem- 
ed by  the  Chinese,  and  exported  for 
their  use ;  in  1841  as  much  as  8-137,000 
worth  was  sent  out  of  this  country. 
The  plant  is  an  herbaceous  perennial, 
growing  abundantly  in  the  hilly  and 
woody  regions  of  the  Northern,  .Mid- 
dle, and  Western  States,  whence  it 
is  collected  with  any  cultivation. 

GIRDER.  In  architecture,  a  prin- 
cipal beam  in  a  floor  for  supporting 
the  binding  or  other  joists,  whereby 
their  bearing  or  length  is  lessened. 
Perhaps  so  called  because  the  ends 
of  the  joists  are  enclosed  bv  it. 

GIRDLING  TREES.  Cutting  a 
ring  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree  entire- 
ly through  the  new  wood  for  the  pur- 
pose of  killing  it ;  the  girdling  is  most 
effective  before  the  sap  rises.  Rings 
of  bark,  without  touching  the  albur- 
num, are  occasionally  taken  out  of 
the  branches  of  trees  in  spring  to 
produce  frinting  or  develop  the  fruit ; 
this,  though  frequently  confounded 
with  girdling,  is  altogether  different, 
and  docs  not  kill  the  branch,  unless 
too  much  bark  is  removed.  A  ring 
half  an  inch  wide  is  enough  on  a 
branch  two  inches  in  diameter.  The 
sap  is  hindered  from  descending  by 
the  wound. 

GIZZARD.  A  strong,  muscular 
325 


GLA 


GLU 


stomach  in  birds,  for  the  purpose  of 
grindiiiir  ihoir  food  with  pebbles.  It 
answers  tire  place  of  teeth. 

GLABROUS.     Smooth. 

GLACIERS.  Immense  masses  of 
ice  produced  from  the  snow  of  mount- 
ains occupying  the  valleys  of  Switzer- 
land and  countries  equally  elevated. 
In  geology,  the  study  of  glaciers  is 
peculiarly  interesting;  many  are  10 
to  15  miles  long  by  two  broad,  and 
from  300  to  COO  feet  high. 

G  L  A  N  D.  In  anatomy,  organs 
such  as  the  liver,  spleen,  &c.,  which 
consist  of  an  immense  development 
of  blood-vessels,  and  secrete  a  peculiar 
fluid,  as  bile,  urine,  &c.  They  are 
often  microscopic,  as  the  mucous 
glands  of  the  intestines,  and  Peyer's 
glands.  Sometimes  they  receive  the 
specific  name  of  the  secretion  they 
produce,  as  mucous  glands,  sebaceous 
glands,  lymphatic  glands,  &,c. 

GLAND.  In  botany,  small  lumps 
of  vegetable  matter  near  leaves,  or 
oval  spots  on  the  trunks  of  trees ;  they 
are  unimportant  except  as  a  means 
of  recognising  species. 

GLAxNDERS.     See  Horse. 

GLASS.  That  used  for  conserva- 
tories should  be  of  the  greatest  clear- 
ness. Refuse  glass,  pounded  fine, 
has  been  used  as  a  manure.  The  na- 
ture of  the  substance  differs  with  the 
kind  of  glass,  for  flint  glass  is  a  mix- 
ture of  sand,  red-lead,  and  14  per 
cent,  of  potash.  Crown,  or  window 
glass,  contains  soda,  with  sand  and 
lime.  The  silicate  of  potash  or  soda 
in  these  cases  is  very  insoluble,  and 
the  effect  produced  cannot  be  con- 
siderable, unless  a  large  dose  is  add- 
ed. Pounded  feldspar  would  form  as 
good  a  manure.  The  pounded  refuse 
is  also  used  by  glass-makers,  and 
called  cullct.  The  finest  powder  is 
used  in  making  sand  paper.  Glass 
may  be  converted  into  soluble  sili- 
cate of  potash  by  fusion  with  its 
weight  of  potash  or  soda  in  a  cruci- 
ble. 

GLASSWORT.  The  species  of 
Salicorma :  they  grow  on  salt  plains, 
and  yield  barilla  by  combustion. 

GLAUBER'S  SALT.    Sulphate  of 
soda.    A  saline  purge  used  lor  horses 
326 


and  cattle.     The  dose  is  one  quarter 
of  a  pound  or  more. 

GLAUCOLITE  A  mineral,  con- 
taining 4^  per  cent,  potash,  with  sil- 
ica, alumina,  and  11  per  cent.  lime. 

GLAUCOMA  (from  yT^avKo^,  blue). 
A  disease  of  the  eye,  in  which  it  be- 
comes of  a  bluish  colour. 

GLAUCOPIS  (from  ylavKOc,  and 
uip,  an  eye).  A  genus  of  passerine 
birds.  Some  of  the  species  have 
wattles  at  the  root  of  the  beak. 

GLAUCOUS.  Sea-green,  like  the 
cabbage-leaf,  having  a  light,  bluish 
tint. 

GLEANING.  Collecting  the  re- 
fuse of  the  harvest. 

GLEBE.  A  tract  of  land  belong- 
ing to  the  Church. 

GLENOID  (from  ylrjvr],  a  cavity). 
The  articular  cavities  of  bones. 

GLIADINE.  A  name  given  by 
Taddei  to  the  portion  of  gluten  solu- 
ble in  alcohol.     Albumen. 

GLIRES.  The  Linnean  name  for 
the  Rodentia,  from  g-/?*,  a  dormouse. 

GLOBULAR.  Spherical.  Globose, 
resembling  a  sphere  or  globe. 

GLOBULINE.  A  rather  indefinite 
term  used  by  botanists  to  describe 
spherical  particles  in  plants,  whether 
they  be  of  colouring  matter  or  starch. 
In  physiology,  it  is  the  white  albu- 
minous substance  forming  the  interi- 
or of  the  blood  globules. 

GLOMERATE  GLAND.  Any 
gland  which  discharges  at  once  into 
a  duct  without  having  any  cavity. 

GLOMERULUS.  A  small  capitu- 
lum,  usually  axillary,  an  old  name 
for  an  inflorescence.  When  many 
branches  terminate  by  little  flower 
heads. 

GLOSSO  (from  y/lorra,  the  tongue). 
A  prefix  to  muscles,  nerves,  &c.,  at- 
tached to  the  tongue. 

GLOTTIS.  The  upper  opening  of 
the  windpipe.  It  is  protected  with  a 
membrane  called  the  epiglottis. 

GLUCINUM.  The  metallic  base 
of  glucina,  a  rare  earth,  existing  in 
the  beryl,  emerald,  and  euclase. 

GLUCOSE.  Grape  sugar,  starch 
sugar,  sugar  of  diabetes,  of  honey.  It 
is  difficult  to  crystallize  ;  exists  in 
fruits,  young  stems ;  is  readily  fer- 


GLY 


GNE 


mentable  ;  can  be  procured  from 
starch  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphu- 
ric acid  and  heat.  It  differs  from  cane 
sugar  in  containinir  more  water,  the 
formula  being  Cu  Hu  On  -{-  3  Aq., 
when  crystallized. 

GLUE.  Impure  gelatin.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  clippings  of  skins,  hoofs, 
&c.  The  refuse  and  spoiled  glue 
form  admirable  nitrogen  manures, 
yielding  ammonia  in  decaying  ;  100 
pounds  of  dry  glue  yield  9  pounds  of 
ammonia.  It  has  been  used  on  tur- 
nips, and  is  well  suited  for  cabbages 
and  plants  requiring  much  putrescent 
manure. 

GLUME.  The  husk  or  chaff  of 
wheat  and  grain  plants.  The  awn 
is  called  an  arista.  Glunwsus,  fur- 
nished with  glumes. 

GLUTEN.  The  tenacious,  semi- 
transparent  residue  left  on  the  cloth 
after  washing  dougii  with  water.  It 
is  impure  fibrin,  and  contains  albu- 
men. The  amount  in  wheat  is  a  test 
of  its  nutritiousness.  When  moist, 
gluten  putrefies,  and  has  the  prop- 
erty of  acting  as  a  yeast  or  ferment 
on  solutions  of  glucose.  Most  seeds 
contain  a  proportion  of  gluten,  but 
wheat  the  greatest  amount :  nitrogen 
manures  are  said  to  increase  the  pro- 
portion. The  macaroni  and  vermi- 
celli of  Italy  are,  for  the  most  part, 
gluten.     Dry  gluten  keeps  well. 

GLUTEUS  (from  y/ovroc,  the  but- 
tocks). The  name  of  some  of  the 
muscles  of  the  buttocks. 

GLUTINOUS.     Adhesive. 

GLYCERIA  FLUITANS.  "Water 
fescue,  an  indigenous  grass  growing 
on  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
resembling  the  water  rice.  The  seeds 
are  eaten  in  Germany  like  millet. 

GLYCERINE  (from  y/.vKoc,  su-eet). 
A  gelatinous  body  of  a  sweet  taste, 
left  in  solution  in  soap-making.  It 
acts  as  a  base  in  fats  and  oils,  which 
are,  indeed,  salts  of  glycerine,  stear- 
ates,  oleates,  or  margarates  of  that 
body.  In  soap-making  the  potash  or 
soda  combines  with  the  oily  acid,  and 
separates  the  glycerine.  Its  compo- 
sition is  Cr,  H:  65  +  Aq.,  and  it  near- 
ly reseml)les  gum.  Liebig  consid- 
ers it  an  hydraied  oxyde  of  glijceryle, 


with  the  latter  of  which  the  oily  acids 
are  combined  in  fats.  Mulder  has 
recently  promulgated  a  new  tlieory 
with  respect  to  glycerine  :  he  suppo- 
ses the  existence  of  a  compound  rad- 
ical iipi/le  =  Cs  H;  ;  this  forms  a 
protoxide  (C:i  H;  O),  called  oxide  of 
lipyle,  which  is  the  base  in  neutral 
fats,  and  that  in  saponification  it 
unites  with  water  as  it  is  liberated, 
forming  a  compound  of  2  atoms  of  li- 
pyle with  3  of  water. 

Redtenbacher,  on  tlie  other  hand, 
maintains  that  the  base  in  fats  is 
Acrolein  (Co  H4  O.;),  and  that  glycer- 
ine isacrolein,  with3  atoms  of  water. 
This  is  the  most  satisfactory  theory 
at  present,  for  acrolein  is  a  known 
body,  which  can  be  separated  from 
glycerine  by  heating  with  phosphoric 
acid. 

The  glycerine  refuse  from  soap- 
making  is  worthy  of  attention  from 
farmers  ;  it  is  at  least  as  valuable  an 
addition  to  the  compost  heap  as  peat, 
and  much  more  destructible  by  fer- 
mentation and  eremacausis. 

GLYCION.     Glycyrrhizine. 

GLYCYRRHIZA.  The  generic 
name  of  liquorice. 

GLYCYRRHIZINE.  Glycion. 
Sugar  extracted  from  liquorice  and 
some  sweet  woods  ;  it  has  the  pecu- 
liarity of  combining  with  acids  and 
bases.  It  is  neither  crystallizable 
nor  fermentable. 

GLYPH.  In  architecture,  a  ver- 
tical groove. 

GNATHIDIA  (from  yvado^,  a  jaw). 
In  ornithology,  the  lateral  parts  or 
rami  of  the  mandible  or  lower  jaw, 
which  are  joined  to  the  cranium  be- 
hind, and  meet  in  front  at  a  greater 
or  less  angle. 

GNATHOTHECA  (from  yvadoc, 
and  T^rjKii,  a  sheath).  In  ornithology, 
the  horny  or  cutaneous  integument 
of  the  beak. 

GNATS.  Insects  of  the  family 
CulicidcE.  Their  bites  are  best  treat- 
ed with  lard  or  olive  oil,  mixed  with 
a  little  ammnnia. 

GNEISS.      A    stratified    primary 

rock,  composed  of  the  same  materials 

as  granite,  but  the  mica  is  somewhat 

distributed  in  layers,  which  give  it  a 

327 


0X0 


COM 


striped  aspect.  The  gneiss  rocks 
are  remarkal)lv  rich  in  metallic  ores. 

GNOMON.'  The  inclined  rod  or 
style  on  a  sun-dial,  the  shadow  of 
which  marks  the  time.  Their  ele- 
vation depends  upon  the  latitude. 
Gnomonks  is  the  art  of  constructing 
dials. 

GOAT.  Animals  of  the  genus 
Capra.  The  following  is  chiefly  from 
Low  : 

"  The  goat  appears  to  form  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  sheep  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  antelope  tribes  on 
the  other.  Being  the  natural  inhab- 
itant of  mountainous  regions,  it  is, 
therefore,  in  wild,  rocky  countries 
that  the  goat  is  chiefly  reared.  Goats 
are  stronger,  more  nimble,  and  less 
timid  than  sheep,  and  are  more  ea- 
sily supported  than  any  other  ani- 
mals, for  there  are  few  herbs  which 
they  do  not  relish  ;  they  will  browse 
on  heaths,  shrubs,  and  plants  which 
are  rejected  by  other  animals.  Goats 
are  more  hardy  and  not  liable  to  so 
many  diseases  as  sheep.  The  goat 
is  not  well  adapted  to  a  country  of 
enclosures,  because  it  feeds  upon 
the  twigs  of  hedges,  and  escapes  over 
the  barriers  intended  to  confine  it ; 
but  where  there  are  no  young  trees 
to  be  injured,  they  may  browse  at 
large  on  the  mountain  brakes  without 
expense,  and  in  winter,  when  housed, 
they  are  easily  supported  on  straw, 
cabbage  leaves,  potato  peelings,  and 
such  worthless  food. 

"  It  arrives  early  at  maturity,  and 
is  very  prolific,  bearing  two,  and 
sometimes  three  kids  at  a  birth.  The 
period  of  gestation  is  five  months. 
The  female  bears  for  six  or  seven 
years  ;  the  male  should  not  be  kept 
longer  than  five.  In  Portugal  and 
some  other  countries,  the  goat  is 
used  as  a  beast  of  draught  for  light 
burdens.  The  hair  of  the  goat  may 
be  shorn,  as  it  is  of  some  value,  ma- 
king good  linsey.  Ropes  are  some- 
times made  from  goats"  hair,  and  are 
said  to  last  much  longer,  when  used  in 
the  water,  than  those  made  of  hemp. 
Candles  are  manufactured  from  their 
fat,  which,  in  whiteness  and  quality, 
are  stated  to  be  superior  to  those  of 
338 


'  wax  ;  their  horns  afford  excellent 
handles  for  knives  and  forks,  and  the 
skin,  especially  that  of  the  kid,  is  in 
,  demand  for  gloves  and  other  purpo- 
'  ses.  Goats'  milk  is  sweet  and  nu- 
tritive. When  yielding  milk  the  goat 
will  give,  for  several  months,  at  the 
average  of  two  quarts  per  day.  Mr. 
Pringle,  of  Kent,  in  his  essay  '  On 
Cottage  Management'  (Gard.  Mag., 
vol.  v.),  informs  us  that  two  milch 
goats  are  equivalent  to  one  small 
Shetland  cow.  Cheese  prepared  from 
goats'  milk  is  much  esteemed  in 
mountainous  countries,  after  it  has 
been  kept  a  proper  age." 

The  wool  of  the  Cashmere  goat  is 
peculiarly  silky,  and  forms  an  admira- 
ble material  for  the  manufacture  of 
shawls. 

GOAT'S  BEARD.  The  weed 
Trapopngon  pratensis.  Salsify  {T. 
porrifoUus)  is  sometimes  so  called. 

GOLD.  Gold  coin  may  always 
be  proved,  if  any  counterfeit  be  sus- 
pected, by  its  great  gravity  of  17157. 
Pure  gold  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
19  3  ;  the  reduced  weight  of  the  coin 
is  due  to  the  alloy  of  copper.  Its 
combining  weight  is  199  2,  and  sym- 
bol Au.  (aunwi).  Aqua  regia  is  the 
solvent  of  gold. 

GOLDEN  ROD.  SoUdago  virgau- 
rca.  A  common  weed,  found  on 
poor,  neglected  fields.  It  is  said  by 
Bechstein  to  furnish  a  valuable  yel- 
low dye.  Both  the  flowers  and  leaves 
produce  a  yellow  decoction  with 
water. 

GOLD  OF  PLEASURE.  Came- 
liua  saliva.  A  cruciferous  small  an- 
nual, bearing  pale  yellow  flowers.  It 
is  cultivated  like  flax,  prefers  a  light 
soil,  and  will  yield  two  crops  in  the 
year :  the  seeds  yield  a  sweet  oil. 
This  name  is  also  improperly  given 
to  the  Madia,  which  see.  The  ca- 
melina  is  sowed  broadcast,  weeded, 
and  hoed,  and  ripens  its  seeds  in 
about  90  davs. 

GOLD  THREAD.  Coptis  trifolia. 
A  small  evergreen,  indigenous  to 
Canada  and  the  Eastern  States.  It 
grows  in  dark,  shady,  Alpine  swamps. 
The  root  is  tonic. 

GOMPHOSIS.     In  anatomy,  a 


GOO 

jiinelion  of  bones  similar  to  that  of 
Ihp  trelh  in  the  jaw-bone. 

(JONIOMETER  (from  yuvia,  an 
an<rlc,  and  jierpov,  a  measure).  An  in- 
strument to  measure  the  angles  of 
crystals. 

GONYS.  In  ornithology,  the  in- 
ferior margin  of  the  symphysis  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

GOOSE.     See  Poultry. 

GOOSEBERRY.  Ribes  grossula- 
ria.  In  England  the  gooseberry  is 
esteemed  one  of  their  most  valuable 
fruits.  In  spring  it  furnishes  the 
earliest  as  well  as  the  best  fruit  for 
tarts  and  sauces,  and  can  be  preserv- 
ed green  as  well  as  ripe  for  winter 
use.  When  ripe,  it  makes  a  delicious 
sweetmeat  and  wine,  and  is  a  favour- 
ite dessert. 

The  following  selection  is  recom- 
mended :  Reds— Old  rough  red,  Mel- 
ling's  crown  bob,  Farmer's  roaring 
lion.  Knight's  Marquis  of  Stafford, 
Champagne  and  Capper's  top  saw- 
yer :  one  of  the  best  of  the  red  goose- 
berries is  the  Scotch  ironmonger  ;  it 
is  hairy  and  thin-skinned.  Yellows 
— Hill's  golden  gourd,  Prophet's  rock- 
wood,  Hamlet's  kilton,  Dixon's  gold- 
en yellow,  Gordon's  viper.  Greens 
— Edward's  jolly  tar,  Massey's  heart 
of  oak,  Nixon's  green  myrtle,  ear- 
ly green  hairy,  Parkinson's  laurel. 
Whiles  —  Moore's  white  bear,  Cole- 
worth's  white  lion,  Crompton's  She- 
ba  queen,  Saunders's  Cheshire  lass, 
Wellington's  glory.  Woodward's 
whitesmith.  Smooth  skins  become 
tough  in  cooking,  and  should  not  be 
selected  for  that  purpose. 

The  gooseberry  can  be  raised  from 
cuttings,  from  suckers,  or  from  seeds ; 
the  former  is  generally  resorted  to 
as  being  the  most  expeditious  ;  and 
seed  is  only  sown  to  raise  new  va- 
rieties. Cuttings  may  be  planted  in 
the  fall,  or  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
the  weather  will  permit. 

The  gooseberry  requires  a  deep, 
moist,  and  rich  soil ;  the  ground 
around  it  should  be  kept  free  from 
grass  and  mellow.  It  requires  ma- 
nure in  spring.  The  fruit  appears  on 
shoots  of  the  last  year,  and  sjjurs  of 
two  or  three  years,  the  young  shoots 
E  e2 


GRA 

yielding  the  best.  Keeping  the  bushes 
free  of  wood,  open  at  the  top,  and  re- 
moving all  luxuriant  shoots  from  the 
base,  is  the  pruning  necessary.  Sum- 
mer pruning  is  necessary  for  fine 
fruit. 

The  fruit  is  easily  kept  for  tarts, 
by  introducing  them  into  bottles  with 
a  little  water,  healing  until  steam  is 
produced,  and  then  corking  tightly. 
They  may  be  kept  whole  by  burning 
a  few  sulphur  matches  in  a  bottle-full, 
and  corking  tightly. 

This  shrub  is  much  infested  by  cat- 
erpillars, insects,  and  blight ;  they 
are,  however,  all  remedied  by  full  ex- 
posure to  the  light,  sprinkling  with 
lime,  or  watering  with  a  solution  of 
tobacco  or  whale  oil  soap. 

GOOSEFOOT.  The  popular  name 
for  the  genus  Chenopodium.  They 
flourish  on  rank  soils  and  about 
dunghills.  The  most  important  is 
Ck.  anthelminticmn,  worm  seed.  Ma- 
ny are  eaten  by  animals,  and  C.  al- 
lium, lamb's  quarter,  and  C.  bonus 
Henricus  are  used  partially  as  spin- 
ach. 

GOOSE  GRASS.  Several  species 
of  Galium  are  so  called  from  being 
eaten  by  geese. 

GOSSYPIUM.  The  generic  name 
of  the  cotton  plant.     See  Cotton. 

GOULARD'S  EXTRACT.  A  con- 
centrated solution  of  sugar  of  lead  in 
water  :  it  is  used  diluted  to  galls  and 
external  inflammations. 

GOURD.  Cucurbila  lagenaria. 
Calabash.  Gourds  are  annuals  read- 
ily cultivated,  requiring  a  deep  soil. 
Many  varieties  exist,  of  which  the 
Patagonian,  six  feet  long,  is  the  most 
singular.  The  pulp  is  very  purgative 
in  most  varieties. 

GOVERNOR.  In  machinery,  an 
arrangement  for  regulating  the  speed 
of  machines. 

GRACILE,  GRACILIS.    Slender. 

GRACULA.  The  genus  of  jay 
birds.     They  arc  insectivorous. 

GRADATORY.  A  term  applied 
to  those  animals  which  have  legs 
nearly  of  the  same  length,  so  that 
they  can  walk  on  the  four.  Birds 
which  have  the  lower  portion  of  their 
legs  covered  with  feathers. 

329 


GUA 


GHA 


GRADIENTS.  On  railways,  the 
ascending  planes. 

GRADUATED.  Marked  into  reg- 
ular divisions ;  increasing  in  equal 
measures. 

GRADUATOR.  A  vessel  or  con- 
trivance for  increasing  the  extent  of 
the  surface  of  evaporation  or  oxida- 
tion, as  by  passing  fermenting  beer 
over  chips  contained  in  a  large  tub 
through  which  air  passes,  wliereby 
the  alcohol  becomes  oxidized,  and 
converted  into  acetic  acid.  The  pro- 
cess is  called  graduation. 

GRAFTING.  The  propagation  of 
one  variety  of  plant  on  the  stock  or 
root  of  another.  The  small  branch 
or  scion  of  the  improved  kind  usually 
contains  three  buds,  but  sometimes 
less ;  it  should  be  selected  from  a 
healthy  bearing  branch,  and  be  of  the 
last  year's  growth,  only  three  or  four 
buds  from  the  extremity.  It  should 
also  be  rather  behind  the  stock  in 
respect  to  vegetation,  and  for  this 
purpose  may  be  kept  in  moist  sand  or 
moss  for  a  few  days.  When  insert- 
ed, it  should  be  kept  bound  for  four 
weeks,  to  be  well  set,  and  afterward 
partially  loosened,  until  it  is  so  firm 
as  not  to  be  blown  down  by  winds. 
When  the  scions  have  taken  well, 
some  of  the  natural  buds  of  the  stock 
should  be  taken  off,  but  in  an  old 
stock  it  is  not  well  to  remove  them 
altogether  until  the  next  year.  Ex- 
cept when  the  scion  is  grafted  on  the 
root,  one  or  more  stock  buds  should 
be  left  until  it  has  fairly  started,  and 
can  consume  all  the  sap  rising  into 
the  stock.  The  stock  influences  the 
grafted  tree  in  no  respect  except 
durability,  size,  and  early  maturity. 
For  farther  particulars,  see  the  Fmiis. 

The  following  methods  of  grafting 
are  from  Judge  Buel  and  Professor 
Lindley :  "April  is  the  general  sea- 
son for  grafting,  though  it  is  some- 
times performed  in  March,  and  some- 
times omitted  till  May.  The  grafts 
should,  however,  be  cut  before  the 
buds  begin  to  swell.  The  scions  are 
most  likely  to  live  if  inserted  when 
the  sap  is  circulating  freely,  for  then 
the  wounds  soonest  heal. 

"  The  materials   and  implements 
330 


required  for  grafting  are,  1.  A  sharp 
knife  to  cut  and  pare  the  graft  and 
stalk  ;  2.  A  strong  knife  and  mallet 
to  split  the  larger  stalks,  and  a  small 
hard  wood  wedge  to  put  into  the  cleft 
while  the  scion  is  fitted  to  its  place  ; 
3.  Strips  of  bass  matting,  or  other 
soft  string,  to  tie  around  the  stalk 
and  graft ;  and,  4.  Some  good  graft- 
ing-wax or  prepared  clay,  to  cover 
over  the  worked  part.  If  clay  is  used, 
it  should  be  previously  well  beaten, 
and  a  portion  of  fresh  horse-dung 
mixed  with  it  during  the  operation. 
A  grafting-wax,  which  we  have  used  " 
for  years  with  success,  is  made  by 
mixing  and  melting  together  four 
parts  of  rosin,  two  parts  of  tallow, 
and  one  part  of  bees'  wax  ;  the  whole 
to  be  afterward  incorporated  and 
worked  by  the  hand,  like  shoema- 
ker's wax.  This  may  be  applied 
over  the  grafted  part  in  a  thin  layer, 
or  first  spread  on  a  cloth  and  then 
applied  in  strips  of  proper  size.  The 
wax  or  clay  is  applied,  1.  To  pre- 
vent the  flowing  of  the  sap  from  the 
wounds  ;  2.  The  too  sudden  drying 
of  the  wood  ;  and,  3.  The  introduc- 
tion of  rain  water  into  the  wound  or 
cleft.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
whatever  sort  of  coating  is  adopted, 
it  should  be  applied  without  delay, 
and  so  as  effectually  to  exclude  air 
and  water. 

"  The  object  to  be  aimed  at  in  the 
process  of  grafting,  is  to  bring  the 
inner  bark  and  the  sap-wood  of  the 
stalk  and  scion  in  nice  contact,  so 
that  the  ascending  sap  of  the  stalk 
will  pass  freely  into  the  sap-wood  of 
the  scion,  and  the  descending  sap  of 
the  scion,  which  has  been  elaborated 
and  prepared  in  the  leaves,  and  which 
descends  through  the  inner  bark,  to 
pass  freely  into  the  inner  bark  of  the 
stalk.  This  elaborated  sap  soon  hard- 
ens into  wood,  and  covers  and  heals 
the  wound. 

"  There  are  more  than  forty  differ- 
ent modes  of  grafting.  We  shall  only 
speak  of  those  which  are  best  adapted 
to  the  practice  of  the  orchard  and 
garden. 

"  Cleft-grafting  (Fig.  1,  b)  is  most 
practised  upon  strong  stalks,  or  ia 


ORAFTIXG 


F,>.  I. 


heading  down  or  regrafting  old  trees. 
There  are  two  methods  of  doing  this  : 
one  described  in  the  cut,  where  tlie 
stalk  is  first  cut  off  obliquely,  and  the 
sloped  part  is  then  cut  off  horizontally 
near  the  middle  of  the  slope  ;  a  cleft 
nearly  two  inches  long  is  then  made 
with  a  sharp  knife  or  chisel,  in  the 
crown,  downward,  at  right  angles 
with  the  sloped  part,  taking  care  not 
to  divide  the  pith.  The  cleft  is  kept 
open  by  the  knife  or  the  small  wedge  ; 
the  scion  has  its  extremity,  for  about 
an  inch,  cut  into  the  form  of  a  wedge  : 
it  is  left  about  the  eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  on  the  bark  side,  and  brought 
to  a  fine  edge  on  the  inside.  It  is 
then  inserted  into  the  opening  prepa- 
red for  it ;  and  the  knife  or  wedge  be- 
ing withdrawn,  the  stalk  closes  firmly 
upon  it.  The  other  and  the  more 
common  mode  is  to  saw  off  the  stalk 
horizontally,  make  the  cleft  through 
its  centre,  and  insert  either  one  or 
two  grafts  in  the  outer  edges.  In 
both  cases  the  stalk  should  be  tied 
and  covered  with  the  wax  or  clay. 

"  Whip-grafting  (Fig.  1,  a),  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  tongue-graft- 
ing, is  mostly  adopted  in  nurseries, 
where  the  stalks  are  generally  small. 
It  is  desirable  that  the  stalk  and  graft 
should  be  of  nearly  similar  size.  The 
scion  and  stalk  are  cut  off  obliquely,  at 
corresponding  angles,  as  near  as  the 
operator  can  guess  ;  then  cut  off  the 
tip  of  the  stalk  obliquely,  or  nearly 
horizontally  ;  make  now  a  slit  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  sloped  face  of  the 


stalk  downward,  and  a  similar  one  in 
the  scion  upward.  The  tongue  or 
wedge-like  process,  formipg  the  up- 
per part  of  the  sloping  face  of  the 
scion,  is  then  inserted  downward  in 
the  cleft  of  the  stalk  ;  the  inner  barks 
of  both  being  brought  closely  to  unite 
on  one  side,  so  as  not  to  be  displaced 
in  tying,  which  ought  to  be  done  im- 
mediately, with  a  riband  of  bass  or 
other  soft  string,  brought  in  a  neat 
manner  several  times  round  the  stalk. 
The  next  and  finishing  operation  is  to 
cover  the  whole  wound  with  the  pre- 
pared wax  or  clay  already  described. 
The  French  mode  of  whip-grafting, 
which  is  also  in  common  use  here, 
differs  froin  the  English,  in  their 
never  paring  more  off  the  stalk,  how- 
ever large,  than  the  width  of  the  sci- 
on (Fig.  2,  a,  b,  c,  rl).  In  both,  the 
stalk  is  sometimes  left  a  few  inches 
above  the  graft  till  autumn,  to  tie  the 
young  shoot  to,  lest  it  be  blown  off. 

"Side-grafting  {Fig.  1,  c)  resem- 
bles whip- grafting,  except  it  is  per- 
formed without  taking  off  the  top  of 
the  stalk. 

"  Shoulder  or  chink  grafting  is  per- 
formed with  a  shoulder,  and  some- 
times also  with  a  stay  at  the  bottom 
of  the  slope.  It  is  chiefly  used  for 
ornamental  trees,  where  the  scion 
and  stalk  are  of  the  same  size  {Fig. 
l,d,e,f). 

'•  Crafiing  in  the  root  is  sometimes 
performed  in  nurseries,  where  stalks 
are  scarce,  as  described  in  Fig.  2,  e." 

"  The  season  for  performing  the 
331 


GKA 


f;KA 


operation  is,  for  all  deciduous  trees 
and  shrubs,  the  spring,  immediately 
before  the  movement  of  the  sap. 
The  spring  is  also  the  most  favoura- 
ble period  for  evergreens  ;  but  the 
sap  in  this  class  of  plants  being  more 
in  motion  during  winter  than  that  of 
deciduous  plants,  grafting,  if  thought 
necessary,  might  be  performed  at  that 
season. 

"  Grafting  Timber-trees. — The  oak, 
ash,  hornbeam,  and  hazel  may  be 
grafted,  but  there  is  a  little  difficulty 
in  grafting  some  of  the  hard-wood 
trees.  The  lucombe,  and  other  oaks 
of  that  kind,  require  to  have  the  Tur- 
key oak  for  a  stock ;  and  the  ever- 
green oaks  must  have  their  own  spe- 
cies. The  common  ash  will  lake 
with  the  omits,  and  any  of  the  hardy 
varieties  of  true  ashes,  such  as  the 
Chinese  and  entire-leaved.  The  horn- 
beam may  be  used  as  a  stock  for  Car- 
pinus  oricntalis,  and  the  cut-leaved 
sort ;  but  the  scions  must  be  from 
two  years'  old  wood.  The  purple- 
leaved  hazel  may  be  grafted  on  the 
hazel  stocks. 

"  Grafting  by  approaeh,  or  inarch- 
ing, is  a  mode  of  grafting  in  which, 
to  make  sure  of  success,  the  scion  is 
not  separated  from  the  parent  plant 
till  it  has  become  united  with  the 
stock.  Inarching  is  chiefly  practised 
with  camellias,  myrtles,  jasmines, 
walnuts,  lirs,  &.e.,  which  do  not  tlour- 
ish  by  the  common  mode  of  grafting. 

"  Grafting  herbaceous  plants  differs 
in  nothing  from  grafting  such  as  are 
332 


of  a  woody  nature,  excopling  that 
this  operation  is  performed  when 
both  stock  and  scion  are  in  a  state 
of  vigorous  growth.  The  only  useful 
purpose  to  which  this  mode  has  been 
hitherto  applied  is  that  of  grafting 
the  finer  kinds  of  dahlias  on  tubers 
of  the  more  common  and  vigorous 
growing  sorts.  In  the  Paris  gardens, 
tlie  tomato  is  sometimes  grafted  on 
the  potato,  the  cauliflower  on  the 
borecole,  and  one  gourd  on  another, 
as  matter  of  curiosity. 

"  Grafting  the  herbaceous  shoots  of 
woody  plants  has  been  extensively 
employed  by  French  nurserymen,  and 
even  in  some  of  the  forests  of  France. 
The  scions  are  formed  of  the  points 
of  growing  shoots  ;  and  the  stocks 
are  also  the  points  of  growing  shoots 
cut  or  broken  over  an  inch  or  two 
below  the  point,  where  the  shoot  is 
as  brittle  as  asparagus.  The  opera- 
tion is  performed  in  the  cleft  manner  ; 
that  is,  by  cutting  the  lower  end  of 
the  scion  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  and 
inserting  it  in  a  cleft  or  slit  made 
down  the  middle  of  the  stock.  The 
finer  kinds  of  azaleas,  pines,  and  firs 
are  propagated  in  this  way,  and  thou- 
sands of  Pimis  larix  have  been  so 
grafted  on  Pinus  syhestris  in  the  for- 
est of  Fontainebleau.  At  Hopetoun 
House,  near  Edinburgh,  this  mode  of 
grafting  has  been  successfully  prac- 
tised with  Abies  Snulhiana,  the  stock 
being  the  common  spruce  fir." 

GRAIN.  The  unit  of  weight.  See 
Weights  and  Measures. 

GRAINS.  The  fruit  or  seeds  of 
gramineous  plants,  with  beans,  pease, 
&,c.  The  weight  of  wheat  and  some 
few  other  grains  is  established  by 
statute.  Thus,  in  New-York  a  bush- 
el weighs, 

Stindarct.  Common  Weight. 

Of  wheat     ...     60  —        55  to  65 

Of  rye      ....     56  —        46  to  56 

Of  barley     ...     48  —        44  to  56 

Of  oats    ....     32  —        28  to  44 

Of  Indian  corn      .56  —        50  to  62 

GRAINS,  BREWERS'  AND  DIS- 
TILLERS'. The  refuse  of  the  mash 
tub.  Brewers'  grains  are  best,  as 
they  use  barley  :  distillers  employ  rye 
or  corn.  It  is  difficult  to  give  any 
valuation  for  this  kind  of  food ;  but 


GRA 


GRA 


there  is  no  question  of  the  nutritious- 
ness,  as  large  dairies,  near  cities,  are 
kept  in  full  vigour  and  milk  h\'  them, 
mixed  with  cut  straw  or  hay,  and  pigs 
rapidly  fattened.  A  milch  cow  re- 
quires about  one  bushel  daily.  Grains 
rapidly  heat  and  putrefy  if  exposed  to 
air  and  a  spring  or  summer  heat,  but 
they  may  be  readdy  preserved  by  the 
followmg  process  described  by  Mr. 
Youatt : 

"  The  grains  are  laid  up  in  pits 
lined  with  brick-work,  set  in  cement, 
from  ten  to  twenty  feet  deep,  and  of 
any  convenient  size.  They  are  firm- 
ly trodden  down,  and  covered  with  a 
layer  of  moist  earth,  eight  or  nine 
inches  thick,  to  keep  out  the  rain  and 
frost  in  winter,  and  the  heat  in  sum- 
mer. The  grains  are,  if  possible, 
thrown  into  the  pit  while  warm  and  in 
a  state  of  fermentation,  and  they  soon 
turn  sour ;  but  they  are  not  liked  the 
worse  by  cattle  on  that  account ;  and 
the  air  being  perfectly  excluded,  the 
fermentation  cannot  run  on  to  putre- 
faction. The  dairymen  say  that  the 
slow  and  slight  degree  of  fermenta- 
tion which  goes  on  tends  to  the 
greater  development  of  the  saccha- 
rine and  nutritive  principle  ;  and  they 
will  have  as  large  a  stock  on  hand  as 
they  can  afford,  and  not  open  the  pits 
till  they  are  compelled.  It  is  not  un- 
common for  two  years  to  pass  before 
a  pit  of  grains  is  touched  ;  and  it  is 
said  that  some  have  lain  nine  years, 
and  been  perfectly  good  at  the  expi- 
ration of  that  period." 

Grams  hare  been  used  as  manure 
with  great  success.  They  are  best 
adapted  to  grass,  wheat,  corn,  and 
the  cerealia  generally  :  20  bushels  to 
the  acre  are  an  abundant  application. 
Mr.  Buckland,  of  Wales,  produced 
two  and  a  half  tons  of  hay  off  land 
formerly  yielding  but  half  a  ton,  by  a 
sprinkling  of  grains  only.  This  re- 
sult is  to  be  expected,  as  the  husk  of 
barley,  dec,  contains  nearly  all  the 
sahne  matters  of  the  plant. 

GRAIN  WEEVILS.  See  Wkeat 
Insects. 

GRAIP.  A  Scotch  name  for  the 
various  kinds  of  forks  used  in  hus- 
bandry. 


)      G  R  A  L  L  .■£  (from  gralLr,  stills). 
I  The  tribe  of  long-legged  wading  birds, 
as  the  cranes,  flamingo. 
I      GRAMA  GRASS.     A  grass  indi- 
I  genous  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  Mex- 
I  ico,  of  small  size,  growing  on  poor 
land,  and  bearing  a  very  nutritious 
:  grain,  which  it  retains  until  spring. 
It  is  highly  recommended  for  culti- 
vation in  the   Southern   States.     It 
must   not  be   confounded  with   the 
gamma,  or  buffalo  grass.     From  the 
description  given  by  Captain  Cook, 
United  States  Army,   it  appears  to 
be  a  stoloniferous  grass,  and  peren- 
nial. 

GRAMINACE.E.  Gramineous 
plants.  Grasses.  Endogenous  plants, 
in  which  the  parts  of  fructification 
are  essentially  perfect,  although  they 
are  in  a  very  unusual  state  in  what 
may  be  called  their  accessory  organs. 
They  have  neither  calyx  nor  corolla  ; 
but,  in  lieu  of  them,  imbricated  scales, 
called  palea;  and  glumes  ;  the  latter 
of  which  give  rise  to  the  name  ghi- 
maceous,  often  applied  to  these  plants. 
Corn  of  all  kinds,  the  bamboo,  the 
sugar  cane,  many  kinds  of  pasture 
plants,  and  reeds,  belong  to  different 
species  of  Graminacece.  The  flinty 
surface  of  the  stems  or  straw  renders 
many  valuable  for  domestic  use,  as 
for  forming  the  plat  from  which 
straw  bonnets,  &c.,  are  manufactu- 
red. They  constitute  the  most  val- 
uable family  of  plants  for  the  suste- 
nance of  men  and  animals.  They  are 
developed  from  the  frigid  zone  to  the 
equator,  increasing  in  size  as  they 
proceed  south. 

GRAMME.  The  unit  of  French 
weights,  equal  to  I.5-434:  troy  grains. 
The  following  is  their  decimal  sys- 
tem : 

Gnunmes.  Troy  p^iiis. 

,001  —  ,01543 

,01  =  1,5434 

,1  =  1,5434 


Milligramme 

Centigramme 

Decigramme 

Gramme    .     . 

Decagramme 

Ilectograramo 

Kilogramme 

Mvnagramme 


=  1,=  15,434 

=  10,  =  154,34 
=  100,  =  1543,4 
=  1000, =  15434 
=  10000, =  154340 


The  gramme  equals  the  weight  of 

the  hundredth  part  of  a  cubic  metre 

of  distilled  water  at  32=  Fahrenheit. 

The  kilogramme  is  used  for  heavier 

333 


GRA 


GRA 


weights,  and  is  equal  to  two  pounds, 
three  ounces,  and  4-438  drachms  av- 
oirdupois. 

GRANARY.  Aplace  where  wheat 
or  corn  is  stored  ;  it  should  be  airy, 
dry,  and  so  situated  as  to  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  vermin.  Where  the 
weevil  appears,  tiie  grain,  before  sto- 
rage, should  be  kiln-dried  at  about 
180°  Fahrenheit.  Rats  and  mice  are 
kept  out  if  the  granary  be  erected  on 
stones  or  piles  of  a  conical  form,  and 
inverted.  In  Egypt  and  Sicily  corn 
is  stored  in  deep  vaults  or  cellars 
made  of  brick,  or  cut  in  the  rocks, 
and  covered  tightly  by  a  rock  with 
earth  piled  upon  it :  in  this  case  the 
grain  must  be  thoroughly,  dried  be- 
fore storage.  When  the  granary  is 
airy,  it  is  advisable  to  stir  the  grain  oc- 
casionally, so  as  to  expose  it  equally. 

GRANGE.  A  farm-yard  with 
suitable  offices. 

GRANITE.  A  crystalline  rock 
composed  of  quartz,  mica,  and  feld- 
spar. The  greater  the  proportion  of 
quartz  the  better  the  rock  for  build- 
ing purposes,  as  the  feldspar  decays. 
Some  granites  contain  a  variety  of 
feldspar  which  decomposes  with  great 
rapidity,  so  that  it  is  used  for  making 
pottery.  Granite  is  supposed  by  ge- 
ologists to  be  of  igneous  origin  ;  it  ] 
protrudes  through  other  formations, 
and  also  occurs  in  veins.  It  is  the 
principal  rock  of  the  Primitive  series, 
and  its  ingredients  constitute,  in 
different  combinations,  most  other 
rocks.  The  variety  called  blue  gran- 
ite, Massachusetts  granite,  or  sye- 
nite, contains  hornblende  in  the  place 
of  mica,  and  is  a  more  valuable  build- 
ing material.  When  granite  is  to  be 
worked  it  should  be  kept  under  wa- 
ter, as  it  becomes  very  hard  in  air. 
The  chemical  composition  of  granite 
depends  upon  the  proportions  of  the 
minerals  present.  The  quartz  is  sil- 
ica only  ;  the  feldspar  contains  from 
11  to  14  per  cent,  of  potash;  the 
mica  from  seven  to  ten  of  potash. 
See  these  minerals. 

GRANIVOR.E.     Birds,  including 
the    incessores,    which    eat    grain. 
Granivorons    is    used    to    designate 
grain-eating  animals. 
334 


I  GRANULATE  (from  grayia,  a 
gram).  To  form  into  grains,  or  be- 
come covered  with  minute  granules. 

GRANULATION.  In  chemistry, 
the  reduction  of  metals  into  smaller 
parts :  it  is  performed  by  pouring 
small  portions  of  the  molten  matter 
into  water,  and  sometimes  first  pass- 
ing it  through  a  wire  sieve.  In  sur- 
gery, the  production  of  granules  of 
flesh  on  the  surface  of  wounds. 

GRAPE.     See  Viyie. 

GRAPE  SUGAR.      Glucose. 

GRAPHOMETER  (from  ypa(j>u,  1 
icritc,  and  fisTpov,  a  measure).  A  name 
for  the  semicircle  of  land  surveyors. 

GRAPHITE.  Plumbago,  black- 
lead.  The  coarse  kinds  are  used  in 
making  crucibles. 

GRASSES.  The  lesser  gramina- 
ceee,  which  do  not  bear  grains  suffi- 
ciently large  for  collection  as  food. 
Clovers,  lucern,  and  leguminous 
plants  are  also  improperly  included 
under  grasses. 

The  true  grasses  are  very  numer- 
ous, but  experience  has  selected 
some  few  as  worthy  of  cultivation, 
from  their  greater  nutritiousness  or 
adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the  farm. 
These  are  divided  into  temporary 
hay  grasses,  intended  for  rotations  ; 
permanent  hay  grasses  ;  grasses  af- 
fording hay,  but  peculiar  to  certain 
localities,  and  pasture  grasses. 

The  following  is  chiefly  from  Lou- 
don :  "  Though  grasses  abound  in  ev- 
ery soil  and  situation,  yet  all  the 
species  do  not  abound  indifierently ; 
on  the  contrary,  no  class  of  plants  is 
so  absolute  and  unalterable  in  its 
choice  in  this  respect.  The  creep- 
ing-rooted and  stoloniferous  grasses 
will  grow  readily  on  most  soils  ;  but 
the  fibrous-rooted  species,  and  espe- 
cially the  more  delicate  upland  grass- 
es, require  particular  attention  as  to 
the  soil  in  which  they  are  sown  ;  for 
in  many  soils  they  will  either  not 
come  up  at  all,  or  die  away  in  a  few 
years,  and  give  way  to  the  grasses 
which  would  naturally  spring  up. 
Hence,  in  sowing  down  lands  for  per- 
manent pasture,  it  is  a  good  method 
to  make  choice  of  those  grasses 
which  thrive  best  in  adjoining  and 


i 


GRASSES. 


similarly-circumstanced  pastures  for 
a  part  of  the  seed  ;  and  to  mix  with 
these  what  are  considered  the  very 
best  kinds. 

"  The  most  important  feature  in 
the  culture  of  pasture  grasses  is  mix- 
ture of  sorts.  The  husbandman  who 
clothes  his  fields  only  with  rye-grass 
and  clover,  employs  a  limited  ma- 
chinery, the  former  being  unproduc- 
tive in  summer,  the  latter  moderate- 
ly so  in  spring  ;  but  when  he,  for  this 
purpose,  uses  a  variety  of  plants  dif- 
fermg  in  their  habits  of  growth  and 
periods  of  luxuriance,  a  numerous 
and  powerful  machinery  is  kept  suc- 
cessively in  full  operation. 

"The  effect  of  a  mixture  of  grasses 
may  be  accounted  for  from  some  spe- 
cies putting  forth  their  foliage,  and 
reaching  a  maximum  of  produce  at 
different  periods  from  other  kinds. 
From  some  being  gregarious  or  so- 
cial, and  others  solitary,  and  never 
producing  a  close  turf,  by  sowing 
seeds  of  several  species  together, 
which  are  dissimilar  in  their  habits 
of  growth,  and  arrive  at  a  maximum 
of  produce  at  different  periods  of  sum- 
mer and  autuirin,  there  is  secured 
throughout  the  season  a  succession 
of  fresh  herbage,  rendered,  by  the 
erect  and  creeping  foliage  of  the  dif- 
ferent species,  so  dense  and  abun- 
dant as  greatly  to  surpass  in  quanti- 
ty that  obtained  from  the  cultivation 
of  two  or  three  kinds  only. 

"New  and  excellent  varieties  of 
many  of  the  grasses,  especially  those 
used  or  fit  to  be  used  in  the  C(m- 
vertible  husbandry,  might,  no  doubt, 
be  obtained  by  selection  and  cross- 
breeding, and  it  is  much  to  be  wished 
that  this  were  attempted  by  cultiva- 
tors. 

"  Tall  or  Half  Grasses  of  temporary 
Duration. — Tlie  most  valuable  of  this 
division  are  the  biennial,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  but  erroneously  called,  the 
annual,  perennial,  and  subperennial 
rye  grass  (a),  the  cocksfoot  grass  (6), 
and  woolly  soft  grass  (c).  Where  a 
crop  of  hay  is  desired  within  the 
year,  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  such 
grasses  as  are  annuals  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word  ;  and  none  can  be 


Fig.  I. 


Most  vnluiible  temporary  bay  grasses. 

better  for  this  purpose  than  the  com 
mon  oat.  Arena  sativa,  cut  and  made 
into  hay  when  it  comes  into  flower. 
Next  in  order  may  be  mentioned  the 
other  cereal  grasses  and  the  annual 
varieties  of  Broinus ;  the  latter,  how- 
ever, are  very  coarse  grasses,  though 
prolific  in  culm. 

"  The  biennial  rye  grass,  Lolium 
perenne  var.  bienne,  is  well  known  as 
being  universally  sown,  either  with 
or  without  clover,  among  grain  crops, 
with  a  view  to  one  crop  of  hay  in  the 
succeedingseason.  It  attains  a  great- 
er height,  and  produces  a  longer, 
broader  spike  of  flowers  than  the  per- 
ennial rye  grass,  and  the  produce  in 
hay  is  considered  greater  than  that  of 
any  other  annual  grass  equally  pal- 
atable to  cattle.  It  prefers  a  rich 
loamy  soil,  but  will  grow  on  any  sur- 
face whatever,  not  rock  or  undecayed 
bog. 

■'  The  perennial  rye  grass  {Lolium 
perenne,  Lin.,  and  Loglio  vivace,  Ital.) 
differs  from  the  other  in  being  of 
somewhat  smaller  growth,  and  in 
abiding  for  several  years,  according 
to  the  variety  and  the  soil  and  cul- 
ture. Pacey's  and  Russell's  varieties 
of  rye  grass  are  most  esteemed. 

"Many  consider  this  grass  coarse, 
benty,  and  very  exhausting  to  the 
soil ;  but  after  all  the  experiments 
that  have  been  made  on  the  other 
grasses,  none  have  been  found  to 
equal  it  for  a  course  of  mowing  and 
pasturing  for  two,  three,  or  seven 
335 


GRASSES. 


years.  It  is  sown  in  Italy,  and  es- 
pecially in  Lombardy,  and  also  in 
France  and  Germany,  along  with 
clover,  for  the  same  purposes  as  in 
this  country  ;  and,  as  Von  Thaer  has 
remarked,  though  some  have  tried 
other  species,  both  in  these  countries 
and  in  England,  they  have  in  the  end 
returned  to  rye  grass.  When  intend- 
ed as  a  pasture  grass,  if  stocked  hard, 
and  when  for  hay,  if  mown  early,  the 
objections  to  it  are  removed. — {Code 
of  Afrriculturr.)  G.  Sinclair  says  the 
circumstance  of  its  producing  abun- 
dance of  seed,  which  is  easily  col- 
lected, and  vegetates  freely  on  any 
soil,  its  early  perfection  and  abundant 
herbage  the  first  year,  which  is  much 
relished  by  cattle,  are  the  merits 
which  have  upheld  it  to  the  present 
day,  and  will  probably  for  some  time 
to  come  contimie  it  a  favourite  grass 
among  farmers.  But  the  latter-math 
is  inconsiderable ;  the  plant  impov- 
erishes the  soil  in  a  high  degree  if 
not  cut  before  the  seed  ripens.  When 
this  is  neglected,  the  field  after  mid- 
summer exhibits  only  a  brown  sur- 
face of  withered  straws. 

"  The  cocksfoot  grass,  orchard 
grass  {Dactylis  glomcrata,  Linneus), 
is  an  imperfect  perennial,  and  grows 
naturally  on  dry,  sandy  soils.  This 
grass  may  be  known  by  its  coarse 
appearance,  both  of  the  leaf  and  spike, 
and  also  by  its  whitish  green  hue. 

"  One  writer  says  he  has  cultiva- 
ted it  largely,  and  i^o  his  satisfaction, 
on  wet  loams  on  a  clay  marl  bottom, 
upon  wliich  the  finer  grasses  are  apt 
to  give  way  in  a  few  years  to  the  in- 
digenous produce.  If  sufTered  to  rise 
high,  it  is  very  coarse  ;  but,  fed  close, 
is  a  very  valuable  sheep  pasture.  He 
has  sown  two  bushels  an  acre,  and 
10  lbs.  common  red  clover  ;  and  when 
the  clover  wears  out,  the  grass  fills 
the  lands  and  abides  well  in  it.  It 
grows  well  in  winter.  It  has  been 
found  highly  useful  as  an  early  sheep 
feed.  It  is  early,  hardy,  and  pro- 
ductive, but  is  a  coarser  plant  than 
rye  grass,  and  requires  even  greater 
attention  in  regard  to  being  cut  soon 
or  fed  close.  It  does  best  by  itself, 
and  the  time  of  its  ripening  being  dif- 
336 


fercnt  from  that  of  clover,  it  does  not 
suit  well  to  be  mixed  with  that  plant. 
The  pasturage  it  affords  is  luxuriant, 
and  particularly  agreeable  to  sheep. 
It  is  cultivated  to  a  great  extent,  and 
with  astonishing  success  at  Holkham. 
The  quantity  of  sheep  kept  upon  it, 
summer  and  winter,  is  quite  surpri- 
sing and  the  land  becomes  renova- 
ted by  lying  two  or  three  years  under 
this  grass,  and  enriched  by  the  ma- 
nure derived  from  the  sheep.  A  field 
in  the  jjark  at  Woburn  was  laid  down 
in  two  equal  parts,  one  part  with  rye 
grass  and  while  clover,  and  the  other 
part  with  cocksfoot  and  red  clover  ; 
from  the  spring  till  midsummer  the 
sheep  kept  almost  constantly  on  the 
rye  grass,  but  after  that  time  they  left 
it,  and  adhered  with  equal  constancy 
to  the  cocksfoot  during  the  remainder 
of  the  season.  In  The  Code  of  Agri- 
culture (p.  497,  3d.  edit.)  it  is  stated, 
that  Sinclair  of  Woburn  considers 
'  no  grass  so  well  suited  for  all  pur- 
poses as  cocksfoot.' 

"  The  woolly  soft  grass  (Holcus  la- 
natits,  Linneus)  is  an  imperfect  peren- 
nial, and  rather  late  flowering  grass, 
of  a  short,  unsubstantial  appearance, 
and  found  chiefly  in  poor,  dry  soils. 
It  is,  however,  a  very  common  grass, 
and  grows  on  ail  soils,  from  the  rich- 
est to  the  poorest.  It  affords  abun- 
dance of  seed,  which  is  light,  and 
easily  dispersed  by  the  wind. 

"  It  was  cultivated  at  Woburn  on 
a  strong  clayey  loam,  and  the  propor- 
tional value  which  the  grass  at  the 
time  the  seed  is  ripe  bears  to  the 
grass  at  the  time  of  flowering  is  as 
eleven  to  twelve.  Young  observes 
of  this  grass,  that  it  flourishes  well 
on  any  moist  soil,  and  should  be  sown 
chiefly  with  a  view  to  sheep,  for  it  is 
not  so  good  for  other  stock  ;  many 
acres  of  it  have  been  cultivated  on 
his  farm  for  sheep,  and  it  has  answer- 
ed well  when  kept  close  fed. 

"  Tall  or  Hay  Grasses  of  permanent 
Duration. — No  permanent  grass  has 
been  found  equal  to  the  rye  grass  for 
the  purposes  of  convertible  husband- 
ry, but  others  have  been  selected 
which  are  considered  superior  for  hay 
meadows.     The  principal  of  these 


GRASSES. 


are  the  fescue,  foxtail,  and  meadow 
grass.  Agriculturists,  indeed,  are  not 
all  agreed  on  the  comparative  merits 
of  these  grasses  with  rye  grass  ;  hut 
there  are  none  who  do  not  consider 
it  advisable  to  introduce  a  portion  of 
each,  or  most  of  these  species  along 

Fis-  2 


with  rye  grass,  in  laymg  down  lands 
to  permanent  pasture. 

"  Of  the  fescue  grass  there  are 
three  species  in  the  highest  estima- 
tion as  meadow  hay  grasses,  viz.,  the 
meadow,  tall,  and  spiked  fescue  (,Fig. 
2,  a,  b,  c). 


TaJ!  hay  grasses  of 

"  The  F.  pralcnsis  (a),  or  the  mead- 
ow or  fertile  fescue  grass,  is  found 
indigenous  in  the  United  States,  in 
most  rich  meadows  and  pastures,  and 
is  highly  grateful  to  every  description 
of  stock.  It  is  more  in  demand  for 
laying  down  meadows  than  any  other 
species  except  the  rye  grass. 

"  The  tall  or  infertile  fescue  grass 
{Fcstucaelatior,  E.  B.,b)is  indigenous, 
and  closely  allied  to  the  Fcstuca  pra- 
tcnsis,  from  which  it  differs  in  litlle 
except  that  it  is  larger  in  every  re- 
spect. The  produce  is  nearly  three 
times  that  of  the  F.  pratensis,  and  the 
nutritive  powers  of  the  grass  are  su- 
perior, in  direct  proportion,  as  six  to 
eight.  The  proportional  value  which 
the  grass  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe 
bears  to  the  grass  at  the  time  of  flow- 
ering is  as  twelve  to  twenty.  The 
proportional  value  which  the  grass  of 
the  latter-math  bears  to  that  of  the 
crop  is  as  sixteen  to  twenty,  and  to 
the  grass  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe 
as  twelve  to  sixteen  inverse.  Curtis 
observes  that,  as  the  seeds  of  this 
plant,  when  cultivated,  are  not  fertile, 
it  can  only  be  introduced  by  parting 
F  f 


permanent  Juration. 

j  its  roots  and  planting  them  out ;  in 
this  there  would,  he  says,  be  no  great 


difficulty,  provided  it  were  likely  to 
answer  the  expense,  which  he  is 
strongly  of  opinion  it  would  in  certain 
cases  ;  indeed,  he  has  often  thought 
that  meadows  would  be  best  formed 
by  planting  out  the  roots  of  grasses, 
and  other  plants,  in  a  regular  manner ; 
and  that,  however  singular  such  a 
practice  may  appear  at  present,  it  will 
probably  be  adopted  at  some  future 
period  ;  this  great  advantage  would, 
he  says,  attend  it,  noxious  weeds 
might  be  more  easily  kept  down,  un- 
til the  grasses  and  other  plants  had 
established  themselves  in  the  soil. 

"The  spiked  fescue  grass,  or  dar- 
nel fescue  grass  {Festuca  loliacca, 
Linneus,  c),  resembles  the  rye  grass 
in  appearance,  and  the  tall  fescue 
grass  in  the  infertility  of  its  seeds. 
It  is  considered  superior  to  rye  grass 
either  for  hay  or  permanent  pasture, 
and  improves  in  proportion  to  its  age, 
which  is  the  reverse  of  what  takes 
place  with  the  rye  grass. 

"  The  meadow  foxtail  gi^ass  (Alope- 
curus  pratensis,  d)  is  found  indigenous 
337 


GRASSES. 


in  most  meadows  ;  and  when  the  soil  ' 
is  neither  very  moist  nor  very  dry,  ; 
but  in  good  heart,  it  is  very  produc-  i 
live.  It  also  does  well  on  water  ! 
meadows.  Sheep  and  horses  seem  j 
to  have  a  greater  relish  than  oxen  for 
this  grass. 

"  In  the  Woburn  experiments,  it 
■was  tried  both  on  a  sandy  loam  and  a  j 
clayey  loam,  and  the  result  gave  near- 
ly three  fourths  of  produce  greater 
from  a  clayey  loam  than  from  a  .sandy 
soil,  and  the  grass  from  the  latter  is 
comparatively  of  less  value,  in  pro- 
portion as  four  to  six.  The  straws 
produced  by  the  sandy  soil  are  de- 
ficient in  number,  and  in  every  re- 
spect less  than  those  from  the  clayey 
loam  ;  which  will  account  for  the  un- 
equal quantities  of  the  nutritive  mat- 
ter afforded  by  them  ;  but  the  propor- 
tional value  in  which  the  grass  of 
the  latter-math  exceeds  that  of  the 
crop  at  the  time  of  flowering  is  as 
four  to  three  ;  a  difference  which  ap- 
pears extraordinary,  when  the  quan- 
tity of  flower  stalks  which  are  in  the 
grass  at  the  time  of  flowering  is  con- 
sidered. Next  to  the  fescue,  this 
grass  is  in  the  greatest  reputation  for 
laying  down  mowing  grounds  ;  but  it 
is,  unfortunately,  subject  to  tiie  rust 
in  some  situations. 

"  Of  the  meadow  grass  there  are 
two  species  in  esteem  as  hay  plants, 
the  smooth-stalked  and  roughish. 

"  The  great,  or  smooth  -  stalked 
meadow  grass,  the  spear  grass  of 
some  parts  of  the  United  States  (Poa 
fraiensis,  e),  is  distinguished  by  its 
height,  smooth  stem,  and  creeping 
roots.  According  to  Sole,  it  is  the 
best  of  all  the  grasses  :  its  foliage  be- 
gins to  shoot  and  put  on  fine  verdure 
early  in  the  spring,  but  not  so  soon 
as  some  other  grasses.  Every  ani- 
mal that  eats  grass  is  fond  of  it,  while 
it  makes  the  best  hay,  and  affords  the 
richest  pasture.  It  abounds  in  the 
best  meadows,  and  has  the  valuable 
property  of  abiding  in  the  same  land, 
Willie  most  other  grasses  are  contiti- 
ually  changing.  According  to  some, 
it  delights  in  rather  a  dry  than  a  moist 
soil  and  situation,  on  which  account 
it  keeps  its  verdure  better  than  most 
338 


others  in  dry  seasons  ;  but  it  thrives 
most  luxuriantly  in  rich  meadows. 

"  By  the  Woburn  experiments,  the 
proportional  value  in  which  the  grass 
of  the  latter-math  exceeds  that  of  the 
flowering  crop  is  as  six  to  seven. 
The  grass  of  the  seed  crop  and  that 
of  the  latter-math  are  of  equal  value. 
This  grass  is,  therefore,  of  least  val- 
ue at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe  ;  a  loss 
of  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  value 
of  the  whole  crop  is  sustained  if  it  is 
not  cut  till  that  period  ;  the  straws 
are  then  dry,  and  the  root  leaves  in 
a  sickly,  decaying  state  ;  those  of  the 
latter-math,  on  the  contrary,  are  lux- 
uriant and  healthy.  This  species 
sends  forth  flower  stalks  but  once  in  a 
season,  and  those  being  the  most  val- 
uable part  of  the  plant  for  the  purpose 
of  hay,  it  will,  from  this  circumstance, 
and  the  superior  value  of  the  grass 
of  the  latter-math,  compared  to  that 
of  the  seed  crop,  appear  well  adapted 
for  permanent  pasture.  It  was  of 
this  grass  that  the  American  prize 
bonnet,  in  imitation  of  Leghorn,  was 
made  by  IMiss  "\^'oodllouse.  This 
grass  belongs  to  tiie  same  genus,  and 
nearly  resembles  the  rich  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  which  seems,  indeed,  to  be 
only  a  variety  rather  less  in  size. 

"  The  roughish  meadow  grass  {Foa 
trimalis,  L.,  /)  delights  in  moist,  rich, 
and  sheltered  situations,  when  it 
grows  two  feet  high,  and  is  very  pro- 
ductive. It  is  indigenous.  The  defi- 
ciency of  hay  in  the  flowering  crop, 
in  proportion  to  that  of  the  seed  crop, 
is  very  striking.  Its  superior  produce, 
the  highly  nutritive  powers  which 
the  grass  seems  to  possess,  and 
the  season  in  which  it  arrives  at 
perfection,  are  merits  which  distin- 
guish it  as  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  those  grasses  which  affect  moist, 
rich  soils  and  sheltered  situations  ; 
l)ut  on  dry,  exposed  situations  it  is 
altogether  inconsiderable  :  it  yearly 
diminishes,  and  ultimately  dii^s  off, 
not  unfrequently  in  the  space  of  four 
or  five  years. 

"  The  above  are  six  of  the  best 
permanent  grasses  for  either  dry  or 
watered  meadows.  The  seeds  of  the 
meadow  fescue,  foxtail,  and  smooth 


GRASSES 


and  rougli  iivcadow  grasses  are  sown 
in  various  proportions  with  the  clo- 
vers and  rye  grass.  The  seeds  of 
the  two  sorts  of  meadow  grass  are 
apt  to  stick  together,  and  require  to 
be  well  mixed  with  the  others  before 
being  sown.  The  tall  and  spiked  fes- 
cue grasses,  having  a  numher  of  bar- 
ren flowers,  are  not  prolific  in  seeds, 
and  they  are  therefore  seldom  to  be  got 
at  the  seed-shops.  To  this  list  may 
be  added  Andes  grass  (^Apoia  (Fcs- 
tuca)  elatior),  which,  on  strong  lands, 
produces  a  good  crop,  and  is  remark- 
ably early  in  the  United  States  :  it 
may  be  pastured  with  success,  and 
should  be  cut  before  seed,  as  it  be- 
comes coarse.  See  Bermuda  and 
Grama  Grass. 

"  As  hay  grasses,  adapted  for  par- 
ticular soils  and  situations,  the  cat's- 
tail  or  Timothy,  floating  fescue,  flo- 
rin, and  herd's  grass,  have  been  rec- 
ommended ;  but  it  cannot  be  said 
that  the  opinions  of  cultivators  are 
u  nanimous  in  their  favour.  Timothy 
has  certainly  been  found  to  answer 
well  on  moist,  peaty  soils,  and  in  sev- 
eral cases  florin  also. 

"The  cafs-tail,  or  Timothy  grass 
(Phleum  ■pratcnsc,  L.,  Fig.  3,  a,),  is  a 
naturalized  plant,  and  grows  both  in 

Fii 


dry  and  moist  soils.  On  moist,  rich 
soils  it  is  a  prolific  grass,  but  late  ;  on 
dry  soils  it  is  good  for  little,  and  for 
cultivation  in  any  way  is  disapproved 
of  by  Withering,  Swaine,  Curtis,  and 
others,  as  having  no  properties  in 
which  it  i-s  not  greatly  surpassed  by 
the  meadow  foxtail. 

The  Woburn  experiments,  howev- 
er, present  this  grass  as  one  of  the 
most  prolific  for  hay.  The  compar- 
ative merits  of  this  grass  appear  to 
be  very  great  ;  to  which  may  he  add- 
ed the  abundance  of  fine  foliage  that 
it  produces  early  in  the  spring.  In 
this  respect  it  is  inferior  to  Poafer- 
tilis  and  Poa  angustifolia  only.  The 
value  of  the  straws  at  the  time  the 
seed  is  ripe  exceeds  that  of  the  grass 
at  the  time  of  flowering  in  the  pro- 
portion of  twenty-eight  to  ten,  a  cir- 
cumstance which  raises  it  above 
many  others  ;  for  from  this  property 
its  valuable  early  foliage  may  be  de- 
pastured to  an  advanced  period  of 
the  season,  without  injury  to  the  crop 
of  hay,  treatment  which,  in  grasses 
that  send  forth  their  flowering  straws 
early  in  the  season,  would  cause  a 
loss  of  nearly  one  half  in  the  value 
of  the  crop,  as  clearly  proved  by  for- 
mer examples  ;  and  this  property  of 
.  3. 


the  straws  makes  the  plant  peculiar- 
ly desirable  for  hay.  In  moist  and 
peaty  soils  it  has  in  various  instances 
been  found  highly  productive. 


Permanent  li.iy  grasses  requiring  peculiar  ?oiI?. 


"  The  floating  fescue  grass  {Festu- 
cafluitans,  b)  is  found  in  rich  marshes. 

"  It  is  greedily  devoured  by  every 
description  of  stock,  not  excepting 
339 


GRASSES. 


hogs  and  ducks,  and  geese  eagerly 
devour  the  seeds,  which  are  small, 
but  very  sweet  and  nourishing.  They 
are  collected  in  several  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Poland,  under  the  name  of 
manna-seeds  (schu-aden),  and  are  es- 
teemed a  delicacy  in  soups  and  gru- 
els. When  ground  to  meal,  Ihey 
make  bread  very  little  inferior  to  that 
from  wheat.  The  bran  is  given  to 
horses  that  have  the  worms,  but  they 
must  be  kept  from  water  for  some 
hours  afterward.  Geese  and  other 
water-fowl  are  very  fond  of  the  seeds. 
So  also  are  fish  ;  trout,  in  particular, 
thrive  in  those  rivers  where  this  grass 
grows  in  plenty.  It  has  been  recom- 
mended to  be  sowed  on  meadow's  that 
admit  flooding  ;  but  Curtis  justly  re- 
marks that  the  flote  fescue  will  not 
flourish  except  in  land  that  is  con- 
stantly under  water,  or  converted 
into  a  bog  or  swamp. 

"  The  water  meadow  grass  {Poa 
aquatica,  c)  is  found  chiefly  in  marsh- 
es in  the  north  and  in  Canada,  but 
will  grow  on  strong  clays,  and  yield, 
as  the  Woburn  experiments  prove,  a 
prodigious  produce,  flowering  from 
June  to  September.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  grasses,  rising  to  five  feet. 

"  The  florin  grass  {Agrostis  stolonifc- 
ra,  d)  is  a  very  common  grass,  both  in 
wet  and  dry,  rich  and  poor  situations. 
It  is  known  in  the  United  States  as 
Agrostix  drcumbcns,  and  is  a  variety 
oi  A.  alba.  Few  plants  appear  to  be 
more  under  the  influence  of  local  cir- 
cumstances than  this  grass.  On  dry 
soils  it  is  worth  nothing,  but  on  rich, 
marl  soils,  and  in  a  moist  soil,  if  we 
may  put  confidence  in  the  accounts 
given  of  its  produce  in  Ireland,  it 
is  the  most  valuable  of  all  herbage 
plants. 

"  It  was  first  brouglit  into  notice 
by  Dr.  Kichardson  in  1809,  and  sub- 
sequently extolled,  and  its  culture  de- 
tailed in  various  pamphlets  by  the 
same  gentleman.  It  appears  to  be 
exclusively  adapted  for  moist  peat 
soils  or  hogs.  In  The  Code  of  Agri- 
culture it  is  said,  '  On  mere  bogs,  the 
florin  yields  a  great  weight  of  her- 
bage, and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  use- 
ful plant  that  bogs  can  produce." 
340 


According  to  Sir  H.  Davy,  the  florin 
grass,  to  be  in  perfection,  requires  a 
moist  climate  or  a  wet  soil ;  and  it 
grows  luxuriantly  in  cold  clays  unfit- 
ted for  other  grasses.  In  light  sands, 
and  in  dry  situations,  its  produce  is 
much  inferior  as  to  quantity  and  qual- 
ity. He  saw  four  square  yards  of 
florin  grass  cut  in  the  end  of  January, 
in  a  meadow,  exclusively  appropria- 
ted to  the  cultivation  of  florin  by  the 
Countess  of  Hardwicke,  the  soil  of 
which  is  a  damp,  stiflT  clay.  They  af- 
forded twenty-eight  pounds  of  fodder, 
of  which  one  thousand  parts  aflx)rde(l 
sixty-four  parts  of  nutritive  matter 
consisting  nearly  of  one  sixth  of  su- 
gar, and  Ave  sixths  of  mucilage,  with 
a  little  extractive  matter.  In  anoth- 
er experiment,  four  square  yards  gave 
twenty-seven  pounds  of  grass.  Lady 
Hardwicke  has  given  an  account  of 
a  trial  of  this  grass,  Mherein  twenty- 
three  milch  cows,  and  one  young 
horse,  besides  a  number  of  pigs,  were 
kept  a  fortnight  on  the  produce  of 
one  acre.  On  the  Duke  of  Bedford's 
farm,  at  Maulden,  florin  hay  was  pla- 
ced in  the  racks  before  horses,  in 
small,  distinct  quantities,  alternately 
with  common  hay  ;  but  no  decided 
preference  for  either  was  manifested 
by  the  horses  in  this  trial.  Fiorin 
has  been  tried  in  the  highlands  of 
Scotland,  and  a  premium  awarded  in 
1821  for  a  field  of  three  acres  planted 
on  land  previously  worth  very  little, 
at  Appin,  in  Argyleshire.  (Highl.  Soc. 
Trans.,  vol.  vi,,  p.  229.)  Hay  tea  has 
also  been  made  from  fiorin,  and  found 
useful  in  rearing  calves,  being  mixed 
with  oatmeal  and  skimmed  milk. — 
(Ibid.,  p.  233.) 

"  There  are  other  species  of  Agros- 
tis, as  the  A.  palustris  and  repcns,  and 
some  varieties  of  the  A.  stolomfcra, 
that  on  common  soils  are  little  differ- 
ent in  their  appearance  and  proper- 
ties from  fiorin.  On  one  of  these, 
the  narrow-leaved  creeping  bent  {A. 
stolonifcra  var.  angustifolia),  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  are  made  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  Woburn  experiments  : 
'  From  a  careful  exammation  of  the 
creeping  bent  with  narrow  leaves,  it 
will  doubtless  appear  to  possess  mer- 


GRASSES. 


its  well  worthy  of  attention,  though 
perhaps  not  so  great  as  they  have 
been  supposed,  if  the  natural  place  of 
its  growth  and  habits  be  impartially 
taken  into  the  account.  From  the 
couchant  nature  of  this  grass,  it  is 
denominated  couch  grass  by  practi- 
cal men,  and  from  the  length  of  time 
that  it  retains  the  vital  power  after 
being  taken  out  of  the  soil,  it  is  call- 
ed squitch,  quick,  full  of  life,'  &c. 

'•  The  culture  of  tiorin  is  different 
from  that  of  other  grasses.  Though 
the  plant  will  ripen  its  seeds  on  a  dry 
soil,  and  these  seeds  being  very  small, 
a  few  pounds  would  be  sufficient  for 
an  acre,  yet  it  is  generally  propaga- 
ted by  stolones  or  root  shoots.  The 
ground  being  well  pulverized,  freed 
from  weeds,  and  laid  into  such  beds 
or  ridges  as  the  cultivator  may  think 
advisable,  small  drills  an  inch  or  two 
deep,  and  six  or  nine  inches  asunder, 
are  to  be  drawn  along  its  surface, 
with  a  hand  or  horse  hoe,  or  on  soft 
lands  with  the  hoe-rake.  In  the  bot- 
tom of  these  drills,  the  florin  shoots 
(whether  long  or  short  is  of  no  con- 
sequence) are  laid  lengthways,  so  that 
their  ends  may  touch  each  other,  and 
then  lightly  covered  with  a  rake,  and 
the  surface  rolled  to  render  it  fit  for 
the  scythe.  In  six  months  the  whole 
surface  will  be  covered  with  verdure, 
and  if  the  planting  be  performed  ear- 
ly in  spring,  a  large  crop  may  be  had 
in  the  following  autumn.  Any  sea- 
son will  answer  for  planting,  but  one 
likely  to  be  followed  by  showers  and 
heat  is  to  be  preferred.  Those  who 
wish  to  cultivate  this  grass  will  con- 
sult Dr.  Richardson's  New  Essay  on 
Fionn  Grass  (1813),  and  also  The  Far- 
mers Magazine  for  1810-14.  Our 
opinion,"  says  Loudon,  "is  that  nei- 
ther florin,  Timothy,  nor  floating  fes- 
cue is  ever  likely  to  be  cultivated  in 
Britain  ;  though  the  latter  two  may 
perhapssucceed  well  on  the  bogs  and 
moist,  rich  soils  of  Ireland,  where,  to 
second  the  influence  of  the  soil,  there 
is  a  moist,  warm  climate. 

"  The  preparation  of  the  soil,  and 

the  sowing   of  the    usual   meadow 

grasses,  ditfer  in  nothing  from  those 

of  clover  and  rye  grass  already  given. 

Ff2 


"  Grasses  chiefly  adapted  for  Pastu- 
rage.— In  treating  of  pasturage  grass- 
es, we  shall  make  a  selection  of  such 
as  have  been  tried  to  some  extent, 
and  of  which  the  seeds  are  in  the 
course  of  commerce.  On  soils  in 
good  condition,  and  naturally  well 
constituted,  no  better  grasses  can  be 
sown  for  pasturage  than  those  we 
have  described  as  tall  grasses  for  hay 
meadows  ;  but  for  early  and  late  pas- 
turage, and  secondary  soils,  there  are 
others  much  more  suitable. 

"  The  pasture  grasses  for  early  pas- 
turage on  all  soils  are  the  A7ithoxa7i- 
thum  odoratum,  Holcus  odoratus,  Avena 
pubcsceiis,  and  Poa  annua. 

"The  pasture  grasses  for  late  herb- 
age on  all  soils  are  chiefly  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  Agrostis  (bents) 
and  Phlcum  (cat's-tail). 

"  The  pasture  grasses  for  poor  or 
secondary  soils  are  the  Cynosurus 
cristatus,  Festuca  duriuscula  and  ovi- 
na,  Poa  comprcssa,  cristata,  and  angus- 
tifolia. 

"  The  grasses  that  afford  most  nu- 
tritive matter  in  early  spring  are  the 
meadow  foxtail  grass  and  the  vernal 
}  grass ;  the  former  has  been  already 
i  mentioned  as  one  of  the  best  hay 
grasses. 

"  The  sweet-scented  vernal  grass 
(Anthozanthum  odoratum.  Fig.  4,  a)  is 
common  in  almost  all  pastures,  and 
is  that  which  gives  the  fragrance  to 
natural  or  meadow  hay.  It  is  chiefly 
valuable  as  an  early  grass ;  for,  though 
it  is  eaten  by  stock,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  much  relished  by  them. 
From  the  Woburn  experiments,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  smallness  of  the  prod- 
uce of  this  grass  renders  it  improper 
for  the  purpose  of  hay  ;  but  its  early 
growth,  and  the  superior  quantity  of 
nutritive  matter  which  the  latter-math 
affords,  compared  with  the  quantity 
afforded  by  the  grass  at  the  time  of 
flowering,  cause  it  to  rank  high  as  a 
pasture  grass  on  such  soils  as  are 
well  fitted  for  its  growth,  lands  that 
are  deep  and  moist. 

"  The  downy  oat  grass  (Aveva  pu- 

bescens,  h),  according  to  the  Woburn 

experiments,  possesses  several  good 

qualities,  which  recommend  it  to  par- 

341 


GRASSES. 
Fig.  4. 


E;irly  pa? 

ticular  notice  ;  it  is  hardy,  early,  and 
more  productive  than  many  others 
which  affect  similar  soils  and  situa- 
tions. Its  growth,  after  being  crop- 
ped, is  tolerably  rapid,  although  it 
does  not  attain  to  a  great  length  if 
left  growing  ;  like  the  Poa  pratcrisis, 
it  sends  forth  flower  stalks  but  once 
in  a  season,  and  it  appears  well  cal- 
culated for  permanent  pasture  on 
rich,  light  soils. 

"  The  annual  meadow  grass  (Poa 
annua,  c)  is  the  most  common  of  all 
grasses,  and  the  least  absolute  in  its 
habits.  It  is  almost  the  only  grass 
that  will  grow  in  towns.  Though 
an  annual  grass,  it  is  found  in  most 
meadows  and  pastures  perpetually 
flowering,  and  affording  an  early 
sweet  herbage,  relished  by  all  stock, 
and  of  as  great  importance  to  birds 
as  wheat  is  to  man.  It  hardly  re- 
quires to  be  sown,  as  it  springs  up 
everywhere  of  itself.  However,  it 
may  not  be  amiss  to  sow  a  few  pounds 
of  it  per  acre  wherever  perpetual  pas- 
ture (not  hay)  is  the  object. 

"  The  fine  bent  grass  {Agrostis  vul- 
garis, d)  is  one  of  the  most  common 
grasses,  and,  according  to  the  \Vo- 
burn  experiments,  one  of  the  earliest. 
The  A.  paluslris  is  nearly  as  early  in 
producing  its  foliage,  though  both 
flower  late,  and  neither  is  very  pro- 
lific either  in  bulk  or  nutritive  matter. 
A-  striata  is  the  herd's  grass  of  Vir- 
ginia and  the  South. 
342 


"  The  narrow  -  leaved  meadow 
grass  {Poa  angustifolia,  e),  though  it 
flowers  late,  yet  is  remarkable  for 
the  early  growth  of  the  leaves.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Woburn  experiments, 
the  leaves  attain  to  the  length  of  more 
than  twelve  inches  before  the  middle 
of  April,  and  are  soft  and  succulent ; 
in  May,  however,  when  the  flower 
stalks  make  their  appearance,  it  is 
subject  to  the  disease  termed  rust, 
which  affects  the  whole  plant,  the 
consequence  of  which  is  manifest  in 
the  great  deficiency  of  produce  in  the 
crop  at  the  time  the  seed  is  ripe,  be- 
ing then  one  half  less  than  at  the 
time  of  the  flowering  of  the  grass. 
Though  this  disease  begins  in  the 
straws,  the  leaves  suffer  most  from 
its  effects,  being,  at  the  time  the  seed 
is  ripe,  completely  dried  up  :  the 
straws,  therefore,  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  crop  for  mowing, 
and  they  contain  more  nutritive  mat- 
ter, in  proportion,  than  the  leaves. 
This  grass  is  evidently  most  valuable 
for  permanent  pasture,  for  which,  in 
consequence  of  its  superior,  rapid, 
and  early  growth,  and  the  disease 
beginning  at  the  straws,  nature  seems 
to  have  designed  it.  The  grasses 
which  approach  nearest  to  this  in  re- 
spect of  early  produce  of  leaves,  are 
the  Poa  fcrtiUs,  Lfactylis  glomerata, 
Phleum  pratensc,  Alopccurus  praten- 
sis,  Avena  elatior,  and  Broinus  littore- 
us,  all  grasses  of  a  coarser  kind. 


GRASSES. 


"  The  best  natural  pastures,  exam- 
ined carefully  during  various  periods 
of  the  season,  were  found  by  Sinclair 
to  consist  of  the  following  plants  : 

Alopecurus  pratensis,    Avcna  clatior, 
Dactylis  plonicrata,      Loliuiii  perenne, 
Festuca  pratensis,  llromus  arvensis, 

Phleuni  prateiise,  Poa  iiniiua, 

Aiithroxauthum  odora-  Avcua  piateiii-is. 
turn, 

"  These  afTord  the  principal  grass  in 
the  spring,  and  also  a  great  part  of 
the  summer  produce  : 

Aveiia  flavcscens,  Poa  pratensis, 

Hijrdeum  pratense,        Holcus  lanatus, 
Cvnosurus  cristatus,     Tnfoliuni  pratense, 
Festuca  diiriuscula,       Trifulium  repcns, 
Poa  lrivi;ilis,  Lathyrus  pratensis. 

"These  yield  produce  principally  in 
summer  and  autumn  : 
Achillea  Millefolium,   Agrostis  stoloniferaand 
Triticum  repens,  p.ilustris. 

'■The  above  mixture,  sown  at  the 
rate  of  four  or  five  bushels  to  the 
acre,  on  well-prepared  soil,  without 
corn  or  other  crop  of  any  kind,  could 
hardly  fail  of  producing  excellent  pas- 

Fig. 


ture  in  the  following  year,  and  for  an 
indefinite  period.  The  best  time  for 
sowing  is  July  or  August,  as  spring- 
sown  seeds  are  apt  to  sufTer  with  the 
droughts  of  June  and  July.  Fifteen 
of  the  above  sorts  are  to  be  had  from 
the  seed  shops  ;  and  all  of  them  may 
be  gathered  from  natural  pastures,  oi 
bespoke  from  collectors. 

"  Of  late  pasture  grasses,  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  cat's-tail  {Phleum) 
and  bent  grass  (Agrostis)  are  the 
chief,  and  especially  the  Timothy  and 
fiorin  grass.  The  grasses,  Davy  ob- 
serves, that  propagate  themselves  by 
stolones,  the  different  species  of 
Agrostis,  supply  pasture  tliroughout 
the  year,  and  the  concrete  sap  stored 
up  in  their  joints  renders  them  a 
good  food  even  in  winter. 

"  Of  pasture  grasses  for  inferior 
soils,  one  of  the  most  durable  is  the 
dog's-tail  grass  {Cijnoc^urus  crista- 
tus, also  called  Eleusine  Indica,  Fig 
5,  a).  This  is  a  very  common  grass 
.  5. 


Pasture  grasses 

on  dry,  clayey,  or  firm  surfaces.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  grasses  for  parks, 
being  highly  relished  by  the  South 
Down  sheep  and  deer. 

"The  hard  fescue  grass  {Festuca 
duriuscula,  b)  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 
dwarf  sorts  of  grasses.  It  is  grate- 
ful to  all  kinds  of  cattle  ;  it  is  pres- 
ent in  most  good  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, and,  with  F.  ovina,  is  the  best 
for  lawns. 

"  The  Festuca  glabra  (c)  and  hordei- 


for  inferior  soils. 

formis  (d)  greatly  resemble  the  hard 
fescue,  and  may  be  considered  equal- 
ly desirable  as  pasture  and  lawn 
grasses. 

"  The  yellow  oat  grass  (Avcna  fla- 
vcscens) is  very  generally  cultivated, 
and  appears,  from  the  Woburn  ex- 
periments, to  be  a  very  valuable  grass 
for  pasture  on  a  clayey  soil. 

"  Of  pasture  grasses  for  inferior 
soils  and  upland  situations,  one  of 
the  principal  is  the  Festuca  ovina,  or 
343 


GRASSES. 

Fig.  0. 


Pasture  grasses  for  poor  uplands. 


sheep's  fescue  grass  f  F;>.  6,  a).  This 
grass  is  pecuharly  adapted  for  hilly 
sheep  pastures.  It  is  a  low  dwarf 
grass,  but  relished  by  all  kinds  of  cat- 
tle. According  to  Sinclair's  expe- 
rience, '  on  dry  soils  that  are  incapa- 
ble of  producing  the  larger  sorts,  this 
should  form  the  principal  crop,  or, 
rather,  the  whole  ;  for  it  is  seldom  or 
never,  in  its  natural  state,  found  in- 
timately mixed  with  others,  but  by 
itself 

"  The  Poa  alpina  (4),  Alopecurus  al- 
j)inus,  and  Aira  cczspitosa  (c),  Briza 
media  {d)  and  minima,  and  Agroslis 
humilis  and  vulgaris,  are  all  dwarf 
mountain  grasses,  well  adapted  for 
hilly  parks  or  lawns." 

The  Bermuda  grass,  which  grows 
so  luxuriantly  in  the  West  and  South, 
is  propagated  by  roots  only,  as  it  does 
not  flower  in  the  latitudes  where  it 
is  cultivated. 

"  On  the  culture  of  these  grasses 
it  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge,  as  it 
must  obviously  be  the  same  as  that 
of  rye  grass  or  any  of  the  others. 

"  The  chief  difficulty  is  to  get  the 
seed  in  sufficient  quantity,  for  which 
a  good  mode  is  to  contract  with  a 
seedsman,  a  year  beforehand,  for  the 
quantity  wanted.  With  all  the  pas- 
ture grasses,  except  the  last  class, 
we  should  recommend  at  least  half 
the  seed  to  be  that  of  the  perennial 
rye  grass ;  and  we  think  it  should 
344 


also  form  a  considerable  part  of  the 
seeds  used  in  laying  down  all  mead- 
ows, except  those  for  the  aquatic  or 
stoloniferous  grasses.  These,  if  they 
thrive,  are  sure  to  choke  and  de- 
stroy it. 

"  The  formation  of  grassy  surfaces, 
by  distributing  pieces  of  turf  over 
them,  has  long  been  practised  in  gar- 
dening, in  levelling  down  raised  or 
filling  up  hollow  fences,  and  in  other 
cases  of  partially  altering  a  grassy  sur- 
face."   It  is  called  inoculating  grass. 

Nutriliousncss  and  yield  of  Grasses. 
— Mr.  Sinclair,  under  the  directions 
of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  established 
a  long  course  of  experiments  to  de- 
termine these  points.  These  re- 
searches are  now  of  no  value  in  re- 
spect to  the  comparative  nutritious- 
ness,  but  are  worthy  of  attention  as 
giving  the  comparative  yield  on  cer- 
tain soils.  The  nutritiousness  of 
grasses  does  not  depend  on  the  mat- 
ters extractive  by  boiling,  for  fibrin 
and  albumen  are  insoluble  in  water. 
Grasses  do,  however,  differ  consid- 
erably in  this  respect,  as  is  shown  by 
the  ultimate  analysis  of  some  authors, 
which  give  11  and  ]  5  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  in  different  specimens.  The 
former  will  represent  seven,  and  the 
latter  9|  per  cent,  of  azotized  or  tiesh- 
making  constituents.  Tlie  table  op- 
posite is  mostly  from  Sinclair  ;  the 
greater  part  of  the  grasses  are  either 


GRASSES. 


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345 


tJRASS  J, AND 


indigenous  or  cultivated  in  the  United 
Stales. 

Ail  ttiese  grasses  are  perennial  in 
a  good  soil,  and  a  rich,  permanent 
meadow  for  grass  or  pasture  should 
contain  several  kmds.  Tlie  amount 
of  cured  hay  produced  will  be  about 
one  fifth  of  the  grass  cut.  For  far- 
ther particulars,  see  the  Grasses 
themselves. 

Specific  Manures. — Grasses  are  re- 
markable for  the  amount  of  alkali 
(potash  or  soda)  they  contain,  and  if 
allowed  to  run  to  seed,  are  also  rich 
in  bone  earth.  Sprengel  found  in  1000 
pounds  of  rye  grass  hay 

Potash  and  soda 12"75  lbs. 

Lime  and  maijnesia     ....      8  15    " 

Sulphuric  acid 350    " 

Phosphoric  acid "25    " 

Silica 27-70    " 

Chlorine,  iron,  &c '40    " 

52-75 

This  specimen  must  have  been 
made  from  grass  before  flowering. 
From  this  composition,  we  learn  that 
fresh  ashes  (leached  ashes  on  sandy 
soils),  bone  earth,  gypsum,  and  occa- 
sional top-dressing,  with  air-slacked 
lime,  are  appropriate  manures.  Ni- 
trogen manures,  applied  to  grass 
crops,  are,  in  some  measure,  wasted 
from  their  exposure.  Soluble  silicate 
of  soda  and  potash  has  been  used  on 
grass  with  advantage.  The  green 
marl  of  New- Jersey  will,  in  part,  an- 
swer this  purpose  on  stiff  soils. 

GRASS  LAND.  "  This  may  be 
divided  into  water  meadows,  upland 
pastures,  and  artificial  grasses.  The 
first  are  treated  of  under  Irrigation  : 
the  nature  and  management  of  the 
last  two  we  shall  here  briefly  de- 
scribe. Upland  pastures  are  portions 
of  land  on  which  the  natural  grasses 
grow  spontaneously,  varying  in  quan- 
tity and  quality  with  the  soil  and  sit- 
uation. The  plants  which  form  the 
natural  sward  are  not  confined  to  the 
family  of  true  grasses,  but  many  oth- 
er plants,  chiefly  with  perennial  roots, 
form  part  of  the  herbage.  In  the  rich- 
est soils  the  variety  is  exceedingly 
great.  When  a  sod  is  taken  up,  and 
all  the  plants  on  it  are  examined,  the 
species  will  be  found  more  numerous 
than  we  should  have  believed  possi- 
346 


ble  ;*  and  in  the  same  ground  the 
plants  will  vary  in  different  years,  so 
as  to  induce  one  to  conclude,  that, 
like  most  other  herbaceous  plants, 
the  grasses  degenerate  when  they 
have  grown  for  a  long  time  on  the 
same  spot,  and  that  a  kind  of  rota- 
tion is  established  by  nature.  It  is 
chiefly  in  those  pastures  where  the 
grasses  are  allowed  to  grow  till  they 
form  their  seed  that  this  is  observa- 
ble ;  for  when  they  are  closely  fed, 
and  not  allowed  to  shoot  out  a  seed 
stem,  they  are  less  subject  to  degen- 
erate and  disappear.  This  may  be  a 
reason  why  experienced  dairymen 
are  so  unwilling  to  allow  their  best 
pastures  to  be  mown  for  hay.  They 
pretend  that  the  feed  is  deteriorated 
in  the  next  year,  and  tliat  inferior 
grasses  are  introduced  which  injure 
the  quality  of  their  butter  and  cheese. 
Close  feeding  is  always  considered 
as  the  most  advantageous,  both  to 
the  cattle  and  the  proprietor. 

'•  The  only  way  m  which  a  pasture 
distant  from  cities  can  be  profitable, 
is  by  feeding  stock  ;  and  its  value  is 
in  the  exact  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  sheep  or  cattle  which  can  be 
fed  upon  it  in  a  season.  Extensive 
pastures  are  often  measured  only  by 
their  capacity  in  this  respect. 

"  When  a  pasture  is  naturally  rich, 
the  only  care  required  is  to  stock  it 
judiciously,  to  move  the  cattle  fre- 
quently from  one  spot  to  another 
(for  which  purpose,  enclosures  well 
fenced  are  highly  advantageous),  and 
to  eradicate  certain  plants  which  are 
useless  or  noxious,  such  as  docks 
and  thistles,  alder,  broom,  briars  and 
thorns,  which,  not  being  touched  by 
the  cattle  as  long  as  they  have  better 
food,  would  increase  and  overrun  the 
ground,  and  take  up  a  space  which 
would  be  more  profitably  occupied  by 
good  herbage.  The  dung  of  the  cat- 
tle, also,  when  left  in  heaps  as  it  is 

*  In  a  sod  of  grass  the  following  plants  were 
found  :  Plantago  lanceolata,  Agrostis  capillaris, 
Avena  flavesceas,  Dactylis  glomerata,  Festuca 
duriuscula,  Poa  annua,  Cynosurus  cristatus, 
Trifoliuin  repens,  Crepis  tectorum,  Achillea 
millefolium,  (Jalium  verum,  Hypocha:ris  radi 
cata,  Hiaracium  pilosella,  Thymus  serpyllum 
— (Curtis  on  Grasses.) 


GRASS  LAND. 


dropped,  kills  the  grass  and  introdu- 
ces coarse  and  less  palatable  plants. 
All  that  is  required  in  rich  pastures 
in  which  cows  and  oxen  are  led,  and 
which  are  properly  stocked,  is,  to 
prevent  the  increase  of  the  coarser 
and  less  nutritive  plants.  Weeding 
is  as  important  in  grass  as  in  arable 
land  ;  and  if  it  is  neglected,  the  con- 
sequence will  soon  be  observed  by 
the  inferior  quality  of  the  feed.  The 
urine  of  the  cattle  is  the  manure 
which  chiefly  keeps  up  the  fertility 
of  grass  land ;  and  although  in  hot 
and  dr}"  weather  it  frequently  burns 
up  the  grass  where  it  falls,  when  it 
is  diluted  by  showers,  the  improved 
appearance  of  the  surface  shows  that 
its  effect  has  not  been  detrimental. 
To  enrich  poor  meadows  there  is  no 
manure  so  effective  as  diluted  urine, 
or  the  drainings  of  stables  and  dung- 
hills. 

"  When  pastures  are  poor,  and  the 
herbage  is  of  a  bad  quality,  the  cause 
is  to  be  sought  for  in  the  soil.  A 
poor  arid  soil  is  not  fitted  for  grass, 
nor  one  which  is  too  wet,  from  the 
abundance  of  springs  and  the  want 
of  outlet  for  the  water.  These  de- 
fects can  only  be  remedied  by  expen- 
sive improvements.  A  soil  which  is 
too  dry  may  be  improved  by  cultiva- 
tion and  judicious  manuring  ;  but  for 
this  purpose  it  must  be  broken  up 
and  treated  for  some  time  as  arable 
land ;  and  it  may  be  a  question  wheth- 
er or  not  the  expense  of  improving 
the  soil  will  be  repaid  by  the  supe- 
rior quality  of  the  pasture  when  it  is 
again  laid  down  to  grass.  In  gen- 
eral, the  poor  light  soils,  if  they  are 
worth  cultivation,  answer  better  as 
arable  land,  especially  where  the  root 
husbandry  is  understood.  The  low 
wet  day  soils  may  be  converted  into 
good  pastures  by  draining  them  well ; 
and  the  improvement  thus  produced 
is  so  great,  that  judicious  draining  in 
such  soils  is  the  most  profitable  in- 
vestment of  capital. 

"  When  old  meadows  have  been 
neglected,  or  too  often  mown,  with- 
out being  recruited  by  manure  or  ir- 
rigation, they  are  often  overrun  with 
moss  or  rushes,  and  produce  nothing 


but  a  coarse  grass.  In  that  case, 
besides  draining  it,  if  required,  the 
land  must  be  broken  up  and  undergo 
a  regular  course  of  tillage,  until  the 
whole  of  the  old  sward  is  destroyed 
and  a  better  collection  of  grasses 
cover  its  surface.  If  this  be  done 
judiciously,  the  pasture  will  not  only 
be  greatly  improved  in  the  quality, 
but  also  in  the  quantity  of  the  grass. 
There  is  a  natural  prejudice  againist 
the  breaking  up  old  grass  land ;  this 
has  arisen  from  the  improper  manner 
in  which  it  is  frequently  effected. 
The  sward,  when  rotten,  is  a  pow- 
erful manure,  and  produces  great 
crops  of  corn.  These  tempt  the 
farmer  to  repeat  the  sowing  of  corn 
on  newly  broken  up  lands.  The  fer- 
tility is  reduced  rapidly  ;  and  when 
grass  seeds  are  sown  after  several 
crops  of  corn,  the  soil  has  been  de- 
prived of  a  great  portion  of  the  hu- 
mus and  vegetable  matter  which  is 
essential  to  the  growth  of  rich  grass. 
The  proper  method  of  treating  grass 
land,  broken  up  to  improve  it,  is  to 
take  no  more  corn  crops  than  will 
pay  the  expense  of  breaking  up,  cart- 
ing lime,  or  other  substances  upon 
it  to  improve  the  soil,  and  to  lay  it 
down  to  grass  again  as  soon  as  the 
old  sward  is  fully  destroyed. 

"  If  the  soil  be  fit  for  roots,  no  bet- 
ter crop  can  be  sown  to  prepare  for 
the  grass  seeds,  which  should  be 
sown  without  a  corn  crop,  except 
where  the  sun  is  powerful,  and  the 
seed  is  sown  late  in  spring ;  but 
autumn  is  by  far  the  best  season  for 
sowing  grass  seeds  for  permanent 
pasture.  Turnips  of  an  early  kind 
may  be  sown  in  .May,  and  fed  off 
with  sheep  in  August  or  September; 
and  the  ground  being  only  very  slight- 
ly ploughed,  or,  ratlier,  scarified  and 
harrowed  fine,  the  seeds  may  be 
sown  and  rolled  in.  The  species  of 
grasses  sown  must  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  soil ;  but  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  be  too  choice  in  the  selection. 
That  mixture  of  chaff  and  the  half- 
ripe  seeds  of  weeds,  commonly  called 
hay  seeds,  which  is  collected  from 
the  stable  lofts,  should  be  caiefuUy 
rejected,  and  none  but  seeds  ripened 
347 


GRASS  LAND. 


and  collected  on  purpose  should  be 
sown.  The  Tnfnlium  rcpens  (white 
clover),  the  Tnfolutm  medium  (cow 
grass),  Mcdicago  lupinula  (trefoil),  Lo- 
liutn  jicrcnne  (rye  ^rass),  the  poas  and 
festucas,  are  the  best  kinds  of  grass- 
es. A  very  easy  way  of  obtaining 
good  seed  is  to  keep  a  piece  of  good 
meadow  shut  up  from  the  cattle  ear- 
ly in  spring,  carefully  weeding  out 
any  coarse  grasses,  and  letting  the 
best  arrive  at  full  maturity ;  then 
mow  and  dry  the  crop,  and  thrash  it 
out  upon  a  cloth.  This  will  give  the 
best  mixture  of  seeds ;  but  some  of 
the  earliest  will  have  been  shed,  and 
these  should  be  collected  separately, 
or  purchased  from  the  seedsmen. 
Before  winter  the  ground  will  already 
be  covered  with  a  fine  green,  if  the 
seed  has  been  plentiful.  The  quan- 
tity per  acre  of  the  mixed  seeds  should 
not  be  less  than  30  or  40  pounds  to 
ensure  a  close  pile  the  next  year.  If 
the  soil  is  not  naturally  rich,  liquid 
manure,  or  urine,  diluted  with  wa- 
ter, should  be  carried  to  the  field  in 
a  water-cart,  and  the  young  grass 
watered  with  it ;  this  will  so  invig- 
orate the  plants,  that  they  will  strike 
and  tiller  abundantly.  They  should 
be  fed  off  by  sheep,  but  not  too  close. 
The  tread  of  the  sheep  and  their  urine 
will  tend  to  make  the  pile  of  grass 
close,  and  the  year  after  this  the  new 
pasture  will  only  be  distinguished 
from  the  old  by  its  verdure  and  fresh- 
ness. 

"The  fertility  produced  by  grass 
which  is  fed  by  cattle  and  sheep  has 
given  rise  to  the  practice  of  convert- 
ing arable  land  to  pasture  for  a  cer- 
tain time  in  order  to  recruit  its 
strength.  The  old  notion  was  that 
the  land  had  rest,  which  by  a  confu- 
sion of  ideas  was  associated  with  the 
rest  of  the  labourers  and  the  horses. 
The  land,  by  being  in  grass,  has  much 
vegetable  matter  added  to  it  from  the 
fibres  of  the  roots  which  die  and  de- 
cay, as  well  as  from  the  other  parts 
of  the  grass,  which  draw  nourishment 
from  the  atmosphere  and  impart  it  to 
the  roots.  Thus,  in  time,  an  accumu- 
lation of  humus  IS  formed  ;  and  when 
the  land  is  ploughed,  the  rotting  of  the 
318 


sward  greatly  increases  it  Every 
species  of  plant  thrives  well  in  this 
improved  soil ;  and  the  vigour  of  the 
growth  is  ascribed  to  the  recruiting 
effects  of  rest,  by  a  fancied  analogy 
with  the  animal  muscle,  which  is  in- 
vigorated by  occasional  inaction. 

"  But  it  is  well  known  that  land 
which  has  been  some  years  in  grass 
is  improved  in  fertility.  The  con- 
vertible system  of  husbandry  takes 
advantage  of  this  fact ;  and  all  its  art 
consists  in  reproducing  a  good  pas- 
ture without  loss  of  time,  after  hav- 
ing reaped  the  benefit  of  the  fertility 
imparted  to  tlie  land  during  three  or 
four  years  when  it  was  m  grass. 
Good  pasture  is  very  profitable  ;  so 
are  good  crops :  by  making  the  one 
subservient  to  the  other,  the  farmer 
who  adopts  the  convertible  system  is 
enabled  to  have  a  better  profit  than 
those  who  adhere  to  a  simple  rota- 
tion of  annual  crops. 

"  When  an  arable  field  is  sown  with 
the  seeds  of  grasses  and  other  plants 
which  give  herbage  for  cattle,  it  is 
called  an  artificial  meadow,  and  the 
various  plants  which  are  raised  are 
all  called  artificial  grasses,  although 
many  of  them  have  no  botanical  title 
to  the  name  of  grass,  such  as  clover, 
sainfoin,  lucern,  and  many  others, 
which  produce  the  best  pastures  and 
the  finest  hay. 

"  In  laying  dow^n  a  field  to  grass 
for  a  very  few  years,  the  mode  of 
proceeding  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  which  is  recommended  for 
producing  a  permanent  pasture.  Glo- 
verin  this  case  is  always  a  principal 
plant,  both  the  red  and  the  white  ; 
these,  with  annual  or  perennial  rye 
grass,  are  sown  with  a  crop  of  oats, 
&c.,  in  spring,  and  begin  to  show 
themselves  before  harvest.  The 
grasses  are  often  mown  the  first 
year  after  they  are  sown,  on  account 
of  the  abundance  and  value  of  the  red 
clover,  but  the  best  farmers  recom- 
mend depasturing  them  with  sheep, 
to  strengthen  the  roots  and  increase 
the  bulk.  Various  circumstances, 
such  as  a  greater  demand  for  clover 
hay,  or  for  fat  cattle,  may  make  mow- 
ing or  feeding  most  profitable ;   but 


GRA 


GRA 


wlicn  there  is  not  a  decided  advan- 
tage in  making  hay,  feeding  should 
always  be  preferred.  At  all  events, 
the  great  object  of  the  farmer  should 
be  to  have  his  land  in  good  heart  and 
tilth,  and  free  from  weeds,  when  the 
grass  is  sown.  If  his  grass  be  good, 
he  is  certain  of  good  crops  after  it, 
with  little  trouble  or  manure." 

The  seeds  to  be  sown  on  an  acre, 
when  the  land  is  laid  down  to  grass, 
are  as  follows :  Red  clover,  eight 
pounds  ;  Timothy,  two  pecks  ;  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass,  five  pounds  ;  white 
clover,  six  pounds,  or  orchard  grass, 
two  pecks ;  rye  grass,  two  pecks, 
may  be  introduced.  This  is  for  a  field 
intended  to  remain  four  or  five  years 
in  grass. 

"  The  introduction  of  artificial 
meadows  in  districts  where  the  soil 
seemed  not  well  adapted  for  pasture 
has  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
cattle  and  sheep  reared  and  fattened, 
and  has  caused  greater  attention  to 
be  paid  to  the  means  of  improving 
the  breeds  of  both.  Thus  a  double 
advantage  has  arisen  :  the  public  is 
benefited  by  an  increased  supply,  and 
the  farmer  is  rewarded  by  an  addi- 
tional source  of  profit. 

"  In  the  neighbourhood  of  large 
towns  there  are  many  meadows, 
which,  without  being  irrigated,  are 
mown  every  year,  and  only  fed  be- 
tween hay  harvest  and  the  next 
spring.  These  require  frequent  ma- 
nuring to  keep  them  in  heart,  and  with 
this  assistance  they  produce  great 
crops  of  hay  every  year.  Sometimes 
the  meadows  are  manured  with  sta- 
ble dung  which  has  been  laid  in  a  heap 
for  some  time,  and  been  turned  over 
to  rot  it  equally.  This  is  put  on  soon 
after  the  hay  is  cut,  and  the  rains 
wash  the  dung  into  the  ground  ;  but 
if  a  very  dry  and  hot  summer  follows, 
little  benefit  is  produced  by  the  dung, 
which  is  dried  up,  and  most  of  the 
juices  evaporated.  A  better  method 
is  to  make  a  compost  with  earth  and 
dung,  and,  where  it  can  be  easily  ob- 
tained, with  lime.  The  best  earth  is 
that  which  contains  most  vegetable 
matter  ;  and  as  many  of  these  mead- 
ows are  on  a  stiff  clay  soil,  which  re- 
Ge 


quires  to  be  kept  dry  by  open  drains 
and  water  furrows,  the  soil  dug  out 
of  these  and  carted  to  a  corner  of  the 
meadow  makes  an  excellent  founda- 
tion for  the  compost.  It  is  sometimes 
useful  to  plough  furrows  at  intervals 
to  take  off  the  superfluous  surface 
water  in  winter  ;  the  earth  thus  rais- 
ed by  the  plough  is  excellent  to  mix 
in  the  compost ;  having  been  turned 
over  with  dung,  sweepings  of  streets, 
or  any  other  manure,  so  as  to  form  a 
uniform  mass,  it  is  spread  over  the 
land  in  winter  ;  and  in  spring  a  bush- 
harrow  is  drawn  over  the  meadow, 
and  it  is  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller. 
When  the  meadow  is  moss  bound,  or 
of  a  light  soil,  it  may  be  dressed  with 
the  clod  crusher  (roller)  or  with  a 
weighted  harrow.  All  this  compost 
is  soon  washed  into  the  ground,  and 
invigorates  the  roots  of  the  grass.  It 
is  better  to  put  on  a  slight  coating  of 
this  compost  every  year  than  to  give 
a  greater  portion  of  manure  every 
three  or  four  years,  as  is  the  practice 
of  some  farmers.  The  grazing  of 
cattle  has  generally  been  a  more  prof- 
itable occupation  than  simply  tilling 
the  land.  The  capital  required  is  con- 
siderable, but  the  current  expenses 
are  not  great.  Thegrazier  is  not  sub- 
ject to  such  total  fadures  as  the  farm- 
er of  arable  land  is  in  his  crops.  With 
a  little  experience  and  prudence,  he 
can  always  reckon  on  a  certain  re- 
turn. An  acre  of  good  grazing  land 
is  supposed  to  produce  200  pounds  of 
meat  in  the  year.  By  uniting  the 
raising  of  corn  and  the  grazing  of  cat- 
tle and  sheep,  the  greatest  profit  is 
probably  obtained,  and  this  is  the 
great  argument  in  favour  of  the  con- 
vertible system  of  husbandry." 

The  foregoing  is  principally  from 
the  Rev.  W.  L.  Rham. 

GRASSHOPPERS.  The  popular 
name  of  the  genus  Gryllus,  or  lo- 
custs. They  are,  for  the  most  part, 
devourers  of  herbage,  numerous  spe- 
cies living  on  grass  and  the  leaves  of 
trees.  The  method  of  destroying  the 
common  meadow  grasshoppers  is,  to 
manure  the  grass  immediately  alter 
cutting,  and  while  the  young  insects 
are  abundant,  with  air-slacked  lime, 
349 


GRA 

gas-house  liquor,  salt,  a  watering  of 
whale  oil  soap,  and  similar  bodies, 
taking  care  not  to  destroy  the  herbage. 

GRAYWACKE.  Gray  rock.  An 
old  geological  term  for  the  gray  tran- 
sition rocks  ;  as  gneiss,  mica,  slate, 
&c. 

GRAVEL.  A  geological  forma- 
tion or  soil,  consisting  of  rolled  peb- 
bles, loosely  interspersed,  more  or 
less  abundantly,  in  a  sandy  or  clayey 
medium.  It  is  of  every  degree  of 
fineness,  chemical  composition,  and 
value  in  farmmg.  Those  gravels 
containing  silicious  pebbles  chiefly, 
and  of  a  Targe  size,  are  nearly  unfit 
for  tillage,  and  the  value  increases 
with  the  presence  of  slates,  gran- 
ites, hornblende,  mica,  marl,  and  clay. 
They  are  usually  very  porous,  drain- 
ing water  off  rapidly,  and  cannot  be 
of  much  value,  unless  incumbent  on 
a  subsoil  that  holds  water  at  some 
little  depth.  If  the  gravel  be  fertile, 
it  is  usually  warm  and  best  adapted 
for  roots.  Stiff  marls,  burned  clay, 
and  an  abundance  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter are  to  be  used  as  manures. 

Gravel  is  well  adapted  for  forming 
walks  in  gardens  and  the  surface  of 
roads. 

GRAVEL.  In  farriery,  the  forma- 
tion of  hard  calculi  or  stones  in  the 
bladder,  or  of  a  sandy  sediment. 

GRAVEOLENT.  Fetid,  having  a 
strong  odour. 

GRAVES,  GREAVES.  Mem- 
branous matter  left  as  refuse  by  the 
tallow-melter  ;  it  is  used  for  feeding 
dogs,  and  given  to  poultry.  Graves 
contains  a  large  amount  of  fat,  and 
is  admirably  adapted  for  fattening 
hogs,  &c.  ;  it  has  been  used,  also,  as 
a  manure  ;  200  pounds  interspersed 
in  stable  manure  may  be  added  to 
the  acre  ;  but  the  most  economical 
plan  will  be  to  compost  it  in  the  nitre 
bed.  It  is  a  nitrogen  manure,  100 
pounds  yielding  about  13  pounds  of 
ammonia,  and  being  equal,  in  this 
respect,  to  1^  tons  of  farm-yard  ma- 
nure. The  presence  of  sulphur  and 
phosphorus,  besides  bone  earth,  also 
constitute  it  a  manure  applicable  to 
all  rich  crops  ;  as  corn,  wheat,  to- 
bacco, dec,  the  only  consideration 
350 


GRA 

being  the  economy  of  using  so  high- 
priced  an  article.     See  Manures. 

GRAVID.     Pregnant. 

G  R  A  V  I  M  E  T  E  R  (from  gravis, 
heavy,  and  fterpov,  a  measure).  See 
Hydrometer. 

GRAVITATION,  GRAVITY. 
The  tendency  that  masses  have  to 
approach  each  other  ;  also  called  at- 
traction of  gravitation.  The  gravity 
of  a  body  is  therefore  the  attraction 
it  extends  towards  other  bodies  ;  it 
increases  with  the  bulk,  density,  and 
nearness  of  bodies,  being  directly  as 
their  density  and  mass,  and  inverse- 
ly as  the  squares  of  their  distances. 
Weight,  and  the  descent  of  all  bodies 
towards  the  earth's  surface,  is  an  ef- 
fect of  the  earth's  gravity,  or  terres- 
trial gravitation. 

GRAVITY,  SPECIFIC.  The  ra- 
tio of  the  weight  of  any  solid  or  liquid 
to  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  pure 
water  at  62'  Fahrenheit.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  of  gases  is  the  ratio  to 
the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  air 
at  the  same  temperature.  If  the  sol- 
id be  lighter  than  water,  the  measure- 
ment is  made  more  indirectly. 

How  taken. — The  specific  gravity 
of  solids  is  taken  by  first  weighing  a 
piece  in  air,  and  then  weighing  it  im- 
mersed in  pure  water,  and  dividing 
the  weight  in  air  by  the  loss  of  weight 
in  water.  Fluids  are  examined  either 
by  filling  a  bottle  known  to  contain 
precisely  1000  grains  of  pure  water, 
up  to  a  certain  mark,  and  setting 
down  the  weight,  irrespective  of  that 
of  the  bottle,  as  the  specific  gravity. 
This  is  called  the  1000  grain  bottle. 
Or  an  instrument  called  a  hydrometer, 
gravimeter,  or  areometer  is  immersed 
in  the  fluid,  and  sinks  to  a  certain 
mark,  which  indicates  the  specific 
gravity  or  density  (see  Hijdrometcr). 
The  gravity  of  gases  is  taken  by  first 
exhausting  a  glass  vessel  of  air  by 
the  air  pump,  and  then  introducing 
the  particular  gas,  the  weight  of 
which,  irrespective  of  the  glass,  will 
be  the  second  proportional  of  the  fol- 
lowing series :  As  the  weight  of  air 
is  to  that  of  the  gas,  so  is  1  to  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  gas  ;  that  is, 
the  weight  of  the  gas  divided  by  that 


GRA 


GRA 


of  the  air  gives  the  specific  gravity. 
This  operation  is,  however,  of  great 
delicacy,  for  the  gases  must  be  per- 
fectly dry. 


The  following  numbers  indicate 
the  specific  gravities  of  several  use- 
ful bodies : 


Acid,  muriatic       .     .     .  r200 

,  nitric I  271 

, ,  strongest      .  1583 

,  sulphuric      .     .     .  1850 

Alcohol,  absolute  .     .     .  0  "97 
Ammonia,  solution     .     .  0875 

Butter 0-943 

Copal 1-045 

Diamond 3521 

jEther 0-632 

Fat  of  beef 0-923 

Glass,  crown     ....  2520 


Marble   .     .  . 

Metals ; 

Copper  .     .  . 

Gold       .     .  . 

Cast  iron     .  . 

Lead       .     .  . 

Mercury     .  . 
Sheet  platina 

Potassium  .  . 

Silver     .     .  . 

Steel      .     .  . 
Tin 


2-760   Zinc 


Milk  .... 
Nitre  .  .  . 
Oil,  turpentine 

,  almond     . 

,  hemp  .     . 

,  linseed 

,  olives  . 

, rape     .     . 


Granite 2613 

Gvpsum 2  288 

Honey 1-450 

Indigo 1-009 

Ironstone 3  573 

Ivory 1-825 

Lard 0-947 

Limestone 2366 

GRAY  DYES.  These  are  usual- 
ly light  blacks.  Ash  gray  is  given  to 
30  lbs.  wool  by  1  lb.  gall  nuts,  h  lb. 
crude  tartar,  and  2^  lbs.  green  vitriol. 
Proceed  as  in  dyeing  blacks,  in  80 
lbs.  water.  Pearl  graij,  prepare  the 
first  bath  with  sumach,  with  half  log- 
wood. Fustic  gives  a  yellowish  or 
brown  gray. 

GRAZIER.  A  person  engaged  in 
raising  and  fattening  cattle.  For  the 
practice  of  this  business  in  the  East- 
ern and  sea-board  States,  great  judg- 
ment is  now  become  necessary,  from 
the  facilities  for  grazing  enjoyed  by 
the  Western  States.  The  following, 
chiefly  from  the  "  Complete  Grazier,''^ 
is  worthy  of  attention  : 

"  A  man  should  know  how  beasts 
ought  to  be  formed  ;  should  have  a 
quick  eye  for  selecting  tiiose  with  a 
frame  that  is  likely  to  produce  weight ; 
and  a  hand  that  should  feel  the  known 
indication  of  the  probability  of  soon 
becoming  fat. 

"  An  acre  produces  from  200  to 
300  pounds  of  flesh  annually  in  good 
grass.  In  the  opinion  of  the  most 
intelligent  graziers,  in  stocking  enclo- 
sures, the  cattle  should  be  divided  in 
the  following  manner :  Supposing 
four  fields,  each  containing  a  nearly 
equal  quantity  of  land,  one  of  them 
should  be  kept  entirely  free  from 
stock  until  the  grass  is  got  up  to  its 


2-716 

8-900 

19  301 

7-24S 

11  352 

13-598 

22-069 

0-865 

10-510 

7-816 

7-291 

7-191 

1032 

1-900 

0-870 

0  932 

0926 

0-940 

0-915 

0-913 


O.I,  ivhale 0-923 

Slate,  draw-ng      .     .     .  2110 

Spermaceti 0943 

Sugar 1606 

Sulphur 1-990 

Wax 0-96t 

Woods  : 

Apple 0-793 

Ash 0-845 

Beech 0  852 

Box 1328 

Campeachy 0  913 

Cedar 0-596 

Clieiry-tree       ....  0-715 

El)ony 1  331 

Elm 0-671 

Pine 0-550 

Lignum  vitae     ....   1333 

Poplar 0-383 

Yew 0-783 


full  growth,  when  the  prime  or  fat- 
ting cattle  should  be  put  into  it,  that 
they  may  get  the  best  of  the  food  ; 
the  second  best  should  then  follow  ; 
and  after  them  either  the  working  or 
store  stock,  with  lean  sheep  to  eat 
the  pastures  close  down  ;  thus  ma- 
king the  whole  of  the  stock  feed  over 
the  four  enclosures  in  this  succession  : 

'<  No.  1.  Clear  of  stock,  and  reserv- 
ed for  the  fattening  beasts. 

"  No.  2.  For  the  fattening  beasts, 
until  sent  to  No.  1. 

"  No.  3.  For  the  second  best  cat- 
tle, until  forwarded  successively  to 
Nos.  2  and  1. 

"  No.  4.  For  stores  and  sheep  to 
follow  the  other  cattle  ;  then  to  be 
shut  up  until  the  grass  is  again  ready, 
as  at  No.  1,  for  the  fattening  beasts. 

"  By  this  expedient  the  fattening 
cattle  will  cull  the  choicest  parts  of 
the  grass,  and  will  advance  rapidly  to- 
wards a  state  of  maturity  ;  for  they 
should  always  have  a  full  bite  of 
short  and  sweet  grass,  and  with  such 
cattle  the  greatest  care  should  be  ta- 
ken not  to  overstock  the  enclosures. 
It  is  also  advisable  to  divide  the  fat- 
tening enclosure  by  fences,  so  as  to 
confine  the  beasts  within  one  half  of 
it  at  a  time,  and  to  allow  them  the 
other  half  at  the  other,  so  that  they 
may  continually  have  fresh  pasture. 

"  Shade  and  pure  water  are  essen- 
351 


ORE 


ORE 


tially  necessary,  and  where  there  are 
no  trees,  rubbing-posts  should  be  set 
up  to  prevent  the  cattle  from  making 
that  use  of  the  gates  and  fences.  In 
marsh  land,  which  is  chiefly  divided 
by  ditches,  this,  indeed,  should  never 
be  neglected,  as  it  is  materially  con- 
ducive to  their  comfort." 

GREASE.  For  carts,  a  mixture 
of  tar  with  refuse  lard,  butter,  or  fat 
is  commonly  employed.  Twenty 
parts  plumbago  powder  and  eighty  fat 
form  a  good  grease  for  this  purpose. 

GREASE  IN  HORSES.  See  Horse. 

GREAVES.     See  Graves. 

GREEN  CROPS.  Such  crops, 
roots,  &c.,  as  are  fed  off  the  land  or 
used  in  soihng,  before  becoming  ripe 
and  fit  for  storage.  When  ploughed 
into  the  ground,  they  form  green  fal- 
lows. 

GREEN  DYE.  This  is  produced, 
in  all  its  shades,  by  using  a  bath  of 
blue,  and  then  yellow. 

GREEN  FALLOW.  Green  crops 
ploughed  into  the  soil. 

GREEN  GRASS.  Probably  Poa 
angustifolia.  An  early  and  late  pas- 
ture grass,  much  esteemed  in  the 
Eastern  States.  It  bears  water  well, 
but  is  occasionally  subject  to  rust. 
See  Grasses. 

GREEN-HOUSE.  A  conservato- 
ry. This  should  be  distinguished 
from  a  hot-house,  in  which  artificial 
heat  is  used.  It  is  covered  with 
glass  either  on  one  or  both  sides  ;  if 
on  one  only,  that  should  have  a 
southern  aspect.  Plants  are  stored 
here  in  pots  or  frames,  fruit-trees 
trained  against  the  wall,  and  the  roof 
partially  covered  with  grape-vines. 
They  are  used  to  protect  tender 
plants  from  winter,  and  advance  the 
ripening  of  fruits.  An  Orangery  is  a 
place  of  deposite  for  orange  and  oth- 
er trees  set  in  pots,  which  produce 
their  shoots  in  summer,  and  are  then 
transferred  to  the  open  air.  It  does 
not  always  have  a  glass  roof,  but  is 
frequently  a  pit  dug  in  the  soil  on  a 
hill-side,  and  covered,  the  south  side 
of  which  only  is  glazed.  In  very  se- 
vere weather  the  glass  of  the  green- 
house may  be  covered  with  mats. 

GREEN  MANURES.  •  Manures 
352 


ploughed  into  the  land  in  a  fresh  or 
green  state,  especially  green  fallow 
crops.  The  principal  plants  used  for 
this  purpose  are  clover  of  various 
kinds,  buckwheat,  grasses,  oats,  rye, 
tares,  various  beans,  lupins,  spurry, 
borage,  and  turnips  running  to  flower : 
young  Indian  corn,  mustard,  and,  in- 
deed, nearly  all  herbage  the  seeds  of 
which  are  not  too  expensive,  have 
been  proposed. 

But  there  are  two  points  worthy 
of  consideration  in  the  use  of  these 
plants  :  1st.  That  some  improve  the 
soil  much  more  rapidly  than  others, 
viz.,  clovers,  grasses,  spurry,  and 
buckwheat.  2d.  That  an  excess  of 
green  matter  turned  into  the  soil  is 
disadvantageous,  bringing  on  a  ten- 
dency to  mildew ;  it  is  best,  there- 
fore, to  scatter  lime  over  a  green  fal- 
low, harrow  it  in,  and  sow  the  seed 
within  a  few  weeks,  unless  the  soil 
is  very  stiff;  for  the  gaseous  matter 
given  out  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  manures  will  be  serviceable  to 
plants,  and  should  not  be  lost.  In 
stiff  soils  make  the  fallow  in  the  fall. 

By  this  means  lands  are  very  rap- 
idly brought  up  if  they  are  merely 
deficient  in  vegetable  matter;  the  ex- 
pense is  also  much  less  than  by  the 
accumulation  and  spreading  of  other 
manures.  Sea-weeds,  weeds  cropped 
from  the  soil,  &c.,  are  also  called 
green  manures  when  ploughed  into 
the  soil  in  the  fresh  state.  Some 
writers  use  the  term  green  manure 
for  long  or  unfermented  dung. 

GREEN  SAND.  New-Jersey  marl. 
One  of  the  upper  secondary  depos- 
iles  of  geologists,  consisting,  for  the 
most  part,  of  a  sandy  formation,  the 
grains  of  which  are,  however,  much 
softer  than  those  of  common  sand, 
and  consist  of  silicate  of  iron  chiefly ; 
they  are  of  several  colours,  from 
greenish  gray  to  deep  green  and  olive. 
It  is  extensively  developed  in  the 
United  States,  being  found  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Connecticut,  southeastern 
portion  of  New-Jersey,  Delaware, 
and  Virginia. 

Some  portions  of  this  deposite  con- 
tain from  7  to  12  per  cent,  of  potash 
combined  with  the  silicate  of  iron. 


GUI 

This  is  particularly  the  case  with  1 
that  in  Monmouth  and  Burlington 
counties,  New-Jersey,  and  Newcastle 
county,  Delaware.  Numerous  pits 
are,  therefore,  opened  for  the  purpose 
of  reaching  this  deposite,  called  Marl, 
•which  has  been  found,  in  many  instan- 
ces, to  produce  remarkable  fertility 
when  applied  at  the  rate  of  200  to 
300  bushels  on  stitf  clayey  lands.  In 
selecting  specimens,  we  are  to  exam- 
ine the  amount  of  green  sands  in  it, 
the  fertility  depending  upon  them ;  for 
the  clay,  common  sand,  and  other  im- 
purities are  of  little  importance.  The 
richest  kinds  are  of  a  deep  green  in- 
ternally, sometimes  with  an  olive 
tint,  but  the  exterior  becomes  gray- 
ish and  covered  with  a  slight  efflores- 
cence ;  it  is  also  readily  crushed. 
The  following  analysis  of  a  specimen 
from  Monmouth  county  will  give  the 
particulars  of  its  composition  per 
cent.  : 

Silica 50-00 

Alumina 7'00 

Protoxide  of  iron     ....     22-00 

Potash 11  00 

Lime 100 

Magnesia a  trace 

Water 9  00 

100-00 

The  potash  here  is  combined  with 
silica,  but  their  union  is  readily  de- 
stroyed by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 
soil,  which  rapidly  forms  carbonate 
of  potash. 

This  manure  is  peculiarly  applica- 
ble to  grass,  oats,  wheat,  corn,  and 
the  Cerealia  generally  ;  it  will  also  be 
serviceable  to  roots  growing  on  a 
stiffish  soil.  It  may  not,  however, 
pay  the  expenses  of  long  transporta- 
tion, a  small  quantity  of  ashes  repla- 
cing it  in  the  compost  heap. 

GREENSTONE.  A  species  of 
trap  consisting  of  feldspar  and  horn- 
blend.  It  is  a  fused  and  intruded  rock. 

GREEN  VITRIOL.  Sulphate  of 
protoxide  of  iron.  It  is  styptic,  emet- 
ic, and  much  used  in  dyeing  and  ink- 
making. 

GREYHOUND.  A  coursing  dog, 
remarkable  for  his  swiftness  and 
symmetry. 

GREYWACKE.     Gramcacke. 

GRIP.     A  small  drain. 
G  Q  2 


GUA 

GRIPES.  Colic.  See  Horse  and 
Ox. 

GRIT.  A  hard  sandstone,  usually 
coarse,  used  for  mill-stones  and  pave- 
ments. 

GROATS,  or  GRITS.  Oats  pre- 
pared by  hulling. 

GROIN.  In  architecture,  the  junc- 
tion of  two  arches. 

GROSSULARIA.  The  generic 
name  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry. 

GROUND-BAIT.  Balls  made  of 
grain,  graves,  bran,  lentils,  mixed 
with  clay,  and  thrown  in  those  parts 
of  a  pond  or  river  where  angling  is 
carried  on. 

GROUND-CHERRY.  Several  va- 
rieties of  Physalis,  a  weed. 

GROUND-NUT.  Apios  tuherosa. 
A  leguminous  plant,  with  a  perennial 
root,  bearing  small  tubers  of  one  half 
an  inch,  which  are  esculent.  It  is 
indigenous  in  the  Middle  States,  and 
has  been  recommended  for  culture. 
For  the  common  ground-pea,  see  Fin- 
dars. 

GROUNDSEL.  The  genus  Scne- 
cio :  composite  plants,  annual,  bitter, 
and  purgative. 

GROUT.  In  building,  mortar  made 
fluid  with  water.  Plaster  used  for 
finishing  walls.  Mortar  used  in  fixing 
foundations. 

GRUBBER.  A  strong  hoe  for 
tearing  up  the  roots  of  shrubs  and 
trees. 

GRUBS.  Worms,  maggots.  The 
pupa  of  earth  worms.  They  often 
infest  new  lands,  and  are  to  be  rem- 
edied by  heavy  liming,  a  dose  of  salt 
of  fifteen  bushels  to  the  acre,  and 
frequent  stirring  and  exposure  of  the 
soil  to  frost. 

GRUID.E.  Birds  which  wade  like 
the  crane  {^rus). 

GRYLLID.E.  A  family  of  locusts, 
resembling  the  Grijllus. 

GUAIACUM.  A  resin  obtained 
from  the  Guaiacum  officinale,  a  West 
Indian  tree.  It  is  little  used  in  medi- 
cine for  rheumatism. 

GUANO.  The  changed  dung  of 
sea-fowl,  of  a  brown  colour  and  urin- 
ous smell,  collected  on  islands  off  the 
coast  of  Peru  and  Southwestern  Af- 
rica. Its  composition  differs  :  thus, 
353 


CUANO. 


by  my  analysis,  made  for  tlie  Ameri- 
can Agricultural  Association  of  New- 
York,  the  Peruvian  contains, 

Uric  acid 10-5 

Ammonia 190 

Phosphoric  acid 14-0 

Linic  and  magnesia 16'U 

Salts  of  soda  and  potash     ....  60 
Oxalic  acid,  with  carbonic  and  mu- 
riatic acids 13'0 

Water 13  0 

Sand 20 

Volatile  and  organic  matters  .     .     .  6"5 

10000 

The  African,  from  Ichaboe, 

Ammonia 135 

Humic  acid 4  0 

Phosphates 250 

Oxalic.  &c.,  acids 20  0 

Salts  of  soda,  &c 70 

Water  and  volatile  matter  ....  27-5 

Sand 3.0 

umio 
These  examinations  indicate  fair 
samples  :  the  African  seldom  con- 
tains uric  acid,  and  is  therefore  infe- 
rior, especially  in  the  permanence  of 
its  effects.  Uric  acid,  in  its  decay, 
produces  carbonates  of  ammonia. 
The  African  is,  however,  most  solu- 
ble, and  acts  rapidly.  The  speci- 
mens are  to  be  valued  by  the  amount 
ofammonia  they  yield  in  decay.  Gua- 
no sells  at  from  $35  to  $50  the  ton, 
and  is  now  somewhat  extensively 
used. 

The  African  being  soluble  to  the 
extent  of 40  percent.,  is  better  adapt- 
ed for  watering  plants,  and  where 
very  rapid  growth  is  wanted.  The 
Peruvian,  on  the  other  hand,  acts  for 
a  longer  time,  and  is  better  calculated 
for  crops  which  continue  to  grow  vig- 
orously during  many  weeks.  The 
two  will  probably  produce  very  sim- 
ilar effects  for  one  crop  ;  but  the  Pe- 
ruvian is  much  more  active  on  the 
second  crop. 

Crops  to  which  it  may  he  applied. — 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  slate  that 
the  apphcation  may  be  made  to  ev- 
ery crop,  for  experiments  are  already 
multiplied  with  nearly  every  common 
plant  or  tree  :  to  enumerate  a  few  is 
sufficient.  Wheat,  corn,  grass,  the 
cerealia,  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  coffee, 
apple,  pear,  and  other  fruit  trees,  flow- 
ers, cabbages,  turnips,  and  other  cru- 
ciferous plants  ;  the  experiments  are 
354 


fewest  on  leguminous  plants.  But 
the  etrect  of  guano  will  not  be  equal 
on  all ;  for  those  plants  requiring 
most  stable  manure,  such  as  tobacco, 
turnips,  and  corn,  are  more  benefited 
than  grass,  oats,  or  such  as  require 
less,  the  chief  effect  of  the  manure 
being  due  to  the  quantity  of  the  am- 
monia it  contains.  The  reason  gua- 
no is  serviceable  to  all  plants  ari- 
ses from  its  containing  every  saline 
and  organic  matter  they  require  as 
food. 

Kinds  of  Soil  to  which  it  may  be 
applied. —  It  is  used  beneficially  on 
all  soils ;  for,  as  it  contains  every 
element  necessary  to  plants,  it  is  in- 
dependent of  the  quality  of  the  soil — 
one  great  point  being  attended  to,  that 
the  land  be  in  good  tilth;  for  other- 
wise the  tender  roots  of  the  vegeta- 
ble find  an  obstruction  to  free  growth, 
and  are  crippled.  Poor,  well-tilled 
soils  exhibit  most  increase  by  guano, 
for  in  them  some  essential  to  the 
growth  of  plants  is  more  likely  to  be 
absent. 

Amount  to  be  applied.  —  On  wheat 
250  pounds  per  acre  will  be  an  aver- 
age for  a  fair  soil,  300  pounds  per 
acre  for  one  that  is  poor,  and  200  for 
a  good  soil.  Corn,  potatoes,  turnips, 
cabbages,  and  garden  vegetables  will 
require  300  pounds  on  fair  lands  ;  but 
the  amount  may  be  diminished  by  50 
pounds  if  two  applications  are  made 
instead  of  one.  For  grass,  rye,  and 
oats  200  pounds  will  be  enough. 

Time  and  Mode  of  Application. — 
Seeds  may  be  prepared  by  soaking  in 
a  solution  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
guano  to  the  gallon  of  water,  and  this 
will  answer  for  a  first  manuring,  if 
they  are  left  sufficiently  long  to  ex- 
hibit signs  of  germination.  Wheat  and 
other  small  grains  should  be  steeped 
in  this  solution  about  sixty  hours, 
corn  about  one  hundred  hours.  Thus 
steeped,  the  seeds  of  smut  will  also 
be  destroyed.  Half  the  quantity  to 
be  used  when  the  plant  has  fairly 
started,  and  is  in  second  leaf.  By 
this  timely  addition,  the  eflfects  of 
many  insects  are  avoided,  and  the 
seedling  at  once  takes  on  a  robust 
habit.     The  remaining  half  should  be 


GUD 

applied  to  the  small  grain  crops  when 
they  are  throwing  out  new  stems,  or 
tillering ;  to  corn,  as  the  tassel  ap- 
pears, or  at  the  second  hoeing,  and 
so  with  other  hoed  crops.     This  ap- 
plication should  be  made,  therefore, 
at  the  latest  period  of  working,  and 
as  nearly  before  flowering  as  practi- 
cable.    The  guano  should  be  sowed 
with  a  mi.xture  of  fine  soil,  gypsum, 
or  charcoal,  to  give  it  bulk,  and  di- 
vide the  particles.     No  lumps  should 
be  thrown  among  the  plants,  for  they 
burn  them  ;  and  where  an  extensive 
application  is  to  be  made,  it  is  better 
to  screen  the  manure  and  pound  the 
lumps.     In  sowing,  reach  the  soil,  if 
possible,  for  it  is   unserviceable  to 
sprinkle  it  on  the  plants,  and  frequent- 
ly destroys  them.     Select  a  season 
when  the  land  is  wet  or  moist,  or 
when  rain  may  be  expected,  for  in 
dry  weather  the  guano  does  not  an- 
swer well,  or  even  does  injury.     But 
if  the  crop  suits,  always  prefer  ma- 
nuring the  plant  or  hill ;  do  this  while 
hoeing  ;  less  guano  is  thus  used,  and 
more  certain  effects  result.     One  ta- 
blespoonful  to  the  hill  of  corn,  tobac- 
co, potatoes,  &.C.,  is  an  abundance  for 
each  application.     If  a  solution  be 
preferred,  mix  one  pound  in  ten  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  water  sparingly 
with  this  on  the  soil,  and  not  o?i  the 
plants,  at  the  limes  before  mentioned, 
taking  care  to  stir  up  the  insoluble 
portion  when  applied.     For  this  pur- 
pose, the  African  variety  wall  be  most 
suitable  ;    or,  where  rapid  growth  is 
wanted,  irrespective  of  seed,  the  clear 
solution  may  be  applied,  the  insolu- 
ble matter  (phosphates,  &c.),  being 
reserved  for  wheat  and  corn.     Guano 
may  be  composted  with  common  soil, 
or  anything  but  lime  and  unleachcd 
ashes,  for  these  liberate  the  free  am- 
monia, and  thus  diminish  the  effects 
of  the  manure. 

Value,  compared  with  other  Ma- 
nures.— So  far  as  the  experiments  in 
England  and  Scotland  may  be  addu- 
ced, one  cwt.  of  guano  is  equal  to 
about  five  tons  of  farm-yard  manure 
on  an  average  ;  but  it  is  much  high- 
er for  turnips  than  for  grass,  &c. 
GUDGEONS.   "  In  machinery,  the 


Gtrsi 

pins  inserted  in  the  extremities  of  a 
shaft,  or  the  axle  of  a  w-heel,  on  which 
it  turns,  and  which  support  the  whole 
weight.  In  order  to  diminish  friction, 
gudgeons  are  made  as  small  as  pos- 
sible in  diameter,  leaving,  however, 
sufficient  strength  to  support  the 
weight.  They  are  frequently  formed 
of  cast  iron,  on  account  of  its  cheap- 
ness ;  but  wrought  iron  of  the  same 
dimensions  is  considerably  stronger, 
and  will  support  a  greater  load." 

GUINEA  CORN.    Egyptian  corn  1 
Indian  corn. 

GUINEA  FOWL.  See  Poultry. 
GUINEA  GRASS.  JAMAICA 
GRASS.  Panicum  polygamum.  A 
valuable  perennial  grass,  thus  denom- 
inated, as  it  was  first  discovered  on 
the  coast  of  Guinea.  It  was  brought 
to  Jamaica,  where  it  is  now  exten- 
sively cultivated,  and  forms  the  means 
by  which  so  much  cattle  is  raised 
there.  It  grows  from  four  to  six  feet 
high.  Cattle  eat  it,  both  in  a  fresh 
and  dry  state,  with  great  avidity. 

"  In  spring,"  says  Mr.  Lawrence, 
of  South  Carolina,  "  I  procured  from 
Jamaica  three  half  pints  of  Guinea 
grass  seed,  which  I  planted  in  the 
drills  of  one  fourth  part  of  an  acre  of 
very  indifferent  land  ;  the  seed  sprung 
up  and  soon  covered  the  ground  with 
grass  four  feet  high  and  upward.  Be- 
ing desirous  of  saving  as  much  seed 
as  possible,  I  cut  one  bundle  of  grass 
for  the  horses  :  they  ate  it  all  with 
great  avidity. 

"  In  August  I  took  one  of  the  grass 
roots    and   divided   it    into   twenty- 
eight  parts,  which  were  immediate- 
ly replanted  ;   every  part  took  root, 
and  the  whole  are  now  growing  very 
finely  and  seeding.     I  am  of  opinion 
this  grass  will  make  the  best  pasture 
i  we  can  wish  for.     From  former  ex- 
!  perience,  I  have  reason  to  believe  the 
I  Guinea  grass  is  perennial.     It  is  ea- 
sily managed,  requires  but  one  good 
hoeing,  after  which  it  will  take  care 
'  of  itself" 

GUINEA  PEPPER.  Common  red 
pepper.     Capsicum  annuum. 

GUINEA  PIG,  or  CAVY.     Cavia 
cobaija.     A  small  rodent  animal  of  six 
J  or  seven  inches  in  length,  light  colour, 
353 


oi:m 


GYP 


and  herbivorous  ;  a  native  of  South 
America.  It  is  considered  a  delicacy 
in  Italy  ;  the  skin  is  also  valuable. 
The  female  brings  forth  from  ten  to 
fourteen  young  at  a  litter,  carries 
young  three  weeks,  and  bears  every 
two  months  in  warm  weather.  'J'hey 
are  very  cleanly,  and  cannot  endure 
cold. 

GULA.  The  region  of  the  throat 
nearest,  the  lower  jaw. 

GUM.  A  concrete  juice,  the  prod- 
uct of  most  vegetables.  There  are 
many  varieties,  all  reducible  to  two 
kinds  :  soluble,  or  true  gums,  which 
dissolve  in  water,  forming  mucilage, 
and  are  insoluble  in  alcohol  ;  and  in- 
soluble, or  tragacanth  gums,  which 
soften  and  swell  in  water,  but  are  not 
soluble.  It  consists  of  Ci.o  Hio  Om, 
and  is  readily  converted  into  grape 
sugar  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphu- 
ric acid.  It  is  an  aliment  similar  to 
sugar  and  starch,  serving  to  sustain 
animal  heat,  and  probably  to  produce 
fat.  It  so  nearly  resembles  starch 
that  has  been  heated  until  slightly 
brown,  that  the  difference  between 
them  in  physical  qualities  is  scarce- 
ly apparent.  The  yolk  of  wool  is 
sometimes  called  gum.     See  Yolk. 

Fruit-trees  often  exude  gum  :  this  is 
considered  a  disease,  and  may  arise 
from  the  punctures  of  insects  ;  but, 
according  to  some,  is  also  an  indica- 
tion of  a  poor  soil,  requiring  putres- 
cent manures.  Various  names,  as 
Bassortn,  Arabin,  Ccrasin,  &c.,  are 
given  to  specimens  of  gum  from  dif- 
ferent trees. 

GUM  RESIN.  A  concrete  juice, 
obtained  in  various  ways  from  plants, 
partly  soluble  in  water,  and  partly  in 
alcohol,  as  gamboge,  aloes. 

GUNNEY  BAGS.  Coarse. sack- 
cloth, made  in  the  East  Indies  for 
packing. 

GUTTA  SERENA.  Blindness 
without  loss  of  transparency  in  the 
eye. 

GYMNOCARPI  (from  yv/ivoc,  na- 
ked, and  KapTToc,  a  fruit).  The  second 
division  of  Persoon's  Fungi,  including 
those  that  have  their  sporules  in  an 
exposed  dilated  membrane  or  hyme- 
nium,  as  Agancus,  Boletus,  Helvella. 
356 


GYMNOSPERMIA,  GYMNO- 
SPERMS  (from  yvfivo^,  and  oTzepfia,  a 
seed).  Plants  having  naked  seeds ;  at 
present  this  feature  is  said  to  be  pe- 
culiar to  the  Conifer  a  and  Cycadcce. 
Linnffius  erroneously  made  it  an  order 
of  Didijnamia.  The  seeds  of  gymno- 
sperms  are,  in  truth,  situated  in  car- 
pels imperfectly  closed,  the  aggregate 
of  which  forms  the  cone. 

GYNANDRIA  (from  yvvrj,  a  wom- 
an, and  avr]p,  a  man).  A  Linnsean 
class,  in  which  the  stamens  and  pistil 
are  consolidated  into  a  column.  It 
consists  principally  of  the  Orchidacea. 

GYNOPHORE  (from  yvvt],  and 
(pepu,  I  bear).  The  stalk  on  which 
some  ovaria  are  elevated,  as  in  the 
passion  flower. 

GYPSUM.  Native  sulphate  of 
lime,  found  chiefly  in  the  tertiary  and 
new  red  sandstone.  It  occurs  crys- 
talline, fibrous,  and  massive.  Com- 
mon plaster  of  Paris  consists  of  lime, 
33 ;  sulphuric  acid,  46  ;  and  water, 
21  per  cent.  ;  it  is  soluble  in  400  parts 
water.  By  heating  to  redness,  the 
water  is  partly  driven  off,  but  the  sul- 
phate is  unchanged  ;  the  heated  or 
boiled  plaster  is  used  as  cement  for 
plastering  and  moulding  ;  it  is  objec- 
tionable in  agriculture,  from  setting 
as  a  hard  crust  upon  moist  stems  or 
leaves.  The  ground  plaster  is  used 
extensively  in  husbandry,  and  is  very 
advantageous  to  clovers,  beans,  lu- 
cern,  and  leguminous  crops  generally ; 
on  turnips  and  cabbages  it  is  also  ser- 
viceable. The  dose  is  from  one  to 
five  bushels,  scattered  broad-cast  in 
the  morning  or  evening  upon  growing 
plants  soon  after  cropping,  &c.  It 
does  not  seem  to  answer  on  natural 
meadows,  cerealia,  umbelliferous,  or 
chenopodaceous  plants,  or  on  wet 
places,  very  poor  lands,  or  near  the 
seacoast.  It  is  most  serviceable  on 
new  and  manured  soils. 

Gypsum  powder  is  extensively 
used  in  composts  in  stables,  putres- 
cent manures,  and  urine  tanks,  as  it 
absorbs  and  fixes  some  portion  of 
the  volatile  ammonia,  converting  it 
into  the  sulphate  ;  it  is  not,  however, 
so  good  for  these  purposes  as  green 
vitriol. 


IIAC 

Gypsum  undoubtedly  acts  chiefly 
by  supplying  plants  with  sulphur,  as 
was  suggested  by  Davy.  M.  Boussin- 
gault,  however,  seems  to  believe  that 
it  does  no  more  good  than  the  same 
amount  of  mild  lime.  It  is  not  of 
itself  a  specilic  manure  for  all  soils, 
but  is  serviceable  from  the  general 
poverty  of  lands  in  sulphur.  Ashes 
of  peat  and  other  plants  contain  from 
three  to  fi%'e  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of 
lime. 

GYRATE.  Twisted  round  in  cir- 
cles.     Gyrate  (Estivation. 

GYRI  (from  joipof,  a  circle).  The 
annular  series  of  scales  on  the  tails 
of  some  quadrupeds. 

GYROGONITES.  Fossil  seed- 
vessels  of  Characea. 

H. 

HABITAT.  In  natural  history, 
the  natural  abode  of  animals,  plants, 
&c. 

HACK.  The  roadster,  or  horse 
of  all  work. 

HACKBERRY,  HAGBERRY. 
Cellis  crasstfolia.  A  tree  chiefly 
abundant  in  the  central  Western 
States,  also  called  hoop-ash.  In  Del- 
aware and  the  Middle  States  it  is  not 
a  large  tree,  but  in  Ohio  sometimes 
attains  eighty  feet.  The  wood  is 
white,  but  soft,  light,  and  decays  rap- 
idly :  it  is  used  for  fences  in  Ohio 
and  Kentucky.  The  Indians  use  it 
for  baskets.  It  is  of  very  rapid 
growth. 

HACKLE.  A  board  set  with  iron 
spikes  for  pulling  to  pieces  hemp  or 
flax.  An  artificial  fly  used  by  an- 
glers. 

HACKMATACK.  The  American 
larch.  There  are  two  species  {Larix 
■pcndula  and  L.  microcarpa).  They  are 
principally  found  in  Canada  and  New- 
foundland, but  exist  scattered  in  the 
Northern  and  Eastern  States.  They 
are  so  nearly  alike  as  to  be  consider- 
ed varieties,  attain  100  feet  height  by 
three  diameter,  are  straight,  and  pro- 
duce strong  and  durable  timber  su- 
perior to  the  European  larch  or  any 
American  pine.  They  are  esteemed 
admirable  timber  in  Canada,  and  used 
in  Mame  for  ship  knees.     They  are 


HAL 

very  similar  in  habits  and  appearance 
to  the  European  larch. 

H.E.MATITE.     Iron  ore. 

H-EMATOSIN  (from  uiiMa,  blood). 
The  red  colouring  matter  of  blood. 

H.^MATOXYLIN  (from  (li,ua, 
and  ^vlov,  wood).  The  red  dye  ex- 
tracted from  logwood. 

HAEMORRHAGE  (from  di/ia,  and 
payTj,  rent).  A  flow  of  blood,  either 
from  an  accident  or  from  a  full  state 
of  body.  In  the  case  of  wounds,  if 
severe,  it  may  proceed  from  a  torn 
artery  that  should  be  tied  with  a  lig- 
ature. Constitutional  ha3morrhages 
require  blood-letting  and  a  low  diet. 

HEMORRHOIDS.  Piles.  As- 
tringent ointments  are  useful  in  com- 
mon cases. 

HAIL.  Atmospheric  water  con- 
gealed into  lumps  of  some  size,  often 
measuring  an  inch  across.  It  is  al- 
together different  from  snow,  in  oc- 
curring during  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer. Hail  is  produced  only  during 
violent  winds,  which  carry  a  great 
deal  of  moisture  into  the  upper  re- 
gions of  the  air,  where  it  becomes 
solidified  by  extreme  cold.  In  Eu- 
rope losses  from  hail  can  be  met  by 
insurance  in  companies  founded  in 
the  same  way  as  those  against  fire. 

HAINHAULT  SCYTHE.  See 
ScT/lhe. 

HAIR.  Slender  tubes  of  animal 
matter  analogous  to  horn.  It  is  an 
admirable  non-conductor  of  heat. 

Refuse  hair  ranks  as  a  manure 
with  skin  or  glue,  producing  the  same 
results  by  decay  :  woollen  rags  are  the 
most  familiar  kind  used  in  this  way. 

HAIRS.  In  botany,  transparent 
tubes  of  cellulose  inserted  into  the 
epidermis  ;  they  are  totally  dissimi- 
lar from  animal  hairs,  in  containing 
no  nitrogen.  Cotton  is  an  instance 
of  hairs  attached  to  seeds. 

HAIR  GRASS.     The  genus  Aria. 

HALCYONID-E.  A  family  of  fis- 
sirostral  birds,  of  which  the  kingfish- 
er is  the  type. 

HALESIA.     The  snow-drop  tree 

(H.  tctraptcra) ;   ornamental  trees  of 

South  Carolina,  introduced  into  the 

I  shrubberies  of  the  Middle  States. 

I      HALHYDRATES.  Salts  in  which 

357 


HAR 


liAR 


the  combined  water  of  the  acid  be- 
comes a  component  of  the  salt. 

H  A  I.  O  G  E  N  (from  a?.f,  a  sail)- 
Bodies  which  unite  directly  with  met- 
als, without  any  previous  oxidation, 
and  form  salts,  as  chlorine,  sulphur, 
fluorine  :  their  compounds  are  term- 
ed Haloid  salts. 

HALTICA.  A  genus  of  small 
coleopterous  insects,  remarkable  for 
their  readiness  in  leaping.  The  tur- 
nip flea  is  a  familiar  species. 

HAM.  The  thick  part  of  the  leg. 
See  Hog. 

HAMES.  The  wooden  or  iron  col- 
lar pieces  to  which  the  traces  are  at- 
tached. 

HAMMER  BEAM.  A  horizontal 
timber  from  or  near,  but  above  the 
foot  of  a  rafter,  acting  as  a  tie. 

HAMSTER.  Muscricctus.  A  kind 
of  rat  found  in  the  north  of  Europe, 
which  makes  extensive  stores  of  food. 

HAND.  A  measure  of  four  inch- 
es, used  in  estimating  the  height  of 
horses.  The  fore  leg  of  a  horse  or 
other  animal. 

HARD  WATER.  Water  contain- 
ing salts  of  lime,  especially  gypsum. 
It  is  softened  by  adding  a  little  soda- 
ash  or  ammonia. 

HARICOTS.     See  Beans. 

HARE.  The  genus  Lc;>us,  herbiv- 
orous rodents,  often  a  great  annoy- 
ance to  farmers.  They  are  readily 
taken  in  traps. 

HARL.  The  refuse  skin  of  flax 
and  hemp. 

HARNESS.  The  gearing  of  hor- 
ses. It  should  fit  well,  or  galls  are 
produced.  The  harnessing  of  steers 
has  been  recommended  to  obtain  more 
effective  labour. 

HARRIERS.  A  breed  of  dogs  used 
for  hunting  hares. 

HARPALUS.  A  genus  of  prcda- 
ceoHs  coleopterans. 

HARROW.  The  common  form 
of  this  implement  is  a  triangle  or 
rhomboid,  set  with  straight  iron  spikes 
four  or  more  inches  long  ;  these  tear 
the  surface  recently  ploughed,  pul- 
verizing the  lumps,  and  covering  seed 
slightly.  The  frame  is  of  ash  or  oak, 
but  sometimes  of  iron.  Other  har- 
rows, with  curved  teeth,  for  tearing 
358 


out  and  carrying  along  weeds,  are 
also  used,  called  extirpators,  or  scar- 
ifiers. See  Cultivator.  The  expand- 
ing harrow,  in  which  the  distance  of 
the  bolts  of  the  frame  can  be  set  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  is  a  conve- 
nient instrument. 

The  following,  from  Mr.  Geddes,  is 
thought  an  excellent  instrument.  The 


'il|i!|  I     i  '111 

sketch  is  on  a  scale  of  one  fourth  of 
an  inch  to  the  foot : 

"  Description. — Timber,  three  inch- 
es square. 

"  The  side  pieces  should  enter  the 
centre  pieces  so  that  the  acute  angle 
will  contain  thirty-five  degrees  ;  or 
the  bevel  may  be  found  by  laying  a 
carpenter's  square  on  a  board,  and 
measuring  on  one  side  of  the  corner 
three  inches,  and  on  the  other  two 
inches  and  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  ;  a 
line  drawn  through  these  points  will 
make  a  triangle,  having  the  smaller 
angle,  that  is,  the  angle  at  the  point 
where  the  three  inches  reached — the 
angle  required. 

"  The  tenons  should  enter  the  cen- 
tre pieces  only  one  inch,  the  mortice 
and  tenon  being  cut  square  with  the 
centre  pieces,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving. If  this  joint  is  well  made, 
the  bolt  passing  through  both  sticks 
will  keep  the  timber  in  place  perfect- 
ly, the  side  pieces  have  each  three 
bolts,  X,  X,  X,  passing  through  the 
middle,  to  prevent  their  splitting.  The 
back  hinge  is  made  of  Swede's  iron, 
bolted,  at  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  on  the  tim- 
ber with  half  inch  bolts.     These  bolts 


HAR 


HAR 


should  be  well  made,  and  have  large  I  nowed  and  stored  in  granaries,  and 


heads  on  the  lower  end,  as  ifanything 
breaks,  it  probably  will  be  these  bolts 

"  The  forward  hinge  is  made  with 
Swede's  iron,  and  bolted  on  the  top 
of  the  timber,  with  three  bolts  in  each 
side  of  the  hinge. 

"  The  hook  plays  freely  in  an  eye 


the  straw  is  reserved  till  winter,  when 
it  forms  the  chief  fodder  of  liorses 
and  cattle.  In  tiiese  regions  the  har- 
vest is  a  continued  feast  ;  no  unge- 
nial  weather  disappoints  the  hopes  of 
the  husbandman  ;  but  in  northern 
climates,  where  the  harvest  is  later, 


on  the  end  of  a  rod,  made  of  round  I  and  cold  rains  and  storms  are  fre- 


iron,  five  eighths  of  an  incii  in  diame- 
ter, which  runs  through  both  hinges, 
having  a  washer,  nut,  and  spring  key 
behind  the  back  hinge.  The  eyes  in 
the  hinges  should  be  the  thickness  of 
the  iron  above  the  timber,  conse- 
quently the  rod  running  through  the 
eyes  will  be  that  much  above  the 
timber. 

"  The  hinges  should  be  four  and  a 
half  feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre. 

"  The  centre  pieces  should  be  one 
inch  apart. 

"  The  side  pieces  should  be  twelve 
or  thirteen  inches  apart  in  the  clear, 
measuring  square  across. 

"  The  four  teeth  in  the  centre  pie- 
ces require  to  be  made  straight  on 
one  side,  instead  of  having  the  point 
in  the  centre,  as  their  places  are  near 
the  sides  of  the  timber. 

"  The  teeth  should  be  seven  eighths 
of  an  inch  square,  and  thirty  to  the 
harrow." 

The  common  bueh  harrow,  con- 
sisting of  a  bundle  of  bushes  fastened 


quent  in  autumn,  the  ingenuity  is  oft- 
en taxed  to  save  the  corn  from  being 
entirely  spoiled,  after  it  has  been  sev- 
ered from  the  ground  ;  roomy  barns 
are  erected  to  secure  it  in  the  straw 
till  it  can  be  thrashed. 

"  To  lessen  the  casualties  of  har- 
vest, the  experienced  husbandman 
endeavours  to  arrange  the  time  of 
sowing  each  kind  of  grain  so  as  to 
ensure  its  coming  to  maturity  in  a 
regular  succession.  Thus  he  has 
more  time  to  attend  to  the  precau- 
tions of  which  experience  has  taught 
him  the  utility  ;  and  if  the  duration 
of  harvest  is  longer,  there  is  less  dan- 
ger of  all  his  crops  being  spoiled  by 
a  wet  season. 

"  It  was  long  the  custom  through 
the  whole  of  the  north  of  Europe  to 
store  all  the  produce  of  the  farm  into 
barns,  especially  the  corn ;  and  it  was 
thought  that  as  soon  as  the  sheaves 
were  collected  under  a  roof  all  dan- 
ger was  past.  The  increase  of  the 
produce  raised  on  most  lands  by  an 
improved  system  of  agriculture  gave 


to  an  iron  chain,  or  woven  mto  an 

old  gate  or  wooden  frame,  is  much  rise  to  the  practice  of  stacking  corn 
used  for  rubbing  seeds  into  the  soil.  [  in  the  open  air,  and  securing  it  by  a 
When  the  shrubs  are  thorny,  it  an- 1  covering  of  thatch.  It  was  soon 
swers  to  scarify  natural  meadows  af-  [  found  that  the  grain  thus  stored  in 
ter  manure  is  applied.  The  Fig.  on  p.  ;  the  straw  was  better  preserved  than 
120  represents  a  simple  bush  harrow,  j  that  which  was  in  the  barn  ;  and  the 


HARTSHORN  SPIRIT.  Solution 
of  ammonia.     See  Nitrogen. 

HARVEST.  "In  those  southern 
climates  where  the  heat  and  want  of 
moisture  are  not  too  great  for  the 


mvention  of  stone  or  cast-iron  pillars 
as  supports  for  the  frames  on  which 
the  grain  was  stacked,  not  only  se- 
cured it  from  the  depredations  of  ver- 
mm,  but  kept  it  in  a  much  drier  state 


growth  of  corn,  the  only  care  of  the  I  tlian  when  the  stacks  were  made  on 
farmer  is  to  procure  hands  sufficient !  the  ground.     This  was  a  great  im- 


to  reap  it.  The  heat  of  the  sun  and 
air  soon  dry  the  straw  and  harden  the 
grain.  A  spot  is  levelled  in  the  field, 
and  the  corn  is  thrashed  out  imme- 
diately, either  by  the  tread  of  cattle 
driven  over  it,  or  by  the  flails  of  nu- 
merous thrashers.     The  corn  is  win- 


provement ;  and  now,  in  the  best- 
managed  farms,  the  only  barns  re- 
quired are  those  in  which  the  corn  is 
thrashed ;  and  if  there  is  sufficient 
room  to  hold  the  contents  of  ono 
stack  of  the  usual  dimensions,  it  is 
all  that  is  absolutely  required. 

359 


HAR 


HAW 


"  It  may  be  admitted  as  a  general  i  pointing  downward,  will  not  long  re- 
Tule  in  reaping,  to  cut  the  straw  as    tain  the  wet. 


near  to  the  ground  as  possible  :  this 
is  best  done  by  an  instrument  called 
a  cradle  scythe,  which  mows  the  straw, 
and  collects  it  so  as  to  be  readily 
gathered  into  sheaves. 

"  The  Hainault  scythe  has  a  very 
short  handle,  and  is  used  with  one 
hand,  while  the   other  collects  the 
straw  into  a  sheaf  by  means  of  a  large 
hook  at  the  end  of  a  wooden  rod.    It 
is  a  most  useful  instrument,  and  great- 
ly preferable  to  the  fagging-hook  ;  it 
cuts  more  straw  at  each  stroke,  and 
is  less  fatiguing  to  the  reaper,  be- 
cause his  position  is  nearly  upright 
when  he  uses  it.     In  many  places  it 
is  not  usual  to  tie  up  any  corn  into 
sheaves,  except  rye,  wheat,  and  beans. 
Barley  and  oats  are  usually  mown, 
raked  into  heaps,  and  carried  into  the 
stack  or  barn  when  dry,  like  hay  ;  but 
this   is   a   slovenly   practice,  which 
should  not  be  recommended.     With 
good  tillage  and  proper  manuring  the 
straw  of  barley  and  oats  will  be  strong, 
and  of  sufficient  length  to  require  be- 
ing tied  up  into  sheaves  ;  and  much 
less  of  the  grain  is  shaken  out  and 
lost  in  this  way  than  by  the  usual 
method. 

"  In  rainy  seasons  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  sheaves  remain  a 
long  time  in  the  field  before  they  are 
sufficiently  dry  to  be  carried  and 
stacked.  If  the  ears  are  not  secured 
from  the  wet,  they  become  soaked, 
and  the  grain  sprouts  in  the  ear. 
This  is  a  great  loss  ;  for  sprouted 
grain  is  very  inferior,  and  can  only 
be  sold  at  a  low  price.  A  little  atten- 
tion will  often  prevent  the  bad  effisct 
of  rains.  In  some  places  six  or  eight 
sheaves  are  set  up  in  a  circle,  with 
the  butt-ends  diverging,  so  as  to  admit 
the  air  to  circulate  among  them ;  a 
sheaf  is  opened  by  spreading  out  the 
ears,  and  is  placed,  inverted,  over  the 
ears  which  lean  against  each  other, 
forming  a  truncated  cone.  Thus  the 
butt-end  of  the  top  sheaf  is  the  only 
part  in  which  the  rain  can  lodge  ; 
and  the  first  sunshine  will  soon  dry 
this  :  the  rain  runs  off  the  sides  of 
the  inverted  sheaf,  and  the  ears, 
360 


"  When  the  stack  is  building,  the 
butts  of  the  sheaves  are  placed  out- 
ward, and  project  gradually  over  the 
sides  of  the  frame,  and  over  one  an- 
other, so  as  to  build  the  stack  in  the 
form  of  a  bowl,  with  a  cone  or  pyra- 
mid over  it,  according  as  the  frame 
is  round  or  square  ;  this  is  carefully 
thatched  with  straw,  and  the  outer 
surface  is  cut  smooth  by  means  of 
shears.  This  not  only  saves  all  the 
ears  which  chance  to  lie  outward, 
and  which  would  have  become  the 
prey  of  birds,  but  it  also  prevents  the 
rain  from  beating  into  the  stack  and 
injuring  the  corn.  It  may  then  be 
considered  as  safe. 

"Where  there  are  no  raised  frames, 
and  the  stack  is  built  on  the  ground, 
or  on  a  bottom  made  of  fagots  to 
keep  it  dry,  a  belt  of  plastering  or 
stucco  is  sometimes  laid,  a  foot  wide, 
round  the  stack,  about  18  inches  from 
the  ground,  after  the  surface  has  been 
cut  quite  smooth  and  even.  This 
contrivance  is  intended  to  prevent 
the  rats  from  lodging  in  the  stack, 
and  it  is  very  effective.  A  frame 
made  entirely  of  iron,  and  supported 
upon  iron  columns,  has  lately  been 
invented.  It  may  readily  be  taken  to 
pieces  and  put  together  again  when 
it  is  wanted.  The  advantage  of  it 
is,  that  it  is  cheaper  and  more  easily 
moved  than  any  other,  and  it  is  very 
convenient  for  a  temporary  purpose." 
—{W.  L.  Rham.) 

HASTATE.  A  descriptive  term  in 
botany  :  shaped  like  the  old  halbert. 
HATCHEL.      A  carding-comb  or 
hackle. 

HAUGH.  Meadow  or  pasture  land. 
HAUSTELLATES.  Insects  fur- 
nished with  a  proboscis  for  suction. 
HAWK.  The  genus  Falco.  They 
prey  upon  birds.  IMartens  and  crows 
are  remarkable  enemies  to  the  hawk . 
species. 

HAULM.  The  stalks  of  pease  and 
beans,  chiefly. 

HAWTHORN.  Mcspilus  oxyacan- 
tha.  This  thorny  shrub  or  small  tree 
is  also  called  whitethorn,  May,  and 
quickset.     It  is  abundantly  used  in 


HAY 


HAY 


England  as  a  hedge  plant ;  with  prop- 
er trimming  it  forms  a  dense  growth, 
and  its  thorns  protect  the  plant  from 
destruction  by  cattle.  Tlie  seeds  of 
the  previous  year  are  kept  in  wet 
sand  during  the  winter,  and  sown  in 
spring  in  drills  in  a  light  soil  to  pro- 
cure plants.  The  seedlings  may  be 
set  out  in  two  years,  and  by  a  little 
care  will  form  a  hedge  in  three  to 
five  more.  Many  native  thorns  would 
answer  equally  well. 

HAY.  Grass  or  clovers  cut  and 
cured  for  cattle.  Well-cured  meadow 
hay,  seasoned  with  one  peck  of  salt 
to  the  load,  is  the  standard  of  fodder 
for  cattle  and  horses ;  about  30  lbs. 
daily  is  allowed  as  suitable'  food  for 
a  horse  or  ox  in  work.  Boussin- 
gault  found  that  the  average  amount 
of  flesh-making  food  in  good  meadow 
hay  was  7  per  cent.,  but  that  after- 
math sometimes  contained  as  much 
as  12,  and  hay  from  wet  places  as 
little  as  6  per  cent.  There  is  a  prej- 
udice against  after-math,  probably  ari- 
sing from  its  being  cured  in  an  infe- 
rior manner  to  grass  of  the  first  crop. 
Mow-burned  hay  is  pecuUarJy  inju- 
rious to  horses. 

It  is  the  result  of  the  experience 
of  many  French  farmers  that  grass 
and  clover  are  much  more  nutritious 
wlien  given  in  the  green  state  than 
when  dry,  if  the  same  amount  of  food 
be  contained  in  both  parcels,  or  omit- 
ting the  water.  The  conversion  of 
these  and  other  herbs  into  hay  is  at- 
tended with  a  fermentation  which 
reduces  the  amount  oi flesh  substance 
tliey  contain. 

Horses  require  as  much  water  as 
hay  when  fed  on  it  only  ;  but  the  prac- 
tice is  beginning  to  be  extended  of 
steeping  the  hay  in  water  for  an  hour 
before  feeding,  by  which  animals  are 
induced  to  feed  much  cleaner.  Hay 
tea  is  made  by  introducing  the  hay 
into  hot  or  boiling  water,  but  this 
does  not  seem  to  be  better  than  mere- 
ly saturating  it  with  fluid  by  steeping, 
and  giving  the  water,  as  well  as  the 
hay,  to  the  animals. 

Large  quantities  of  hay  are  shipped 
from  the  Northern  and  Northwestern 
States  for  the  South  ;  it  is  pressed  by 
Hii 


screws  into  trusses,  and  bound  with 
cords  and  slips  of  wood. 

HAY-MAKING.  The  first  point 
IS  the  proper  season  to  cut  the  grass 
or  clover  ;  this  would  seem,  in  the 
case  of  some  grasses,  to  be  a  doubt- 
ful question,  as  the  quantity  is  very 
much  increased  when  the  crop  is  in 
seed ;  but  usually  the  rule  is  to  cut 
when  in  full  flower;  by  this  means 
more  and  better  hay  is  obtained,  and 
the  soil  is  less  exhausted. 

There  are  two  ways  of  making  hay  : 
1st.  By  laying  the  swath  to  dry  thor- 
oughly, turning  it  during  the  day,  or 
even  tedding  or  spreading  it  abroad 
thinly.  This  is,  towards  evening, 
collected  in  small  cocks ;  these  are 
spread  out  the  next  day  into  wind- 
rows and  turned,  again  put  up  into 
larger  cocks  towards  night,  and  ex- 
posed the  third  day  before  being  ta- 
ken to  the  mow  or  stack.  By  this 
means  the  grass  is  thoroughly  dried, 
but  the  plan  is  very  tedious  and  un- 
successful where  succulent  plants 
like  clover  are  to  be  made  into  hay. 

The  second  and  approved  plan  is  to 
allow  the  swath  to  be  turned  and 
withered,  piling  the  grass,  &c.,  in 
smaU  cocks  of  200  lbs.  by  midday,  if 
cut  before  breakfast ;  in  this  situa- 
tion a  sweating  process  or  fermenta- 
tion occurs,  attended  by  heat  and  an 
exudation  of  moisture,  which  tends 
to  cure  the  hay  rapidly.  The  next 
morning,  the  cocks  should  be  exam- 
ined, and  if  the  heat  is  abated  the 
grass  may  be  tedded  for  a  short  time, 
and  carried  to  the  stack  or  barn  by 
noon.  It  is  here  to  be  stacked  with 
from  one  to  three  pecks  of  salt  to  the 
ton,  will  heat  again  slightly,  but,  if  not 
too  green,  cures  beautifully,  affording 
very  fine  hay.  Some  farmers  prefer 
putting  it  in  stack  with  strata  of  good 
straw,  especially  in  the  case  of  clo- 
ver ;  heat  is  thus  avoided  and  the 
straw  enriched  as  food  ;  it  also  saves 
some  of  the  salt. 

By  this  process,  broad-cast  corn 
and  other  green,  succulent  stems  can 
be  cured,  if  sufficient  time  be  given 
them  to  sweat. 

Hay  is  often  put  up  into  tempora- 
ry stacks,  and  removed  after  a  few 
361 


HAY 


HAY 


days,  or  at  a  convenient  season,  into 
larger  masses  :  in  Enf^land  the  stack 
often  contains  forty  or  more  tons  ;  it 
is  carefully  thatched,  and  portions 
cut  out  by  a  Inife  for  use.  Tlie  cu- 
bic yard  of  stacked  hay  weighs  ICO 
to  180  lbs.,  and,  when  old,  200  lbs. 

After-math  is  usually  depastured, 
the  manure  dropped  answering  to  ad- 
vance the  next  crop  if  properly  scat- 
tered. In  some  parts  of  France  and 
Germany  the  green  grass  is  thrown 
into  pits  with  one  bushel  of  salt  to 
the  load,  and  allowed  to  ferment ;  it 
is  afterward  closed  in  with  boards, 
and  earth  placed  upon  them  ;  thus  a 
kind  of  sour  kraut  hay  is  formed, 
which,  it  is  said,  cattle  prefer. 

HAY-MAKING  MACHINES.  An 
instrument  to  scatter,  or  ted,  is  much 
used  in  Europe  :  it  consists  of  a  frame 
of  many  spokes  supported  on  an  axle 
•with  two  wheels ;  the  frames  carry 
curved  teeth  like  rakes,  and  revolve 
with  the  wheels  ;  the  rakes  carry  for- 
ward the  hay  and  scatter  it  thorough- 
ly.   It  is  drawn  by  a  horse. 

The  Horse  Rake  is  a  large  rake 
made  of  wood,  and  six  to  ten  feet 
long,  before  which  a  horse  is  hitched  ; 
it  is  furnished  with  a  couple  of  han- 
dles behind  to  enable  a  man  to  lift  it 
up  when  necessary. 

Revolving  Hay  Rakes  are  made  on 
various  plans,  of  which  the  following 
appears  the  simplest. 


This  rake  consists  of  two  heads,  A, 
A,  and  two  sets  of  teeth,  B.  B  ;  the 
heads  being  connected  together  by 
connecting  rods,  C,  C,  and  end  bars, 
D,  D.  The  end  bars  also  form  a 
groove  in  which  the  slide  pin  (K,  in 
the  end  view)  moves  from  one  head 
to  the  other  every  time  the  rake  re- 
volves. The  horse  is  attached  to  the 
rake  by  hooking  the  trace  chains,  G, 
H,  into  staples  driven  into  the  under 
side  of  the  cross  bar,  F,  F.  The 
rake  is  held  by  the  teeth,  which  serve 
for  handles  when  they  are  up,  and 
for  teeth  when  on  the  ground. 

HAY  PRESS.  The  following  is 
a  convenient  form  ;  it  is  sometimes 
called  Lampman's  press. 


It  consists  of  four  upright  posts 
strongly  framed  together,  within 
which  is  a  chamber  of  stout  plank 
of  the  size  of  the  intended  bundle  of 
hay.  The  press  is  firmly  fixed  be- 
tween the  lofts  of  a  barn,  the  hay  be- 


HED 

ing  thrown  in  above,  and  the  horse 
power  applied  to  the  sweep  (8)  and 
screw  (6)  below.  The  sides  of  the 
chamber  are  opened  to  remove  the 
pressed  hay  by  doors  hung  upon  roll- 
ers (18),  and  the  upward  pressure  of 
the  screw  is  resisted  by  a  strong  cap 
(4),  which  is  pushed  backward  or  for- 
ward at  pleasure. 

HAY  KNIFE.  It  consists  of  a 
stout  blade  furnished  with  a  handle 
at  right  angles,  or,  in  another  form, 
of  a  blade  somewhat  like  a  spade,  the 
handle  being  above,  and  the  cut  made 
by  pressing  downward. 

HAY  STACK,  or  RICK.  See 
Stack. 

HAY  TEA.  The  infusion  made 
by  pouring  boiling  water  over  hay  ;  it 
is  said  to  replenish  the  udders  of 
cows,  cause  horses  to  stale  freely, 
and  to  be  verv  nutritious. 

HAZEL.     See  Filbert. 

HEADING  TREES.  The  opera- 
tion of  cutting  down  the  stem  or 
main  shoot,  to  diminish  the  height 
and  cause  the  tree  to  throw  out  hori- 
zontal or  bearing  limbs. 

HEAD  LANDS.  The  places 
where  the  plough  turns  in  ploughing. 

HEART.  The  central  hollow 
muscle  which  receives  the  blood  and 
drives  it  over  the  system. 

HEART  WOOD.  The  central, 
old,  and  coloured  wood  of  trees  :  it  is 
the  most  durable.     The  duramen. 

HEAT.     See  Caloric. 

HEATH.  Waste  lands  covered 
with  heath  plants,  species  o{  Erica. 

HEAVY  SPAR.  Sulphate  of  ba- 
rytes  ;  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  4  1 
to  4  6,  and  is  used  to  adulterate 
white-lead. 

HECKLE.  An  instrument  for  sep- 
arating the  fibres  of  flax.     See  Flax. 

HECTIC  FEVER.  A  fever  oc- 
curring in  debilitated  persons. 

HEDGE.  A  row  of  small  trees  or 
shrubs,  properly  pruned,  and  serving 
as  a  fence  between  fields.  The  haw- 
thorn, Virginia  thorn,  holly,  buck- 
thorn, Osage  orange,  red  cedar,  ar- 
bour vitae,  form  good  hedges,  espe- 
cially the  first  four ;  the  honey  locust, 
privet,  pyrus  japonica,  elder,  and  oth- 
er plants  are  also  occasionally  used. 


HED 

The  young  plants,  at  two  to  three 
years  old,  are  to  be  removed  from  the 
nursery  to  the  hedgerow,  either  in  the 
fall  or  early  spring,  the  tops  being 
pruned  away.  The  line  of  hedge 
should  be  first  well  ploughed  and  pre- 
pared ;  it  will  be  of  service  to  enrich 
it  with  well-rotted  peat,  mould,  or 
manure  ;  it  may  be  two  feet  wide, 
and  if  the  soil  is  not  very  well  drained, 
a  ditch,  one  foot  deep,  may  be  dug  on 
each  side,  and  the  earth  cast  up  on  the 
middle.  The  plants  are  to  be  weed- 
ed, and  pruned  in  the  fall  to  one  third 
their  height,  and  afterward  managed 
by  foreshortening  untd  of  sufficient 
height  and  bushy  ;  they  may  be  placed 
in  quincunx  order,  and  somewhat  in 
clined  across  the  ground  of  the  hedge. 
While  young,  the  plants  are  to  be 
protected  from  cattle  by  fencing.  Old 
hedges  which  have  become  too  tall, 
or  show  little  verdure,  may  be  re-es- 
tablished by  cutting  a  part  of  the 
main  stems  to  the  soil,  and  allowing 
the  stools  to  throw  up  new  shoots. 
In  this  kind  of  trimming,  the  stems 
are  to  be  cut  upward  with  the  bill, 
and  not  downward,  for,  in  the  latter 
case,  the  stem  is  often  split ;  water 
lodges  and  rots  it,  in  some  measure. 

Worn-out  hedges  do  not  succeed 
if  replanted  with  the  same  trees  ;  a 
new  line  must  be  chosen  or  new  trees 
used.  In  repairing  gaps,  it  is  often 
necessary  in  an  old  hedge  to  plant 
dissimilar  shrubs,  or  to  cut  out  the 
soil  with  a  spade  and  introduce  some 
that  is  new. 

There  is  a  method  of  repairing 
hedges  which  is  called  plashing.  It 
consists  in  cutting  half  through  some 
of  the  stems  near  the  ground,  and 
then  bending  the  upper  parts  down  in 
a  horizontal  or  oblique  position,  keep- 
ing them  so  by  means  of  hooked  sticks 
driven  into  the  bank.  Thus  a  live 
hedge  is  made,  which  fills  up  the  gaps 
in  the  same  manner  as  a  dead  hedge 
would  have  done,  and  the  bent  stems 
soon  throw  out  shoots.  If  the  stems 
are  young,  and  not  above  the  thick- 
ness of  a  finger,  an  excellent  hedge 
may  be  thus  formed,  which,  when 
clipped,  wdl  be  close  and  perfectly 
impervious  ;  but  the  work  is  gen- 
363 


HEL 

erally  done  in  a  very  injudicious  man- 
ner. When  a  hedge  is  plashed  which 
has  been  long  neglected,  the  thick 
stems  which  are  hacked  through, 
leaving  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
under  bark  uncut,  have  an  unsightly 
appearance,  and  seldom  throw  out 
shoots  near  the  bottom,  where  they 
are  most  wanted.  To  plash  a  young 
hedge,  by  merely  bending  the  twigs, 
is  an  excellent  practice  ;  but  when 
the  stems  are  thick  and  old,  the  only 
remedy  is  to  cut  them  down,  or  make 
an  entirely  new  bank  well  planted 
with  quick. 

Hedges  are  highly  ornamental  and 
durable,  lasting,  with  care,  for  fifty 
or  more  years  ;  they  require  clipping 
in  spring,  and,  when  well  established, 
are  a  perfect  protection  ;  they  are 
particularly  worthy  of  attention  to 
the  prairie  farmers.  Fruit-trees,  es- 
pecially cherries,  grapes,  and  plums, 
may  be  made  use  of  as  mere  parti- 
tions between  fields,  when  trained  on 
espaliers.  Hedges  are  also  various- 
ly curved  and  bent  over,  or  breasted 
for  ornamental  purposes. 

Instruments  used  in  hedging.  —  A 
small  hoe  is  necessary  for  weeding, 
a  hooked  knife  to  trim  short  branch- 
es ;  sometimes  large  shears  are  used, 
and  a  bill  or  small  axe  to  cut  the 
larger  branches. 

HEDGEHOG.  The  name  of  a 
genus  of  useful  insectivorous  mam- 
mals (Erinaceus),  of  service  to  the 
farmer  by  destroying  worms,  slugs, 
and  insects.  They  hibernate  durmg 
cold  weather  in  holes  dug  in  the 
earth. 

HELIOTROPE.  A  pretty  flower. 
A  silicious  mineral  of  a  green  colour 
with  red  spots  ;  bloodstone. 

HELIX  (from  t?j^,  a  %rhorl).  A 
genus  of  shell  animals,  including  the 
garden  snails  ;  they  are  mjurious  to 
herbage,  and  may  be  kept  off  by 
sprinkling  with  lime,  or  destroyed  by 
catching  with  the  hand. 

HELLEBORE.  A  genus  of  plants 
remarkable  for  their  purgative  prop- 
erties. Hellehorus  fatidus  is  a  native 
of  the  United  States  ;  they  are  very 
dangerous  and  uncertain  drugs. 

HELMINTHOLOGY  (from  Vjuvr, 
304 


HEM 

a  worm,  and  'Xoyo^,  a  discourse).    The 
history  of  worms  of  various  kinds. 

HELOPID.^^.  A  family  of  hetero- 
meran,  coleopterous  insects.  Some 
of  the  species  infest  the  bark  and 
roots  of  trees. 

HELVE.     A  handle. 

HE.MATIN.  Synonyme  of  Hcema- 
toxylin. 

HEMATITE.  Synonyme  of  Ha- 
matite. 

HEMATOSIN.  Synonyme  of  Ha- 
matosin. 

HEMELYTRA  (from  vfiiavc,  half, 
and  e'AvTpov,  a  sheath).  The  wings 
of  hemipterous  insects  :  the  upper 
wing-cases,  half  of  which  only  is  co- 
riaceous, the  rest  being  delicate. 

HEMEROBIANS  (from  iifiepa,  a 
day,  and  (3^o(:,  life).  Short-lived  in- 
sects of  the  neuropterous  class,  re- 
sembling the  May  fly  ;  they  lay  their 
eggs  on  plants,  and  the  larva;  devour 
plant-lice,  and  thus  subserve  the  pur- 
poses of  the  orchardist. 

HEMIGAMOUS.  A  descriptive 
term  in  essays  on  grasses,  meaning 
that  one  of  two  florets  in  a  spikelet 
is  neuter. 

HEMIPTERA  (from  rjiiLavg,  and 
TTTepov,  a  wing).  Insects  having  four 
wings,  the  upper  pair  of  which  is 
only  half  coriaceous,  or  which  are 
half  horny  and  half  membranous  ; 
they  are  haustellate.  The  larvae  have 
six  feet,  and  resemble  the  imago ; 
after  a  few  moultings  they  increase 
in  size  and  acquire  wings. 

HEMLOCK.  Comum  tnaculatuin. 
An  umbelliferous  plant,  with  peren- 
nial roots,  flowering  in  July  ;  branch- 
es much  spread  and  dotted  ;  leaves 
very  compound.  It  is  narcotic,  and 
often  injures  cattle. 

HEMLOCK-TREE.  Ahics  Cana- 
densis. It  grows  abundantly  in  the 
northern  portions  of  the  United  States 
and  the  British  Provinces.  It  is  a 
good  timber-tree,  and  often  attains 
very  great  dimensions. 

HEMP  (Cannabis  sativa,  Fig.).  A 
dioeceous  annual  of  the  family  Urii- 
cacetB,  cultivated  for  the  large  amount 
of  fibre  it  produces  in  the  year ;  the 
seeds  are  also  serviceable  as  fatten- 
ing food,  when  given  in  small  quanti- 


i 


HEMP. 


ty,  and  yield,  by  expression,  from  25 
to  30  per  cent.  oil.  The  leaves  of  the 
plant  are  poisonous,  and  a  steep  made 
with  them  is  of  great  use  in  the  gar- 
den to  annoy  insects. 

Cukicatio'n. — Hemp  requires  a  rich, 
deep  soil,  aboundmg  in  vegetable  mat- 
ter, a  grass  ley  is  admirable;  it  is  to 
be  well  plouglied  and  made  fine  ;  the 
seed,  to  the  amount  of  li  to  3  bush- 
els, is  commonly  sown  broad-cast  in 
April  and  .May,  when  the  frosts  have 
disappeared.  The  seed  is  either  har- 
rowed or  ploughed  in  shallow.  The 
hemp  is  ready  for  cutting  from  the 
middle  of  August,  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  of  the  male  plants  turn  yellow 
and  drop  off.  It  is  cut  with  a  harp 
hook  or  short  scythe.  Half  an  acre 
can  be  cut  and  an  acre  scythed  in  the 
day  by  a  good  hand  when  it  is  not 
overgrown.  The  cut  stalks  are  even- 
ly laid  on  the  ground,  and  require  a 
week  of  good  weather  to  dry :  a  show- 
er is  no  disadvantage.  Some  persons 
pull  the  hemp,  but  this  is  slower  work, 
and  produces  less  perfect  lint,  while 
the  roots  are  a  great  inconvenience. 

The  dried  plants  are  next  to  be  tied 
into  sheaves,  and  put  up  into  a  rick 
to  preserve  them  from  the  effects  of 
moisture  during  hot  weather.  The 
roof  must  be  closely  made  of  long 
hemp,  the  leaves  of  which  are  beaten 
off.  Some  beat  all  the  leaves  off, 
Hh2 


hut  this  is  unneccssarj'  labour,  for  if 
the  plants  are  well  dried,  they  will 
be  knocked  off  in  handling.  The  best 
time  to  spread  the  hemp  for  dew  rot- 
ting is  December,  but  where  the  crop 
is  large,  a  commencement  is  made  in 
the  middle  of  October.  The  hemp 
stems  may  be  kept  without  injury  in 
stacks  for  one  or  two  years.  Judge 
Beatty  urges  that  the  proper  rotting 
ground  is  the  hemp  field,  for  the  la- 
bour of  hauling  is  much  diminished  ; 
the  plants  manure  the  land,  and  it  is 
kept  free  from  the  treading  of  cattle. 
The  u-bUer-rotled  is  lighter  and  better 
than  that  of  autumn  ;  the  hemp  is 
sufficiently  rotted  when  the  stems 
lose  their  rigid  appearance,  the  bun- 
dles of  fibres  begin  to  be  disengaged 
from  the  cellular  tissue,  and  the  lint 
begins  to  separate  from  the  stalk. 
When  ready  to  he  taken  up,  it  should 
be  put  in  upright  shocks of 150  pounds; 
as  soon  as  it  is  dried  the  tops  may  be 
bound  with  a  hemp  band  sufficiently 
tight  to  keep  out  rain.  It  is  now  to 
be  broken,  frosty  weather  being  best ; 
this  should  be  completed  before  the 
warm  weather  of  spring  :  100  pounds 
per  day  is  fair  work  with  the  com- 
mon brake.  Good  lands  yield  from 
750  to  1000  pounds  of  hm  the  acre  ; 
and  if  it  be  rotted  on  them,  and  no 
seed  taken,  seven  or  ten  crops  may 
be  taken  after  one  another.  For  the 
production  of  seed,  the  hemp  is  sown 
in  drills  or  hills  ;  if  the  latter,  they 
are  placed  four  feet  apart ;  a  dozen 
seeds  are  dropped  in  each  hill,  and 
covered  an  inch.  The  soil  must  be 
very  rich,  and  well  prepared  ;  the 
ground  is  to  be  kept  free  of  weeds  at 
first  by  the  plough,  and  subsequently 
by  hoeing  ;  the  plants  are  next  to  be 
thinned  to  four  or  five  when  six  inch- 
es high,  and  again  to  three  in  a  hill. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  in  full  blos- 
som and  the  farina  spread,  the  males 
or  flowering  plants  are  to  be  cut  from 
each  hill.  The  seed  will  be  ripe  in 
September,  when  the  plants  are  to  be 
cut  early  in  the  morning,  and  with- 
out much  jarring,  or  the  seed  will  be 
scattered.  The  plants  are  taken  from 
the  ground  when  dry  and  set  up  in 
shocks,  the  butts  towards  the  earth. 
365 


HEMP. 


It  should  not  be  allowed  to  become 
too  wet,  but  a  little  moisture  assists 
the  closing  of  the  seed.  In  a  week 
or  ten  days  it  may  be  thrashed,  by 
beating  the  upper  parts  of  the  plant 
upon  a  board ;  the  seeds  separate 
readily,  and  may  be  thrashed  on  the 
field,  for  carriage  leads  to  much  loss. 
The  stems  are  of  no  use  for  lint,  but 
may  be  used  for  charcoal,  or  burned 
to  ashes  as  manure.  Hemp  seed 
very  readily  spoils,  unless  well  dried 
before  stored  ;  it  is  also  much  sought 
after  by  rats.  It  is  seldom  so  well 
kept  as  to  be  worth  sowing  after  the 
first  season.  The  crop  of  seed  is 
from  20  to  40  bushels,  which  sells  at 
upward  of  $1  the  bushel.  The  lint 
is  worth  from  $90  to  $180  the  ton. 

Water-rotting  hemp  is  not  much 
practised,  from  prejudice  and  from 
the  little  demand  for  it  near  the  coun- 
try markets,  but  the  offer  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  pay  $280  the  ton  has  in- 
duced many  to  attempt  it.  The  best 
place  is  in  running  streams,  a  suffi- 
cient space  or  pit  being  set  off  for 
the  operation ;  it  may  be  planked  or 
bricked,  or  a  frame  like  that  for  flax 
may  be  used.  The  dry  bundles  of 
hemp  are  used.  The  following  is 
Professor  Lowe's  account  of  water- 
rotting  : 

"The  bunches  are  generally  placed 
in  the  pool  in  rows,  crossing  one  an- 
other, and  pressed  down  by  some 
heavy  substance  laid  upon  them,  so  as 
to  be  kept  from  rising  to  the  surface, 
care  being,  at  the  same  time,  taken 
that  they  are  not  so  loaded  as  to  be 
forced  down  to  the  bottom.  If  the 
weather  be  warm,  four  or  five  days 
will  frequently  be  sufficient ;  if  not, 
two  or  three  more  ;  but  the  period  is 
denoted  by  the  stem  being  so  soften- 
ed that  the  outside  coat  shall  come 
easily  off.  Care  must  be  taken,  as 
in  the  case  of  flax,  that  the  putrefac- 
tive process  does  not  proceed  so  far 
as  to  injure  the  cortical  fibres.  The 
quantity  put  into  one  pool  may  be  the 
produce  of  an  acre.  The  steep  liquor 
is  poisonous  ;  hot-water  rotting,  with 
the  use  of  soap,  as  in  the  preparation 
of  flax,  is  partially  used  in  Europe, 
and  is  a  great  saving  in  time. 
366 


"  When  the  hemp  is  thus  steeped, 
it  is.  like  flax,  taken  out  of  the  pool 
and  carried  away  to  a  plot  of  sward, 
on  which  the  plants  are  spread  singly 
and  regularly. 

"The  hemp  thus  spread  out  lies 
three,  four,  or  more  weeks  upon  the 
surface,  and  is  turned  over  not  less 
than  .twice  a  week.  It  is  thus  sub- 
jected to  the  farther  influence  of  the 
rains  and  dews,  and  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  ligneous  part  of  the  stem 
is  promoted.  By  this  process,  the 
stem  becomes  hard  and  brittle. 

"  When  the  hemp  is  seen  to  be  in 
a  state  for  removal,  it  is  taken  from 
the  ground,  bound  into  bunches,  and 
carried  home  to  the  barn,  where  it 
undergoes  the  process  of  bruising  by 
the  machine  called  a  brake,  as  in  the 
case  of  flax. 

"  When  thus  prepared,  it  is  bound 
up  in  bunches,  generally  weighing  a 
stone  each,  and  carried  to  market. 
The  hemp  which  breaks  off  in  the  op- 
eration is  technically  termed  shorts, 
and  is  half  the  value  of  the  long 
hemp." 

It  should  be  remarked  that,  with 
proper  care  in  bleaching,  rotting,  and 
raising  hemp,  a  fibre  may  be  obtained 
capable  of  being  wrought  into  excel- 
lent linens.  The  preparation  of  the 
stems  by  steam  is  said  to  give  the 
fibre  great  delicacy  and  whiteness  ; 
the  waste  is  also  said  to  make  good 
paper.  Hemp  is  nearly  free  from 
diseases. 

The  ijistruments  used  to  prepare 
the  staple  are  similar  to  those  for 
flax,  but  larger ;  the  brake  (Fig.)  is 


considerably  larger,  being  six  or  more 
feet  long  ;  it  is  made  of  white  oak. 
The  hemp  is  sold  after  breaking,  the 
sutching,  hackling,  &c.,  being  done 
by  the  manufacturer 


i 


HEN 


HER 


HEMP  SEED.  It  forms  an  ad- 
mirable food  for  birds  and  poultry  in 
small  quantity,  and  may  also  be  used 
m  fattening  animals,  when  sufficient- 
ly cheap.  The  oil  is  used  for  soap- 
making  and  painting,  in  varnishes 
and  printers'  ink.  It  is  expressed  in 
the  ordinary  way  ;  the  refuse  or  cake 
is  as  good  as  oil  cake  for  cattle  or 
manure.  A  bushel  of  seed  yields  6 
to  8  lbs.  of  oil,  and  23  of  cake.  Very 
rich  seeds  atford  25  per  cent.  oil. 

HEMP,  SUBSTITUTES  FOR. 
Numerous  plants  yield  a  strong  and 
abundant  fibre  besides  hemp,  and  have 
been  recommended  for  cultivation  in 
its  place.  The  principal  of  these  are 
the  Chinese  nettle  {Urtica  nicea)\ 
hemp,  or  Siberian  nettle  ( U.  cannabi- 
7ia);  golden  rod,  several  varieties  of 
broom  plants,  sunflowers,  okra,  aloes, 
and  especially  the  Yucca  filamentosa, 
which  grows  abundantly  on  poor 
soils  in  the  Carolinas  and  South. 
The  Sisal  hemp  is  from  a  Mexican 
agave  ;  the  A.  Americana  also  furnish- 
es much  fibre  when  the  leaves  are 
prepared  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
some  of  the  nettle  plants,  none  ap 
proach  the  hemp  in  the  amount  of 
lint  they  produce. 

The  genus  Apocynum  yields  some 
good  hemp  plants,  of  which  A.  can- 
7uihinum,  or  Indian  hemp,  is  best 
known.  It  has  a  perennial  root,  and 
throws  up  shoots  two  to  four  feet  tall 
annuallv- 

HEMP,  CHEMICAL  COMPOSI- 
TION OF  ITS  ASHES.  The  stem, 
dried  at  212°  Fahrenheit,  yields  4-54 
per  cent,  ash,  the  leaves  22  per  cent. 
Composition : 

Tlie  plant  (Kane).  Seeds  (Leucbtweiss). 


Potash  and  soda 
Lime  and  magnesia 
Pliosphoric  acid     . 
Sul|]huric  acid 
Chlorine,    ahimina, 
sand,  and  iron   . 


•20 

46-93 

3-22 

110 


22-33 
27-63 
34-72 
0-18 

15-14 


j  40-55       . 

IW-  1U(F~ 

From  this  we  gather  that  hemp  is 
a  lime  plant,  and  will  be  much  bene- 
fited by  that  manure,  and  also  see 
why  the  seed  crops  are  so  exhausting, 
as  they  draw  a  large  proportion  of 
bone  earth  from  the  soil. 

HENBANE.      Hyoscyamus   7iigcr. 


This  narcotic  herb  grows  to  a  small 
extent  in  Northern  New-York.  It  is 
biennial,  and  the  leaves  are  active  in 
the  second  year  of  its  growth.  It  is 
an  excellent  medicine,  and  no  danger 
may  bo  apprehended  from  animals 
touching  it,  as  they  always  avoid  the 
plant.  If  swallowed  by  children,  an 
emetic  should  be  instantly  given. 

HENTING  FURROW.  Two  fur- 
rows lying  in  different  directions. 

HEPATIC  (from  jjirap,  (he  liver). 
Relating  to  the  liver. 

IIEPATIC/E.  A  family  of  flow- 
erless  plants,  resembling  mosses,  and 
growing  in  damp  places. 

HEPTANDRIA,  HEPTAN- 
DROUS.  Flowers  with  seven  sta- 
mens. 

HERBACEOUS.  Of  the  succu- 
lent texture  of  an  annual  plant. 

HERBAL.  An  account  of  plants  ; 
a  collection  of  plants. 

HERBARIUM.  A  collection  of 
dried  plants. 

HERBIVOROUS.     Eating  herbs. 

HERD.     A  number  of  beasts. 

HERD'S  GRASS.  Agrostis  stricla. 
The  red-top  of  the  North,  an  indige- 
nous perennial  grass  in  wet  places. 
See  Grasses. 

HERMAPHRODITE.  An  animal 
or  plant  in  which  there  is  a  real  or 
apparent  concurrence  of  the  genera- 
tive organs  of  both  sexes.  It  is  most 
common  in  plants,  and  is  also  found 
among  some  of  the  lower  inveftebrate 
animals.  In  the  higher  orders  it  is 
unnatural. 

HERMETICALLY  SEALED. 
When  the  glass  of  a  vessel  is  fused 
so  as  to  be  perfectly  closed  on  all 
sides.     Entirely  shut  up. 

HERNIA.  A  rupture  or  protru- 
sion of  any  part  of  the  body,  espe- 
cially of  the  intestines.  It  is  to  be 
returned  to  its  place,  and  kept  there 
by  bandages  and  trusses.  Hernias 
often  prove  fatal.  When  the  intes- 
tine cannot  be  returned  by  the  hand, 
recourse  is  to  be  had  to  an  operation, 
which,  however,  requires  considera- 
ble skill. 

HERPETOLOGY(from  ipKeroc,  a 
reptile).  The  natural  history  of  rep- 
tiles. 

367 


HERRING.  A  migratory  fish,  of 
the  genus  Clupea,  resembling  shad  in 
flavour,  but  much  less  in  size. 

HESPfJRlDIUM.  In  botany,  a 
many-celled,  few-seeded,  superior, 
indehiscent  fruit,  covered  by  a  spongy, 
separable  rind  ;  the  cells  easily  sep- 
arable from  each  other,  and  contain- 
ing a  mass  of  pulp,  in  which  the  seeds 
are  imbedded  .-  example,  the  orange. 

HESSIAN  CRUCIBLE.  A  melt- 
ing-pot made  of  fine  clay  and  sand ; 
the  small  sizes  are  much  used  in  the 
laboratory  to  fuse  metals,  &c. 

HESSIAN  FLY.     See   Wheat  In- 

HETEROCEPHALOUS  (from  ire- 
poc,  various,  and  /ce^a?,??,  a  head).  In 
composite  flowers,  when  some  heads 
contain  male,  and  others  female  flow- 

HETEROGAMOUS  (from  trepoc, 
and  ya/iof,  marriage).  When  the 
spikelets  of  the  same  grass  contain 
dissimilar  sexes,  or  when  the  flower 
heads  of  compositae  contain  florets 
with  different  sexes. 

H  E  T  E  R  O  G  Y  N I A  (from  erepoc, 
and  yvvrj,  a  female).  A  tribe  of  hy- 
menopterous  insects,  as  the  bee  and 
ant,  in  which  one  female  is  neuter 
and  another  fertile. 

HETEROMERANS  (from  ertpof, 
and  fi7ipoc,  a  leg).  A  class  of  coleop- 
terous insects,  having  the  first  and 
second  pairs  of  legs  with  five  joints 
in  the  tarsus,  and  the  third  pair  with 
only  four. 

HETEROPTERANS  (from  [repoc, 
and  TVTepov,  a  wing).  A  tribe  of  he- 
mipterous  insects,  in  which  the  upper 
wing  cases  terminate  abruptly  by  a 
membrane. 

HETEROTROPAL  (from  erepof, 
and  TpetTu,  I  turn).  When  the  em- 
bryo of  a  seed  lies  across  it,  but  does 
not  point  towards  its  base  or  apex. 

HEXAGYNIA.     With  six  pistils. 

HEXANDRIA.  With  six  stamens. 

HEXAPODS  (from  ef,  six,  and 
TTODf ,  a  foot).  A  tribe  of  wingless  in- 
sects with  six  feet. 

HIBISCUS.  A  genus  of  mucilagi- 
nous plants  of  the  Malvaceous  family. 

HICKORY.  Carya.  An  Ameri- 
can genus  of  trees  resembling  the 
3G8 


HIP 

walnut.  They  all  produce  a  hard, 
compact,  but  coarse-grained  wood,  of 
great  strength.  The  shag-bark  (C. 
alba)  and  the  Southern  pecan-nut 
(C.  anguslifolia)  produce  the  best 
fruit.  The  hickories  do  not  flourish 
far  North,  but  require  a  temperate 
climate  and  good  soil ;  most  of  them 
require  a  moist  soil,  especially  the 
shell-bark  and  pecan-nut  ;  the  com- 
mon hard-bark  (C.  tomcntosa)  is,  how- 
ever, partial  to  a  drained  soil.  The 
pig-nut  hickory  (C.  porcina)  is  the 
largest  variety,  often  rising  to  90  feet, 
and  produces  wood  equal,  if  not  su- 
perior, to  the  other  species. 

Hickory  wood  is  very  liable  to  in- 
sects, and  decays  soon  when  exposed 
to  changes  of  moisture  and  heat.  It 
is  much  used  for  axletrees  of  car- 
riages, wooden  screws,  cogs,  handles 
of  various  kinds,  especially  hand- 
spikes. The  young  trees  form  the 
best  hoops  for  casks. 

The  wood  forms  the  best  fuel  of 
our  forests,  from  its  density. 

HIDE.  The  strong  skin  of  horses, 
oxen,  &c.  Green  hides  just  removed 
from  slaughtered  animals  are  alto- 
gether superior  for  the  tanner.  Dry 
ing  by  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  rub- 
bing with  ashes,  or  salting,  make  il 
more  difiicult  to  thoroughly  tan  after- 
ward. 

HIDEBOUND.  A  condition  of  the 
skin  of  animals  when  it  seems  to  ad- 
here to  their  bones.  It  is  usually 
the  result  of  want  of  care,  or  a  symp- 
tom of  disease.  Slight  purging  and 
alteration  of  food,  with  better  care, 
will  alter  this  state. 

HIDE,  or  HIDE  OF  LAND.  An 
ancient  measure  of  from  100  to  150 
acres. 

H  I  L  U  M.  The  scar  on  a  seed, 
where  the  funicle  is  attached,  or 
where  it  is  united  with  the  carpel. 

HIPPOBOSCA.  A  genus  of  vi- 
viparous, two-winged  insects,  which 
prey  on  horses  and  other  animals ; 
the  forest  flies  are  of  this  race. 

HIPPURIC  ACID  (from  Itvttoc,  a 
horse,  and  ovpov,  urine).  An  acid  exist- 
ing in  combination  w'ith  soda,  in  the 
urine  of  horses,  cows,  and  persons  eat- 
ing certain  vegetables.  It  is  separated 


I 


HOC. 


hoc; 


hy  muriatic  acid,  and,  when  pure,  is 
f'lvstallized  in  sillcy  needles.  It  is 
.sli<,rhlly  bitter,  soluble  in  hot  water 
and  alcoliol.  The  formula  is  NCis 
lis  O5  -\-  Aq.  for  the  crystals.  It  is 
converted  by  heat  into  benzoic  acid, 
ammonia,  and  prussic  acid.  Any  quan- 
tity of  this  acid  can  be  formed  by  ta- 
king doses  of  benzoic  acid,  which  be- 
comes transformed  into  hippuric.  Its 
compounds  with  bases  are  called  hip- 
puratcs. 

HIRCIN.  The  fluid  fat  separable 
from  suet,  which  gives  it  the  peculiar 
odour  resembling  the  smell  of  goats. 
By  saponifying,  hircic  acid  may  be  ob- 
tained. 

HIRSUTE.     Set  with  stiff  hairs. 

HIRUDIN.^.  The  tribe  of  leeches. 

HIRUx^DO.  The  genus  of  swal- 
lows. 

HISPID.  Set  with  minute  spines, 
or  stiff  bristles. 

HISTER,  HISTERID.E.  A  fam- 
ily of  coleopterous  insects  with  live 
joints  on  each  tarsus,  and  belonging 
to  the  section  of  Clavicornes.     They 

Fig.  1.  Fig. 


are  peculiar  from  the  quickness  with 
which  they  feign  death  when  in  dan- 
ger. 

HIVES.     See  Beehives. 

H  O  A  R  F  R  O  S  T.  Frost  attended 
with  the  precipitation  of  much  watery 
vapour. 

HOARY.  In  descriptive  botany, 
covered  with  short  hairs,  so  as  to  have 
a  white  or  frosted  appearance. 

HOE,  HAND.  The  practice  of  hoe- 
ing, though  laborious,  is  eminently 
useful  in  pulverizing  the  soil,  admit- 
tmg  air,  warmth,  and  dew.  Soils, 
well  broken  and  rendered  fine,  are 
very  much  more  fertile  than  when  al- 
lowed to  bake  and  become  hard.  Land 
siiould  be  hoed  when  hard  and  par- 
tially dry,  especially  about  young 
plants.  The  figure  of  the  hoe  is  al- 
tered to  suit  different  tillage.  The 
common  hoe  and  grubbing  hoe  are 
familiarly  known.  Fig.  1  represents 
the  head  of  the  Spanish  hoe  for  weed- 
ing. Fig.  2  is  the  thrust  hoe,  for  the 
same  purpose.  Fig.  3  is  a  useful  com- 
pound hoe,  the  fork  of  which  may  be 

;.  Fig.  3. 


-1 


used  first  on  stiff  lands,  and  the  blade 

afterward.     Some  hoes,  for  weeding 

small  plants,  are  made  with  the  blade 

O  cut    into    two    or   more 

I   teeth :    they  enable   the 

/\/\      gardener   to  scrape    the 

y    ^    ^    earth  about  young  plants 

very  effectively. 

HOG.  "  The  hog  is  one  of  the  do- 
mestic animals  which  is  most  widely 
dispersed  through  the  world,  and 
yields  to  no  other  in  its  usefulness. 
It  lives  and  thrives  on  every  kind  of 
food,  vegetable  or  animal.  It  grazes 
like  the  ox,  and  will  even  eat  hay  ; 
and  its  stomach  can  digest  what  few 
other  animals  could  swallow  with  im- 
puiiitv.  The  sow  bears  two  litters 
in  the  year,  having  from  eight  to 
twelve,  and  even  sometimes  eighteen 
or  twenty  young  at  a  time.    No  ani- 


mal converts  a  given  quantity  of  corn 
or  other  nutritive  food  so  soon  into 
fat,  or  can  be  made  fat  on  so  great  a 
variety  of  food. 

"The  food  of  the  hog  in  a  wild  state 
is  grass,  roots,  acorns,  beach-mast, 
and  wild  fruits. 

"  There  are  many  varieties  of  the 
domestic  hog.  The  brindle  hog  most 
nearly  resembles  the  wild  species  ; 
but  although  the  flesh  is  savoury,  he 
does  not  fatten  so  soon,  nor  is  he  so 
profitable  as  the  more  indolent  and 
softer-skinned  sorts  are.  The  great 
quality  of  a  hog  is  his  power  of  di- 
gestion :  the  more  rapidly  he  fattens, 
and  the  earlier  he  can  be  made  to  in- 
crease in  flesh  without  increasing  in 
bone,  the  better  is  the  breed.  Some 
of  the  small  hogs  which  are  brought 
from  Chma  are  remarkable  for  this 
369 


HOG 


quality,  as  well  as  for  their  prolific 
nature ;  and  when,  by  judicious  cross- 
ing, the  size  is  increased,  they  are  a 
very  profitable  breed.  The  Chinese 
pig  (Fig.  1)  is  short  in  the  head,  with 
Fig.l. 


small  ears,  very  wide  in  the  cheek, 
high  in  the  chine,  and  short  in  the 
leg.  When  a  sow  of  this  breed  is 
hea\7  in  pig,  her  belly  generally  drags 
on  the  ground.  The  young  pigs  of 
the  Chinese  breed,  especially  the 
white  variety,  are  excellent  for  roast- 
ers, at  three  weeks  or  a  month  old. 
They  are  small  and  fat,  with  little 
bone,  and  their  skin  is  very  delicate. 
They  also  make  excellent  "porkers  at 
about  three  months  old,  when  kept 
for  some  time  after  weaning  on  the 
refuse  of  the  dairy.  They  may  be 
kept  fat  from  the  time  they  are  wean- 
ed till  they  are  fit  to  be  killed  for  ba- 
con ;  and  although  they  do  not  come 
to  a  great  size,  they  will  pay  very 
well  for  their  food  if  killed  at  a  twelve- 
month old. 

"  The  breed  that  is  nearest  to  the 
Chinese  is  the  SnfTolk.  They  are 
generally  white,  with  the  ears  point- 
ed and  rather  forward ;  they  are  broad 
in  the  chest  and  loins,  short  and  com- 
pact :  they  make  fine  bacon  hogs  at 
twelve  or  fifteen  months  old,  weigh- 
ing from  twelve  to  fifteen  score  when 
killed.  The  sucking  pigs  and  pork- 
ers are  also  very  delicate.  The  Es- 
sex breed  is  mostly  Wack  and  white  ; 
the  pure  breed,  however,  is  said  to 
be  quite  black,  and  is  so  nearly  al- 


lied to  the  smootli  Neapolitan  breed, 
which  has  scarcely  any  hair,  that  we 
cannot  help  supposing  a  consanguin- 
ity between  them.  \Mien  crossed 
with  the  Neapolitan,  they  produce  a 
breed  which  fattens  at  a  very  early 
age,  and  to  an  astonishing  degree.  A 
breed  of  this  cross,  carefully  select- 
ed by  Lord  Harborough,  has  gained 
the  first  prizes  for  fat  pigs  at  the 
Smithfield  annual  Christmas  shows 
for  several  years  past.  They  were 
fed  extravagantly,  no  doubt,  but  at 
twenty-two  weeks  old  they  were  so 
completely  covered  with  fat  that  their 
feet  were  scarcely  to  be  seen  ;  and 
if  they  could  stand,  which  is  doubtful, 
it  is  certain  that  they  could  not  walk." 
Mr.  Coleman  speaks  favourably  of  a 
grass  breed  raised  in  New- York : 
"  This  is  a  hog,  raised  with  little  oth- 
er feed  than  clover  pasturage  for  the 
first  six  months,  of  a  white  colour, 
with  black  patches  sprinkled  over  him, 
long  and  well  formed,  of  good  thrift, 
and  who,  with  good  keeping,  at  eigh- 
teen months  old  is  easily  brought  to 
400  and  500  pounds  weight." 

"  The  Neapolitan  hog  is  black, 
without  any  hair,  very  plump,  with 
pricked  ears.  No  breed  can  excel  it 
in  the  aptitude  to  fatten.  The  sows 
often  become  so  fat  on  very  scanty 
food,  that  they  will  not  breed  :  they 
are  extremely  tender,  and  if  they  hap- 
pen to  have  litters  in  wmter,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  save  the  young  pigs  from  dy- 
ing in  cold  nights.  A  cross  of  the 
Neapolitan  with  some  of  our  hardier 
breeds  greatly  improves  their  useful- 
ness, without  injuring  their  aptitude 
to  fatten  :  the  best  cross  is  with  the 
Berkshire,  which  is  a  well-shaped  hog 
[Fig.  2),  with  short  legs,  small  ears, 
broad  chines  and  loins,  and  good  hams. 

"  From  the  prolific  nature  of  the 
hog,  it  is  not  difficult  to  select  the 


370 


HOG.    .y 


best  indivuhials  to  breed  from.  In 
every  litter  there  will  be  pigs  better 
formed  than  the  iif''><'''alil^y>  a"tl  by 
careful  selection  of  these  any  breed 
maybe  soon  much  improved  without 
crossing ;  but  experience  teaches  that 
when  the  sows  and  boars  are  too 
nearly  related,  the  fecundity  grad- 
ually diminishes  ;  and  by  continually 
breeding  from  the  same  stock  the 
sows  at  last  produce  only  two  or  three 
diminutive  pigs  at  a  litter.  Hence 
the  advantage  of  frecjuent  crossing. 
To  restore  fecundity  no  breed  is  so  ef- 
fectual as  the  Chinese.  A  breed  com- 
pounded of  the  Berkshire,  Chinese, 
and  Neapolitan  may,  by  careful  se- 
lection, produce  every  (juality  which 
can  be  desired  ;  numerous  litters, 
early  fatting,  and  fine  hogs  for  bacon 
at  twelve  or  sixteen  months  old,  are 
the  result  of  care  and  judicious  breed- 
ing. Fig.  3  represents  the  Bedford 
or  Woburn  hog.  It  is  large,  hardy, 
and  well-formed,  generally  white,  va- 
riously spotted,  with  small  limbs  and 
head,  and  fattening  rapidly. 


"  The  black  hogs  are  preferred,  on 
the  whole.  They  are  much  less  sub- 
ject to  diseases  of  the  skin  than  the 
white,  and  the  sun  affects  them  less 
in  sunuuer.  For  sucking  pigs  or 
porkers  many  prefer  the  white,  mere- 
ly for  the  appearance,  for  the  black 
skin  is  in  general  the  finest. 

"  There  are  some  very  large 
breeds,  which  have  been  recommend- 
ed under  the  idea  that,  in  a  large  hog, 
the  bone  and  ofllil  are  less  in  pro- 
portion to  the  flesh  than  in  a  small- 
er. But  these  large  breeds  do  not 
come  so  soon  to  maturity.  They 
cannot  be  profitably  put  up  to  fatten 
till  eighteen  or  twenty  months  old,  or 
more  ;  and  although  some  of  them 
may  make  hogs  of  thirty  or  forty 
score  when  killed,  they  are  so  long 
fatting,  and  require  so  much  food, 
that  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  they 
pay  for  it  as  well  as  the  smaller.  For 
delicate  bacon,  the  hogs  killed  at  a 
twelve-month  old,  and  weighing  ten 
or  twelve  score,  are  much  preferred, 
and  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  they 
-.3. 


are  most  profitable.  When  hams  are 
the  principal  object,  the  hogs  should 
be  killed  before  they  are  so  fat  as 
they  might  be  ;  and  the  carcass  is 
then  cut  up  and  pickled,  instead  of 
being  converted  into  dry  bacon.  To 
keep  hogs  profitably,  a  regular  system 
should  be  pursued  both  in  the  breed- 
mg  and  feeding.  Proper  hog-sties 
should  be  constructed  with  chambers, 
in  which  the  pigs  of  different  ages 
and  the  breeding  sows  may  be  kept 
separate.  The  food  should  be  pre- 
pared for  them  by  boiling  or  steam- 
ing in  an  apparatus  conveniently  pla- 
ced, and  the  greatest  cleanliness  and 
regularity  should  be  maintained.  It 
Is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 


hog  loves  dirt.  If  he  can  keep  him- 
self clean  he  will  do  so  ;  and  the  wal- 
lowing in  the  mud  is  not  from  a  love 
of  dirt,  but  from  a  heat  and  itching  in 
the  skin  in  warm  weather,  which  is 
relieved  by  rolling  in  the  cool  mud 
If  hogs  have  plenty  of  clean  straw 
and  clean  water  they  never  will  be 
dirty,  and  nothing  makes  them  thrive 
so  quick  or  pleases  them  more  than 
being  washed  and  curried  regularly. 
If  the  hogs  are  not  closely  confined, 
they  will  always  lay  their  dung  at  a 
distance  from  the  place  where  they 
sleep  or  feed,  and  in  all  well-construct- 
ed sties  there  should  he  a  small  yard 
to  each  apartment  in  which  the  hogs 
can  deposite  their  dung. 

371 


iKx;. 


*'  When  a  sow  is  lujar  the  1  ime  of 
farrowing,  wiiich  is  four  months  after 
she  has  taken  the  hoar,  she  should  be 
put  in  a  sty  by  herself,  with  a  mod- 
erate quantity  of  straw,  for  if  tlicre 
be  too  jfreat  an  abundance  she  is  ai)t 
to  lie  down  on  the  young  pigs  when 
they  bury  themselves  in  the  loose 
straw.  Sows,  although  very  careful 
of  their  pigs,  are  very  apt  to  lie  on 
them,  especially  when  any  of  them 
are  near  a  wall :  to  prevent  this,  it  is 
very  useful  to  have  a  ledge  of  wood 
six  inches  wide,  and  six  inches  from 
the  ground,  all  round  the  stye,  so  that 
she  cannot  lie  down  close  to  the  wall ; 
and  if  a  young  pig  should  be  acci- 
dentally behind  her,  he  can  take  ref- 
uge behind  the  ledge,  and  thus  es- 
cape being  lain  upon.  When  no  pre- 
cautions are  taken,  one  fourth  of  a 
litter  is  often  lost  in  the  first  day  or 
two  after  they  are  born.  Some  sows 
have  the  unnatural  propensity  of  eat- 
ing their  young  pigs  as  soon  as  they 
drop  :  good  feeding  will  prevent  this 
in  some  measure,  but  attention  at 
the  moment  of  farrowing  is  the  sa- 
fest and  surest  preventive.  When 
once  the  young  pigs  have  sucked, 
much  of  the  danger  is  past. 

"  A  sow  with  many  pigs  should  be 
well  fed ;  bran  and  meal,  with  milk 
or  whey,  are  the  best  food  ;  grains, 
where  they  are  at  hand,  are  excel- 
lent ;  and  it  is  useful  to  let  the  sow 
go  out  to  graze  in  a  meadow  or  clo- 
ver field  for  an  hour  or  two  every  day, 
shutting  up  the  pigs  during  that  time 
till  they  are  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks 
old,  when  they  may  accompany  the 
sow.  A  sow  will  live  many  years, 
and  bring  numerous  litters,  and  the 
older  she  is  the  better  luirse  she  is  in 
general.  When  a  sow  has  ten  or 
twelve  pigs  at  a  litter,  and  two  litters 
in  the  year,  one  in  spring  and  anoth- 
er in  autumn,  she  is  too  valuable  to 
be  killed,  and  ought  to  be  kept  as  long 
as  she  will  breed.  But  otherwise  it 
is  very  profitable  to  let  a  young  sow 
have  a  litter  at  ten  months  old,  and 
spay  her  immediately  ;  she  will  then 
fatten  most  readily  as  soon  as  the 
pigs  are  weaned,  and  the  bacon  will 
be  as  good  as  that  of  a  maiden  pig. 
372 


Whenever  a  sow  does  not  bring  a 
sufficient  number  of  pigs,  or  is  not  a 
good  nurse,  or  has  overeaten  any  of 
her  pigs,  she  should  be  spayed  and 
lattened  immediately.  The  young 
I)igs  intended  to  be  kept  for  stores  or 
for  porkers  are  castrated  or  spayed 
at  a  month  or  six  weeks  old.  The 
males  are  then  called  harrmv  pigs,  and 
when  fatted  make  the  best  bacon. 
They  are  usually  put  up  at  a  twelve- 
month old,  and  fatted  in  three  or  four 
months.  At  first  they  have  potatoes 
raw  or  boiled  ;  pumpkins,  artichokes, 
apples,  brewers'  grains,  are  all  ex- 
cellent mixed  with  bran,  or  bean  meal, 
or  they  have  dry  beans  and  water. 
After  they  are  half  fat  they  should 
have  pease  meal,  corn  meal,  flax 
meal,  and  water,  unless  in  a  dairy, 
where  they  have  the  skimmed  milk 
or  whey.  Hogs  fattened  on  potatoes 
only  do  not  make  so  good  bacon  as 
those  which  are  fatted  on  corn.  Po- 
tatoes are  an  excellent  food  for  store 
pigs,  and  may  be  given  boiled  and 
mixed  with  meal  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fatting  process  ;  but  beans  and 
pease  make  the  firmest  flesh,  and 
corn  meal  the  sweetest.  Before  a 
hog  is  killed  he  is  usually  fed  for 
some  time  on  corn  meal  and  water 
alone,  given  as  thick  as  porridge,  and 
very  little,  if  any  water  is  given  to 
him.  This  last  rule  is  often  carried 
to  too  great  an  extent.  Much  water 
will  make  the  food  pass  through  too 
rapidly,  and  it  will  not  be  digested, 
but  the  hog  should  never  sufTer  from 
thirst,  or  he  will  not  thrive.  Before 
a  hog  is  killed  he  should  be  kept  with- 
out food  for  twelve  hours  at  least  ; 
he  may,  however,  have  water.  He 
should  be  killed  without  giving  him 
more  pain  or  causing  more  struggling 
than  is  necessary,  by  a  resolute  stab 
with  the  knife  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck,  where  the  knife  may  sever 
the  large  artery  which  comes  direct- 
ly from  the  heart.  The  blood  should 
be  allowed  to  flow  freely  till  it  is  all 
out  of  the  body.  The  hog,  if  intend- 
ed for  salt  pork,  must  then  be  scald- 
ed with  water  not  quite  boiling,  and 
well  scraped,  to  take  off  the  hair  with 
the  cuticle  ;  but  for  bacon  it  is  best  to 


HOG. 


singe  the  hair  by  burning  straw  over 
the  body,  and  tlien  scraping  the  skin. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the 
.'^kin  to  be  burned  so  as  to  crack.  The 
hog  is  then  hung  up,  and  the  entrails 
taken  out.  Tlie  inside  of  the  body 
is  washed  clean  with  a  cloth  or  sponge 
dipped  in  water,  that  no  blood  may 
remain,  and  the  next  day  the  hog  is 
cut  up.  The  head  and  feet  are  cut 
off,  the  chine  is  taken  out,  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  ribs,  with  the  back 
bone,  are  cut  out,  leaving  as  much 
flesh  as  possible  adhering  to  the  fat 
outside.  The  small  ends  of  the  ribs 
remain  attached  to  the  bacon." 

The  preserved  flesh  of  the  hog  is 
termed  pork  when  placed  in  brine, 
and  bacon  when  dried.  The  prepara- 
tion of  pork  for  shipping,  especially  to 
England,  is  a  matter  of  importance. 
The  following  is  the  English  method, 
as  published  by  Messrs.  Hitchcock  6c 
Co.  : 

"  Pork  is  cut  into  four  or  six-pound 
pieces,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
hog.  Where  the  carcass  weighs  two 
hundred  and  fifty  and  under,  it  is  cut 
into  four-pound  pieces ;  large  hogs 
are  cut  into  six-pound  pieces.  The 
hog  is  first  split  through  the  back 
bone  in  half ;  then  passed  to  the 
trimming-block,  where  the  half  head 
and  legs  axe  cut  off,  the  leaf  and  ten- 
der-loin taken  out,  and  the  whole  side 
split  lengthwise  through  both  the 
shoulder  and  ham,  and  as  near  the 
centre  as  is  consistent  with  the  prop- 
er shape  and  size  of  the  different  pie- 
ces. From  the  trimming-block  the 
strips  pass  to  the  scales,  where  the 
weight  is  ascertained  and  called  to 
the  man  at  the  cutting-block,  who  di-  ; 
vides  each  strip  into  the  requisite 
sized  pieces.  Both  the  splitting  and 
piercing  require  skill  and  judgment, 
as  much  depends  upon  having  the 
pieces  well  and  sizably  cut.  From 
thence  it  goes  to  the  rubbing-table, 
where  each  piece  is  thoroughly  rub- 
bed in  salt  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
curing  bacon.  After  the  salt  has  been 
well  rubbed  in,  it  is  put  into  pickling 
tubs,  holding  from  three  to  five  hun- 
dred pounds,  well  covered  with  salt, 
but  no  water  or  brine  added.  Here  , 
Ii 


I  they  remain  Irom  eight  to  ten  days. 

]  It  is  then  taken  tothewashing-trougU 

or  vat,  where  each  piece  is  thorough- 

;  ly  washed  in  clean  brine,  trimmed, 

I  and  tormented,  as  the  process  of  try- 

i  ing  is  called,  to  ascertain  that  it  is 

j  properly  cured  and  free  from  taint. 

It  is  then  messed  and  weighed,  so 

I  that  the  requisite  number  of  pieces 

j  shall  weigh  exactly  the  number  of 

;  pounds  for  the  barrel  or  tierce.    It  is 

1  then  put  up  in  the  proper  package, 

and  freely  salted  while  packing,  and 

,  saltpetre    added   at    the    rate    of  a 

I  common  wineglassful  to  the  hundred 

I  pounds.     The  last  layer  is  pounded 

in  by  a  heavy  iron  weight,  and  capped 

with  coarse  salt.     It  is  then  passed 

to  the  cooper,  who  puts  in  the  head, 

and  puts  on  to  the  barrel  one,  and  on 

to  the  tierce  at  least  three  iron  hoops 

at  each  end.     The  package  is  then 

filled  with  clean  strong  brine,  bunged 

tight,  branded,  and  is  then  ready  for 

market. 

"  The  great  utility  of  this  method 
of  curing  consists  in  the  certainty  ot 
the  meat  keeping  in  good  condition 
for  years  in  any  climate.  The  blood 
gets  all  drained  out  of  the  meat  be- 
fore it  is  barreled,  and  hence  one 
great  cause  of  injury  is  avoided.  I 
saw  pork  and  beef  which  had  been 
two  years  in  the  barrel,  which  was  as 
sweet  as  when  first  put  up,  and  the 
brine  was  perfectly  clear.  The  large 
hogs,  or  heavy  pork,  which  is  uni- 
formly cut  in  six-pound  pieces,  is 
packed  in  tierces,  and  is  then  called 
India  or  navy  pork.  The  four-pound 
pieces  are  put  in  barrels. 

"  A  barrel  of  prime  pork  should 
contain  from  25  to  30  pieces,  cut 
from  the  ribs,  loins,  chines,  and  belly 
pieces,  all  lying  between  the  ham 
and  shoulder,  forming  what  is  called 
the  broadside  or  middle.  Three  hands 
and  two  hind-leg  pieces,  or  three 
hind-leg  pieces  and  two  hands,  and 
fifteen  or  twenty  pieces  from  other 
parts  of  the  hog,  except  no  part  of 
the  head.  The  meat  must  be  of  prime 
quality,  firm,  and  well  fattened,  cut 
into  four-pound  pieces,  exactly  fifty 
to  tlie  barrel,  and  weigh  not  less  than 
two  hundred  pounds  nett,  and  must 
373 


HOG. 


have  a  good  capping  of  St.  Ubes,  or 
other  coarse  salt.  This  is  indispen- 
sable. Bacon  mess,p()rk  is  so  called 
when  the  full  proportion  of  prime 
pieces  in  prime  mess  is  withheld : 
there  are,  therefore,  various  classes 
of  bacon  pork.  Tierces  contain  the 
same  number,  that  is,  lifty  pieces  of 
six  pounds,  and  the  same  rules  as  to 
messing  are  to  be  observed  as  in  the 
barrel.  The  tierces  must  have  not 
less  than  three  hundred  pounds,  and 
well  capped  with  salt.  It  is  usual  to 
put  in  fifty-two  pieces.  In  bacon 
mess,  the  number  of  prime  mess  pie- 
ces should  be  marked  upon  the  head. 
No  part  of  the  hog's  head  is  allowed 
in  any  instance." 

Bacon  differs  from  pork  in  being 
dried.  The  following  is  the  Hamp- 
shire method,  which  is  in  the  highest 
repute  in  England,  and  makes  the 
best  article  ;  the  ham  only  is  remo- 
ved from  the  side,  the  shoulder  and 
middling  being  allowed  to  remain  to- 
gether, and  called  a  side  or  flitch  of 
bacon  : 

"  The  hair  is  burned  off  with  light- 
ed straw,  and  the  cuticle  of  the  skin 
scraped  off.  The  carcass  is  hung  up 
after  the  entrails  have  been  removed, 
and  the  next  day,  when  it  is  quite 
cold,  it  is  cut  up  into  flitches.  The 
spare  ribs  are  taken  out,  and  the 
bloody  veins  carefully  removed  ;  the 
whole  is  then  covered  with  salt,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  saltpetre  mixed 
with  it.  Sometimes  a  little  brown 
sugar  is  added,  which  gives  a  pleas- 
ant sweetness  to  the  bacon. 

"  The  flitches  are  laid  on  a  low 
wooden  table,  which  has  a  small 
raised  border  all  round  it.  The  table 
slants  a  little,  so  as  to  let  the  brine 
run  off  into  a  vessel  placed  under  it 
by  a  small  opening  in  the  border  at 
the  lower  end.  The  flitches  are 
turned  and  resalted  every  day:  those 
which  were  uppermost  are  put  un- 
der, and  in  three  weeks  they  are 
ready  to  be  hung  up  to  dry.  Smo- 
king the  bacon  is  no  longer  so  com- 
mon as  it  used  to  be,  as  simply  dry- 
ing it  is  found  sufficient  to  make  it 
keep.  Those  who,  from  early  asso- 
ciation, like  the  flavour  given  by  the 
374 


smoke  of  wood,  burn  sawdust  and 
shavings  in  a  smothered  fire  for  some 
time  under  the  flitches  ;  when  they 
are  quite  dry,  they  are  either  placed 
on  a  bacon-rack  for  the  use  of  the 
family,  or  are  packed  with  wheat 
chaff  into  chests  till  they  are  sold. 

"  The  practice  of  cutting  the  hogs 
into  pieces  and  pickling  them  in  a 
vat,  being  attended  with  less  trouble, 
is  very  generally  preferred  when  there 
is  only  a  sufficient  number  of  hogs 
killed  to  serve  the  farmer's  family ; 
but  flitches  of  bacon,  well  cured,  are 
more  profitable  for  sale." 

The  common  method  in  the  United 
States  is  to  kill  in  November  to  Jan- 
uary, scald  the  carcass  by  immersion 
in  a  hogshead  of  water  heated  by  hot 
stones,  and  rub  off  the  bristles  and 
scarf-skin  by  knives :  the  chine,  head, 
and  feet  are  also  taken  off. 

In  Virginia  the  side  is  cut  into  a 
shoulder,  taken  off  as  far  down  as 
the  spare  ribs,  a  middhng  and  ham  ; 
it  is  thoroughly  salted,  one  bushel  of 
Liverpool  salt  serving  for  1000  pounds 
of  pork  ;  this  is  mixed  with  one  or 
two  pounds  of  pounded  nitre.  The 
pieces  are  piled  in  a  hogshead,  the 
hams  being  first  put  in,  the  shoulders 
next,  then  the  middlings,  and  on  top 
the  necks,  jowls,  heads,  &.c.  There  is 
an  admirable  piece,  called  the  round, 
formed  by  cutting  the  neck  close  to 
the  head,  and  again  off  the  side  by 
the  upper  spare  rib.  The  pieces  re- 
main untouched  from  four  to  six 
weeks  ;  they  are  then  hung  on  laths 
across  rafters,  shank  downward,  and 
at  least  eight  feet  above  the  ground 
in  the  smoke-house,  and  a  smothered 
fire  made  with  corn  cobs,  hickory 
and  oak  chips.  At  first  they  are 
smoked  three  times  a  day,  and  later 
but  twice.  The  laths  are  moved  ev- 
ery week,  so  as  to  bring  the  different 
pieces  nearest  the  smoke.  As  the 
weather  becomes  mild,  a  handful  of 
red  pepper  is  thrown  upon  the  fire 
occasionally  to  annoy  any  insects  in 
the  smoke-house.  In  six  weeks  or 
two  months  the  smoking  is  stopped, 
the  pieces  are  taken  down,  rubbed 
with  pounded  red  pepper,  and  hung 
again,  shank  upward,  until  dry,  till 


HOG 


April  or  May.     They  are  now  taken 
down,  exposed  to  the  sun  lor  a  few 
days,  rubbed  agahi  with  red  pepper, 
and  if  perfectly  sound,  are  ready  to 
be  stored ;  this  is  best  done  in  hogs- 
heads, with  fresh  ashes,  or  in  a  per- 
fectly dark  dry  room.     Some  cover 
the  hams  with  canvass,  and  coat  it 
heavily    with     whitewash,    hanging  I 
them  up  until  disposed  of     Dipping 
the  pieces  in  hot  lye  will  kill  mag-  i 
gots,  skippers,  and   other   enemies,  ' 
but  the  salts  being  deliquescent,  the  j 
bacon  remains  always  damp.    There 
is  nothing  superior  to  ashes,  for  it  not 
only  hinders  maggots,  but  keeps  the 
bacon  from  rats. 

The  Westphalian  hams  enjoy  so 
much  reputation,  that  it  may  be  ser- 
viceable to  give  the  method  of  cu- 
ring ;  we  also  add  the  most  approved 
English  method  : 

"  The  method  of  curing  hams  in 
the  most  celebrated  districts  is  to 
rub  them  very  hard  with  bay  or  oth- 
er salt,  then  leave  them  on  a  stone 
bench,  in  order  that  the  brine  may 
discharge  itself  In  a  few  days  the 
rubbing  process  is  repeated,  about 
half  an  ounce  of  saltpetre  {nitrate  of 
putassa)  being  added  to  each  ham. 
"\^"hen  they  have  continued  about  a 
week  longer  on  the  bench,  or  in  the 
salting-tub,  among  the  brine,  they 
are  commonly  hung  up  to  dry  in  the 
sides  of  large  open  chimneys  ;  some 
have  them  exposed  to  the  smoke  of 
wood,  peats,  coals,  or  other  sorts  of 
fuel,  while  others  carefully  avoid  hav- 
ing them  smoked ;  and  when  not  sold 
sooner,  they  are  continued  in  these 
situations  till  the  approach  of  warm 
weather,  when  they  are  packed  up  in 
casks  with  straw,  or  the  chatTof  oats, 
and  consigned  for  sale.  Hams  lose 
about  20  per  cent,  of  their  weight  in 
drying. 

"  Hams  may  be  cured  in  order  to 
resemble  in  taste  those  of  Westpha- 
lia, by  the  following  process  :  Cover 
a  young  ham  of  pork  with  dry  salt ; 
let  it  be  for  24  hours  to  draw  off  the 
blood,  then  wipe  it  perfectly  dry,  and 
take  one  pound  of  brown  sugar,  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  saltpetre,  half 
a  pint  of  bay  salt,  and  three  pints  of 


salt  ;  incorporate  these  mgrcdienta 
in  an  iron  pun  over  the  fire,  and  stir 
them  continually  till  they  acquire  a 
moderate  degree  of  heat.  In  this 
pickle  the  ham  must  be  sutTered  to 
remain  for  three  weeks,  frequently 
turning  it,  when  it  should  be  sus- 
pended in  a  chimney  for  drying  by 
means  of  smoke  from  no  other  but  a 
wood  fire.  The  smoke  from  oak 
sawdust  or  shavings  is  the  best  for 
imparting  a  fine  flavour.  This  smoke 
contains  imperfectly-formed  pyrohg- 
neous  acid,  which  is  the  agent  that 
communicates  the  flavour  to  the 
Westphalia  hams.  In  Dumfriesshire 
the  pickle  for  hams  is  sometimes 
made  with  one  half  ale,  which  ren- 
ders the  hams  shorter,  and  adds 
greatly  to  the  richness  of  their  fla- 
vour. The  imports  of  bacon  and 
hams  into  England  have  greatly  in- 
creased, the  duty  being  reduced  to 
lis.  the  cwt.,  or  just  half  of  what  it 
was  for  many  years.  On  those  im- 
ported from  British  colonies,  the  duty 
is  3^.  5(1.     On  hands  in  pickle,  6*." 

'•  Diseases  of  Hugs. — The  diseases 
of  swine  are  generally  the  result  of 
want  of  care  and  cleanliness,  or  arise 
from  injudicious  and  irregular  feed- 
ing, and  from  their  being  kept  in  loath- 
some and  uncomfortable  situations. 
Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  they  be- 
come subject  to  internal  and  cutane- 
ous diseases  !  Fortunately,  they  will 
generally  eat  even  when  sick,  and 
salts  (one  to  two  oz.),  sulphur  (two 
to  three  drachms),  antimony,  and 
such  like  aperients,  may  be  mixed 
with  their  food  for  measles  and  simi- 
lar disorders.  If  they  will  not  eat, 
there  can,  of  course,  be  no  cure  ap- 
plied. 

"  In  swine-pox,  sulphur  may  be 
administered  in  small  quantities,  with 
treacle,  in  the  wash ;  fresh  brewer's 
grains,  or  pollard,  may  also  be  given. 
But  lor  cutaneous  diseases  in  gen- 
eral, an  ointment  formed  of  equal 
parts  of  mutton  suet  and  tar,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  sulphur,  will 
be  found  beneficial. 

"  In  cases  of  surfeit,  indigestion, 
or  injury  from  eating  slightly  poison- 
ous matter,  swine  will  refuse  their 
375 


iiO(;. 


food,  constantly  lie  down,  and  have 
the  stoniarli  distended.  In  this  case, 
two  heads  of  garlic,  mixed  with  six 
oz.  of  fresh  butter,  will  aflbrd  relief, 
given  every  six  hours. 

"The  most  formidable  of  the  dis- 
eases to  vvliich  swine  are  liable  is 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  other 
internal  parts  ;  this  disease  has  been 
known  to  destroy  a  fourth  of  the  hogs 
in  a  distillery  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks.  The  chief  indications  of  the 
disease  will  be  the  distressing  cough, 
the  heaving  of  the  flanks,  and  the  re- 
fusal of  all  food.  Bleeding  must  be 
l)romptly  resorted  to,  and  moderate 
purges  cautiously  administered.  The 
safest  aperients  are  castor  oil,  or  Ep- 
som salts,  after  which  the  following 
powder  may  be  given :  antiiiionial 
powd.,  2  grs.,  nitre,  half  a  drachm. 

"  In  cases  of  murrain,  a  species  of 
leprosy,  which  prevails  chiefly  in  hot 
seasons,  the  best  advice  that  can  be 
given  is  to  keep  the  animal  cool,  and 
not  to  suffer  any  animal  food  to  be 
given. 

"  The  health  of  swine  is  to  be  es- 
timated by  their  cheerfulness,  by  the 
gloss  upon  their  coats,  their  skin 
being  wholly  free  from  eruption.  If 
pigs  snort  on  being  disturbed,  it  is 
an  excellent  sign  of  sound  health  and 
good  keep.  The  state  of  the  excre- 
ment or  digestions  will  generally  in- 
dicate pretty  correctly  the  thriving 
condition  of  the  animal ;  for,  unless 
these  are  of  a  firm  consistence,  the 
hog  will  not  fatten  rapidly.  If  store 
or  stock  pigs  are  kept  well  and  in 
good  condition,  it  will  prevent  most 
of  the  diseases  to  which  the  animals 
are  subject,  and  they  will  also  thrive 
and  fatten  at  half  the  expense  when 
shut  up  for  that  purpose.  From  the 
confinement  of  the  hog,  and  the  na- 
ture of  his  food,  a  description  of  in- 
digestion takes  place,  with  cutaneous 
eruptions." 

HOGSHEAD.  An  old  measure 
containing  63  wine  gallons.  A  large 
barrel  in  which  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
coarse  produce  are  packed,  contain- 
ing from  10  to  14  cwt. 

HOG'S  LARD.  The  fat  from  the 
kidneys,  over  the  chines,  intestines, 
376 


&c.,  is  converted  into  lard  for  family 
use  and  sale.  Being  separated  from 
skin  and  lean,  it  is  to  be  put  into  a 
copper  or  iron  boiler,  with  water,  and 
melted  thoroughly,  being  constantly 
stirred  with  a  wooden  bat,  lest  it  be- 
come burned  :  a  handful  of  salt  is 
added  to  the  100  lbs.,  and  stirred  in  ; 
as  soon  as  it  is  well  boiled  it  is  to  be 
removed  from  the  fire  and  passed 
through  a  colander  and  closely  woven 
strong  cloth  into  the  wooden  or  earth- 
en-ware vessels  in  which  it  is  to  be 
kept.  By  straining  in  this  way,  all 
the  pieces  of  skin  are  separated.  The 
cracklings  are  well  pressed  in  the 
colander  to  obtain  all  the  fat.  A  lay- 
er of  salt  may  be  placed  above  the 
top  of  the  cold  lard,  the  vessels  closed, 
and  stored  in  a  cool  cellar.  The 
cracklings  serve  to  "fatten  poultry,  or 
may  be  kept  for  domestic  soap.    ^•-,^ 

Lard  consists  ^f  38  stearin  and  62 
elain  in  100  parts.  These  are  now 
separated  for  commercial  purposes, 
the  formef  resembling  spermaceti, 
aiW  making  admirable  candles,  the 
latter  affording  the  lard  oil  so  exten- 
sively used  for  lamps,  wool  dressing, 
and  maclWnery :  it  sells  at  from  75  cts. 
to  $1  the  gallon.  Indeed,  lard  itself 
furnishes  a  good  light  when  burned 
in  suitable  lamps  with  short  wicks. 

From  the  low  price  of  hogs  in  the 
West,  it  has  been  found  profitable  to 
render  the  carcass,  excepting  the 
hams,  into  lard  ;  the  lard  is  subse- 
quently divided  into  the  oil  and  stear- 
in ;  these  processes  are  simple,  and 
fully  explained  by  the  following  pa- 
per of  iMr.  Stafford,  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  The  skin  is  removed  from  the 
parts  steamed. 

"  The  average  Ohio  hogs  (common 
breeds)  will  produce,  when  tried  by 
steam,  50  per  cent,  lard,  after  de- 
ducting the  hams  and  shoulders. 
The  plan  now  generally  adopted  is, 
not  to  take  out  the  shoulders ;  the 
sale  for  them  is  limited,  and  price 
low  ;  the  covering  of  fat  will  produce 
more  in  lard  than  the  expense  of  cu- 
ring would  warrant.  The  mixture 
of  the  China  and  Berkshires,  fed  upon 
potatoes  or  any  other  vegetable  con- 
taining starch  as   a  principal  food. 


HOG 

would  produce,  when  very  fat,  at 
least  70  per  cent.,  after  taking  out 
only  the  hams. 

•'The  steaming  apparatus  is  merely 
a  tub  with  a  false  bottom,  perforated 
with  holes,  lying  about  two  inches 
above  the  bottom.  The  steam  is  in- 
troduced between  tiie  two  bottoms, 
and  so  entirely  separates  the  fat  from 
the  cells  in  which  it  was  enclosed 
that  no  pressing  of  scraps  is  neces- 
sary. The  bones,  lean,  and  scrap 
are  left  on  the  false  bottom,  and  the 
lard  floats  on  the  surface.  With 
steam,  at  a  pressure  of  five  lbs.  to 
the  inch,  it  will  require  from  18  to  20 
hours  to  try  off  a  tubful  of  any  given 
quantity,  steam  in  proportion,  of 
course  ;  60  lbs.  pressure  would  do  it 
in  one  third  the  time.  Tiie  great  ad- 
vantage of  steam  is,  the  whole  of  the 
lard  or  tallow  is  produced,  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  burning  either. 

"  The  quality  of  the  lard  is  good, 
but  not  equal  to  leaf  lard  or  suet ;  the 
carcass  fat  does  not  contain  as  much 
of  the  concrete  principle  (stearin). 
Whole  hog  lard  cannot  be  refined  and 
made  hard  without  a  portion  of  the 
oil  is  extracted.  I  take  from  20  to  40 
per  cent,  of  the  oil ;  then  the  balance 
goes  through  several  washings  in 
pure  rain  leaUr  by  steam,  after  which 
it  is  refined  lard.  Tiie  expense  is 
not  more  than  one  quarter  cent  per 
pound,  but  it  is  of  more  value  to  us 
than  common  lard,  as  we  have  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  and  expense  with  it ; 
and  in  only  extracting  a  portion  of 
the  oil  we  would  lose  by  it,  did  it  not 
command  a  better  price  in  the  mar- 
ket, which  it  should  from  its  purity. 

"  The  bones  are  worth  at  least 
half  a  cent  per  pound  to  calcine. 
From  them  ivory  black  is  made 
(worth  2^  cents  per  pound),  by  char- 
ring them  in  close  iron  vessels. 

"  I  used  to  decompose  the  lard  in 
acid  and  neutral  salts.  When  the 
allinity  between  the  parts  is  destroy- 
I'll,  I  separate  them  by  means  of  can- 
vass bags  placed  in  powerful  screw- 
presses.  If  I  wish  to  make  candles 
of  the  residue,  the  pressure  is  con- 
tinued until  all  the  oil,  by  this  means, 
is  forced  out.  The  contents  of  the 
Ii2 


HOG 

bags  are  then  subjected  to  the  action 
of  a  powerful  hydraulic  press,  and  the 
stearin  pressed  to  dryness. 

"  To  produce  the  winter  oil,  we 
have  to  expose  the  decomposed  lard 
to  the  cold." 

For  the  purpose  of  furnishing  most 
oil,  the  hogs  are  fed  on  oil  cake,  cot- 
ton-seed cake,  flaxseed,  beech-nuts, 
and  anything  that  is  full  of  grease. 

The  perfect  separation  of  the  stear- 
in of  lard  and  suet  is  the  subject  of 
several  patents,  and  belongs  to  the 
department  of  manufactures,  as  the 
process  requires  much  machinery, 
and  is  full  of  chemical  details. 

Oxen  and  sheep  are  now  steamed 
in  the  same  way  as  hogs  in  the  West 
for  their  tallow.     See  Ox. 

HOG-STY.  "  Much  of  the  profit  of 
breeding  and  fattening  hogs  depends 
on  the  economy  of  labour  in  prepa- 
ring their  food.  Any  place  is  often 
thought  good  enough  to  lodge  a  pig 
in,  and  a  sty  is  a  word  synonymous 
with  a  filthy  place  ;  but  in  every 
well-arranged  farm-yard  there  should 
be  a  convenient  place  for  keeping 
hogs  and  feeding  them,  which  may 
be  erected  at  a  small  expense,  and 
which  will  soon  repay  the  outlay. 
There  should  be  a  place  to  boil  and 
mix  the  food  in,  with  one  or  more 
large  coppers,  and  a  steaming  appa- 
ratus. The  food  should  be  mixed  in 
square  brick  tanks  sunk  in  the  ground 
and  cemented,  that  there  may  be  no 
filtrations.  If  there  is  only  one  tank, 
there  should  be  a  partition  in  it. 
From  the  boiling-house  there  should 
be  an  immediate  communication  with 
the  feeding-sties,  undercover,  if  pos- 
sible. Each  sty  should  open  into  a 
small  yard  behind,  svhich  should  com- 
municate by  a  door  with  the  princi- 
pal farm-yard,  where  the  barn  is  sit- 
uated, in  which  the  corn  is  thrashed, 
and  be  enclosed  with  a  low  wall  or 
paling.  There  should  be  separate 
sties  for  breeding-sows,  for  porkers, 
and  for  fatting  hogs.  Not  more  than 
three  or  four  of  the  latter  should  be 
in  one  sty.  The  food  should  be  given 
in  troughs,  in  a  separate  compart- 
ment from  that  in  which  the  hogs  lie 
down,  and  no  litter  should  he  allowed 
377 


HOG 


llOL 


Elevutiuu  aud  Section. 


A,  Root-house  ;  B,  boiling  and  steaming  house  ;  a,  steamer  ;  b,  copper  ;  c,  r,  steaming  ves- 
sels ;  d,  d,  tanks  to  mix  the  food  ;  C,  passage  to  the  sties ;  1,  I,  feeding-rooms  ;  2,  2,  sleeping- 
rooms  ;  3,  3,  yards. 


there.  The  floor,  which  should  be 
of  brick  or  stone,  should  be  frequent- 
ly washed  clean,  and  the  troughs 
should  be  cleaned  out  before  every 
meal.  Any  of  the  food  left  from  the 
last  meal  should  be  taken  out  and 
given  to  the  store  pigs.  A  very  con- 
venient contrivance  for  keeping  the 
troughs  clean  is  to  have  a  flap  or 
door,  made  with  hinges,  to  hang  hori- 
zontally over  the  trough,  so  that  it 
can  swing,  and  alternately  be  fasten- 
ed by  a  bolt  to  the  inside  or  outside 
edge  of  the  trough.  When  the  hogs 
have  fed  sufficiently,  the  door  is 
swung  back,  and  the  trough  is  easily 
cleaned  out.  It  remains  so  till  feed- 
ing time,  when  the  food  is  poured  in 
without  any  impediment  from  the 
greedy  hogs,  who  cannot  get  at  it  till 
the  door  is  swung  back.  This  sim- 
ple contrivance  saves  a  great  deal  of 
trouble,  and  is  easily  adapted  to  any 
378 


common  sty.  It  is  a  great  advan- 
tage to  be  able  to  inspect  the  sties 
without  going  into  them,  and  this  is 
effected  by  placing  them  under  a  com- 
mon roof,  which  may  conveniently 
be  a  lean  to  the  boiling-house,  or  any 
other  building,  with  a  passage  be- 
tween them. 

"  The  preceding  figure  will  best 
explain  this,  and  show  its  superiority 
over  common  sties." 

Where  the  establishment  is  much 
larger,  a  passage  may  be  run  entire- 
ly through  the  sties,  and  the  feeding 
troughs  be  arranged  along  it  ;  the 
food  may  also  be  made  to  pass  along 
a  gutter  to  the  various  troughs. 

HOLCUS.  The  genus  of  soft 
grasses.     See  Grasses. 

HOLERACEOUS.  Culinary 
plants,  pot-herbs. 

HOLLY.  Evergreen  shrubs,  and 
small  trees  of  the  genus  Ilex.    The 


HOM 


HOO 


prickly  Christmas  holly,  naturalized 
in  Virginia,  is  the  1.  aguifolium ;  the 
native  holly  of  the  Middle  States,  oft- 
en becoming  a  tree  of  30  feet,  is  the 
/.  opaca.  The  prickly  holly  is  much 
used  for  hedges  in  England  ;  a  good 
bird-lime  is  prepared  from  the  inner 
bark.  The  /.  vomitoria,  or  cassina,  is 
a  handsome  southern  shrub.  The 
decoction  of  the  toasted  leaves  is  the 
Indian  black  drink :  it  is  emetic. 

HOLM.    A  marshy  place  or  island. 

HOLM,  or  HOLLY  OAK.  Quer- 
cus  ilex,  a  European  species. 

HOLY  GRASS.  Holcus  odoratus. 
See  Grasses. 

HOMESTEAD.  The  regular  ar- 
rangement of  farm  buildings. 

HO.NLMIN  Y.  Corn,  usually  of  the 
smaller  white  flint  kinds,  bruised  in 
a  mill  or  mortar  until  the  external 
covering  is  removed,  and  then  sifted. 

HOMOGAMOUS  (from  ofiov,  to- 
gether, and  ya/xof,  marriage).  When 
all  the  florets  contain  both  sexes. 

HOMOGENEOUS  (from  ofiov,  and 
yevoc,  kijul).  Bodies,  all  the  parts  of 
which  are  similar  in  composition. 

HOMOLOGOUS  (from  ofiov,  and 
Aoyoc,  ratio).  Having  the  same  ratio 
or  proportion. 

HOMOPTERAXS,  HOMOPTERA 
(from  ouov,  and  nrepov,  a  icing).  The 
name  of  an  order  of  insects,  inclu- 
ding those  in  which  the  wing-covers 
are  of  a  uniform  semi-membranous 
consistency.  Latreille  divides  this 
order  into  the  three  followmg  divi- 
sions, viz.  : 

1.  The  Cicadarm,  having  the  tarsi 
three-jointed  and  the  antennae  very 
short,  terminated  by  a  line  bristle. 

2.  The  Aphidians,  having  the  tarsi 
two-jointed  and  the  antennae  longer, 
without  a  terminal  bristle ;  contain- 
ing the  families  Aphidce  and  Psyllida. 

3.  The  Gallmsccta,  having  the  tarsi 
one-jointed,  terminated  by  a  single 
claw.  The  males  have  two  wings, 
and  are  destitute  of  a  mouth  ;  the  fe- 
males are  wingless,  and  furnished 
with  a  sucker. 

HOMOTROPAL  (from  ouov,  and 
rpETTG),  I  turn).  In  botany,  having  the 
same  direction  as  the  rest  of  the 
plant,  or  that  part  to  which  it  belongs. 


HONEY.  The  fluid  stored  by  bees; 
it  is  collected  from  flowers  and  hon- 
ey-dew. The  colour  and  flavour  de- 
pend upon  the  age  of  the  bees,  and 
their  food ;  white  clover  and  some 
aromatic  plants  of  the  sage  family 
yield  the  best.  Chemically,  it  con- 
sists of  glucose,  mannite,  gum,  wax, 
colouring  matter,  and  albumen.  When 
mixed  with  water  it  readily  ferments ; 
a  liquor  is  made  in  this  way  called 
mead.     See  Bee. 

HONEY-DEW.  An  exudation  of 
sweet  gummy  matter  from  the  leaves 
of  plants,  especially  the  oak,  beech, 
linden,  and  hop.  Curtis  and  Willde- 
now,  with  many  other  naturalists,  at- 
tribute it  to  the  excretions  of  innu- 
merable plant  lice,  Aphidians ;  but 
Sir  J.  E.  Smith  and  others  to  the 
exudation  of  sap  during  very  moist 
hot  weather,  especially  when  the  sky 
is  overcast,  hindering  evaporation 
from  the  leaves.  If  the  honey  be 
washed  off  by  rain  or  by  watering, 
the  plant  usually  survives  ;  but  if  it 
becomes  caked  on  the  leaf  by  hot 
weather,  it  is  killed.  Bees  flourish 
exceedingly  on  honey-dew.  The 
plants  of  a  well-drained  soil  are  much 
less  liable  to  honey-dew  than  those 
in  damp  places. 

HONEY  LOCUST.  Gledkschia 
triacanthos.  Three-thorned  locust.  A 
large  leguminous  tree.  It  is  very 
common  in  the  western  forests  of 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  &.C.,  on 
rich  bottoms,  where  it  is  one  of  the 
largest  trees.  The  pods  furnish  a 
sweet  but  nauseous  pulp.  The  wood 
is  porous,  but  hard  ;  it  is  inferior  for 
cabinet  purposes,  and  rarely  used,  ex- 
cept for  posts  and  rails.  The  young 
plants  are  recommended  by  some  for 
hedges,  and  are  to  be  often  pruned  : 
they  form  a  good  hedge,  but  are  apt 
to  throw  out  shoots  from  their  roots 
to  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
stem. 

HONEY-STONE.  A  rare  miner- 
al, mellate  of  alumina,  belonging  to 
the  class  of  ambers  and  lignites,  found 
only  in  Thuringea. 

HONEYSUCKLE.  Climbing 
plants  of  the  genus  Lonicera,  &c. 

HOODED.  CucuUate.  A  descrip- 
379 


HOG 


HOO 


live  term  in  botany,  to  express  the 
partial  covering  of  a  flower,  &.C.,  by  a 
petal  or  leaf,  vvliich  is  curved  over  it. 

HOOF.  The  solid  or  cloven  nail 
of  the  feet  of  cattle  or  horses  ;  it  re- 
sembles horn  in  composition.  Hoofs 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue 
and  Prussian  blue  ;  scraped  into 
shreds,  they  form  admirable  manure, 
yieldmg  15  per  cent,  nitrogen  in  the 
natural  state,  or  upward  of  18  per 
cent,  ammonia  during  decay.  Four 
hundred  pounds  in  compost  will  be 
sufficient  for  an  acre. 

HOOP.  The  wooden  or  metallic 
fastening  of  casks.  Hickory  is  in 
the  greatest  esteem  for  this  purpose  ; 
but  young  trees  of  ash,  oak,  birch, 
&c.,  answer  well.  Several  machines 
have  been  patented  for  splitting 
hoops ;  they  are,  however,  expensive. 
The  usual  principle  is  to  pass  the 
wood  between  rollers,  which  carry  it 
upon  a  sharp  edge  that  splits  it  cen- 
trally ;  motion  is  given  to  the  rollers 
by  horse  power. 

HOOVE,  or  HOVEN.     See  Ox. 

HOPPER.  The  receiver  of  a  mill 
or  machine  in  which  the  grain,  roots, 
&c.,  are  placed. 

HOP-OAST.  A  kiln  used  for  dry- 
ing hops.  The  floor  of  the  kiln  is 
generally  of  wire  cloth,  and  the  heat 
is  generated  in  a  stove  with  flues  be- 
low. The  hops,  after  being  put  on 
the  kiln,  are  frequently  turned,  and 
in  general  they  are  rendered  suffi- 
ciently dry  in  the  course  of  a  few 
hours  ;  when  dried,  they  are  taken  to 
a  loft  and  left  to  cool  for  a  day  or  two, 
and  then  put  into  bags,  having  been 
previously  subjected  to  the  slight  ac- 
tion of  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur 
(sulphurous  acid),  by  which  they  are, 
to  a  certain  extent,  bleached.  This 
is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  it  par- 
tially destroys  the  fine  odour. 

HOPPLE.  A  mode  of  fettering 
the  legs  of  horses  and  cattle  turned 
out  to  graze. 

HOPS.  Humuliis  lupulus  :  family 
Urdcacea.  The  following  is  chiefly 
from  Mr.  Rham : 

"  Hops  are  extensively  cultivated 
for  the  flowers,  which  give  flavour 
and  permanence  to  beer,  by  being 
380 


boiled  with  the  wort  in  brewing 
They  impart  a  pleasant,  bitter,  and 
aromatic  flavour,  and  prevent  the  too 
rapid  progress  of  fermentation.  Beer 
which  is  well  hopped  will  keep  long 
and  become  very  fine,  without  any 
of  those  artificial  means  of  fining 
wiiich  make  the  common  brewer's 
beer  so  much  inferior  in  quality  to 
that  which  is  home-brewed. 

"The  hop  is  a  slender  climbing 
plant,  with  a  perennial  root,  which 
requires  careful  cultivation.  It  is 
very  tender,  and  the  produce  is  pre- 
carious, sometimes  giving  a  great 
profit  to  the  grower,  and  at  other 
times  failing  altogether.  The  soil  of 
a  hop  garden  must  be  rich  to  a  con- 
siderable depth,  or  made  so  artificial- 
ly. The  subsoil  must  be  dry  and 
sound ;  a  porous  rocky  subsoil,  cov- 
ered with  two  or  three  feet  of  good 
vegetable  mould,  is  the  best  for  hops. 
The  exposure  should  be  towards  the 
south,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  or  in  a 
well-sheltered  valley.  Old  rich  pas- 
tures make  the  best  hop  gardens. 
They  should  be  dug  two  or  more  spits 
deep,  and  the  sods  buried  at  the  bot- 
tom, where  they  will  gradually  decay 
and  afford  nourishment  to  the  slen- 
der roots  of  the  plants,  which  strike 
deep.  A  very  large  quantity  of  the 
richest  rotten  dung,  at  least  100  cu- 
bic yards  per  acre,  should  be  well  in- 
corporated with  the  soil  by  repeated 
ploughings,  till  it  is  entirely  decom- 
posed, and  produces  that  dark  tint 
which  is  the  sure  sign  of  an  abun- 
dance of  humus.  The  ground  should 
be  prepared  by  laying  it  up  with  the 
spade  in  high  ridges  before  winter,  to 
expose  it  as  much  as  possible  to  the 
mellowing  influence  of  the  frost.  A 
succession  of  green  crops,  such  as 
rye,  cut  green  or  fed  off  with  sheep, 
or  clover,  are  an  excellent  prepara- 
tion, by  cleaning  the  land.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  be  two,  or  even  three  years,  in 
preparing  the  ground  and  getting  it 
perfectly  clean,  than  to  plant  the 
hops  in  a  foul  or  unprepared  soil. 

"  The  young  plants  are  raised  in 
beds,  and  may  be  raised  from  seed ; 
but  it  is  more  usual  to  plant  the  young 
shoots  which  rise  from  the  bottom 


HOPS. 


of  the  stems  of  old  plants.    Thoy  are 
laid  down  in  the  earth  till  thoy  strike, 
when  they  are  eut  off  and  jilanted  in 
the  nursery-bed.     Care  mu.st  he  ta- 
ken to  have  only  one  sort  of  iiops  in 
a  plantation,  that  they  may  all  ripen 
at  the  same  time  ;  but  where  there 
arc   very  extensive   hop  grounds  it 
may  be  advantageous  to  have  an  ear- 
lier and  a  later  sort  in  ditTerent  divis- 
ions, so  that  they  may  he  pieked  in 
succession.     The  varieties  most  es- 
teemed are  the  grape  hop,  the  white 
vine,    and    the    golden    hop.       The 
ground    having    been    prepared    for 
planting,    it    is   divided    by    parallel 
lines,   six  or  more   feet  apart,   and 
short    slicks    are    inserted    into   the 
ground  along  these  lines  at  si.x  feet 
distance  from  each  other,  so  as  to  al- 
ternate in  the  rows,  as  is  frequently 
done  with  cabbage  plants  in  gardens. 
At  each  stick  a  hole  is  dug  two  feet 
square  and  two  feet  deep,  which  is 
filled  lightly  with  the  earth  dug  out, 
together  with   a   compost    prepared 
with  dung,  lime,  and  earth,  well  mix- 
ed by  repeated  turning.     Fresh  dung 
should    never    be   applied    to    hops. 
Three  plants  are  placed  in  the  mid- 
dle of  this  hole  six  inches  asunder, 
forming  an  equilateral   triangle.     A 
watering  with  liquid  manure  greatly 
assists  their  taking  root,  and   they 
soon  begin  to  show  runners.    A  stick, 
three  or  four  feet  long,  is  then  stuck 
in  the  middle  of  the  three  plants,  and 
the  runners  are  tied  to  these  with 
twine  or  bass,  till  they  lay  hold  and 
twine    round    them.      During    their 
growth  the  ground  is  well  hoed  and 
forked  up  around  the  roots,  and  some 
of  the  line  mould  is  thrown  around 
the  stems.     In  favourable  seasons  a 
few  hops  may  be  picked  from  these 
young  plants  in  the  autumn,  but  in 
general  there  is  nothing  the  first  year. 
Early    in   November   the   ground   is 
carefully  dug  witii  the  spade,  and  the 
earth  beingturned  towards  the  plants, 
is  left  so  all  the  winter.     Beets,  po- 
tatoes, &c.,  are  grown  in  the  inter- 
vals between  the  plants. 

"  In  the  second  year,  early  in 
spring,  the  hillocks  around  the  plants 
are  opened,  and  the  roots  examined.  | 


The  last  year's  shoots  are  cut  off 
within  an  inch  of  the  main  stem,  and 
all  the  suckers  quite  close  to  it.  The 
suckers  form  an  agreeable  vegetable 
for  the  table,  dressed  like  asparagus. 
The  earth  is  pressed  round  the  roots, 
and  the  cut  parts  covered  so  as  to 
exclude  the  air.  A  pole  about  twelve 
feet  long  is  then  firmly  stuck  into 
the  ground  near  the  plants  ;  to  this 
the  runners  are  led  and  tied  as  they 
shoot,  till  they  have  taken  hold  of  it. 
If,  by  any  accident,  the  runner  leaves 
the  pole,  it  should  be  carefully  brought 
back  to  it  and  tied  till  it  takes  hold 
again.  A  stand  ladder  should  be  at 
hand  to  do  this,  when  the  runner  has 
acquired  some  height.  The  ground 
being  well  hoed  and  the  earth  raised 
round  the  plants,  the  produce  this 
year  will  average  fourcwts.  per  acre, 
if  the  season  is  favourable. 

"  Some  hop  planters  plough  up  or 
dig  the  ground  before  winter  ;  others 
prefer  doing  it  in  spring,  in  order  not 
to  hasten  the  shooting,  which  weak- 
ens the  plants.  The  same  opera- 
tions of  pruning  the  shoots,  manuring, 
and  placing  poles,  which  were  per- 
formed the  preceding  year,  are  care- 
fully repeated.  Particular  attention 
is  paid  to  proportion  the  length  of 
the  poles  to  the  probable  strength  of 
the  runners  ;  for  if  the  pole  is  too 
long,  it  drawls  up  the  runner,  and 
makes  it  bear  less  ;  if  it  is  too  short, 
the  runners  entangle  when  they  get 
beyond  the  poles,  and  cause  confu- 
sion in  the  picking.  In  September, 
the  flower  containing  the  seed  will 
be  of  a  fine  straw  colour,  turning  to 
a  brown ;  it  is  then  in  perfection. 
When  it  is  over-ripe,  it  acquires  a 
darker  tint.  No  time  is  now  lost, 
and  as  many  hands  are  procured  as 
can  he  set  picking.  In  the  picking, 
the  poles  are  taken  down,  and  the 
stems  cut  three  feet  from  the  ground ; 
if  they  were  cut  shorter  it  would 
weaken  the  root,  by  causing  it  to 
bleed.  The  poles  are  laid  sloping 
over  a  frame  of  strong  wood,  nine 
feet  long  and  four  feet  wide,  support- 
ed by  legs  three  feet  high  ;  this  is 
called  a  bin.  A  piece  of  coarse  bag- 
ging is  fixed  to  this  frame  by  hooks, 
381 


HOPS. 


so  as  to  form  a  bag  which  does  not 
re<ich  the  firound.  Tlirce  men  or 
women,  or  four  boys  or  girls,  are 
placed  on  each  side  oi'  the  bin,  and 
pick  the  hops  from  two  poles  at  a 
time.  Where  they  are  very  careful 
of  the  quality  of  ibc  hops,  they  divide 
them  nito  three  sorts  :  the  green, 
which  are  not  quite  ripe;  the  light 
yellow-hrown,  which  are  in  perfec- 
tion ;  and  the  very  dark,  which  are 
past  their  prime.  The  dew  should  be 
o(f  entirely  before  they  begin  ;  for 
otherwise  the  hops  might  become 
musty,  or  take  too  long  in  drying,  and 
lose  their  fragrance.  The  hops,  when 
picked,  are  dried  on  a  cloth  in  a  kiln. 
When  they  appear  sufficiently  dry  at 
bottom,  they  are  turned  ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, thouglit  by  some  hop-driers  that 
the  turnnig  of  the  hops  is  apt  to  in- 
jure them,  and  that  it  is  best  not  to 
do  so  ;  but,  in  order  that  the  upper 
part  may  be  dried  equally  with  the 
lower,  a  wooden  cover,  lined  with 
tin  plates,  is  let  down  over  the  hops 
on  the  hair  cloth,  to  vi'ithin  a  few 
inches  of  the  surface  ;  this  reverber- 
ates the  heat,  and  the  whole  is  dried 
equally.  The  heat  must  be  carefully 
regulated,  in  order  that  it  may  not 
alter  the  colour.  When  the  leaves 
of  the  hops  become  brittle  and  rub 
off  easily,  they  are  sufficiently  dried. 
They  are  then  laid  in  heaps  on  the 
floor,  where  they  undergo  a  very 
slight  heating.  As  soon  as  this  is 
observed  they  are  bagged.  This  is 
done  through  a  round  hole,  twenty- 
five  or  tliirty  inches  in  diameter, 
made  in  the  floor  of  the  loft  where 
the  hops  are  laid.  Under  this  hole 
is  a  bag,  the  mouth  of  which  is  drawn 
through  the  hole  and  kept  open  by  a 
hoop,  to  which  it  is  made  fast.  The 
hoop  is  somewhat  larger  than  the 
hole,  and  the  bag  remains  suspended ; 
a  handful  of  hops  is  now  put  into 
each  corner  of  the  bag,  and  there  tied 
firmly  by  a  cord.  A  bushel  or  two 
of  hops  are  put  into  the  bag,  and  a 
man  gets  into  it  to  tread  the  hops 
tight.  The  bag  does  not  reach  the 
floor  below.  As  the  hops  are  pack- 
ed by  the  feet,  more  are  continually 
added  till  the  bag  is  full.  It  is  now 
382 


taken  off  the  hoop,  and  filled  up  with 
the  hands  as  tight  as  possible.  The 
corners  are  stuffed  as  soon  as  the 
mouth  is  partly  sewn  up,  and  tied,  as 
the  lower  corners  were  ;  when  sew- 
ed close  and  tight,  it  is  stored  in  a 
dry  place  till  the  hops  are  wanted  for 
sale. 

"  The  crop  of  the  third  year  will 
average  eight  cwt.  per  acre.  In  some 
very  extraordinary  seasons,  on  good 
land,  fifteen  cwt.  have  been  picked 
per  acre  :  in  Flanders,  where  they 
manure  with  urine  and  the  emptyings 
of  privies,  this  is  not  an  uncommon 
produce.  The  plantation  lasts  fifteen 
to  thirty  years. 

"Rape  cakes,  malt  dust,  woollen 
rags,  horn  shavings,  and  nitrogen 
manures  are  used  with  good  success 
in  hop  grounds :  bones  have  been 
tried,  but  with  an  uncertain  result. 

"  The  hop  is  a  dioecious  plant  (Fig.), 
i.  c,  some  of  the  individuals  are  male 
plants,  and  others  female,  which  have 


respectively  flowers  of  a  different  con- 
struction and  of  different  habitudes. 
The  male  or  staminiferous  flowers 
{a),  which  grow  on  stalks  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  female  flowers,  pre- 
pare the  pollen,  or  fertilizing  dust, 
and  afterward  wither  away,  when 
this  dust  has  escaped  from  the  an- 
thers, and  been  committed  to  the  air, 
to  be  by  it  conveyed  to  the  female 
flowers.  The  female  flowers  are  in 
the  form  of  strobnli  (i)  or  cones,  con- 
sisting of  scales,  which  have  at  their 
base  the  germ  of  the  future  seed,  and 


i 


nor 


ilOK 


which  have  the  liabit  of  enlarging,  as 
the  scales  of  the  fir-conos  do,  more 
particularly  after  the  fertilization  of 
the  ovule,  or  future  seed,  by  a  quan- 
tity of  the  pollen  falling  upon  it. 

"  Though  the  pollen,  from  its  ex- 
treme lightness,  can  be  wafted  to  a 
considerable  distance,  and  some  seeds 
in  each  cone  may  be  so  fertilized,  yet 
it  would  be  well  to  rear  a  number  of 
the  male  plants  among  the  others,  or 
along  the  hedges  of  the  hop  gardens, 
to  ensure  the  fertilization  of  all  the 
seeds.  But  as  the  farmers  observe 
that  the  flowers  of  the  male  (termed, 
in  Kent,  seedling,  blmd,  or  wild  hop ; 
in  Sussex,  buck  or  cock  hop)  wither 
away,  they  generally  extirpate  them 
at  the  digging  season,  as  unfruitful 
cumberers  of  the  ground.  That  this 
is  an  error  may  be  proved  in  various 
ways,  but  an  appeal  to  the  result  of 
an  opposite  practice  is  the  most  con- 
vincing. A  bushel  of  hops,  collected 
from  plants  of  the  fourth  year,  raised 
from  seed,  weighed  36  pounds,  there 
being  male  plants  near  ;  a  second  in- 
stance, where  the  plants  were  raised 
from  cuttings,  weighed  thirty-five 
pounds,  while  a  bushel,  grown  in  a 
garden  where  the  male  plants  were 
always  eradicated,  weighed  only  22 
pounds.  Besides  the  greater  quan- 
tity of  hops  thus  obtained,  the  aroma 
is  much  greater  (the  lupulin,  on  which 
the  aroma  depends,  is  considered  by 
Plancheto  be  the  unappropriated  pol- 
len dust  which  has  alighted  on  the 
scale  of  the  females),  and  the  strength 
of  the  bitter  much  greater.  The  value 
of  a  specimen  of  hops  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  lupulin  dust  it  con- 
tains, and  its  aroma  ;  when  of  the  best 
quality,  they  command  from  sixteen 
to  twenty  cents  the  pound.  After  the 
period  when  the  males  have  elabora- 
ted the  pollen,  and  the  strobuli  of  the 
females  begun  to  enlarge,  the  males 
may  be  cut  down,  and  the  stalks  em- 
ployed to  make  cordage  for  hop-bags 
against  the  following  harvest.  In 
1760  the  Society  of  Arts  awarded  pre- 
mium.'5  for  cloth  made  from  the  hop 
runner. 

"  The  poles  of  oak,  ash,  larch,  and 
chestnut  are  the  most  durable.    They 


should  be  put  into  a  shed  during  win- 
ter :  where  this  cannot  be  done,  they 
are  placed  on  end  in  the  form  of  a 
cone,  leaning  against  each  other." 
The  hop  is  very  liable  to  diseases  : 
it  suffers  from  the  aphis  ;  a  species  of 
haltica  attacks  the  young  plant ;  sev- 
eral moths  deposit  their  eggs  upon 
it :  honey-dew  is  often  destructive  ;  it 
is  also  liable  to  attacks  of  mildew  and 
fire-blight  towards  maturity. 

HORDEIN.  The  impure  starch 
of  barley. 

HORDEUM.  The  genus  of  barley 
grasses. 

HORE HOUND.  Marruhium  vul- 
garc.  A  perennial,  labiate  plant,  of 
a  bitter,  aromatic  taste,  used  as  a 
popular  remedy  in  colds,  and  to  fla- 
vour candies.  It  is  readily  propaga- 
ted by  dividing  the  roots. 

HORIZONTAL.  Level.  A  plane 
parallel  to  the  horizon. 

HORN.  Indurated  skin,  consist- 
ing, for  the  most  part,  of  modified  al- 
bumen. It  resembles  hair  in  its  chem- 
ical and  agricultural  properties,  and 
when  shaved  into  thin  strips,  answers 
the  same  purpose  as  a  manure.  Horn, 
whalebone,  tortoise-shell,  which  are 
all  similar,  are  readily  softened  by 
heat  or  hot  water,  and  are  then  va- 
riously cut  or  moulded  into  a  num- 
ber of  articles,  as  combs,  handles  for 
knives,  rings,  &c.  Digested  with  wa- 
ter in  an  iron  cylinder,  under  press- 
ure, they  are  dissolved,  and  yield  glue. 

The  horns  of  oxen  and  many  oth- 
er animals  are  only  a  covering  over 
a  bony  process  rising  from  the  front 
bone  of  the  head.  This  bone,  called 
the  horn  pith,  is  remarkably  porous, 
and  full  of  blood-vessels,  so  that,  when 
it  is  cut  or  injured,  violent  haemor- 
rhage follows,  which  can  scarcely  be 
stopped,  except  by  applying  a  white- 
hot  iron,  or  bv  pressure. 

HORNBEAM.  A  tree  of  the  same 
family  as  the  oak,  the  Carpinus  bet- 
ulus,  of  small  size,  and  formerly  used 
as  tall  hedging.  The  wood  is  very 
hard  and  durable,  and  used  by  turn- 
ers for  cog-wheels,  presses,  levers, 
and  stout  handles.  The  only  Amer- 
ican species  is  the  C.  Americana,  wa- 
ter beech,  or  hornbeam.  It  grows  oa 
383 


IIOR 


HOR 


the  margin  of  rivers  in  the  Middle 
States,  rising  twenty  to  forty  feet. 

The  term  iiornbcani,  or  ironwood, 
is  also  applied  to  the  Ostrya  Vtrfrin- 
iaca,  a  tree  of  twenty  to  forty  feet 
high,  of  the  same  family,  found  in  the 
Southern  States.  'J'he  wood  is  as 
serviceable  as  that  of  the  hornbeam. 

HORNBLEND.  A  dark  green  or 
black  mineral,  massive  or  crystal- 
lized in  prisms,  of  glassy  lustre,  and 
readily  scratched  by  a  knife.  It  is 
very  abundant  in  primary,  transition, 
and  trap  formations,  and  consists  of 
silica,  46  ;  lime  and  magnesia,  34 ; 
iron,  from  4  to  7  ;  alumina,  &c.,  13 
per  cent.  It  forms  the  basis  of  nu- 
merous minerals,  and  is  found  in  sev- 
eral varieties,  as  augite,  amphibole, 
pargasite,  tremolite,  actinolite. 

Hornblend  slate  and  schist  are 
transition  rocks,  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  hornblend,  quartz,  and  some- 
times feldspar.  A  soil  formed  from 
these  rocks  is  necessarily  rich,  from 
containing  lime,  magnesia,  potash, 
clay,  and  sand.  The  crystals  also 
occur  in  siennite,  or  Boston  granite. 
Greenstone,  the  common  ingredient 
of  dikes,  is  a  mixture  of  hornblend 
and  feldspar,  varying  but  little  from 
trap.  Soils  rich  in  hornblend  have  a 
greenish  colour. 

HORNBUG.  The  beetles  of  the 
genus  Lucanus,  or  stag  beetles,  espe- 
cially L.  caprcolus.  The  grubs  live 
in  the  trunks  and  roots  of  old  trees. 

HORN  DISTEMPER.  A  disease 
of  the  horns  of  oxen,  especially  cows, 
in  which  an  accumulation  of  pus 
takes  place  in  the  pith  ;  the  treat- 
ment is,  to  let  it  out  by  boring  into 
the  horn,  two  inches  from  the  head, 
with  a  small  gimlet.  The  animal 
affected  first  exhibits  the  signs  of  a 
cold,  the  eyes  become  dull,  the  ap- 
petite diminishes,  the  creature  lan- 
guishes and  lies  down  ;  but  it  is  also 
occasionally  attended  with  symptoms 
of  diseased  brain  ;  the  animal  tosses 
his  head  and  groans  much. 

HORN  PITHS  or  FLINTS. 
These  answer  in  manuring  for  bones, 
having  a  composition  nearly  identical 
with  bones,  namely,  gelatin  and  fat, 
86  ;  bone  earth,  54  per  cent. :  they  de- 
384 


cay  more  rapidly  from  their  porous 
structure.  They  are  ditiicult  to  crush 
in  the  common  bone  mill,  but  may  be 
broken  by  a  heavy  bark  mill,  or  dis- 
solved in  strong  acid.  They  are  much 
used  for  the  extraction  of  size  and 
glue. 

HORNET.  Vespa  maculala,  the 
American  species.  They  build  a 
globular  nest  of  a  substance  like  pa- 
per upon  branches  of  trees,  &c.  Its 
sting  is  painful,  but  may  be  allayed 
by  oil,  with  a  little  hartshorn.  It 
preys  upon  fruit,  flies,  and  is  very  de- 
structive to  bees.  The  European 
species  is  V.  crabro. 

HORNSTONE.  A  flinty  mineral. 
Chert,  also,  is  known  by  this  name. 
Hornstone  is  wrought  in  stones  for 
crushing  flints  in  potteries  ;  it  also 
forms  a  good  hone.  The  varieties 
are  variously  coloured,  gray,  white, 
red,  and  dark  greenish  ;  it  is  infusi- 
ble before  the  blow-pipe,  and  contains 
76  per  cent,  silica,  with  13  alumina, 
colouring  oxide,  and  water. 

HORSE.  "  Natural  Histcny  and 
Deyitition  of  the  Horse. — The  native 
country  of  the  horse  is  unknown. 
From  very  remote  periods  he  has 
been  found  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  Old  World,  but  his  appearance 
on  the  continents  and  the  islands  of 
the  New  World,  whether  of  the  At- 
lantic or  Pacific  Ocean,  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  date.  Everywhere 
he  is  recognised  as  the  most  useful 
of  the  servants  of  man,  and  he  yields 
in  intelligence  to  the  dog  alone.  If 
he  difl'ers  in  ditTerent  countries  in 
form  and  in  size,  it  is  from  the  in- 
fluence of  climate  and  cultivation  ; 
but  otherwise,  from  the  war-horse, 
as  he  is  depicted  on  the  friezes  of  an- 
cient temples,  to  the  stately  charger 
of  Holstein  and  of  Spain,  or  from  the 
fleet  and  beautiful  Arabian  to  the  di- 
minutive Shetlander,  there  is  an  evi- 
dent similarity  of  form  and  destina- 
tion which  clearly  stamps  his  common 
origin. 

"  He  is  naturally,  and  of  choice,  an 
herbivorous  and  granivorous  animal. 
His  thin  and  muscular  lips,  his  firm 
and  compressed  mouth,  and  his  sharp 
incisor  teeth,  are  admirably  adapted 


HOUSE. 


to  seize  and  to  crop  the  grass ;  a 
provision  is  given  in  the  structure  of 
some  of  the  bones  of  the  face,  by 
means  of  which  he  can  comminute 
and  grind  down  his  food  as  perfectly 
as  in  the  best-contrived  mill. 

"  The  teeth  of  the  horso  require 
some  lengtliened  consideration,  not 
only  from  their  admirable  adaptation 
to  this  purpose,  but  as  indicating,  by 
the  various  changes  which  tliey  un- 
dergo, almost  beyond  the  possibility 
of  error,  the  age  of  the  animal.  He 
may,  when  young  in  years,  be  re- 
duced nearly  to  the  decrepitude  of 
age  by  the  barbarous  usage  of  those 
who  ought  to  be  his  most  zealous 
protectors  ;  the  cavity  above  the  eye 
may  be  deepened,  the  under  lip  may 
fall,  the  limbs  may  be  bowed,  and  the 
feet  may  be  battered  and  distorted, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  alter  the  charac- 
ter of  the  teeth. 

"  The  colt  is  generally  dropped  with 
the  first  and  second  molar  and  grind- 
ing teeth  having  forced  their  way 
through  the  gum.  When  he  is  about 
seven  or  eight  days  old  the  two  cen- 
tral front,  or  incisor  teeth,  above  and 
below,  appear  (Fig.  a).  At  the  ex- 
piration of  five  or  six  weeks  the  two 
next  incisors  may  be  seen.  At  three 
months  they  will  have  overtaken  the 
central  ones,  and  both  pairs  will  have 
nearly  attained  their  natural  level. 
A  third  grinder  will  then  have  ap- 
peared ;  and  a  little  before  or  after 
the  eighth  month  the  third  nipper, 
above  and  below,  and  on  each  side, 
will  be  seen.  The  colt  will  now  have 
his  full  complement  of  front  or  cut- 
ting teeth. 

"  These  teeth  are  beautifully  adapt- 
ed to  their  purpose.  They  have  in 
front  an  elevated  cutting  edge  of  con- 
siderable sharpness.  It  is  formed  of 
enamel,  a  polished  substance  almost 
too  hard  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  file, 
which  covers  the  tooth.  This  eleva- 
ted edge  is  bent  somewhat  inward 
and  over  the  tooth,  so  that  there  is 
a  depression  behind  it,  which  gradu- 
ally becomes  stained  by  the  food, 
and  constitutes  what  is  called  'the 
mark'  in  the  mouth  of  the  colt  or 
horse. 
K  K 


"  This  elevated  edge  of  enamel, 
hard  as  it  is,  is  gradually  worn  down 
in  the  act  of  nipping  and  cutting  the 
grass  ;  and  as  it  wears  away,  the 
hollow  behind  becomes  diminished, 
and  is  at  length  totally  obliterated. 
By  the  degree  in  which  this  mark  is 
effaced,  the  horseman,  not  only  with 
regard  to  the  first,  but  the  permanent 
teeth,  judges  of  the  age  of  the  ani- 
mal. This  obliteration  begins  to  be 
manifest  at  a  very  early  age.  At  six 
months  it  is  sufficiently  evident  in 
the  four  central  nippers.  At  a  year 
and  a  half  the  mark  will  be  very  faint 
in  the  central  nippers,  diminished  in 
the  other  two,  and  the  surface  of  all 
of  them  will  be  flattened. 

"  At  twelve  months  a  fourth  grind- 
er protrudes,  and  a  fifth  at  the  expi- 
ration of  two  years. 

"  These  are  all  temporary  teeth. 
They  were  only  to  last  during  a  very 
early  period  of  the  life  of  the  animal ; 
and  when  his  jaws  were  considera- 
bly expanded,  they  were  destined  to 
give  way  to  another  set,  larger,  firm- 
er, and  "that  would  probably  last  du- 
ring life.  The  permanent  teeth  had 
been  long  growing  in  the  socket  be- 
neath the  temporary  ones,  and  had 
been  pressing  upon  their  roots,  and 
that  pressure  had  caused  an  absorp- 
tion of  these  roots,  until  at  length 
they  lost  all  hold,  and  were  displaced. 

"  When  the  animal  is  about  three 
years  old  the  central  pair  of  nippers, 
above  and  below,  are  thus  removed, 
and  two  fresh  teeth,  easily  distin- 
guishable from  the  first  by  their  in- 
creased size,  make  their  appearance, 
so  that  a  three-year  old  colt  is  easily 
recognised  by  these  two  new  and  en- 
larged central  nippers. 

"  A  three-year  old  colt  has  his  form 
and  energies  much  more  developed 
than  a  two-year  old  one,  and  is  con- 
siderably more  valuable  ;  therefore 
some  dishonest  breeders  endeavour 
to  pass  him  upon  the  unwary  as  be- 
ing a  year  older  than  he  really  is,  and 
they  accomplish  this  in  an  ingenious 
but  cruel  manner.  This  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  effected  until  a  portion  of 
the  second  year  is  past,  when  the 
permanent  teeth  below  are  beginning 
385 


HORSE. 


to  press  upon  the  roots  of  their  pred- 
ecessors, and  then  the  breeder  ex- 
tracts the  central  milk-teeth.  Those 
below,  having  no  longer  anything  to 
resist  their  progress,  grow  far  more 
rapidly  than  they  otherwise  would  do, 
and  the  scoundrel  gains  four  or  five 
months  in  the  apparent  age  of  his 
colt. 

"Can  this  trickery  he  detected  1 
Not  always,  except  by  him  who  is 
well  accustomed  to  horses.  The 
comparatively  slow  wasting  of  the 
other  nippers,  the  difference  of  the 
development  of  these  nippers  in  the 
upper  and  under  jaw — for  the  breed- 
er usually  confines  his  roguery  to  the 
lower  jaw,  the  upper  one  being  com- 
paratively seldom  examined  —  these 
circumstances,  together  with  a  defi- 
ciency of  general  development  in  the 
colt,  will  alone  enable  the  purchaser 
to  detect  the  attempted  cheat. 

"  The  honest  mouth  of  a  three- 
year  old  horse  should  be  thus  form- 
ed :  the  central  teeth  are  palpably 
larger  than  the  others,  and  have  the 
mark  on  their  upper  surface  evident 
and  well  defined.  They  will,  how- 
ever, be  lower  than  the  other  teeth. 
The  mark  in  the  next  pair  of  nippers 
will  be  nearly  worn  away,  and  that 
in  the  corner  nippers  will  begin  to 
wear  (Fig.  3). 

"  At  three  years  and  a  half  the 
second  nippers  will  be  pushed  from 
their  sockets,  and  their  place  gradu- 
ally supplied  by  a  new  pair ;  and  at 
four  and  a  half  the  corner  nippers 
will  be  undergoing  the  same  process. 
Thus,  at  four  years  old  the  central 
nippers  will  be  fully  grown  ;  the  next 
pair  will  be  up.  but  will  not  have  at- 
tained their  full  height ;  and  the  cor- 
ner nippers  will  be  small,  with  their 
mark  nearly  effaced.  At  five  years 
old  the  mark  will  begin  to  be  effaced 
from  the  central  teeth,  the  next  pair 
will  be  fully  grown  and  the  blackness 
of  the  mark  a  little  taken  off,  and  the 
corner  pair  will  be  protruding  or  part- 
ly grown. 

"  At  this  period,  or  between  the 

fourth  and  fifth  year,  another  change 

will  have  taken  place  in  the  mouth ; 

the  tushes  will  have  begun  to  appear 

386 


{Fig.  5).  There  will  be  two  of  thcnx 
in  each  jaw,  between  the  nippers  and 
the  grinders,  considerably  nearer  to 
the  former  than  the  latter,  and  par- 
ticularly so  in  the  lower  jaw.  The 
use  of  these  tushes  in  the  domestica- 
ted state  of  the  horse  is  not  evident ; 
but  they  were  probably  designed  as 
weapons  of  offence  in  the  wild  state 
of  the  animal.  Attempts  are  too  fre- 
quently made  to  hasten  the  appear- 
ance of  the  second  and  the  corner 
teeth,  in  the  same  manner  as  de- 
scribed with  regard  to  the  first,  and 
the  gum  is  often  deeply  lanced  in  or- 
der to  hastei^  the  appearance  of  the 
tush. 

"  At  six  years  old  the  mark  on  the 
central  nippers  will  be  diminished,  if 
not  obliterated.  A  depression  and  a 
mark  of  rather  brown  hue  may  re- 
main, but  the  deep  blackened  hole  in 
the  centre  will  no  longer  be  found. 
The  other  incisors  will  also  be  some- 
what worn,  and  the  tush  fully  de- 
veloped. 

"At  seven  the  mark  on  the  next 
pair  of  incisors  will  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared, and  the  tush  will  be  round- 
ed at  the  point  and  the  edges. 

"At  eight  the  mark  will  have  dis- 
appeared from  all  the  incisor  teeth, 
and  the  tush  will  be  evidently  rounder 
and  blunter. 

"  At  this  period  another  piece  of 
trickery  is  occasionally  practised. 
The  breeder  had,  until  the  animal 
was  five  years  old,  been  endeavour- 
ing to  give  him  an  older  appearance 
than  his  years  entitled  him  to,  be- 
cause in  proportion  as  he  approached 
the  period  when  his  powers  were  most 
perfectly  developed  his  value  increas- 
ed ;  but  now  he  endeavours  to  con- 
ceal the  ravages  of  age.  The  horse 
is  cast,  and  with  a  sharp-pointed  steel 
instrument  a  little  hole  is  dug  on  the 
surface  of  the  corner  incisor,  to  which 
a  red-hot  iron  is  afterward  applied. 
An  indelible  black  mark  is  thus  left 
on  the  tooth.  Sometimes  the  roguery 
is  carried  farther ;  the  next  tooth 
is  slightly  touched  with  the  engraver 
and  the  cautery ;  but  here  the  dis- 
honest dealer  generally  overreaches 
himself,  for  the  form  and  general  ap- 


HORSE. 


pearance  of  a  six-year  old  horse  can 
rarely  be  given  to  one  who  has  passed 
his  eighth  year.  The  eighth  year  hav- 
ing passed,  it  is  difheult  to  decide  on 
the  exact  age  of  the  horse.  The  in- 
cisors of  the  iii)per  jaw  are  then  the 
best  guides.  At  nine  years  the  mark 
is  said  to  be  worn  away  from  the 
central  teeth ;  at  eleven,  from  the 
next  pair ;  and  at  twelve,  from  the 
corner  ones.  The  tush  likewise  be- 
comes shorter  and  blunter. 

"  There  are  many  circumstances 
which  render  a  decision  as  to  the 
age  of  the  horse  very  difficult  after 
the  marks  are  effaced  from  the  lower 
incisors,  and  even  before  that  period. 
Horses  always  kept  in  the  stable  have 
the  mark  much  sooner  worn  out  than 


those  that  are  at  grass,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  form  any  calculation  at  all 
as  to  crib-biters. 

"  Of  the  age  to  which  the  horse 
would  naturally  arrive  it  is  impossible 
to  say  anything  satisfactory.  Many 
have  exceeded  thirty,  and  some  of 
them  even  forty  years  ;  but,  from  ill- 
usage  and  over-exertion,  the  majority 
come  to  their  end  before  they  have 
seen  15  years." 

"  The  various  progressive  changes 
that  take  place  in  the  appearance  of 
the  teeth  of  horses  at  different  ages, 
from  a  few  weeks  old  (marked  a  in 
Fig.)  to  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  10,  12. 
and  18  years,  may  be  seen  in  the 
following  dental  map,  constructed  by 
Mr.  Blaine." 


387 


HORSE. 


"  Tlie  Proper  Conformation   of  the 
Horse. — A  very  general  account  only 
can  be  given  of  this,  for  it  varies  es- 
sentially with  the  breed  and  destina- 
tion of  the  animal.     There  are  some 
points,  however,  which  are  valuable 
in  horses  of  every  description.     The 
head  should  not  be  disproportionally 
large,  and  should  be  well  set  on,  i.  e., 
the  lower  jaw-bones  should  be  suffi- 
ciently far  apart  to  enable  the  head  to 
form  that  angle  with  the  neck  which 
gives  free  motion  and  a  graceful  car- 
riage to  it,  and  prevents  its  bearing 
too  heavy  on  the  hand.      The  eye 
should  be  large  and  a  little  promi- 
nent, and  the  eyelid  fine  and  thin. 
The  ear  should  be  small  and  erect, 
and  quick  in  motion.     The  lop-ear 
indicates   dulness  or  stubbornness; 
and  when  it  is  habitually  laid  too  far 
back  upon  the  neck,  there  is  too  fre- 
quently  a   disposition    to    mischief 
The  nostril  in  every  breed  should  be 
somewhat  expanded :  it  can  hardly 
be   too   much  so  in   the  racer,  the 
hunter,  the  roadster,  and  the  coach- 
horse,  for  this  animal  breathes  only 
through   the   nostril,  and  would  be 
dangerously  distressed  when   much 
speed  is  required  of  him,  if  the  nos- 
tril could  not  dilate  to  admit  and  to 
return  the  air.     The  neck  should  be 
long  rather  than  short.     It  then  ena- 
bles the  animal  to  graze  with  more 
ease,  and  to  throw  his  weight  more 
forward,  whether  he  is  in  harness  or 
galloping  at  the  top  of  his  speed.     It 
should  be  muscular  at  its  base,  and 
gradually  become  fine  as  it  approach- 
es the  head.     The  withers  should  be 
somewhat  high  in  every  horse,  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  that  of  heavy  draught, 
and  it  does  not  harm  him,  for  there 
is  larger  surface  for  the  attachment 
of  the  muscles  of  the  back,  and  they 
act  at  greater  mechanical  advantage. 
A  slanting  direction  of  the  shoulder 
gives,  also,  much  mechanical  advan- 
tage, as  well  as  an  easy  and  pleasant 
action,  and  a  greater  degree  of  safe- 
ty.    It  must  not,  however,  exist  in 
any  considerable  degree  in  the  horse 
of  draught,  and  particularly  of  heavy 
draught.     The  chest  must  be  capa- 
cious, for  it  contains  the  heart  and 
388 


I  the  lungs,  the  organs  on  which  the 
speed  and  endurance  of  the  horse  de- 
pend. Capacity  of  chest  is  indispen- 
sable in  every  horse,  but  the  form  of 
the  chest  admits  of  variation.  In  the 
wagon-horse  the  circular  chest  may 
be  admitted,  because  he  seldom  goes 
at  any  great  speed,  and  there  is  com- 
paratively little  variation  in  the  quan- 
tity of  air  required  ;  but  in  other 
horses  the  variation  is  often  fearful. 
The  quantity  of  air  expended  in  a 
gallop  is  many  times  that  required  in 
hard  work.  Here  we  must  have 
depth  of  chest,  not  only  as  giving 
more  room  for  the  insertion  of  the 
muscles  on  the  action  of  which  the 
expansion  of  the  chest  depends,  but 
a  conformation  of  the  chest  which 
admits  of  that  expansion.  That 
v/hich  is  somewhat  straight  may  be 
easily  bent  into  a  circle  when  greater 
capacity  is  required ;  that  which  is 
already  circular  admits  of  no  expan- 
sion. A  few  words  more  are  all  that 
our  limits  permit  us  to  add,  and  they 
contain  almost  all  that  is  necessary 
to  be  added  on  the  conformation  of 
the  horse.  '  The  loins  should  be 
broad,  the  quarters  long,  the  thighs 
muscular,  and  the  hocks  well  bent 
and  well  under  the  horse.'  " 

Varieties  of  the  Horse. — All  the  va- 
rieties are  attributed  by  naturalists 
to  one  common  origin,  either  of  Tar- 
tary  or  Arabia,  the  diminutive  size  of 
the  Shetland,  Iceland,  and  other  po- 
nies being  attributed  to  climate  and 
provender. 

As  our  breeds  are  derived  from 
Europe,  it  being  asserted  that  the 
wild  Mexican  and  Pampas  horses  are 
the  offspring  of  those  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards  and  early  settlers,  it 
will  be  well  to  make  some  remarks 
on  the  original  stock. 

William  the  Conqueror  introduced 
Spanish  horses  (of  Arabian  stock)  into 
England.  The  thorough  Arabian  w^as 
introduced  in  1121. 

The  Arabian  horse  is  of  small  size, 
usually  of  a  dark  or  black  colour,  fine 
eye,  neat  limbs,  and  amiable  disposi- 
tion ;  his  form  is  the  model  for  en- 
durance and  speed.  Several  Arabi- 
ans have  been  introduced  into  the 


HORSE. 


United  States,  one  of  which  is  now 

in  Virginia.     The  figure  represents 

Fig.  1. 


an  Arabian  brought  to  Paris  by  Na- 
poleon, and  now  in  the  Royal  Gar- 
den. 

From  this  breed  the  finest  horses 
of  Spain,  Barbary,  France,  and  Ger- 
many have  been  improved. 

The  race-horse  is  a  well-marked  an- 
imal, derived  from  a  judicious  mix- 
ture of  the  Arabian,  Persian,  and 
Barbary  ;  it  is,  therefore,  formed  out 
of  Arabian  varieties  entirely.  His 
figure  indicates  swiftness,  which  has 
even  reached  four  miles  in  seven  and 
a  half  minutes  in  the  case  of  Fash- 
ion. The  same  characteristics  be- 
long to  the  American  thorough-bred, 
which  has,  indeed,  been  derived  from 
the  best  English  stock,  and  crossed 
with  the  thorough  Arabian.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  those  best  informed,  that 
this  breed  is  now  beyond  the  Arabi- 
an, and  can  only  be  improved  by  judi- 
cious selections  from  the  same  stock. 


more  bone,  and  shorter  in  the  body 
than  the  turf  horse.  His  forehead 
should  be  lofty,  the  shoulder  high,  but 
thicker  than  in  the  race-horse :  a 
broad  chest  is  indispensable.  The  leg 
deeper,  but  shorter  than  that  of  the 
racer.  The  foot  is  all-important ;  it 
should  stand  upright,  or  a  little  out- 
ward ;  the  loins  must  be  broad,  the 
thighs  muscular,  the  hocks  well  bent 
and  under.  Dr.  Gibson  is  of  opinion 
that  the  Irish  racer,  though  not  so 
highly  bred,  is  now  a  better  horse 
than  the  English  racer  :  of  this  stock 
Harkaway  and  Skylark,  introduced 
into  Virginia,  were  the  finest  speci- 
mens. The  horses  of  Virginia  and 
New-Jersey,  gotten  by  Shark  and 
Tallyho,  out  of  the  best  common 
mares,  are  fine  hunters  and  improved 
hacks. 

The  improved  hack;  or  roadster,  is 
the  most  important  horse.  It  is  now 
in  England  of  the  same  breed  as  the 
hunter,  being  preferred  rather  for  the 
figure  than  any  other  quality.  In  se- 
lecting breeding  stallions  and  mares, 
those  with  high  and  well-placed  shoul- 
ders, light  heads,  and  moderate  necks, 
with  straight  legs,  and  full  hunting 
hind  quarters,  are  selected.  Such 
an  animal  is  safer,  and  possesses  all 
the  bottom  of  the  hunter.  These 
points  are  well  shown  in  the  figure. 
Fig.  3. 


It  is  a  diflicult  thing  to  place  the 

New-Yark  trotters  ;  for  while,  by  their 

speed,  they  are  entitled  to  the  rank  of 

See  Breeding.     The  figure  represents  '  racers,  their  bottom  and  figure  place 

the  characters  of  the  racer  remarka- 1  them  in  the  list  of  roadsters. 

bly  well.  The  Morgan  or  Goss  horse  of  Ver- 

The  hunter  is  three  quarters  bred,  I  mont   occupies   a   position  between 

fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  with   the  thorough  roadster  and  draught 

K  K  2  3S9 


HORSE. 


horse.  Tliey  are  fourteen  to  fifteen 
hands,  bay,  sliort  and  round,  small 
heads,  deep  cliost.s,  fore-legs  sot  wide 
apart,  stroniLj  backs,  good  wind  and 
bottom.  Tliey  are  spirited,  with  good 
action  and  form,  and  an  admirable 
roadster  and  carriage  horse. 

The  Norman  horse,  or  I'crchcron,  is 
a  cross  of  the  .Spanish  upon  the  Flem- 
ish draught  horse.  He  is  remarkable 
for  spirit,  liveliness,  and  draught  qual- 
ities. He  averages  sixteen  hands, 
head  short,  jaw  heavy,  neck  short 
and  thick,  shoulder  oblique,  short 
back,  quarters  broad,  chest  deep  and 
wide,  legs  sliort.  It  is  a  very  obedi- 
ent race,  bearing  great  hardships  and 
coarse  fare.  Mr.  Harris,  of  New- 
Jersey,  has  imported  a  fine  pair.  The 
well-known  and  justly  celebrated 
Canadian  horse  has  all  the  qualities 
of  the  Norman,  from  which  it  is  de- 
rived, except  the  size.  This  breed, 
although  not  so  powerful,  is  much 
more  valuable  than  the  English, 
Dutch,  or  Flemish  draught  horse,  for 
it  is  a  good  roadster,  carriage,  and 
wagon  horse. 

The  Clydesdale  (Fig.  4)  is  the  best 


English  cart-horse,  and  has  much  of 
the  qualities  of  the  Norman.  It  is 
much  lighter  than  the  Suffolk  punch  ; 
the  chest  is  broad,  shoulder  thick  and 
oblique,  the  back  straight  and  broad. 
This  horse  is  remarkably  true  and 
faithful,  with  great  endurance.  It  is 
an  admirable  plough  horse,  and  often 
sufficiently  lively  for  the  carriage. 

The  Conestoga  horse  of  Pennsylva- 
nia is  a  good  carriage  and  draught  an- 
imal. 

The  heavy  English  cart  and  dray 
horse,  although  of  great  power,  is  not 
390 


suited  to  our  wants  from  his  extreme 
slowness. 

Among  the  different  varieties  of 
horse,  there  is  nothing  equal  in  beau- 
ty, liveliness,  and  docility  to  the  Shet- 
land pony,  of  eight  and  nine  and  a 
half  hands  high.  They  are  frequent- 
ly used  to  draw  light  carriages.  The 
Welsh  pony  is  occasionally  a  beauti- 
ful creature. 

"  General  Management  of  Horses. — 
The  foal,  as  soon  as  it  is  dropped, 
should  be  turned  with  its  dam  into  a 
sheltered  and  good  pasture,  in  which 
there  is  a  hovel  for  occasional  retreat 
from  the  wind  and  the  rain.  Some 
hay  or  corn,  or  both,  should  be  al- 
lowed, if  it  is  early  in  the  season,  or 
the  grass  has  scarcely  begun  to  shout. 
There  is  nothing  so  detrimental  to 
the  colt  as  insufficient  food.  It  should 
be  regarded  as  a  fundamental  princi- 
ple in  breeding,  that  if  the  growth  is 
checked  by  starvation,  beauty,  and 
energy,  and  stoutness  will  rarely  be 
displayed  in  after  years. 

"  In  five  or  six  months,  according 
to  the  growth  of  the  foal,  or  the  con- 
venience of  the  farmer,  the  weaning 
may  take  place.  The  colt  should  be 
removed  from  his  former  haunts  to 
some  distant  rick-yard,  or  confined 
to  a  stable  until  he  becomes  a  little 
reconciled  to  the  loss  of  his  dam. 

"  In  the  ensuing  spring  the  break- 
ing may  commence  ;  a  process  on 
which  will  materially  depend  the  tem- 
per and  the  value  of  the  horse,  and 
the  pleasure  of  the  rider.  The  foal 
should  be  handled  and  haltered,  and 
led  about  by  the  servant  who  has  the 
chief  care  of  him,  and  whose  con- 
duct towards  him  should  always  be 
kind.  '  The  principle,'  says  the  au- 
thor of  '  The  Horse,'  '  on  which  the 
after  usefulness  of  the  animal  is 
founded,  is  early  attachment  to  and 
confidence  in  man,  and  obedience, 
resulting  principally  from  these.' 

"  With  regard  to  the  racing  colt, 
the  processes  of  breaking  and  train- 
ing are  injuriously  and  cruelly  com- 
pleted in  the  second  year,  and  thou- 
sands of  horses  are  irreparably  in- 
jured by  this  early  exaction  of  labour 
and  speed ;   but  in   the  hunter,  the 


HORSE. 


hackne}',  the  agricultural,  and  the  car- 
riage horse,  tlie  serious  part  of  this 
business  is  not  entered  upon  until 
the  third  year. 

"  .\  horse  is  well  broken  vhen  he 
has  been  taught  implicit  and  cheer- 
ful obedience  to  his  rider  or  driver, 
and  dexterity  in  the  performance  of 
his  work.  A  dogged,  sullen,  spirit- 
less submission  may  be  enforced  by 
the  cruel  and  brutal  usage  to  which 
the  breaker  so  frequently  has  re- 
course ;  but  that  prompt  and  eager 
response  to  the  slightest  intimation 
of  the  rider's  will ;  that  manifest  aim 
to  anticipate  every  wish,  that  gives 
to  the  horse  so  much  of  his  value, 
must  be  built  on  habitual  confidence 
and  attachment.  The  education  of 
the  horse  should  be  that  of  a  child. 
Pleasure  should  be,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, associated  with  the  early  les- 
sons ;  while  firmness,  or,  if  need  be, 
coercion,  must  establish  the  habit  of 
obedience. 

"  The  breaking  being  accomplish- 
ed, the  management  of  the  hftrse  will 
vary  according  to  his  breed  and  des- 
tination ;  but  the  good  usage  of  our 
domesticated  slaves  should  be  re- 
garded as  a  principle  that  ought  nev- 
er to  be  violated.  The  agricultural 
horse  is  seldom  over- worked,  and  on 
large  farms  is  generally  well  fed  : 
perhaps,  in  many  cases,  too  much 
above  his  work  ;  this,  however,  is  an 
error  on  the  right  side.  A  very  slight 
inspection  of  the  animal  will  always 
enable  the  owner  to  determine  wheth- 
er he  is  too  well  or  not  sufficiently 
fed.  The  size  of  the  horse  and  the 
nature  of  the  work,  and  the  season 
of  the  year,  will  make  considerable 
difference  in  the  quantity  and  quali- 
ty of  the  food.  The  following  ac-  , 
counts  will  sufficiently  elucidate  the 
general  custom  :  Mr.  Harper  ploughs 
seven  acres  per  week,  the  year 
through,  on  strong  land,  with  a  team 
of  three  horses,  and  allows  to  each, 
weekly,  two  bushels  of  oats,  with 
hay,  during  the  winter  six  months, 
and  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year  one  bushel  of  oats  per  week, 
with  green  food.  Mr.  Ellman  allows 
two  bushels  of  oats,  with  pease  haulm  , 


or  straw,  with  but  very  little  hay,  du- 
ring thirty  winter  weeks.  He  gives 
one  bushel  of  oats,  with  green  food, 
during  the  summer.  There  is  very 
little  difference  in  the  management 
of  these  two  gentlemen,  and  that 
probably  arising  from  circumstances 
peculiar  to  their  respective  farms. 
The  grand  principles  of  feeding,  with 
reference  to  agricultural  horses,  are, 
to  keep  the  animal  rather  above  his 
work,  to  give  him  good  and  whole- 
some food,  and.  by  the  use  of  the 
nose-bag,  or  other  means,  never  to 
let  hiui  be  worked  more  than  four  or 
five  hours  without  being  baited. 

"  The  horse  of  quick  work,  the  stage- 
coach horse  and  the  poster,  should 
be  allowed  as  much  as  he  will  eat, 
care  being  taken  that  no  more  is  put 
into  the  manger  than  he  will  readily 
dispose  of.  The  quantity  actually 
eaten  will  depend  on  the  degree  of 
work  and  the  natural  appetite  of  the 
horse  ;  but  it  may  be  averaged  at 
about  66  pounds  of  cut  straw,  17^- 
pounds  of  beans,  and  77  of  oats  per 
week.  When  the  work  is  unusually 
hard,  the  quantity  of  oats  may  be  di- 
minished, that  of  beans  increased. 

"  During  the  sporting  season  the 
hunter  is  well  fed,  and  with  that  kind 
of  food  which  contains  a  great  pro- 
portion of  nutriment  in  little  com- 
pass. A  small  quantity  of  hay,  rare- 
ly more  than  eight  or  ten  pounds  per 
day,  is  allowed,  and  less  than  that  on 
the  day  before  work.  The  quantity 
of  oats  may  vary  from  14  to  16  pounds 
daily.  There  is  a  prejudice  in  most 
hunting  stables,  and  probably  well 
founded,  against  chaff,  and  it  is  sel- 
dom that  the  beans  and  oats  are 
bruised.  A  bran-mash  is  given  after 
a  day  of  more  than  usual  fatigue,  and 
is  serviceable  at  other  times,  when 
there  has  not  been  more  than  ordi- 
nary work,  provided  that  at  least 
two  days  are  suffered  to  elapse  be- 
fore the  horse  is  again  taken  into  the 
field. 

"  No  horse  should  be  urged  on  after 
he  has  exhibited  unequivocal  symp- 
toms of  distress,  such  as  a  drooping 
pace,  a  staggering  gait,  a  heavy  bear- 
mg  on  the  hand,  a  rapid  inspiration 
391 


HOUSE. 


like  a  hurried  sigb,  and  a  peculiar 
convulsive  action  of  the  diaphragm, 
as  though  tlie  heart  were  violently 
beating  against  the  side.  The  loss 
of  blood,  the  administration  of  some 
cordial  medicine,  and  slow  leading  to 
the  nearest  stable,  are  the  best  re- 
storatives at  the  moment  of  distress ; 
although  the  cordial  would  be  abso- 
lutely destructive  a  few  hours  after- 
ward, when  inflammation  had  com- 
menced. 

"  The  hunting  season  having 
passed,  the  horse  used  to  be  turned 
into  the  field  as  soon  as  the  grass 
had  begun  fairly  to  sprout,  and  there, 
with  his  feed  or  two  feeds  of  corn 
daily,  and  his  hovel,  into  which  he 
might  retreat  from  the  sun  or  the 
storm,  he  remained  until  the  middle 
of  June,  or  the  flies  began  to  be  troub- 
lesome. It  was  delightful  to  see  how- 
much  he  enjoyed  this  short  period  of 
liberty ;  and  well  had  he  earned  it. 
Of  late  years,  however,  it  has  be- 
come the  fashion  to  confine  him  to 
his  box,  whence  he  stirs  not,  except 
for  an  hour's  walking  exercise  on 
the  road,  until  he  is  taken  into  train- 
ing for  the  next  winter's  business. 

"  Nothing  can  be  so  erroneous  or 
cruel  as  this.  There  are  few  horses 
that  have  not  materially  suffered  in 
their  legs  and  feet  before  the  close  of 
the  hunting  season.  There  cannot 
be  anything  so  refreshing  to  their 
feet  as  the  damp  coolness  of  the 
herbage  which  they  tread  at  that  pe- 
riod ;  and  there  is  no  physic  which 
so  safely  and  effectually  as  the  spring 
grass  carries  off  every  humour  that 
may  be  lurking  in  their  frame. 

"  The  training  of  the  hunter  for  his 
work  is  a  simple  affair ;  it  is,  by 
means  of  exercise  and  physic,  getting 
rid  of  all  superfluous  fat  and  flesh 
without  debilitating  him.  The  phys- 
ic is  useful ;  it  is  indispensable  ;  but 
the  chief  thing  is  gradually  to  accus- 
tom him  to  the  exertion  of  every 
power  that  he  possesses,  without  too 
much  hurrying  his  breathing  or  over- 
straining or  injuring  him. 

"  The  training  of  the  race-horse  is 
of  a  similar  character,  but  it  is  far 
more  severe,  for  his  strength,  his 
392 


speed,  and  his  endurance  must  be 
tested  to  the  utmost.  The  hunter 
has  to  carry  his  rider  gallantly  and 
well  through  perhaps  a  long  burst, 
and  if  he  tires,  and  the  sportsman 
has  the  good  sense  and  humanity  to 
cease  to  urge  him  on,  the  greatest 
evil  is  some  temporary  suffering  to 
him,  and  disappointment  to  his  mas- 
ter ;  but  if  the  race-horse  breaks 
down,  or  if  his  capabOities  have 
not  been  accurately  calculated,  the 
most  serious  loss  may  be  sustained. 
Thence  arises  the  necessity  of  strain- 
ing and  of  testing  every  power  in  the 
preparation  of  the  turf  horse  ;  and 
thence,  too,  it  happens,  from  the 
strange  and  impolitic  sacrifice  of  the 
endurance  of  the  modern  racer  to 
speed  during  short  distances,  that  so 
many  young  horses  break  down  and 
become  perfectly  useless  in  their 
training. 

"  The  watering  of  the  horse  is  a 
very  important  but  disregarded  por- 
tion of  his  general  management.  The 
kind  of  water  has  not  been  sutBcient- 
ly  considered.  The  difference  be- 
tween what  is  termed  hard  and  soft 
water  is  a  circumstance  of  general 
observation.  The  former  contains 
certain  saline  principles  which  de- 
compose some  bodies,  as  in  the  cur- 
dling of  soap  ;  and  prevent  the  solu- 
tion of  others,  as  in  the  making  of 
tea,  the  boiling  of  vegetables,  and  the 
process  of  brewing.  It  is  natural  to 
suppose  that  these  different  kinds  ot 
water  would  produce  somewhat  dif- 
ferent effects  on  the  animal  frame, 
and  such  is  the  fact.  Hard  water, 
freshly  drawn  from  the  well,  will  fre- 
quently roughen  the  coat  of  the  horse 
unaccustomed  to  it,  or  cause  griping 
pains,  or  materially  lessen  the  ani- 
mal's power  of  exertion.  The  racing 
and  the  hunting  groom  are  perfectly 
aware  of  this,  and  so  is  the  horse, 
for  he  will  refuse  the  purest  water 
from  the  well  if  he  can  obtain  access 
to  the  running  stream,  or  even  the 
turbid  pool,  ^^'here  there  is  the  pow- 
er of  choice,  the  soft  water  should 
undoubtedly  be  preferred. 

"The  temperature  of  the  water 
is   of  far    more    consequence   than 


HORSE. 


its  hardness.  It  will  rarely  harm  if  i 
taken  from  the  pond  or  the  running 
stream,  but  its  cohhiess,  when  re- 
cently drawn  from  the  well,  has  often 
been  injurious.  It  lias  produccul  col- 
ic, spasm,  and  even  death.  It  should, 
therefore,  be  exj)osed  for  some  hours, 
either  in  the  stable  or  in  some  tank. 

"  There  is  often  considerable  prej- 
udice against  the  horse  being  fairly 
supplied  with  water.  It  is  supposed 
to  chill  liim,  to  injure  his  wind,  or  to 
incapacitate  him  for  hard  worlc.  It 
certainly  would  do  so  if,  immediate- 
ly after  drinking  his  till,  he  were  gal- 
loped hard,  but  not  if  he  were  sutTer- 
ed  to  quench  his  thirst  more  frequent- 
ly when  at  rest  in  the  stable.  The 
horse  that  has  free  access  to  water 
will  not  drink  so  much  in  the  course 
of  a  daj'  as  another  who,  to  cool  his 
parched  mouth,  swallows  as  fast  as 
he  can,  and  knows  not  when  to  stop. 

"  \^'hen  on  a  journey,  a  horse  may, 
with  perfect  safety,  be  far  more  lib- 
erally supplied  with  water  than  he 
generally  is.  An  hour  before  his 
work  commences  he  should  be  per- 
mitted to  drink  a  couple  of  quarts. 
A  greater  quantity  might  be  probably 
objected  to.  He  will  perform  his 
task  far  more  pleasantly  and  effect- 
ively than  with  a  parched  mouth  and 
tormenting  thirst.  The  prejudice 
both  of  the  hunting  and  the  training 
groom,  on  this  point,  is  cruel  as  well 
as  injurious.  The  task  or  the  jour- 
ney being  accomplished,  and  the 
horse  having  breathed  a  few  min- 
utes, another  quart,  or  even  two,  will 
be  delightfully  refreshing  to  him,  and 
will  never  do  him  harm.  His  corn 
may  then  be  offered  to  him,  which  he 
will  readily  take  ;  and,  before  he  has 
eaten  the  whole  of  it,  two  or  three 
more  quarts  of  water  may  be  given. 

"  Towards  the  close  of  the  day,  the 
speed  of  the  traveller  should  some- 
W'hat  abate,  and  the  horse  should  ar- 
rive at  his  resting-place  as  dry  and 
as  cool  as  circumstances  will  permit. 
If  he  is  hot,  he  must  be  walked  about 
a  while,  or  the  perspiration  will  re- 
turn in  the  stable.  If  he  is  wet,  he 
must  be  carefully  rubbed  dry.  The 
sooner  this  is  done  the  better;  and. 


after  lie  is  clothed,  watered,  fed,  and 
bedded,  he  shoukl,  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, be  left  to  his  repose.  Professor 
Stewart,  of  Cilasgow,  has  lately  pub- 
lished a  very  useful  work  on  the  '  Sta- 
ble Economy,  or  General  Manage- 
ment of  Horses.'  We  abridge  his 
account  of  '  the  kinds  of  work,  and 
the  preparation  for  them.' 

"  Travelling.  —  The  horse  should 
undergo  some  degree  of  training  as 
to  the  pace,  the  distance,  and  the 
burden.  When  there  has  been  no 
preparation,  the  stages  must  at  first 
be  short,  and  the  (lacc  gentle.  For  a 
journey  of  300  miles  the  horse  may 
travel  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
miles  a  day,  resting  on  the  Sunday, 
and  doing  the  work  in  two  stages,  at 
the  pace  of  six  miles  an  hour.  This 
requires  a  seasoned  horse,  and  the 
number  of  working  hours  per  day  is 
about  four. 

"  Hunting  requires  speed  and 
stoutness.  The  pace  seldom  exceeds 
twelve  miles  an  hour,  and  the  run  is 
short,  soon  over,  or  interrupted  ;  yet 
soft,  sinking  ground,  hills,  and  leaps 
make  this  pace  severe  even  on  the 
best  horses.  The  time  for  prepara- 
tion varies  from  two  to  four  months. 
On  the  day  before  work,  the  horse 
should  have  exercise  enough  to  emp- 
ty the  bowels.  If  he  is  a  good  feed- 
er, he  should  have  no  hay  within 
eight  hours  of  starting,  nor  water 
within  four  hours,  nor  corn  within 
three  hours  ;  but  if  he  has  five  or  six 
miles  to  go  to  cover,  these  restric- 
tions are  less  necessary.  The  work- 
ing days  will  vary  according  to  his 
condition  and  the  hardness  of  the 
running.  He  may  be  able  to  go  out 
every  second  day,  and  sometimes  not 
more  than  once  in  six  or  seven.  His 
spirits  and  appetite,  and  the  state  of 
his  legs,  will  decide  this.  Even  on 
the  blank  days  some  exercise  should 
be  taken  in  order  to  evacuate  the 
bowels  and  create  an  appetite. 

"  Coaching. — The  horses  are  best 
prepared  for  their  work  by  good  feed- 
ing and  gradual  increase  of  speed  and 
distance.  The  ordinary  length  of  a 
stage  is  eight  to  fourteen  miles ;  the 
pace  being  calculated  at  from  eight 
393 


IIORSK. 


to  eleven  miles  an  honr.  The  mus- 
cular exertion  is  severe  while  it  lasts, 
but  it  is  soon  over.  The  excitement, 
however,  of  high  keep  and  excessive 
exertion  gradually  wears  the  horse 
down,  and  it  is  rarely  that  he  contin- 
ues in  a  fast  coach  more  than  six 
years. 

"  Carting.  —  Cart-horses  usually 
work  from  eight  to  ten  hours,  six 
days  in  the  week.  The  pace  varies 
from  two  miles  to  three  and  a  half 
per  hour,  and  the  weight  rarely  ex- 
ceeds twenty-four  cwt.,  besides  the 
cart,  which  probably  is  seven  or  eight 
more.  All  beyond  this  in  weight  or 
in  time  of  work  is  cruel. 

"  Ploughing. — The  average  work 
is  about  eight  hours  in  the  day.  The 
severity  of  it  depends  on  the  pace, 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  breadth 
of  the  furrow-slice.  Tiie  pace  is  from 
two  miles  to  two  and  a  half  per  hour  ; 
the  horse  and  the  man  can  well  sup- 
port this  as  long  as  the  ploughing 
season  continues. 

"  Diseases  of  Horses  (from  Youatt). 
— It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  the 
animal  doomed  to  the  manner  of  liv- 
ing just  traced  in  every  variety  of  the 
horse,  will  be  peculiarly  exposed  to 
numerous  forms  of  suffering.  Every 
natural  evil  will  be  aggravated,  and 
many  new  and  formidable  sources  of 
pain  and  death  will  be  superadded. 

"Interest  and  humanity  require 
that  we  should  become  acquainted 
with  the  nature,  and  causes,  and  rem- 
edy of  the  diseases  of  the  horse.  Only 
a  slight  sketch  of  them  can  be  given 
here,  but  sufficient,  perhaps,  to  enable 
the  owner  to  recognise  their  exist- 
ence, to  avoid  their  causes,  or  to  in- 
duce him  to  apply  to  the  proper  quar- 
ter for  their  removal  or  alleviation. 

"  The  principal  diseases  of  the 
liorse  are  connected  with  the  circu- 
latory system.  From  the  state  of 
habitual  excitement  in  wliich  the  an- 
imal is  kept,  in  order  to  enable  him 
to  execute  his  task,  the  heart  and  the 
blood-vessels  will  often  act  too  im- 
petuously. The  vital  fluid  will  be 
hurried  along  too  rapidly,  either 
through  the  frame  generally,  or  some 
particular  part  of  it,  and  there  will  be 
39-i 


congestion,  accumulation  of  blood  in 
that  part,  or  there  will  be  inflamma- 
tion, either  local  or  general,  disturb- 
ing the  functions  of  some  organ  or 
of  the  whole  frame. 

"  Congestion. — Take  a  young  horse 
on  his  first  entrance  into  the  stables  ; 
feed  him  somewhat  highly,  and  what 
is  the  consequence  1  lie  has  swell- 
ings of  the  legs,  or  inflammation  of 
the  joints,  or  perhaps  of  the  lungs. 
Take  a  horse  that  has  lived  some- 
what above  his  work,  and  gallop  him 
to  the  top  of  his  speed  :  his  nervous 
system  becomes  highly  excited  ;  the 
heart  beats  with  fearful  rapidity ;  the 
blood  is  pumped  into  the  lungs  fast- 
er than  they  can  discharge  it  :  the 
pulmonary  vessels  become  gorged, 
fatigued,  and  utterly  powerless  ;  the 
blood,  arrested  in  its  course,  becomes 
viscid,  and  death  speedily  ensues. 
We  have  but  one  chance  of  saving 
our  patient,  viz.,  the  instantaneous 
and  copious  extraction  of  blood  ;  and 
one  means  of  preventing  the  recur- 
rence of  this  dangerous  state,  name- 
ly, by  not  suffering  too  great  an  ac- 
cumulation of  the  sanguineous  fluid 
by  over-feeding,  and,  by  regular  and 
systematic  exercise,  inuring  the  cir- 
culatory vessels  to  prompt  and  efl?- 
cient  action  when  thej'  are  suddenly 
called  upon  to  exert  themselves.  The 
cause  and  the  remedy  are  sufficient- 
ly plain. 

"  Again,  the  brain  has  functions  of 
the  most  important  nature  to  dis- 
charge, and  more  blood  flows  through 
it  than  any  other  portion  of  the  frame 
of  equal  bulk.  In  order  to  prevent 
this  organ  from  being  oppressed  by 
a  too  great  determination  of  blood  to 
it,  the  vessels,  although  numerous, 
are  small,  and  pursue  a  very  circui- 
tous and  winding  course.  A  horse 
highly  fed,  and  full  of  blood,  is  sud- 
denly and  sharply  exercised :  the 
course  of  the  blood  is  accelerated  in 
every  direction,  and  to  the  brain 
among  other  parts.  The  vessels  that 
ramify  on  its  surface  or  penetrate  its 
substance  are  completely  distended 
and  gorged  with  it.  Perhaps  they  are 
ruptured,  and  the  effused  blood  press- 
es upon  the  brain  ;  it  presses  upoa 


HORSE. 


the  origins  of  the  nerves,  on  which  all 
sensation  and  motion  depend,  and 
the  animal  suddenly  drops  powerless. 
A  prompt  and  copious  abstraction  of 
blood,  or,  in  other  words,  a  diminu- 
tion of  this  pressure,  can  alone  save 
the  patient.  Here  is  the  nature,  the 
cause,  and  the  treatment  of  ajmplexy. 

"  Sometimes  this  disease  assumes 
a  different  form.  The  horse  has  not 
been  performing  more  than  his  ordi- 
nary work,  or  perhaps  he  may  not 
have  been  out  of  the  stable.  He  is 
found  with  his  head  drooping  and  his 
vision  impaired.  He  is  staggering 
about ;  he  falls,  and  lies  half  uncon- 
scious, or  he  struggles  violently  and 
dangerously.  There  is  the  same  con- 
gestion of  blood  in  the  head,  the  same 
pressure  on  the  nervous  origins,  but 
produced  by  a  different  cause.  He 
has  been  accustomed  habitually  to 
overload  his  stomach,  or  he  was  on 
the  previous  day  kept  too  long  from 
his  food,  and  then  he  fell  ravenously 
upon  it,  and  ate  until  his  stomach 
was  completely  distended  and  unable 
to  propel  forward  its  accumulated 
contents.  Thus  distended,  its  blood- 
vessels are  compressed,  and  the  cir- 
culation through  them  is  impeded  or 
altogether  suspended.  T|ie  blood  is 
still  forced  on  by  the  heart,  and  driv- 
en in  accumulated  quantity  to  other  or- 
gans, and  to  the  brain  among  the  rest ; 
and  there  congestion  takes  place, 
as  just  described,  and  the  animal  be- 
comes sleepy,  unconscious,  and,  if 
he  is  not  speedily  relieved,  he  dies. 
This,  too,  is  apoplexy;  the  horseman 
calls  it  stomach  staggers.  Its  cause 
is  improper  feeding.  The  division  of 
the  hours  of  labour,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  nose-bag,  have  much  di- 
minished the  frequency  of  its  occur- 
rence. The  remedies  are  plain  : 
bleeding,  physicking,  and  the  remo- 
val of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  by 
means  of  a  pump  contrived  for  that 
purpose. 

"  Congestions  of  other  kinds  occa- 
sionally present  themselves.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  the  blood  to  loi- 
ter in  the  complicated  vessels  of  the 
liver,  until  the  membrane  of  that  vis- 
cus  has  t>urst,  and  an  accumulation  of 


congealed  black  blood  has  presented 
itself  It  is  the  same  with  the  spleen. 
It  constitutes  the  swelled  legs  to  which 
so  many  horses  are  subject  when  they 
stand  too  long  idle  in  the  stable.  Con- 
gestion is  the  source  of  many  of  the 
accumulations  of  serous  fluid  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body,  and  particular- 
ly in  the  chest,  the  abdomen,  and  the 
brain. 

"  Inflamtnalion  is  opposed  to  con- 
gestion, as  consisting  in  an  active  state 
of  the  capillary  arterial  vessels  ;  the 
blood  rushing  through  them  with  far 
greater  rapidity  than  in  health,  from 
the  excited  state  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, by  which  tticy  are  supplied. 

"  Inflammation  is  either  local  or  dif- 
fused. It  is  confined  to  one  organ, 
or  to  a  particular  portion  of  that  or- 
gan ;  or  it  involves  many  neighbour- 
ing ones,  or  it  is  spread  over  the 
whole  frame.  In  the  latter  case  it 
assumes  the  name  offerer.  Fever  is 
general  or  constitutional  inflamma- 
tion, and  is  said  to  be  sympathetic  or 
symptomatic  when  it  can  be  traced  to 
some  local  affection  or  cause,  and 
idiopathic  when  we  cannot  so  trace 
it.  The  truth  probably  is  that  every 
fever  has  its  local  cause,  but  we  have 
not  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  an- 
imal economy  to  be  able  to  discover  it. 

"  Inflammation  may  be  considered 
with  reference  to  the  membranes 
which  it  attacks. 

"  The  mucous  memhranes  line  all  the 
cavities  that  communicate  with  the 
external  surface  of  the  body.  There 
is  frequent  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth.  Blain,  or  Glos- 
santhrax.  is  a  vesicular  enlargement 
which  runs  along  the  side  of  the 
tongue.  Its  cause  is  unknown.  It 
should  be  lanced  freely  and  deeply, 
and  a  little  aperient  medicine  admin- 
istered, iifl/is,  or  ^a/).«,  are  smaller  en- 
largements, found  more  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  bridle  of  the  tongue. 
They  should  never  be  touched  with 
any  instrument :  a  little  cooling  med- 
icine will  generally  remove  them. 
Lampas  is  inflammation  of  the  palate, 
or  enlargement  of  the  bars  of  the  pal- 
ate. The  roof  of  the  mouth  may  be 
slightly  lanced,  or  a  little  aperient 
395 


HORSE. 


medicine  administered  ;  but  ilie  sen- 
sibility of  the  nioulli  should  never  be 
destroyed  by  the  application  of  the 
heated  iron.  Canker  and  wounds  in 
the  mouth,  from  various  causes,  will 
be  best  remedied  by  diluted  tincture 
of  myrrh,  or  a  weak  solution  of  alum. 
Foreign  bodies  jn  the  gullet  may  gen- 
erally be  removed  by  means  of  the 
probang  used  in  the  hoove  of  cattle  : 
or  the  oesophagus  may  be  opened, 
and  the  obstructing  body  taken  out. 
It  is  on  the  mucous  membranes  that 
poisons  principally  exert  their  influ- 
ence. The  yerv  is  the  most  frequent 
vegetable  poison.  The  horse  may  be 
saved  by  timely  recourse  to  equal 
parts  of  vinegar  and  water  injected 
into  the  stomach,  after  the  poison  has 
been,  as  much  as  possible,  removed  by 
means  of  the  stomach-pump.  For 
arsenic,  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  ; 
corrosive  sublimate,  white  of  eggs. 
Spasmodic  colic  is  too  frequently  pro- 
duced by  exposure  to  cold,  or  the 
drinking  of  cold  water,  or  the  use 
of  too  much  green  meat.  The  horse 
should  be  walked  about ;  strong  fric- 
tion used  over  the  belly,  and  spirit  of 
turpentine  given  in  doses  of  two  oun- 
ces, with  an  ounce  each  of  laudanum 
and  spirit  of  nitrous  a3ther,  in  warm 
water  or  ale.  If  the  spasm  is  not 
soon  relieved,  the  animal  should  be 
bled,  an  aloetic  ball  administered,  and 
injections  of  warm  water  with  a  so- 
lution of  aloes  thrown  up.  This  spas- 
modic action  of  the  bowels,  when 
long  continued,  is  liable  to  produce  in- 
trosusception,  or  entanglement,  of  them, 
and  the  case  is  then  hopeless.  Su- 
perpurgation  often  follows  the  admin- 
istration of  a  too  strong  or  improper 
dose  of  physic.  The  torture  which 
it  produces  will  be  evident  by  the  ag- 
onized expression  of  the  countenance, 
and  the  frequent  looking  at  the  flanks. 
Plenty  of  thin  starch  or  arrow-root 
should  be  given  both  by  the  mouth 
and  by  injection  ;  and  twelve  hours 
having  passed  without  relief  being 
experienced,  chalk,  catechu,  and  opi- 
um should  be  added  to  the  gruel. 
Worms  in  the  intestines  are  not  often 
productive  of  much  mischief,  except 
they  exist  in  very  great  quantities. 
306 


Small  doses  (two  drachms)  of  emetic 
tartar,  with  a  little  ginger,  may  be  giv- 
en to  the  horse  half  an  hour  before 
his  first  meal,  in  order  to  expel  the 
round  white  worm  ;  and  injections  of 
linseed  oil  or  aloes  will  remove  the 
ascarides,  or  needle-worms. 

"  The  respiratory  passages  are  all 
lined  by  the  mucous  membrane.  Ca- 
tarrh, or  cold,  inflammations  of  the 
upper  air  passages,  should  never  be 
long  neglected.  A  few  mashes  or 
a  little  medicine  will  usually  remove 
it.  If  it  is  neglected,  and,  occasion- 
ally, in  defiance  of  all  treatment,  it 
will  degenerate  into  other  diseases. 
The  larynx  may  become  the  princi- 
pal seat  of  inflammation.  Laryngitis 
will  be  shown  by  extreme  difficulty  of 
breathing,  accompanied  by  a  strange, 
roaring  noise,  and  an  evident  enlarge- 
ment and  great  tenderness  of  the  lar- 
ynx when  felt  externally.  The  wind- 
pipe mu.st  be  opened  in  such  case, 
and  the  best  advice  will  be  necessa- 
ry. Sometimes  the  subdivisions  of 
the  trachea,  before  or  when  it  first 
enters  the  lungs,  will  be  the  part  af- 
fected, and  we  have  bronchitis.  This 
is  characterized  by  a  quick  and  hard 
breathing,  and  a  peculiar  wheezing 
sound,  with  the  coughing  up  of  mu- 
cus. Herfe,  too,  decisive  measures 
must  be  adopted,  and  a  skilful  prac- 
titioner employed.  So  should  he  in 
distemper,  influenza,  and  epidemic  ca- 
tarrh, names  indicating  the  same  dis- 
ease, and  produced  by  atmospheric 
influence,  varying  to  a  certain  degree 
in  every  season,  but  in  all  character- 
ized by  intense  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  surfaces,  and  by  rapid  and 
utter  prostration  of  strength,  and  in 
all  demanding  the  abatement  of  that 
inflammation,  and  yet  no  expenditure 
of  vital  power. 

"  Cough  may  degenerate  into  in- 
flammations of  the  lungs ;  or  this  fear- 
ful malady  may  be  developed  without 
a  single  premonitory  symptom,  and 
may  prove  fatal  in  twenty-four,  or 
even  in  twelve  hours.  It  is  mostly 
characterized  by  deadly  coldness  of 
the  extremities,  expansion  of  the  nos- 
tril, redness  of  its  lining  membrane, 
singularly  anxious  countenance,  con- 


HORSE. 


slant  gazing  at  the  flank,  and  an  un- 
willingness to  move.  A  successful 
treatment  of  such  a  case  can  be  found- 
ed only  on  the  most  prompt,  and  fear- 
less, and  decisive  measures.  The 
lancet  must  be  freely  used  ;  counter- 
irritants  must  follow  as  soon  as  the 
violence  of  the  disease  is  in  the  slight- 
est degree  abated  ;  sedatives  must 
succeed  to  them,  and  fortunate  will 
he  be  who  often  saves  liis  patient  af- 
ter all  the  decisive  symptoms  of  pneu- 
monia are  once  developed. 

"  Amongthe  consequences  of  these 
severe  affections  of  the  lungs  are 
chronic  cough,  not  always  much  in- 
terfering with  the  usefulness  of  the 
horse,  but  strangely  aggravated  at 
times  by  any  fresh  accession  of  ca- 
tarrh, and  too  often  degenerating  into 
thick  wind,  which  always  materially 
interferes  with  the  speed  of  the  horse, 
and  in  a  great  proportion  of  cases 
terminates  in  broken  wind.  It  is 
rare,  indeed,  that  either  of  these  dis- 
eases admits  of  cure,  nor  does  that 
obstruction  in  some  part  of  the  re- 
spiratory canal,  and  varying  in  al- 
most every  horse,  which  produces 
the  peculiar  sound  termed  roaring. 

"  Glanders,  the  most  destructive  of 
all  the  diseases  to  which  the  horse 
is  exposed,  is  the  consequence  of 
breathing  the  atmosphere  of  foul  and 
vitiated  stables — the  winding  up  of 
almost  every  other  disease,  and  in 
every  stage  of  it  most  contagious. 
Its  most  prominent  symptoms  are  a 
small  but  constant  discharge  of  sticky 
matter  from  the  nose,  an  enlarge- 
ment and  induration  of  the  glands 
beneath  and  within  the  lower  jaw, 
on  one  or  both  sides  ;  and,  before  the 
termination  of  the  disease,  cancer- 
ous inflammation  of  the  nostril  on 
the  same  side  with  the  enlarged 
gland.  Its  contagiousness  should 
never  be  forgotten,  for  if  a  glandered 
horse  is  once  introduced  into  a  sta- 
ble, almost  every  horse  in  it  will  soon- 
er or  later  become  infected  and  die. 

"  The  urinary  and  genital  organs 
are  also  lined  by  mucous  membranes. 
'I'he  horse  is  subject  to  injlammalion 
of  the  kidneys  from  eating  musty  oats 
or  mow-burned  hay,  from  exposure 
L  L 


to  cold,  and  from  injuries  of  the  loins. 
Bleeding,  physic,  and  counter-irri- 
tants over  the  region  of  the  loins 
should  be  had  recourse  to.  Diabetes, 
or  profuse  staling,  is  diflicult  to  treat. 
The  "inflammation  that  may  exist 
should  first  be  subdued  ;  and  then 
opium,  catechu,  and  the  uva  ursi  ad- 
ministered. Inflammation  of  the  blad- 
der will  be  best  alleviated  by  mucila- 
ginous drinks  of  almost  any  kind.  Li- 
flammation  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder, 
evinced  by  the  frequent  and  painful 
discharge  of  small  quantities  of  urine, 
will  yield  only  to  the  abstraction  of 
blood  and  the  exhibition  of  opium. 
A  catheter  may  be  easily  passed  into 
the  bladder  of  the  mare  and  the  urine 
evacuated  ;  but  it  will  require  a  skil- 
ful veterinary  surgeon  to  effect  this 
in  the  horse.  ^4  stone  in  the  bladder 
is  readily  detected  by  the  practition- 
er, and  may  be  extracted  with  com- 
parative ease.  The  sheath  of  the 
penis  often  becomes  diseased  from 
the  presence  of  corrosive  mucous 
matter  :  it  may  easily  be  removed 
with  warm  water  and  soap. 

"  To  the  mucous  membranes  belong 
the  conjunctival  tunic  of  the  eye,  and 
the  diseases  of  the  eye  generally  may 
be  here  considered.  A  scabby  itchi- 
ness on  the  edge  of  the  eyelid  may  be 
got  rid  of  by  a  diluted  nitrated  oint- 
ment of  mercury.  Warts  should  be 
cut  off  with  the  scissors,  and  the  roots 
touched  with  lunar  caustic.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  haw  should  be  abated  by 
the  employment  of  cooling  lotions, 
but  that  useful  defence  of  the  eye 
should  never,  if  possible,  be  removed. 
Common  ophthalmia  will  yield  as  read- 
ily to  cooling  applications  as  inflam- 
mation of  the  same  organ  in  any  oth- 
er animal ;  but  there  is  another  kind 
of  inflammation,  commencing  in  the 
same  way  as  the  first,  and  lor  a  whde 
apparently  yielding  to  treatment,  but 
which  changes  from  eye  to  eye,  and 
returns  again  and  again,  until  blind- 
ness is  produced  in  one  or  both  or- 
gans of  vision.  The  most  frequent 
cause  is  hereditary  predisposition. 
The  reader  cannot  be  too  often  re- 
minded that  the  quahties  of  the  sire, 
good  or  bad,  descend,  and  scarcely 
397 


HOH.SE. 


changed,  to  his  ofTspring.  How  moon- 
blindness  was  first  produceil,  no  one 
knows ;  but  its  continuance  in  our 
stables  is  to  be  traced  to  this  cause 
principally,  or  almost  alone,  and  it 
pursues  its  course  until  cataract  is 
produced,  for  which  there  is  no  rem- 
edy. Gutta  scrcna  (palsy  of  the  optic 
nerve)  is  sometimes  observed,  and 
many  have  been  deceived,  for  the 
eye  retains  its  perfect  transparency. 
Here,  also,  medical  treatment  is  of 
no  avail. 

"  Tlie  serous  membranes  are  of 
great  importance.  Tlie  brain  and  spi- 
nal marrow,  with  the  origins  of  the 
nerves,  are  surrounded  by  them  ;  so 
are  the  heart,  the  kings,  the  exterior 
coat  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  the 
testes. 

"  Inflammation  of  the  Brain. — Mad 
staggers  falls  under  this  division  ;  it 
is  inflammation  of  the  meninges,  or 
envelopes  of  the  brain,  produced  by 
over-exertion,  or  by  any  of  the  caus- 
es of  general  fever,  and  it  is  charac- 
terized by  the  wildest  delirium.  No- 
thing but  the  most  profuse  blood-let- 
ting, active  purgation,  and  blistering 
the  head,  will  aflbrd  the  slightest  liope 
of  success.  Tetanus,  or  Locked  Jaw, 
is  a  constant  spasm  of  all  the  volun- 
tary muscles,  and  particularly  those 
of  the  neck,  the  spine,  and  tlie  head, 
arising  from  the  injury  of  some  ner- 
vous fibril — that  injury  spreading  to 
the  origin  of  the  nerve — the  brain  be- 
coming afTecled,  and  universal  and 
unbroken  spasmodic  action  being  the 
result.  Bleeding,  physicking,  blister- 
ing the  course  of  the  spine,  and  the 
administration  of  opium  in  enormous 
doses,  will  alone  give  any  chance  of 
cure.  Epilepsy  is  not  a  frequent  dis- 
ease in  the  horse,  but  it  seldom  ad- 
mits of  cure.  It  is  also  very  apt  to 
return  at  the  most  distant  and  uncer- 
tain intervals.  Falsy  is  the  suspen- 
sion of  nervous  power;  it  is  usually 
confined  to  the  hinder  limbs,  and 
sometimes  to  one  limb  only.  Here 
bleeding  and  physicking,  and  antimo- 
nial  medicines,  and  blistering  of  the 
spine,  are  the  most  rational  applica- 
tions, but  they  too  often  utterly  fail 
of  success.  Rabies,  or  madness,  is 
398 


evidently  a  disease  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  once  being  developed,  is 
altogether  without  cure.  The  utter 
destruction  of  the  bitten  part  with 
the  lunar  caustic,  soon  after  the  in- 
fliction of  the  wound,  will,  however, 
in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  prevent 
the  development  of  the  disease. 

"Pleurisy,  or  inflammation  of  the 
serous  covering  of  the  lungs  and  the 
lining  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  is 
generally  connected  with  inflamma- 
tion of  the  substance  of  the  lungs  ; 
but  it  occasionally  exists  independ- 
ent of  any  state  of  the  lungs.  The 
pulse  is  in  this  case  hard  and  full,  in- 
stead of  being  oppressed  ;  the  ex- 
tremities are  not  so  intensely  cold  as 
in  pneumonia,  the  membrane  of  the 
nose  is  little  reddened,  and  the  sides 
are  tender.  It  may  be  of  importance 
to  distinguish  between  the  two,  be- 
cause in  pleurisy  more  active  purga- 
tion may  be  pursued,  and  the  effect 
of  counter-irritants  will  be  greater, 
from  their  proximity  to  the  seat  of 
disease.  Copious  bleedings  and  sed- 
atives here  also  should  be  had  re- 
course to.  It  is  in  connexion  with 
pleurisy  that  a  serous  fluid  is  effused 
in  the  chest,  the  existence  and  the 
extent  of  which  may  be  ascertained 
by  the  practised  ear,  and  which  in 
many  cases  may  be  safely  evacuated. 
"  The  heart  is  surrounded  by  a  se- 
rous membrane,  the  pericardium,  that 
secretes  a  fluid,  the  interposition  of 
which  prevents  any  injurious  friction 
or  concussion  in  the  constant  action 
of  this  organ.  If  this  friction  increa- 
ses to  too  great  a  degree,  the  action 
of  the  heart  may  be  impeded  or  de- 
stroyed ;  this  is  dropsy  of  the  heart ; 
it  is  difficult  to  detect,  and  more  dif- 
ficult to  cure.  The  heart  itself  is 
often  diseased  ;  it  sympathizes  with 
the  inflammatory  affection  of  every 
organ,  and  therefore  is  itself  occa- 
sionally infiamed.  Carditis,  or  in- 
flammation of  the  heart,  is  character- 
ized by  the  strength  of  its  pulsations, 
the  tremour  of  which  can  be  seen, 
while  the  sound  can  be  heard  at  a 
distance  of  several  yards.  Speedy 
and  copious  blood-letting  will  afford 
the  only  hope  of  cure  in  such  a  case. 


HORSE. 


"  Tlie  outer  coat  of  the  stomach  I 
and  intestines  is  composed  of  a 
serous  menihrane.  the  peritoneum, 
which  adds  strength  and  firmness  to 
their  textures  ;  attaches,  and  sup- 
ports, and  confines  them  in  their  re- 
spective places,  and  secretes  a  fluid 
that  prevents  all  injurious  friction  be- 
tween them.  This  coat  is  exceed- 
ingly subject  to  inflammation,  some- 
what gradual  in  its  approach ;  the 
pulse  quickened,  but  small ;  the  legs 
cold  ;  the  belly  tender  ;  there  being 
constant  pain,  and  every  motion  in- 
creasing It ;  there  also  being  rapid 
and  great  prostration  of  strength. 
These  symptoms  will  sufficiently 
characterize  peritoneal  inflammation. 
Bleeding,  aperient  injections,  and  ex- 
tensive counter-irritation  will  aflTord 
the  only  hope  of  cure. 

"  The  time  for  caslration  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  breed  and  destiny  of 
the  horse.  On  the  farmer's  colt  it 
may  be  effected  when  the  animal  is 
not  more  than  four  or  five  months  i 
old,  and  it  is  comparatively  seldom 
that  a  fatal  case  then  occurs.  For 
other  horses  much  depends  on  their 
growth,  and  particularly  on  the  de- 
velopment of  their  fore  quarters.  Lit- 
tle improvement  has  been  effected  in 
the  old  mode  of  castrating,  except 
the  opening  of  the  scrotum,  and  the 
division  of  the  cord  by  the  knife  in- 
stead of  the  heated  iron. 

"  Si/novial,  or  joint  membranes,  are 
interposed  between  the  divisions  of 
the  bones,  and  frequently  between  the 
tendons,  in  order  to  secrete  a  certain 
fluid  that  shall  facilitate  motion  and 
obviate  friction.  Occasionally  the 
membrane  is  lacerated,  and  the  sy- 
novia escapes.  This  is  termed  open- 
ed joint,  and  violent  inflammation  rap- 
idly ensues.  The  duty  of  the  prac- 
titioner is  to  close  this  opening,  and 
as  quickly  as  possible.  Nothing  is  so 
effectual  here  as  the  old  application 
of  the  cautery.  A  great  deal  of  in- 
flammation and  engorgement  is  pro- 
duced around  the  opening,  partially, 
if  not  ahogether,  closing  it,  or,  at 
least,  enabling  the  coagulated  syno- 
via to  occupy  and  obliterate  it.  Per- 
haps, in  order  to  ensure  the  desired 


result,  the  whole  of  the  joint  should 
be  blistered  ;  a  bandage  should  then 
be  firmly  applied,  and  kept  on  as  long 
as  possible.     If,  after  this,  there  is 
any  escape  of  the  synovia,  the  cau- 
tery must  again  be  had  recourse  to. 
"  The  Navicular  Disease  is  a  bruise, 
or  inflammation,  or  perhaps  destruc- 
tion, of  the  cartilage  of  the  navicular 
bone,  where  the  flex  or  tendon  of  the 
foot  passes  over  it  in  order  to  reach 
the  coftin  bone.     The  veterinary  sur- 
geon can  alone  ascertain  the  exist- 
ence and  proper  treatment  of  this  dis- 
ease.    Sparin  is  an  enlargement  of 
the    inner   side   of  the   hock.     The 
splent  bones,  which  support  the  infe- 
rior layer  of  those  of  the  hock,  sus- 
taining a  very  unequal  degree  of  con- 
cussion and  weight,  the  cartilaginous 
substance  which  unites  them  to  the 
shank  bone  takes  on  inflammation, 
it  becomes  bony  instead  of  cartilagi- 
nous, and  the  disposition  to  this  change 
being  set  up  in  the  part,  bony  matter 
continues   to   be   deposited,  until  a 
very  considerable  enlargement  takes 
place,  known  by  the  name  of  spavin, 
and  there  is  considerable  lameness 
in  the  hock  joint.     The  bony  tumour 
is  blistered,  and  probably  fired,  but 
there  is  no  diminution  of  the  lame- 
ness until  the   parts  have  adapted 
themselves,  after  a  considerable  pro- 
cess of  time,  to  the  altered  duty  re- 
quired of  them,  and  then  the  lame- 
ness materially  diminisheaf  and  the 
horse  becomes,  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  useful.     Curb  is  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  back  of  the  hock,  three 
or  four  inches  below  its  point.     It  is 
a  strain  of  the  ligament  which  there 
binds  the  tendons  down  in  their  place. 
The  patient  should  be  subjected  to 
almost  absolute  rest ;  a  blister  should 
be  applied  over  the  back  of  the  tu- 
mour, and,  occasionally,  firing  will  be 
requisite  to  complete  the  cure.   Near 
the  fetlock,  and  where  the  tendons 
are  exposed  to  injury  from  pressure 
or  friction,  little   bags  or  sacs  are 
placed,  from  which  a  lubricating  mu- 
cous fluid  constantly  escapes.    In  the 
violent  tasks  which  the  horse  occa- 
sionally has  to  perform,  these  become 
bruised  and  inflamed,  and  enlarged 
399 


HORSE. 


and  hardened,  and  are  termed  ■wind- 
galls  ;  lliey  blemish  the  horse,  but 
are  no  cause  of  lameness  after  the 
inflammation  has  subsided,  unless 
they  become  very  much  enlarged. 
The  cautery  will  then  be  the  best 
cure.  Immediately  above  the  hock, 
enlargements  of  a  similar  nature  are 
sometimes  found,  and,  as  they  pro- 
ject both  inwardly  and  outwardly, 
they  are  termed  thorough  puis.  They 
are  seldom  a  cause  of  lameness,  but 
they  indicate  groat,  and  perhaps  in- 
jurious exertion  of  the  joint.  On  the 
inside  of  the  hock  a  tumour  of  this 
kind,  but  of  a  more  serious  nature,  is 
found.  It  is  one  of  these  enlarged 
mucous  bags,  but  very  deeply  seated, 
the  subcutaneous  vein  of  the  hock 
passing  over  it.  The  course  of  the 
blood  through  the  vein  is  thus,  in  some 
measure,  arrested,  and  a  portion  of 
the  vessel  becomes  distended.  This 
is  a  serious  evil ;  for,  from  the  deep- 
seatedness  of  the  mucous  bag,  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  act  effectually 
upon  it.  It  is  termed  bog  or  blood 
spavin. 

"  The  cellular  tissue  which  fills  the 
interstices  of  the  various  organs,  or 
enters  into  their  texture,  is  the  seat 
of  many  diseases.  From  the  badness 
of  the  harness,  or  the  brutality  of  the 
attendant,  the  poll  of  the  horse  be- 
comes contused.  Inflammation  is 
set  up,  considerable  swelling  ensues, 
and  an  ulcerative  process  soon  com- 
mences, and  chasms  and  sinuses  of 
the  most  frightful  extent  begin  to  ap- 
pear. The  withers  are  probably  bruis- 
ed, and  the  same  process  takes  place 
there,  and  sinuses  penetrate  deep  be- 
neath the  shoulder,  and  the  bones  of 
the  withers  are  frequently  exposed. 
These  abscesses  are  termed  poll  evil 
anA  Jisivlous  withers,  and  in  the  treat- 
ment of  them  the  horse  is  often  tor- 
tured to  a  dreadful  and  disgraceful 
extent.  A  better  mode  of  manage- 
ment has,  however,  been  introduced  : 
setons  are  passed  through  the  most 
dependant  parts  ;  no  collection  of  sa- 
nious  fluid  is  permitted  to  exist,  and 
milder  stimulants  are  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  ulcer. 

"An  abscess  of  a  peculiar  charac- 
400 


ter  is  found  between  the  branches  of 
the  lower  jaw  in  young  horses  ;  it  is 
preceded  by  some  degree  of  fever.  It 
is  usually  slow  in  its  progress,  but  at 
length  it  attains  a  considerable  size, 
including  the  whole  of  the  cellular 
tissue  in  that  neighbourhood.  There 
is  one  uniform  mass  of  tumefaction. 
This  is  strangles.  Vtvcs  appears  to 
be  the  first  stage  of  this  disease.  It 
seems  to  be  an  effort  of  nature  to  get 
rid  of  something  which  oppresses  the 
constitution,  and  the  treatment  of  it 
is  now  simple  and  effectual.  It  is 
encouraged  by  fomentations  and  by 
blisters  :  it  is  punctured  as  soon  as 
the  fluctuation  of  a  fluid  within  it  can 
be  fairly  detected,  the  pus  speedily 
escapes,  and  there  is  an  end  of  the 
matter. 

"To  one  disease  of  the  absorbent 
system  a  brief  reference  must  be 
made. 

"  Farcy. — While  the  arterial  capil- 
laries are  engaged  in  building  up  the 
frame,  the  absorbents  are  employed 
in  removing  that  which  not  only  is 
useless,  but  which  would  be  poison- 
ous and  destructive.  They  take  up 
the  matter  of  glanders  and  of  every 
ulcerating  surface,  and  they  are  occa- 
sionally irritated,  inflamed,  and  ul- 
cerated, from  the  acrimonious  nature 
of  the  poison  which  they  carry.  The 
absorbents  are  furnished  with  numer- 
ous valves  ;  the  fluid  is,  for  a  while, 
arrested  by  them,  and  there  the  in- 
flammation is  greatest,  and  ulcera- 
tion takes  place.  This  is  the  history 
of  the  farcy  cords  and  buds.  Farcy 
is  a  highly  contagious  disease,  wheth- 
er or  not  it  be  connected  with  glan- 
ders. It,  however,  occasionally  ad- 
mits of  cure  from  the  application  of 
the  cautery  to  the  bud,  and  the  ad- 
ministration of  very  small  doses  of 
corrosive  sublimate,  or  the  sulphate 
of  iron,  internally. 

"  The  skin  of  the  horse  is  subject 
to  various  diseases.  Large  pimples, 
or  lumps,  suddenly  appear  on  the 
skin,  and,  after  remaining  a  few  days, 
the  cuticle  peels  off,  and  a  circular 
scaly  spot  is  left :  this  is  called  sur- 
feit. The  cause  is  obscure,  but  prin- 
cipally referable  to  indigestion.     A 


HOR 

slight  bleeding  will  always  be  ser- 
viceable ;  physic  rarely  does  good ; 
but  alteratives,  composed  of  nitre, 
black  antimony,  and  sulphur,  will  be 
very  beneficial.     Mange  is  a  disease 
of  a  different  character.     It  is  the 
curse  of  the  stable  into  which  it  en- 
ters, for  it  will  almost  certainly  affect 
every   horse.      Thorough    dressings 
vpith  Barbadoes  tar  and  linseed  oil,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  of  the  former  to 
three  of  the  latter,  will  be  the  most 
effectual  external  application,  while 
alteratives  and  physic  should  be  giv- 
en internally.     Hulc-bound  is  a  very 
appropriate    term    lor   the   peculiar 
sticking  of  the  hide  to  the  ribs  when 
a  horse  is  out  of  condition.    The  sub- 
cutaneous adipose  matter  is  all  ab- 
sorbed.    The  alterative  above  rec- 
ommended will  be  very  useful  here. 
Grease  is  an  undue  secretion  of  the 
fluid  which  was  designed  to  lubricate 
the  skin  of  the  heels,  and  that  secre- 
tion being   also   altered  in  quality. 
The  hind  legs  begin  to  swell,  a  fluid 
exudes  from  the  heels,  the  hairs  of 
the  heels  become  erect  like  so  many 
bristles,  and  the  skin  of  the  heel  is 
hot   and   greasy.      Soon   afterward 
cracks  appear  across  the  heel,  they 
discharge  a  thick  and  offensive  mat- 
ter, and  then  deepen.     They  spread 
up  the  leg,  and  so  does  the  tumefac- 
tion of  the  part.     In  process  of  time 
the  skin,  inflamed  and  ulcerated,  un- 
dergoes an  alteration  of  structure  ; 
prominences  or  granulations  appear 
on  it,  assuming  the  appearance  of  a 
collection  of  grapes,  or  the  skin  of  a 
pineapple.    They  increase,  and  a  foe- 
tid discharge  appears  from  the  crev- 
ices between  them. 

"  The  cause  is  generally  neglect  of 
the  horse.  He  is  suffered  to  stand 
iu  the  stable  with  his  heels  cold  and 
wet,  and  this  must  necessarily  dis- 
pose them  to  inflammation  and  dis- 
ease. 

"  In  the  first  stage  of  grease,  bran, 
or  turnip,  or  carrot  poultices  will  be 
serviceable,  with  moderate  physic. 
Then  astringents  must  be  employed, 
and  the  best  are  alum  or  sulphate  of 
copper  in  powder,  mixed  with  eight 
limes  the  quantity  of  Bole  Armenian, 
Ll2 


HOR 

and  sprinkled  on  the  sores.  These 
should  be  alternated  every  three  or 
four  days.  The  grapy  heels  are  a 
disgrace  to  the  stable  in  which  they 
are  found,  and  admit  not  of  radical 
cure." 

Wounds  in  horses  seldom  heal  by 
first  intention  ;  the  lips  should,  how- 
ever, be  brought  together  nicely  and 
bound  by  sticking  plaster  or  a  ban- 
dage ;  if  suppuration  occurs,  keep  the 
wound  clean  by  warm  water.  For 
the  medicines,  see  Pharmacopaia. 

HORSE'S  FOOT.  The  structure 
of  the  feet  of  horses  is  much  more 
complex  than  one  might  suppose  at 
first  sight ;  it  is  contrived  so  as  to 
furnish  an  arrangement  of  springs, 
whereby  the  weight  of  the  body  in 
alighting  on  the  hoof  is  broken,  and 
the  animal  is  enabled  to  leap  from 
the  ground  with  facility.  This  struc- 
ture will  be  seen  in  Fig.  1,  which 
Fig:  1. 


f- 


represents  a  section  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  leg.  a  is  the  coflin  bone  ; 
b  the  navicular,  or  nut  bone  ;  c  the 
coronary,  or  little  pastern  bone ;  d 
is  the  pastern  bone  ;  e  the  tendon, 
or  sinew,  of  the  muscle  which  bends 
the  foot  backward  ;  /  is  the  same 
tendon  sliding  over  the  navicular 
bone,  and  g  its  insertion  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  coflin  bone  ;  h  the  elas- 
tic matter  of  the  sensible  frog ;  i 
the  insensible  or  horny  frog ;  k  the 
horny  sole  covering  the  sensible  parts 
of  the  foot ;  /  the  front  horn  that 
protects  the  coffin  bone  ;  m  the  pro- 
cess of  the  coflin  bone,  to  which  the 
extensor  tendon,  n,  is  attached,  for 
the  purpose  of  throwing  the  foot  for- 
ward ;  0  the  attachment  of  the  ex- 
tensor to  the  coronary  bone,  to  assist 
401 


HOR 


HOll 


in  making  the  spring.  From  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  when  a  horse  is 
alighting  his  whole  weight  is  not  ex- 
pended upon  an  unyielding  and  hard 
hoof,  but  upon  a  series  of  bones  which 
participate  and  divide  the  shock,  re- 
ducing it  to  a  trifling  pressure  on  each 
part.  It  is  this  complexity  of  ar- 
rangements which  renders  the  horse's 
foot  so  liable  to  injuries  :  when  any 
of  the  ligamentous  connexions  or 
synovial  membranes  between  the 
bones  is  irritated  it  produces  lame- 
ness, which,  if  not  speedily  attended 
to,  may  become  permanent. 

The  hoof,  or  horn,  of  the  foot  on 
the  under  side  is  marked  by  certain 
projections,  which  are  altered  in  their 
form  in  disease.  Fig.  2  represents 
Fig.  2. 


secrete  horn,  and  produces  pus  and 
ulcers  in  its  place  ;  this  is  a  result 
of  foul  stables.  But  the  whole  in- 
sensible sole  may  become  painful  and 
sensitive  from  bad  shoeing,  if  the 
shoe  fits  ill,  compresses  any  part,  or 
duriag  the  growth  of  the  nail  be- 
comes buried  in  it. 

HORSESHOE.  The  best  veteri- 
nary surgeons  are  unanimous  in  con- 
demning the  common  horseshoe, 
from  its  want  of  width  or  web,  from 
being  usually  too  wide  behind,  from 
the  calkins,  or  turned-up  parts  at  the 
heels,  and  from  the  clinches  being 
driven  in  too  far  back  towards. the 
heels,  as  well  as  the  want  of  level 
and  irregular  figure.  According  to 
the  practice  of  Moorcroft  and  others, 
the  seated  shoe  of  Osmer  is  the  prop- 
er form.     It  is  shown  in  the  figure, 


a  healthy  sole  :  the  rounded  portions 
of  the  hoof,  a,  a,  behind  where  the 
nail  is  curved  inward,  are  called  the 
heels  ;  between  these  lies  the  horny 
frog,  b ;  the  inflected  or  bent  por- 
tions of  the  hoof,  c,  c,  running  on  the 
outside  the  frog,  are  called  the  bars  ; 
d  d  are  the  angles  of  the  bars,  in 
which  corns  occur  in  diseased  feet ; 
in  the  latter  case  the  frog  becomes 
contracted,  and  often  fissured,  pro- 
ducing pus  (thrush)  ;  the  bars  are  run 
together,  and  the  heels,  instead  of 
being  rounded  and  wide  apart,  are 
contracted  to  a  mere  slit.  The  space, 
e,  lying  between  the  front  edge  of 
the  hoof  and  the  bars  in  the  sole 
should  be  broad  and  concave.  When 
this  external  covering  is  removed 
from  the  foot,  it  is  found  to  rest  on 
the  sensible  sole  and  frog,  both  of 
which,  and  especially  the  latter,  are 
highly  vascular  and  sensitive  ;  they 
are,  indeed,  to  the  hoof  what  the 
quick  is  to  the  human  nail,  they  se- 
crete the  tough  horn  to  protect  them- 
selves. In  disease  it  sometimes  oc- 
curs that  the  sensible  frog  refuses  to 
402 


a  being  the  under  or  ground  side,  and 
b  the  upper  surface.  Its  peculiarities 
are,  1st,  a  flat,  wide  surface  towards 
the  ground,  a,  d ;  this  is  made  true  in 
forging  by  gauging  on  a  flat  iron  ; 
there  is  no  groove  or  fullering,  which 
only  assists  the  wear  ;  it  is  punched 
with  conical  holes  with  square  tops, 
and  clinched  to  the  crust  by  conical 
nails,  e  ;  the  nails  are  obliquely  driv- 
en outward,  and  their  figure  keeps 
the  shoe  fast  as  long  as  any  portion 
of  them  remains  in  place.  The  up- 
per surface,  b,  c,  is  bevelled  in  the 
fore  part  and  sides,  but  not  behind, 
so  as  to  offer  a  good  support  to  the 
heel ;  there  is  no  increase  of  thick- 
ness, clubbing,  or  calkings,  but  the 
whole  shoe  is  uniformly  thick,  from 
one  half  to  five  eighths  of  an  inch, 
and  perfectly  level.  This  is  regard- 
ed by  Loudon  as  a  perfect  shoe. 
I      Calkings  may  be  made  where  the 


IIUR 


HOR 


ground  is  slippery  and  much  up  hill ; 
and  a  turn-up  in  front  is  also  useful 
in  rocky  {)laccs.  There  is  a  shoe 
called  the  bar  shoe,  which  is  of  an 
oval  figure,  the  iron  heing  complete 
around  the  heel,  curved  and  thick- 
ened to  suit  it  ;  hut  it  is  seldom  used  : 
it  answers  well  to  protect  a  tender 
frog.  In  putting  on  the  shoe,  all  the 
crust  trimmed  should  he  taken  quite 
level,  and  the  shoe  never  put  on  hot 
to  make  it  fit  better  ;  it  may  be  gauged 
while  hot  for  a  minute  to  enable  the 
smith  to  cut  the  crust  true,  but  not 
clmched  while  hot.  Racing  shoes 
are  very  light,  and  of  the  figure 
above. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT.  Mscnlus 
hif-pocastanum.  This  tree  is  remark- 
able chiefly  for  the  beauty  of  its  fig- 
ure, flowers,  and  early  foliage.  The 
wood  is  soft  and  of  little  value.  The 
nuts  contain  much  nutritious  matter, 
which  is  combined  with  a  disagreea- 
ble bitter  ;  but  it  is  said  that  pigs  eat 
them  when  pounded  into  meal.  A 
writer  in  the  American  Farmer  says 
that  they  are  very  saponaceous,  and 
will  take  spots  out  of  linen.  The 
Buckeyes  are  of  this  genus,  or,  at 
least,  of  the  sub-genus  Pavia. 

HORSE  DUNG.  See  Farm-yard 
Manure. 

HORSE-FLY.    Hippobosca,  which 

SG6, 

HORSE-HOE.     See  Cultivator. 

HORSE  POWER.  In  physics, 
the  effect  produced  by  the  strength 
of  a  horse.     James  Watt  allowed  in 


his  engine  an  effect  equal  to  32,000 
pounds  lifted  one  foot  in  a  minute  ; 
but  from  experiments  with  horses, 
D'Aubuisson  found  it  was  only  equal 
to  16,440  pounds  raised  one  foot  in  a 
minute. 

In  acrriculturaJ  machines,  a  horse 
power  is  a  contrivance  or  gearing  to 
make  the  labour  of  horses  available  in 
turning  thrashing  and  other  machines, 
where  great  swiftness  is  wanted. 

The  simplest  horse  power  {Fig.  1) 


is  a  triangular  wooden  frame  bearing 
a  wheel,  the  upper  axis  of  which  is 
inserted  into  the  lever,  a  ;  the  horse 
is  hitched  at  b,  and,  as  he  walks  in  a 
circle,  turns  the  wheel,  d,  which 
plays  into  an  endless  screw,  the 
end  or  rod  of  which,  c,  is  made  to 
revolve  rapidly,  and  may  be  put  in 
communication  with  a  machine  by 
the  hook  or  by  a  small  roller.  The 
same  arrangement,  with  several  ad- 
ditional wheels  to  multiply  motion, 
and  a  crown  wheel  instead  of  the 
endless  screw,  forms  Warren''s  horse 
power  {Figure  2),  as  well  as  other 
kinds. 


The  old  power  for  thrashing  con- 
sisted of  an  upright  beam,  carrying 
at  the  top  a  crown  or  bevelled  wheel 
of  large  circumference,  and  turning  a 
small  wheel,  which  was  directly  in 
contact  with  the  thrasher  or  grinding 
mill.     The  horses  were  attached  to 


levers,  projecting  from  the  central 
beam,  and  below  the  wheel.  This  is 
a  simple  and  very  efficient  contri- 
vance. A  modification  is  introduced 
by  Mr.  Scripture,  who  puts  no  cogs 
to  the  wheel,  but  causes  it  to  turn  a 
roller  by  friction. 

403 


HOR 

TajtliTi's  horse  power  {Fig.  3)  is  a 
large  wliecl  revolving  on  a  short  ax- 
is near  to  tlie  ground.  Tlie  driver 
sits  on  the  top  of  the  axis,  and  the 


HOR 

horses  work  within  the  circumfer- 
ence, being  hitched  to  it.  The  under 
side  of  tlie  wheel  carries  iron  tcolh, 
which  play  upon  a  small  wheel  con- 


nected by  a  drum  with  the  thrasher. 
It  is  readily  carried,  and  set  up  on  the 
field  in  a  few  minutes. 

Gleaso7i's  horse  power  {Fig.  4)  is  on 


another  principle  :  an  endless  chain, 
carrying  oaken  slats  for  the  horse  to 
tread  on,  is  made  to  turn  a  wheel, 
which  carries  a  drum  on  the  outside 
of  the  frame,  from  which  a  leathei 
band  communicates  with  the  thrash- 
er or  mill.  The  horse  or  mule  works 
within  a  framing  to  hinder  accidents. 
Pitt's  machine  is  of  this  class. 

A  very  similar  contrivance  is  used 
for  dogs,  the  machine  being  reduced 
to  a  proper  size.  In  this  way  churn- 
ing and  other  light  operations  may  be 
conducted. 

These  horse  powers  contain  the 
three  principles  on  which  all  the  rest 
are  constructed.  The  prices  of  the 
powers  are  from  $60  to  ^90  for  the 
single  horse,  and  $100  to  $120  for 
two  or  more  horses. 

HORSERADISH.  CoMcaria  ar- 
moracia.  A  cruciferous  plant,  with  a 
perennial  root,  used  as  a  condiment 
404 


for  its  hot  taste,  resembling  mus- 
tard. 

The  plants  are  obtained  from  cut- 
tings, or  otfsets,  from  the  crown  of 
the  preceding  roots,  each  cutting  hav- 
ing two  eyes :  they  are  set  early  in 
spring,  in  a  deep,  mellow  earth  that 
has  been  trenched.  The  soil  should 
be  moist  and  well  manured.  The 
sets  may  be  placed  in  drills,  eighteen 
inches  to  two  feet  apart,  by  six  inch- 
es in  the  row,  and  during  the  first 
year  beets  or  other  plants  can  be 
raised  in  the  drill  intervals.  Weed- 
ing and  hoeing  are  necessary.  The 
roots  will  be  lit  to  be  taken  up  in  Oc- 
tober and  November  of  the  second 
i  year,  when  they  may  be  kept  for  use 
]  in  sand.  In  taking  up  the  roots  the 
eartli  must  be  thoroughly  loosened 
to  obtain  the  whole,  as  they  are  fre- 
quently two  feet  deep.  Oflsets  and 
broken  pieces  containing  eyes  will 
vegetate  the  next  year,  and  in  this 
way  a  bed  once  established  may,  by 
manuring,  be  kept  up  for  a  long  pe- 
riod ;  but  the  best  way  is  to  select 
cuttings  for  a  new  bed  the  next  year. 
HORSE-R.AKE.  See  Hay-makiiig. 
HORSE-TAIL.  The  genera  Equi- 
setum,  or  scouring  rush,  and  Hippuns, 
remarkable  for  the  large  amount  of  sil- 
ica they  contain.  They  grow  in  rich, 
wet  places,  and  some  varieties  are  of 
value  in  the  arts  for  polishing  met- 

HORTICULTURE  (from  hortus, 
a  garden,  and  colo,  I  cultivate).  The 
cultivation  of  gardens  and  orchards. 
See  Garden  Husbandry. 


HOT 


HUM 


HORTUS  SICCUS.  An  herbari- 
um, a  collection  of  dried  plants. 

HOT-BED.     See  Frame. 

HOT-HOUSE.  A  glazed  structure, 
sufficiently  high  to  allow  persons  to 
enter,  and  with  conveniences  for  the 
production  of  artiticial  heat.  The 
means  of  heating  are  various  :  some 
depend  upon  dung  pits  constantly  re- 
newed, others  upon  flues  running  in 
the  walls,  and  conveying  the  hot  air 
of  a  furnace.  Steam  is  also  convey- 
ed by  iron  and  copper  pipes,  and  made 
to  circulate  several  times  through 
the  house,  especially  under  the  beds. 
Hot  water  is  also  conveyed  from  a 
boiler  round  the  house  and  back,  so 
as  to  maintain  a  constant  circulation, 
the  boiler  being  provided  with  a  safe- 
ty-valve. The  direct  introduction  of 
steam  from  a  boiler  through  an  open 
pipe  is  occasionally  used  as  an  eco- 
nomical way  of  heating  the  house 
when  the  plants  are  adapted  to  a  very 
moist  air. 

The  arrangements  of  the  hot-house 
are  various,  according  to  the  object 
m  view.  The  roof  usually  sustains 
grapes ;  the  highest  wall,  tigs,  apri- 
cots, early  peaches,  nectarines,  and 
choice  fruits :  in  the  centre  is  arran- 
ged a  rising  frame  containing  the  ex- 
otics, which  require  heat  during  win- 
ter, or  the  ground  may  be  used  as  a 
place  to  forward  vegetables.  The 
walk  is  around  the  central  stand.  The 
height  and  dimensions  will  depend 
upon  the  plants  protected. 

HOTTENTOT  BREAD.  Tamus 
(Tcstudinaria)  clcphantipcs.  A  South 
African  climbing  perennial,  produ- 
cing an  immense  above-ground  tuber, 
very  similar  to  the  yam  in  flavour. 
It  forms  a  large  portion  of  the  food 
of  the  natives. 

HOT- WALLS.  Walls  in  which 
heat  circulates  for  the  advancement 
of  fruit,  and  ripening  of  the  wood  in 
the  fall.  They  are  made  by  conduct- 
ing flues  from  a  furnace  at  various 
heights,  or  back  and  forth,  and  ter- 
minating in  a  chimney  ;  by  enclo- 
sing steam  pipes,  or,  what  is  much 
better,  bv  building  the  wail  hollow 
throughout,  binding  the  two  sides  to- 
gether occasionally  by  cross  bricks 


'  or  stones,  and  a  coping,  and  passing 
a  large  hot-water  pipe  along  the  bot- 
[  tom  between  the  sides :  the  heat 
from  this  rises  upward,  and  produces 
an  equal  temperature  throughout  the 
wall. 

Hot -walls  are  much  assisted  by 
a  moveable  arrangement  of  glazed 
sashes,  which  can  be  set  up  to  pro- 
tect the  trees  from  frost  in  early 
spring,  and  may  be  removed  during 
summer. 

Ordinary  walls,  painted  of  a  dark  col- 
our, and  looking  to  the  south,  become 
heated  by  ten  to  twenty  degrees  high- 
er than  the  adjacent  grounds  during 
summer,  and  therefore  advance  the 
ripening  of  fruits  considerably,  espe- 
cially if  all  the  leaves  lying  around 
the  fruit  be  removed,  which  shade  it 
from  the  sun  or  wall.  The  introduc- 
tion of  reflecting  surfaces  of  white 
wood  or  sheet  tin,  so  as  to  concen- 
trate light  and  heat  on  walls,  would 
i  doubtless  much  advance  the  maturi- 
ty of  fruits.  Such  reflectors  might  be 
moveable,  made  very  light,  and  read- 
ily adjusted  to  heat  any  particular 
wall. 

HOUXD.  The  dogs  of  chase  are 
so  called. 

HOUND'S  TONGUE.  The  genus 
Cynoglossum :  rough-leaved  weeds  of 
little  value. 

HOUSELEEK.  Exotic  plants  of 
the  genus  Scynpervivum,  with  succu- 
lent leaves,  which  are  mucilaginous. 

HOVEL.  A  shed  for  cattle,  sheep, 
&c. 

HOVEN,  HOOVE.  See  Oxen,  Dis- 
eases of. 

HUCKLEBERRY.  Whortle- 
berry. 

HUMAN  F^CES.  See  Night-soil. 

HUMATES.  Salts  of  humic  acid. 
See  Humus. 

HUMECTATION.     Moistening. 

HUMERUS.  The  upper  bone  of 
the  arm. 

HU.MIC  ACID.     See  Humus. 

HUMIFUSUS,  HUMIFUSE. 
Spreading  over  the  ground,  procum- 
bent, like  the  stem  of  the  melon, 
sweet  potatoe,  &c. 

HUMILIS.  Low,  humble,  applied 
to  small  species. 

405 


HUiM 

HUMMELLER.  An  implement  for 
the  separation  ol"  barley  from  the 
glumes  or  awns.  This  may  he  clone 
by  the  means  described  under  barley. 
An  instrument  extensively  used  in 
Scotland  is  formed  of  a  hollow  cyl- 
inder of  staves  or  metal,  in  which  an 
axis  revolves  very  rapidly.  To  the 
axis  is  attached  three  sets  of  cross 
pieces  of  wood,  which  reach  nearly  to 
the  cylinder,  and  are  at  right  angles 
to  it.  The  barley  being  slowly  ad- 
mitted by  a  hopper  above,  enters  the 
cylinder,  where  it  is  beaten  rapidly 
by  the  cross  pieces,  and  perfectly 
cleaned  of  awn  by  the  time  it  escapes 
from  below. 

HUMMING-BIRD.  Birds  of  the 
genus  Trochilus,  remarkable  for  their 
minuteness,  brilliancy,  and  rapid 
flight.  They  live  upon  the  nectar  of 
flowers  and  on  small  insects. 

HUMOUR.  In  anatomy,  fluid  se- 
cretions natural  to  the  eye  or  other 
parts  of  the  body. 

HUMUS.  The  decayed  carbona- 
ceous residue  of  plants,  of  a  dark- 
brown  or  black  colour,  and  mouldy 
smell.  It  is  called  by  gardeners  vege- 
table mould,  and  has  received  the 
name  of  humus,  humic  acid,  humin, 
humic  extract,  coal  of  humus,  ulmin, 
ulmic  acid,  geine,  geic  acid,  apoth- 
eme,  &c.,  &c. 

Being  vegetable  matter  in  a  state 
of  decay,  its  composition  is  subject 
to  change  ;  and  hence  a  great  num- 
ber of  bodies  will  be  formed  by  treat- 
ing it  with  re-agents,  as  potash,  soda. 
But  Mulder  has  recently  shown  that 
the  various  bodies  enumerated  by 
other  chemists,  as  well  as  the  crenic 
and  apocrenic  acids,  are  no  more 
than  woody  fibre,  cellulose,  starch, 
gum,  sugar,  and  similar  vegetable 
bodies  in  a  progressive  state  of  de- 
cay ;  that  by  the  absorption  of  oxy- 
gen, carbonic  acid  and  water  are 
constantly  being  formed,  and  pro- 
gressively the  different  products  of 
decay.  From  Mulder  we  learn  that 
ulmic  or  humic  acid  consists  of  40 
carbon,  14  hydrogen,  and  12  oxygen  ; 
crenic  acid,  C-i  H12  Oio ;  apocrenic  ■ 
acid,  Chs  H;2  Oi4,  and  that  the  two 
latter  are  not,  as  Berzehus  and  olh-  j 
406 


HUM 

crs  assert,  bodies  containing  nitro- 
gen, but  only  that  in  the  soil  the 
apocrenic  acid  is  usually  combined 
with  ammonia.  Moreover,  Mulder 
failed  to  discover  in  the  vegetable 
mould  or  humus  any  other  organic 
bodies  than  humin  and  its  deriva- 
tives, with  cre'.iic  acid  and  its  deriva- 
tives, acting  as  acids.  The  bases  wiih 
which  apocrenic  and  humic  acid  are 
combined  are  chiefly  lime  and  am- 
monia. The  humates  of  lime,  pot- 
ash, and  soda  existing  in  the  soil  are 
either  insoluble  or  sparingly  soluble  ; 
the  humate  and  apocrenate  of  ammo- 
nia are  soluble,  and  form  a  brown  so- 
lution. Woody  tissue,  straw,  leaves, 
and  vegetable  rubbish,  exposed  to  air 
and  kept  moist,  and  at  a  temperature 
above  60.  decay  or  run  into  erema- 
causis,  producing  at  first  ulmic,  cre- 
nic, and  apocrenic  acids ;  these  will 
combine  with  bases  present,  and  still 
continue  to  decay,  giving  out  water 
and  carbonic  acid.  The  ammonia 
present  participates  in  this  change, 
and  becomes  converted  into  nitric 
acid.  The  rapidity  of  decay  is  much 
hastened  by  the  presence  of  caustic 
lime,  potash,  or  soda,  or  by  their  car- 
bonates. If  air  be  not  freely  admit- 
ted, then  gaseous  compounds  of  hy- 
drogen, carburet  of  hydrogen,  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen,  &c.,  are  formed. 

From  this  we  learn  that  humus  is 
vegetable  matter  in  the  act  of  decay, 
the  products  of  which  depend  upon 
the  age,  exposure  to  air  or  water, 
temperature,  and  similar  conditions. 
But  there  is  a  variety  called  inert  hu- 
mus, as  peat,  turf,  &.C.,  which,  from 
the  presence  of  moisture  and  absence 
of  air,  coiTibined  with  other  causes, 
decays  very  slowly  ;  this  may,  how- 
ever, be  hastened  by  drying  and  free 
exposure  to  air,  by  admixture  with 
putrescent  bodies,  or  by  the  action  of 
lime  and  bases.  The  solution  of  hu- 
mus, obtained  by  boiling  potash  or 
soda  ash  with  peat,  is  not  strictly  a 
humate  of  these  alkalies.  The  hu- 
mic acid  can  be  precipitated  by  add- 
ing the  strong  mineral  acids.  The 
portion  of  humus  not  soluble  in  alka- 
line solutions  is  called  insoluble  hu- 
mus, humin,  coal  of  humus. 


HUM 


HUS 


Humus,  i.  c,  vegetable  mould,  has 
been  highly  commended  as  the  food 
of  plants,  some  people  imagining  that 
in  the  soluble  state  it  entered  the 
root  and  fed  the  tissues  ;  this  view, 
propagated  for  the  purpose  of  exem- 
plifying the  utility  of  applying  all  ma- 
nures in  the  state  of  solution,  is  a 
ridiculous  absurditij.  That  solutions 
of  humus  find  their  way  into  the  in- 
terior of  plants,  is  very  true  ;  but  it 
has  never  been  shown  that  such  so- 
lution was  in  any  way  necessary  to 
vigorous  growth.  Indeed,  plants  set 
in  soils  containing  only  insoluble  hu- 
mus (humate  of  lane)  are  as  healthy 
and  vigorous  as  those  growing  un- 
der the  influence  of  solutions.  Nu- 
merous plants  require  no  humus,  as 
grasses,  clovers,  various  forest-trees  ; 
these,  indeed,  by  their  dead  leaves 
and  roots,  produce  and  accumulate 
humus.  Charcoal  powder,  which  is 
insoluble,  answers,  in  many  cases, 
equally  well  with  humus. 

The  real  utility  of  humus,  irrespect- 
ive of  the  ashes  which  mould  con- 
tains, arises  from  the  following  ef- 
fects :  1st.  It  is  constantly  decaying, 
and  thus  producing  carbonic  acid  and 
water,  which  feed  the  plant  and  moist- 
en the  soil.  2d.  During  decay  it  con- 
stantly absorbs  nitrogen  from  the  air, 
which  becomes  converted  into  am- 
monia and  nitric  acid,  and  is  thus  ad- 
mirably fitted  to  sustain  vegetation. 
3d.  It  not  only  imparts  valuable  me- 
chanical qualities  to  the  soil  by  in- 
creasing its  warmth,  porosity,  and 
friability,  but  the  carbonic  acid  pro- 
duced, as  well  as  the  nitric  acid,  by 
acting  on  the  insoluble  minerals  of 
the  soil,  as  the  silicates  of  potash, 
soda,  lime,  and  its  bone  earth  and 
other  phosphates,  dissolves  or  decom- 
poses them,  rendering  them  food  for 
plants.  In  this  manifold  way  humus 
becomes  of  great  utility  to  culture, 
but  is  neither  the  only  manure,  nor 
competent  of  itself  to  produce  fertil- 
ity ;  for  accumulations  of  humus  are 
by  no  means  desirable :  10  per  cent, 
in  the  soil  is  an  abundance,  and  two 
to  three  per  cent,  is  quite  enough  for 
most  plants.  Potatoes,  the  roots, 
corn,    cotton,    tobacco,    cruciferous 


plants,  and  wheat,  are  most  partial 
to  this  body  ;  they  are  all  plants  de- 
veloped by  culture,  and  require  a  sup- 
ply of  food  by  the  roots  as  well  as 
leaves.  Grasses,  clovers,  and  many 
beans  increase  instead  of  exhausting 
the  soil  of  humus  ;  hence  their  utility 
in  rotations. 

The  amount  of  humus  in  the  soil  is 
readily  increased  by  green  fallows,  by 
ploughing  in  straw,  prepared  peat, 
and  all  vegetable  rubbish.  The  great- 
er part  of  the  solid  matter  of  all  pu- 
trescent manures  is  humus,  decayed 
wood,  the  rotten  interior  of  the  trunk 
and  branches,  &c. 

Humus  IS  hastened  in  its  decay,  and 
consequently  in  the  several  effects  it 
produces,  by  liming  and  the  use  of  ash- 
es, as  well  as  by  hoeing  and  all  means 
that  increase  the  quantity  of  air  ad- 
mitted to  the  soil.  Indeed,  much  of 
the  surprising  effect  that  lime  often 
exhibits  arises  from  its  action  on  the 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil ;  even 
cornstalks  and  twigs  of  trees  are 
rapidly  reduced  by  its  action  when  in 
the  earth. 

HUNDRED  WEIGHT,  or  CWT. 
112  pounds  avoirdupois.  It  is  com- 
mon in  the  United  States  to  speak  of 
hundreds,  or  100  pounds  ;  and  100 
pounds  is  frequently  called  a  hundred 
weight. 

HUNGER-ROT.  Disease  occa- 
sioned in  sheep  by  bad  keeping  ;  star- 
vation. 

HUNGRY  SOIL.  Poor,  sandy,  or 
gravelly  soil,  requiring  frequent  ma- 
nuring. 

HURDLE.  A  light,  moveable 
fence  of  wood,  iron,  or  wire  ;  it  re- 
sembles a  light  gate,  and  is  some- 
times made  of  osiers,  woven  like  a 
basket.  Hce  Fence.  Sheep  ^Te  hurdled, 
folded,  or  enclosed  on  turnips,  clo- 
vers, grass,  &c.,  by  means  of  hurdles, 
and  readily  shifted  from  place  to 
place.  The  shifting  often  takes  place 
daily,  and  if  the  manure  dropped  be 
ploughed  in  as  soon  as  the  shift  is 
made,  a  considerable  economy  is 
practised  ;  but  if  it  be  left  to  dry  and 
waste,  the  plan  is  bad. 

HUSBANDRY.  Agriculture.  The 
following  short  sketch  of  British  hus- 
407 


HUSBANDRY. 


bandry  may  be  found  serviceable  ;  it 
is  by  Mr.  Rham  : 

"The  first  and  most  inartificial  is 
that  which  consists  in  breaking  up 
portions  of  pasture  land  and  sowing 
corn  on  a  sliglit  ploughing,  which 
cannot  fail  to  be  productive  tor  some 
time.  Several  crops  may  thus  be  ta- 
ken, until  the  land  is  so  exhausted 
that  the  crop  no  longer  repays  the 
seed  and  labour.  To  extend  this 
time,  experience  soon  pointed  out  the 
crops  which  succeeded  best  after  each 
other.  Wheat  or  barley  were  proba- 
bly the  first  crops  ;  afterward  pease, 
beans,  or  oats,  until  the  ground, 
being  overrun  with  weeds,  would  be 
left  to  the  renovating  effect  of  time, 
and  a  fresh  spot  would  be  broken  up. 

"  The  first  improvement  on  this 
system  is  that  of  infield  and  outfield. 
The  infield  is  cultivated  more  care- 
fully, somewhat  like  a  garden,  and 
all  the  dung  of  the  cattle  is  exclu- 
sively put  upon  this  part.  The  out- 
field is  a  continuation  of  the  first- 
mentioned  system.  The  infield  con- 
sisted of  enclosures  or  open  fields 
near  the  dwelling,  which  it  was  most 
convenient  to  cultivate  as  arable 
land.  Thus  two  distinct  systems  of 
husbandry  were  carried  on  at  the 
same  time  ;  and  whatever  improve- 
ments were  introduced  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  infield,  the  outfield 
continued  to  be  managed  as  it  was 
before. 

"The  mode  of  recruiting  lands 
which  had  been  exhausted  by  crops, 
or  were  overrun  with  weeds,  by 
means  of  a  fallow,  seems  to  have 
been  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Romans.  The  alternate  crop  and 
fallow  seem  to  have  been  later  intro- 
duced than  a  fallow  after  several 
crops.  The  triennial  system,  which 
consists  of  a  summer  fallow,  a  win- 
ter crop,  and  a  spring  crop,  was  prob- 
ably longer  established  than  any  oth- 
er, and  is  still  the  practice  in  many 
parts  of  England.  The  deteriorating 
effect  of  the  outfield  system  would 
lead  to  its  abandonment  as  soon  as 
population  increased,  and  with  it  the 
want  of  land  for  infield. 

"  When  common  fields  are  divided 
408 


and  enclosed,  a  better  system  of  hus- 
bandry geiiprally  follows.  Clover  and 
turnips  are  more  regularly  sown,  and, 
on  the  light  lands,  take  the  place  of 
summer  fallow.  Clover  generally 
comes  after  a  crop  of  wheat,  in  which 
it  was  sown  the  preceding  year  in 
spring ;  and  as  most  crops  succeed 
well  after  clover,  wheat  was  usually 
chosen  for  the  next  crop  as  the  most 
profitable.  Thus  arose  the  Norfolk 
system,  without  any  very  sudden  de- 
Iiarture  from  the  old  rotations.  Two 
crops  raised  for  the  food  of  animals  in 
four  years  require  more  cattle  on  the 
farm  to  expend  them  profitably  ;  and 
thus  more  manure  is  made.  In  the 
light  soils  the  sheep,  when  folded  on 
the  turnips,  not  only  enrich  the  land 
by  their  dung  and  urine,  but  likewise 
render  it  more  compact  by  treading 
it,  which  is  advantageous  to  the  clo- 
ver and  wheat  which  come  after.  If 
the  land  is  a  good  loam,  beans  are 
sometimes  sown  after  wheat,  the  land 
having  been  recruited  with  manure  ; 
and  if  the  beans  are  kept  clean  by 
hoeing,  another  good  crop  of  wheat 
may  be  obtained  after  them.  Thus 
arises  the  improved  rotation  of  tur- 
nips, barley,  clover,  wheat,  beans, 
wheat ;  after  which  the  land  is  again 
cleaned  and  prepared  for  turnips  with 
all  the  manure  that  can  be  spared. 
As  in  this  system  there  is  always  a 
crop  with  succulent  leaves  interve- 
ning between  two  which  have  a  white 
straw,  it  has  been  called  the  alternate 
system  of  husbandry.  These  are  the 
most  common  systems  in  England. 
The  removal  of  the  fallow  year,  pro- 
vided the  land  be  kept  clean,  is  a  de- 
cided step  towards  improvement ; 
the  best  farmers  effect  this  by  the  in- 
troduction of  artificial  grasses  and 
tares  fed  off  by  sheep,  and  especially 
by  sowing  every  crop  in  rows  and 
keeping  the  intervals  stirred,  which 
is  a  partial  fallow,  without  losing  a 
crop.  Here  TuU's  system  is  intro- 
duced, which  in  its  complete  state, 
as  the  author  recommended  it,  was 
soon  abandoned. 

"As  the  English  systems  have  ta- 
ken their  origin  chiefly  from  the  in- 
field cultivation,  so  the  Scotch  appear 


HUSDA.NDIIY 


to  have  arisen  from  that  of  the  out- 
field. Fallows  were  unknown,  but 
the  invigorating  effect  of  grass  fed  off 
by  cattle  must  soon  have  been  per- 
ceived ;  and,  instead  of  leaving  the 
land  to  recover  slowly  by  the  spon- 
taneous growth  of  natural  herbage, 
which  on  poor  land  takes  a  long  time, 
it  was  obvious  that  this  might  be 
accelerated  by  sowing  grass  seeds. 
Hence  the  origin  of  the  Scotch  con- 
vertible system  of  husbandry,  which 
is  gaining  ground  daily,  and  bids  fair, 
in  remote  situations,  where  no  ma- 
nure can  be  purchased,  to  be  firmly 
established.  The  order  of  the  con- 
version has  been  somewhat  altered 
from  what  it  was  originally.  Instead 
of  sowing  grass  seeds  after  the  land 
is  exhausted,  it  has  been  found  advan- 
tageous to  accelerate  the  growth  of 
grass  by  manuring  the  crop  in  which 
it  is  sown  ;  and  experience  has 
proved,  that  the  richer  the  grass  is, 
the  more  productive  are  the  crops 
which  come  after.  The  grass,  in- 
stead of  being  a  mere  substitute  for 
fallowing  and  manuring,  is  made  high- 
ly profitable  by  feeding  cattle  and 
sheep ;  and  the  profit  of  the  years 
when  the  land  rests,  as  it  were,  by 
being  depastured,  is  often  as  great  as 
that  of  the  years  when  it  is  cropped  ; 
and  the  risk  and  expenses  are  much 
less.  The  convertible  system  is  not 
very  generally  known  or  adopted  in 
England,  and  is  often  confounded 
with  the  alternate  system.  The  al- 
ternate system  interposes  a  green 
crop  between  two  white-straw  crops. 
On  good  land  the  convertible  hus- 
bandry may  consist  of  three  or  four 
years'  tillage  and  three  years'  grass. 
If  the  land  is  not  quite  clean,  a  sum- 
mer fallow  on  heavy  soils,  or  a  tur- 
nip fallow  on  light  soils,  should  be- 
gin the  course  ;  and  only  one  crop 
should  be  taken  after  the  fallow  in 
which  the  grasses  are  sown,  wheth- 
er it  be  wheat,  corn,  barley,  or  oats. 
It  should  he  fed  off  the  first  year, 
mown  the  second,  and  ied  off  again 
in  the  third  ;  when  it  is  broken  up, 
oats  are  usually  sown  as  the  first 
crop  in  Scotland,  then  beans,  if  the 
land  admits  of  them,  and  then  wheat. 

M   M 


If  a  fallow  is  mtended,  a  crop  of 
pease  may  be  sown  after  the  wheat, 
and  then  the  course  begins  again,  as 
before,  with  a  clean  fallow  or  with 
turnips.  In  this  manner  the  land 
may  be  kept  clean  and  continually 
improve  in  fertility  by  means  of  the 
cattle  which  are  kept  upon  it,  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  purchased  manure, 
except  lime,  the  expense  of  which  is, 
in  most  cases,  well  repaid  by  the 
crop.  These  are  the  only  regular 
systems  in  Britain,  and  every  mode 
of  cultivation  and  cropping  may  be 
reduced  to  one  of  them,  unless  it  be 
capriciously  anomalous. 

"  \Miat  renders  the  improved  sys- 
tems of  British  husbandry  so  supe- 
rior to  that  of  other  nations  is  the 
attention  paid  to  the  perfection  of 
the  different  breeds  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, especially  the  horse,  the  ox, 
and  the  sheep.  In  this  respect,  Brit- 
ish husbandry  surpasses  every  other. 
No  expense  or  trouble  is  spared  to 
improve  the  qualities  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  It  has  been  objected,  that 
the  rewards  given  by  different  so- 
cieties for  excessively  fat  cattle  are 
not  judicious,  as  these  animals  are 
never  profitable  to  the  feeder.  The 
same  might  be  said  of  very  high-bred 
race-horses  ;  they  are  not  so  useful 
as  a  good  hackney  or  hunter ;  but 
unless  some  individual  animals  pos- 
sess the  power,  courage,  and  speed 
which  is  the  mark  of  the  best  blood, 
it  would  soon  degenerate  ;  so,  like- 
wise, if  some  oxen  were  not  occa- 
sionally fatted  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  the  fatting  qualities  of  the 
breed  could  not  be  proved.  A  badly- 
bred  ox  will  never  become  so  fat, 
whatever  food  may  be  given  him,  as 
one  of  a  choice  breed  ;  this  the  breed- 
ers are  well  aware  of,  and  never  hes- 
itate to  pay  a  good  price  for  a  young 
bull  related  in  blood  to  a  prize  ox." 

HUSK.  The  dry  exterior  of 
fruits. 

HYACINTHINE  COLOUR.  The 
colour  of  the  hyacinth  gem  :  a  clear 
reddish-brown. 

HYALITE.  A  variety  of  glassy 
quartz  of  a  gray  or  yellowish  colour, 
and  concretionary. 

400 


HYD 


HYD 


HYALOID  (from  va?uoc,  glass).  A 
transparent  membrane. 

H YBERNACULUM.  The  winter 
leaf-l)ud. 

HYBERNATION.  The  torpid 
conciition  in  which  numerous  animals 
and  reptiles  exist  during  winter  ; 
they  usually  retire  in  a  fat  state,  and 
become  very  lean  by  spring,  the  fat 
being  consumed  in  maintaining  the 
temperature  necessary  to  preserve 
life. 

HYBRID  (from  Upic,  a  nmle). 
The  offspring  of  animals  or  plants  of 
different  species.  They  are  usually 
barren,  as  mules,  or  yield  only  by 
connexion  with  one  of  the  same  race 
as  the  parents.  Much  of  the  im- 
provement in  horticulture  has  been 
effected  by  hybridizing.  To  perform 
this,  the  plants  selected  should  be  of 
near  varieties,  and  of  similar  quali- 
ties ;  they  should  also  flower  at  the 
same  period.  The  flowers  on  the  fe- 
male plant  are  to  be  reduced  to  a  few 
only,  and  its  situation  must  be  dis- 
tant from  others  of  the  same  variety. 
The  stamens  of  all  the  flowers  are  to 
be  cut  out  by  a  pair  of  scissors  as 
soon  as  the  blossom  is  developed,  and 
before  pollen  is  emitted  ;  and  as  soon 
as  the  stigma  is  fully  dilated,  stami- 
nate  flowers  from  the  male  variety 
are  to  be  brought  and  shaken  over 
them,  care  being  taken  that  the  pol- 
len is  well  scattered  over  the  stigma. 
The  seed  germinates  readily,  and  will 
produce  a  new  variety  that  may  be 
valuable,  and  is  to  be  maintained  by 
slips,  cuttings,  buds,  and  any  other 
means  except  by  seeds,  which  are 
either  infertile  or  defective.  This 
was  a  favourite  method  with  Mr. 
Knight.  Hybrids  are  frequently  form- 
ed in  gardens  by  the  close  neighbour- 
hood of  varieties,  the  pollen  being 
carried  by  wind,  insects,  &c.,  and 
they  frequently  destroy  fine  seeds. 
Hence,  plants  raised  for  seed  should 
be  planted  apart,  and  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  pollen  of  other  varieties.  Bi- 
geiicrs,  the  hybrid  offspring  of  plants 
of  different  genera,  are  very  rare. 

HYDATID  (from  iSaric,  a  bladder). 
A  race  of  enlozoic  animals  resem- 
bling a  .small  bladder,  and  infesting 
110 


the  liver,  brain,  uterus,  and  other 
parts  of  mammals.  See  Diseases  of 
Sheep. 

HYDRACIDS.  Acids  containing 
hydrogen,  as  muriatic  acid,  &c. 

HYDRAGOGUE  (from  v6o>p,  ica- 
ter,  and  ayw,  /  expel).  Violent  cathar- 
tics, which  cause  an  expulsion  of  much 
fluid. 

HYDRANGEA.  A  highly  orna 
mental  flowering  shrub. 

HYDRARGILLITE.  A  name  foi 
wavellite. 

HYDRATES.  Compounds  iu 
which  water  combines,  as  an  acid  in 
its  equivalent  of  nine,  as  hydrate  of 
lime,  or  water  slacked  lime. 

HY'DRAULIGS  (from  v6up,  and 
avlo^,  a  pipe).  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  movement  and  mechan- 
ical effects  of  water  and  liquids. 

HY'DRO.  A  chemical  prefix,  indi- 
cating the  presence  of  hydrogen  ;  as 
hydrochloric,  hydrobromic,  hydrocar- 
bon, and  hvdriodic. 

HYDROCARBONS.  A  general 
term  for  the  oily,  waxy,  and  resinous 
products  of  vegetation,  which  are  rich 
in  hydrogen,  and  often  contain  hy- 
drogen and  carbon  only  ;  they  are 
also  called  hydror.arburets,  which  term 
includes  ethers,  alcohols,  gaseous 
compounds  of  carbon  with  hydro- 
gen, naphthas,  &c. 

HYDROCELE.  A  collection  of 
water  in  the  scrotum. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID.  See 
Chlorine.     Muriatic  acid. 

HYDROCHLORATES.  An  old 
term  fur  chlorides. 

HYDROCY^\NIC  ACID.  Prussic 
acid,  a  pellucid  fluid,  of  strong  odour, 
one  of  the  deadliest  poisons  known. 
Ammonia  is  the  best  antidote.  It  is 
a  compound  of  one  eq.  cyanogen  and 
one  hydrogen,  and  produced  in  the 
distillation  of  bitter  almonds,  peach 
blossoms.  Numerous  plants  of  the 
rosaceous  family  contain  a  portion  of 
it.     See  Cyanogen. 

HYDRODYNAMICS  (from  v6up, 
and  dwafiL^,  power).  The  science 
which  shows  the  methods  of  applying 
the  properties  of  fluids  to  mechanical 
purposes. 

HYDROFLUORIC  ACID.  A  pun- 


HYD 

gent,  gaseous  aciJ  formed  of  one  cq. 
fluorine,  and  one  hydrogen.  See  Fin- 
orinc. 

HYDROGEN.  Inflammable  air 
The  lightest  body  in  nature  :  an  ele- 
mentary gas,  without  oduur  or  eolour, 
very  inflammable  in  air,  forming  ex- 
plosive eompounds  with  oxygen.  It 
has  little  chemical  activity  alone,  and 
is  irrespirable  :  100  cubic  inches  weigh 
213  grains.  Its  equivalent  is  1  on 
the  hydrogen  scale,  and  12  5  on  the 
oxygen  :  symbol  H.  Hydrogen  does 
not  exist  uncombined  in  nature  ;  but 
in  a  compound  state,  in  water,  annno- 
nia,  and  vegetable  products,  is  large- 
ly accumulated.  It  combines  with 
oxygen,  forming  water,  by  the  aid  of 
heat  or  electricity.  In  all  its  prop- 
erties hydrogen  resembles  a  metal. 
It  combines  with  oxygen,  chlorine, 
bromine,  &c.,  in  the  same  way  as 
other  metals,  and  is  readily  displaced 
by  the  greater  number,  sometimes 
with  the  evolution  of  pure  gas,  at  oth- 
ers by  the  simultaneous  combination 
of  the  liberated  hydrogen  with  oxy- 
gen, to  form  water.  Its  compounds 
with  carbon,  forming  coal  gas  and  oil 
gas,  are  of  considerable  economical 
value  :  these,  with  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, are  also  thrown  out  from  wet, 
putrescent  manures,  stagnant  ditch- 
es, &;c.  For  other  compounds,  see 
the  usual  names. 

Some  writers  state  that  plants  pos- 
sess the  property  of  decomposing  wa- 
ter and  appropriating  its  hydrogen  ; 
but  this  has  never  been  proved  :  the 
decomposition  is  readily  effected  by 
galvanism.  Plants  contain  six  to  sev- 
en per  cent,  of  hydrogen  in  the  dried 
portions  without  the  water,  in  which 
there  is  one  ninth  by  weight :  fats  and 
waxes  contain  ten  to  thirteen  per 
cent. 

HYDROMETER.  Areometer.  An 
instrument  to  take  the  specific  grav- 
ity or  density  of  fluids,  spirits,  &c. 
It  is  of  great  value  in  testing  the 
strength  of  spirits,  of  solutions,  of 
sugar,  dyestufTs,  &c.  The  form  of 
the  implement,  which  is  made  of 
brass  or  glass,  is  shown  in  the  fig- 
ure. It  is  sometimes  furnished  with 
a  series  of  weights,  ^V,  which  arc  pla- 


HYD 

fjlA  ced  on  the  short  stem,  C 
D,  to  enable  it  to  sink  in 
different  solutions.  The 
stem  A  B  is  usually  flat 
and  graduated  ;  the  scale 
depcnduig  upon  the  use, 
and  varying  with  the  ma- 
ker. Sykes's  instrument, 
which  is  used  for  taking 
the  strength  of  spirits,  is 
furnished  with  a  table. 
Baume's  areometer,  or  hy- 
drometer, is  extensively 
used  by  sugar-makers  and 
manufacturers.  It  is  grad- 
uated from  a  central  point  in  the 
stem, —  upward,  for  fluids  lighter  than 
water,  and  -{-  below,  for  those  that 
are  heavier.  The  0  (zero)  marks  the 
density  of  distilled  water  at  58°  Fah- 
renheit, and  the  downward  marks  cor- 
respond to  the  density  of  solutions 
of  salt  and  water,  containing  for  each 
mark  an  additional  one  per  cent,  of 
salt ;  thus,  5°  indicates  a  fluid  of  the 
same  density  as  that  produced  by 
mixing  5  parts  common  salt  and  95 
water.   The  real  specific  gravities  are, 

F(ir  Fluids  of  lesB  gravity. 

0=10000  —11  =  0  9932 

+   1  =  10066  —12  =  0-9865 

4-   5=10340  —15  =  0-9669 

-1-10=1-0701  —20  =  0-9359 

-f  20=  11515  -25  =  0-9068 

+  30=1-2-159  -30  =  0-8795 

+  40  =  13571  —35  =  0-8538 

-+-50=1-4902  —40  =  0-6295 

+  60=16522  —45=0-8066 

+  70=1-853"  —50=0-7849 

-1-76  =  2-0000  —60  =  0-7449 

HYDROPHILID.E.  Aquatic,  pen- 
tamerous  beetles.  They  are  vegeta- 
ble feeders. 

HYDROPHOBIA.     See  X>o^. 

HYDROPHYTES  (fromvdwp,  and 
6vrov,  a  plant).  Plants  living  in  fresh 
water. 

HYDROSTATIC  BALANCE. 
The  common  balance,  furnished  with 
a  scale  that  may  be  suspended  near 
the  beam,  and  under  which  a  hook  is 
placed  to  hang  any  substance  to  be 
weighed  in  water.     See  Gravity,  Spe- 

HYDROSTATIC  PRESS.  See 
Press,  Hydraulic. 

HYDROSTATICS  (from  viup,  and 
GTau,  I  stand).  The  science  which 
411 


II VG 


II VP 


explains  the  mechanical  properties  of 
fluids. 

HVDROSULPIIURIC  ACID.  Sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  Sec  Sul/ihur. 
Hydrosulphurets  are  the  sulphurets 
or  sulphides  of  metals  and  bases. 

HYGEIXE  (from  vyteia,  health). 
The  arts  necessary  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  health. 

HYGROMETER  (from  vypoc, 
moist,  and  fierpov,  a  measure).  A  con- 
trivance or  implement  to  measure 
the  amount  of  moisture  or  vapour  of 
water  in  air.  Formerly  hygrometric 
substances,  as  hair,  catgut,  whale- 
bone, sponge  dipped  in  pcarlash,  &c., 
were  used  ;  but  their  indications  are 
of  little  value.  The  plan  of  ascer- 
taining the  deiv  point  (see)  is  the  sim- 
plest ;  this  may  be  done  as  directed 
under  dew  point,  with  the  hygrome- 
ter of  Professor  Daniel,  or  by  a  sim- 
ple implement  of  Professor  Bache, 
which  consists  of  a  small  bar  of  pol- 
ished steel,  in  which  several  perfora- 
tions are  made,  at  short  intervals, 
large  enough  to  receive  the  bulb  of 
a  small  thermometer.  When  used, 
one  end  of  the  bar  is  plunged  in  iced 
water,  the  other  being  sustained  in 
the  air :  after  a  short  time,  dew  will 
be  seen  to  form  near  the  lower  parts, 
and  to  rise  gradually  until  it  attains 
a  stationary  point.  If  the  thermom- 
eter be  now  placed  in  the  nearest  ap- 
erture, it  will  indicate  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  dew  point,  or  the  hygromet- 
ric condition  of  the  air.  If  the  place 
occupied  by  the  dew  be  situated  be- 
tween two  perforations,  the  thermom- 
eter may  be  placed  in  both,  and  one 
half  the  difference  added  to  the  de- 
gree of  the  lower,  to  mark  the  dew 
point. 

The  real  amount  of  water  in  a  giv- 
en bulk  of  air  is  not  measured  by  any 
instrument.  It  is,  however,  a  mat- 
ter of  calculation.  From  Professor 
Daniel's  table,  it  appears  that  at  a 
dew  point  of  30-'  Fahrenheit,  there  is 
about  2i  grains  of  water  in  a  cubic 
foot  of  air  ;  at  40^,  3i  grains  ;  at  50°, 
U  grains  ;  60°=-6i  grains  ;  70°  Fah- 
renheit =  8k  grains  ;  at  80°  Fahren- 
heit, Hi  grains. 
HYGROMETRIC,  HYGROSCOP- 
412 


IC.  Having  the  quality  of  absorb- 
ing moisture  during  wet,  and  partially 
losing  it  in  dry  weather. 

HYGROSCOPE.  The  hygrometer. 

HYhOBIUS.  A  genus  of  tetram- 
erous  beetles,  resembling  the  curcu- 
lios,  and  infesting  trees. 

HYMENIUM.  The  gills  or  porous 
membranes  in  which  the  spores  of 
fungi  are  placed. 

HY.MEXOPTERANS,  HYMEN- 
OPTERA  (from  vfir/v,  a  membrane,  and 
nrepov,  a  wing).  An  order  of  mandib- 
ulate  insects,  comprehending  those 
which  have  four  membranous  wings 
with  few  nervures.  Latreille  divides 
this  order  into  the  following  sections 
and  tribes  : 

1.  Tcrcbrantia :  Abdomen  of  the  fe- 
males furnished  with  a  saw  or  borer. 

a.  Sccurifera:  Abdomen  sessile,  fur- 
nished with  a  saw  ;  larvee  with 
feet. 

h.  Pupivora  :  Abdomen  peduncula- 
ted, furnished  with  a  borer  ;  lar- 
vae footless. 

2  Acidcata :  Abdomen  of  the  fe- 
males armed  with  a  sting. 

a.  Hcterogyna :  Females  wingless. 

b.  Fossores:  Females  winged,  wings 
not  folded  ;  basal  joint  of  poste- 
rior tarsi  simple. 

c.  Diploplcra  :  Females  winged, 
wings  folded. 

d.  MelUfera  :  Females  winged, 
wings  not  folded  ;  posterior  tar- 
si enlarged,  and  converted  into 
a  poUinigerous  organ. 

HYPERSTHENE.  A  species  of 
mineral  resembling  hornbiend,  with 
little  lime  and  twenty-four  per  cent, 
iron.  In  some  greenstone  rocks  it 
takes  the  place  of  hornbiend. 

HYPERTROPHY.  An  unusual 
increase  in  size  of  any  organ  of  the 
body. 

HYPOCHONDRIUM.  The  region 
of  the  body  under  the  cartilages  of 
the  false  ribs.  The  liver  lies  in  the 
right,  and  the  spleen  in  the  left  hyp- 
ochondrium. 

HYPOCR.ATERIFORM.  Salver- 
shaped.  A  corolla  consisting  nearly 
entirely  of  a  tube. 

HYPOGASTRIC  REGION",  HY- 
POGASTRIUM  (from  vno,under,  and 


ICR 


ICE 


yaarnp,  the  slomach).  Tlie  portion  of 
the  abdomen  reaching  from  the  low- 
est parts  to  near  the  navel. 

HVPOGENE  ROCKS.  The  crys- 
talline rocks,  both  stratified  and  un- 
stratified,  as  granite,  gneiss,  mica, 
and  hornblend  slates.  These  are 
cither  rocks  of  fusion  (Plutonic),  or 
have  been  modified  by  heat  {Transi- 
tion). 

HYPOGYNOUS  (from  imo,  and 
yvvj/,  a  female).  Stamens,  or  other 
organs,  attached  below  the  base  of 
the  ovarium. 

HYPOMTROUS  ACID.  A  very 
instable  and  unimportant  acid,  com- 
posed of  1  eq.  nitrogen  and  3  oxygen. 

HYPOPHOSPHOROUS  ACID. 
A  compound  little  known,  with  acid 
properties  ;  it  has  not  been  isolated, 
and  consists  of  1  eq.  phosphorus  and 

1  oxvgen. 
HYPOPHYLLUM.    A  partial  leaf, 

clasping  the  stem,  and  without  lamina. 
HYPOSULPHURIC  ACID.  An 
instable  body,  not  isolated,  composed 
of  2  sulphur,  5  oxygen.  Hyposulphu- 
rous  acid  is  not  isolable  ;  consists  of 

2  S-j-2  O.  ;  its  salts,  the  fu/jwsid- 
])hitcs,  are  of  use  in  photography  : 
they  are  very  readily  decomposed. 

H  Y  P  0  T  E  N  i;  S  E.  The  longest 
side  of  a  right-angled  triangle. 

HYPOTHESIS.  A  speculation 
not  based  on  facts,  but  explaining 
certain  phenomena. 

HYSSOP.  Hyssopus  officinalis.  A 
perennial  rooted,  labiate  plant,  of  aro- 
matic and  bitter  properties.  It  grows 
on  a  dry,  light  soil,  and  is  propagated 
by  cuttings  and  seeds. 

HYSTERIA.  A  nervous  com- 
plaint, attended  with  convulsions  and 
peculiar  flatulency. 

HYSTRICID.E  (from  hjstrix,  a 
jiorcupine).  The  family  of  Rodentia, 
to  which  the  porcupine  belongs. 

I. 

IBEX.  A  wild  goat  {Capra  ibex) 
inhabiting  the  mountains  of  the  Old 
M'orld,  with  long  horns,  marked  with 
knotted  ridges. 

ICE.  Water  congeals  at  and  be- 
low 32'  Fahrenheit,  and  expands  ^th 
of  its  volume  at  40'  Fahrenheit; 
M  M  2 


hence,  when  freezing  occurs  in  the 
pores  of  rocks,  the  earth,  &c.,  it  oft- 
en produces  a  disruption  of  the  par- 
ticles. It  is  this  action  that  mellows 
lands  ploughed  in  the  fall. 

ICE-HOUSE.  A  sandy  or  porous 
soil  is  to  be  preferred  ;  the  place 
should  have  a  nortiiern  aspect,  and 
be  protected  by  trees,  a  wall,  &,c., 
from  the  action  of  the  sun.  The  pit 
may  be  conical  or  rectangular,  with 
sloping  sides  ;  for  a  family,  twelve  to 
fourteen  feet  depth,  and  twelve  feet 
square,  will  be  sufficient,  but  some 
houses  are  twenty-four  feet  deep ; 
the  sides  may  be  bricked  and  cement- 
ed, or  lined  with  wooden  piles  cut 
from  small  pines,  and  set  horizontally, 
as  in  making  a  log  house,  and  after- 
ward boarded  ;  the  framing  may  rise 
one  or  two  feet  above  the  ground,  and 
a  quantity  of  earth  be  rammed  against 
it.  At  the  bottom,  a  well  three  or  four 
feet  deep,  and  one  third  the  width  of 
the  pit,  should  be  dug,  and  covered 
with  timbers  or  an  iron  grating  ;  into 
this  the  water  of  the  melted  ice  drains 
and  is  removed  ;  if  the  soil  be  po- 
rous, nothing  more  is  wanting,  but  if 
retentive,  a  drain  must  be  made  from 
the  bottom  to  carry  off  the  water ; 
this  is  to  be  protected  with  a  water- 
trap  to  hinder  circulation  of  air.  If  a 
sandy  bed  be  supposed  to  exist  at  a 
short  depth,  it  is  best  to  sink  the  well 
to  it,  or,  at  least,  to  make  an  open 
bore  ;  unless  the  water  can  be  drain- 
ed, the  ice  will  not  keep. 

The  roof  may  be  a  sharp  gable  or 
conical,  well  protected  by  shingles  or 
thatch  ;  the  door  is  to  be  on  the  north 
side,  and  should  lead  along  a  short 
passage  to  a  second  inner  door.  A 
gutter  must  be  placed  around  the 
eaves  to  carry  off  every  drop  of  rain. 

The  house  should  be  filled  in  dry, 
frosty  weather  ;  if  of  wood,  the  ice 
may  be  thrown  directly  in,  but  in 
stone  or  brick  houses  a  layer  of  straw 
or  leaves  may  be  first  spread  on  the 
bottom.  The  clearest  ice  is  best ;  it 
should  be  driven  closely  together 
with  a  rammer,  and,  as  the  house  fills, 
straw  or  leaves  may  be  placed  around 
the  sides.  If  the  weather  be  very 
cold,  water  may  be  thrown  over  the 
413 


ICE 


ILI 


ice,  so  as  to  freeze  and  consolidate 
the  mass,  otherwise  the  crevices 
should  bo  filled  with  small  or  broken 
pieces.  If  the  house  has  been  filled 
early,  it  is  customary  to  leave  it  un- 
covered until  the  new  year,  so  as  to 
add  to  the  mass  as  it  settles  during 
February.  As  soon  as  the  winter  is 
passed,  the  top  should  be  well  cov- 
ered with  dry  leaves  or  straw.  A 
ladder  is  used  to  reach  the  ice,  and, 
placed  upon  it  as  soon  as  necessary, 
it  remains  during  the  season.  Snow, 
well  rammed,  keeps  well,  especially 
if  water  be  frozen  amid  it. 

Some  houses  are  made  with  a 
double  lining,  the  outer  being  of  piles 
and  the  inner  of  plank,  the  space  be- 
tween them  varying  from  four  to 
eight  inches,  and  filled  with  pounded 
charcoal,  sawdust,  dry  tan,  or  leaves 
well  rammed.  In  this  way  a  non- 
conducting pit  is  made  that  will  keep 
less  quantities  of  ice  very  perfectly. 
Such  a  house  may  even  be  made 
above  ground,  if  surrounded  with  a 
thick  mould  of  earth,  and  kept  free 
from  wet  and  well  drained. 

The  uses  of  such  a  house  are  ap- 
parent :  meats,  liquids,  butter,  fruits, 
are  preserved  ;  but,  besides  these,  in 
silk  raising,  it  affords  the  tneans  of 
delaying  the  hatching  ;  scions  may  be 
kept  back,  and,  above  all,  the  ice  is 
invaluable  in  the  sick-chamber  in  in- 
flammations. 

ICE  PONDS.  Any  natural  lake 
or  accumulation  of  clear  water  will 
furnish  fine  ice  ;  but  where  that  is 
w'anting,  a  temporary  dam  thrown 
across  a  spring  branch  will  soon  pro- 
duce a  sufficient  amount  of  water. 
Where  the  operation  of  taking  ice  is 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale,  the  sur- 
face is  cut  by  a  plough  of  suitable 
construction,  and  thus  the  removal 
assisted.  The  Boston  dealers  take 
only  the  transparent  ice  ;  they  have 
any  accumulation  of  snow  shaved  off 
by  skim-coulters  a  few  days  before 
use,  and  the  thickness  of  the  real  ice 
is  rapidly  increased  afterward.  The 
largest  blocks  are  preferred  for  sto- 
rage ;  and  as  they  are  cut  of  the  same 
Bize,  they  can  be  laid  in  the  house 
like  courses  of  masonry. 
411 


ICELAND  SPAR.  Calcareous 
spar. 

ICHNEUMON  FLIES.  Small  hy- 
menopterous  insects,  which  lay  eggs 
in  the  bodies  of  aphides,  caterpillars, 
and  other  insects,  and  even  in  the 
eggs  of  these  ;  the  young  eat  and  de- 
stroy the  creatures  in  which  the  egg 
is  deposited.  The  Fig.  represents  a 
common  species  {Tragus  fulvus). 


ICHOR.  A  thin,  purulent,  and 
acrid  discharge. 

ICOSANDRIA,  ICOSANDROUS 
(from  eiKoai,  twenty,  and  avrjp,  a  male). 
Flowers  with  20  stamens. 

ICTERUS.  Jaundice  ;  hence  icte- 
roid,  yellowish,  like  the  colour  of  the 
skin  in  jaundice. 

IDIOPATHIC.  Independent  of 
other  diseases. 

IDIOSYNCRASY.  A  peculiarity 
of  constitution. 

IDOCRASE.  Volcanic  garnet.  It 
crystallizes  in  a  square-based  prism 
of  a  brownish  colour,  and  is  found 
massive.  Composition  of  the  Vesu- 
vian  :  silica,  35  5;  alumina,  33 ;  lime, 
22-25  ;  iron,  7  5. 

IGASAURIC  ACID.  A  vegetable 
acid  found  in  plants  yielding  strych- 
nine. 

IGNIS  FATUUS.  A  luminous  me- 
teor seen  over  marshes  ;  it  consists 
of  marsh  gas  (light  carburetted  hy- 
drogen) inflamed. 

IGNITION  (from  ignis,  fire).  Com- 
bustion, burning. 

ILEUM.  The  lower  portion  of  the 
small  intestines. 

ILIA.  The  lower  sides  of  the  ab- 
domen ;  hence  ihac,  iliacus,  related 
to  the  ihum. 


I  Ml' 


INC 


ILIAC  PASSION.  A  violent  col- 
ic, in  which  feculent  rnaUer  is  vom- 
ited. 

ILIUM.     The  haunch  bone. 

IMAGO.     The  winged  ins'ect. 

IMBRICATED.  Overlapping,  like 
the  shingles  of  a  roof. 

IMPACT.  The  concussion  of  one 
body  on  anotiicr. 

IMPENETRABILITY.  An  es- 
sential property  of  matter,  whereby 
one  molecule  only  can  occupy  a  given 
space  at  a  certain  time. 

IMPETUS.  The  force  or  momen- 
tum of  a  body  in  motion. 

IMPERMEABLE.  Rendered  wa- 
ter-proof; this  may  be  done  with  cot- 
ton, silk,  or  other  cloths  by  satura- 
ting wiih  drying  linseed  oil ;  linseed 
oil  holding  in  solution  India  rubber ; 
a  varnish  made  by  dissolving  India 
rubber  in  naphtha  ;  by  pitch  ;  a  solu- 
tion of  glue  applied  to  cloth,  which  is 
afterward  dipped  in  infusion  of  galls. 

Jinpermcahlc,  in  physics,  also  means 
capable  of  resisting  the  passage  of 
gases  as  well  as  fluids. 

IMPINGE.  To  strike  upon;  a 
word  much  used  in  optics  to  express 
the  incidence  of  light. 

IMPLEMENTS.  Suitable  care 
should  be  taken  in  keeping  them  free 
from  rust  and  unnecessary  exposure  ; 
parts  subject  to  movements  should 
be  kept  oiled,  and  the  whole  stored 
in  a  dry  place  in  the  barn. 

IMPONDERABLE.  A  term  used 
to  express  light,  heat,  or  electricity, 
which  are  destitute  of  any  discovera- 
ble weight. 

I.MPOSTHUME.     An  abscess. 

I.MPREGNATION.  Conception. 
In  horticulture,  the  contact  of  pollen 
with  the  stigma  is  called  impregna- 
tion ;  without  this,  no  seed  is  pro- 
duced. Arlilicial  impregnation  is 
called  hybridizing.  See  Hybrid.  By 
it  numerous  choice  fruits,  vegetables, 
and  flowers  have  been  produced. 

I M  P  R  O  \^  E  M  E  NT  O  F  LANDS. 
See  Barren  Land  and  Arable  Land. 

I.MPROVE.MENT  OF  PLANTS. 
The  chief  means  are  manuring,  care- 
ful tillage,  proper  exposure  to  sun  or 
shade,  pruning,  summer  pruning,  hy- 
bridizing, becuring  line  seeds.     Ira- 


proved  varieties  are  maintained  by 
grafting,  slips,  parting  the  roots,  and 
high  culture  ;  without  the  latter,  an- 
nuals degenerate.  Nature  often  vol- 
unteers an  improvement,  which  the 
orchardist  should  at  once  avail  him- 
self of  by  propagation,  and  by  care- 
fully collecting  the  seeds.  In  this 
way  several  varieties  of  wheat,  or 
other  plants,  sown  together  occa- 
sionally, exhibit  a  new  kind,  superior 
to  the  rest,  the  seed  of  which  must 
be  carefully  separated  and  sown  alone 
on  excellent  soils. 

INANITION.  A  state  of  languor, 
emptiness. 

INARCHING.  A  kind  of  grafting, 
in  which  the  scion  is  not  cut  from  its 
parent,  but  the  scion  and  stock  are 
made  to  come  together  at  a  certain 
place ;  they  are  then  both  pared  down 
to  the  new  wood,  and  a  tongue  made 
in  each  wound,  so  as  to  enable 
them  to  fit  closer  ;  the  two  are  then 
bound  together  (the  parts  being  ad- 
justed) by  bass  and  grafting  clay,  and 
supported  by  a  stake  driven  in  the 
ground.  The  plants  should  be  sha- 
ded, most  of  the  buds  removed,  and 
the  stock  headed  down  nearly  to  the 
scion.  When  the  parts  are  firmly 
united,  which  requires  three  or  four 
months,  the  scion  is  cut  from  its  pa- 
rent. This  process  is  sure,  but  troub- 
lesome. The  scion  may  be  some- 
times a  slip,  the  heel  of  which  is  kept 
in  water.  The  operation  is  perform- 
ed in  April  or  May,  and  usually  on 
jessamins,  myrtles,  camellias,  wall- 
nuts,  and  firs. 

INCANDESCENCE.  A  luminous 
heat. 

INCANUS.  Hoary  ;  covered  with 
a  whitish  down. 

INCH.     The  twelfth  part  of  a  foot. 

INCIDENCE.  The  meeting  of  one 
body  with  another.  The  angle  of  in- 
cidence is  formed  by  the  direction  of 
the  light  to  a  line  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  the  surface  on  which  it 
falls. 

INCINERATION.  Burning  to 
ashes. 

INCISED.    Cut  with  a  sharp  knife. 

INCI.SIONS  IN  TREES.  Draw- 
ing a  sharp  knife  through  the  bark 
415 


IND 

and  into  the  new  wood  of  plum,  cher- 
ry, and  oilier  trees,  is  often  very  ser- 
viceable when  they  are  i)urk-huund. 
Jt  should  he  done  in  summer,  and  the 
incision  made  Irom  the  branches  to 
the  earth. 

INCISOR  S.  The  sharp  cutting 
or  nipping  teeth  placed  m  front  of  the 
mouth  of  animals. 

LNCO.MBUSTIBLE.  Not  capable 
of  burning.  Cloths  and  wood  are 
rendered  almost  incombustible  by 
soaking  in  a  solution  of  borax,  alum 
s^al  ammoniac,  phosphate  of  soda' 
&c.  The  metallic  salts  used  in  pre- 
serving timber  render  it  very  incom- 
bustible ;  It  smoulders,  but  does  not 
burn  with  flame. 

INCOMPATIBLES.  Substances 
which  cannot  exist  in  solution  with- 
out decomposition. 

INCUBATION.  Hatching.  This 
may  be  done  by  artificial  heat  distrib- 
uted through  a  chamber  by  steam  • 
the  temperature  is  about  102  '  Fahren- 
heit. See  Gestation.  A  contrivance 
tor  artificial  hatching,  called  the  Ec 
caleobion,  has  been  exhibited  in  New 
York. 

INCUMBENT.   In  botany,  leaning 
against.  ^ 

INDEHISCENT.  In  botany,  a 
iruit  which  does  not  open  when  rine 
as  succulent  berries  ' 

INDIAN   BLACK  DRINK.     See 

Holly. 

INDIAN  CORN.     See  Corn. 

J^Sft^SF^^-   Thenasturtion. 
INDIAN  HEMP.     See  Hemp. 

rSm'^^  MILLET.     See  Millet. 
INDIAN  PHYSIC.      Gdlcmatnfo- 
liata.  An  indigenous  herb,  the  peren- 
nial root  of  which  is  a  good  emetic 

INDIA  RUBBER.  Caoutchouc, 
i  he  dried  mdky  juice  of  the  Sipho- 
ma  elastica,  and  other  euphorbiaceous 
trees.  It  is  a  compound  of  90  car- 
bon and  10  hydrogen,  or  C3  H..  India 
rubber  is  much  used  in  the  laboratory 
to  unite  tubes,  &c. 

It  is  dissolved  by  coal  naphtha, 
lornriing  a  varnish,  which,  brushed  on 
cloth,  renders  it  water-proof;  two 
pieces  of  cloth  are  used,  the  varnish 
rubbed  on  one,  and  the  other  brought  I 
at  once  into  contact ;  they  adhere 
416  ' 


INI) 

firmly.  Linseed  and  other  fixed  oils 
dissolve  a  small  amount  of  caout- 
chouc ;  pure  ether  has  the  same  prop- 

^Vhen  heated  to  600%  it  throws  ud 

a  vapour,  which,  by  refrigeration,  is 

I  obtained   as  a   volatile    fluid,   called 

^01?  .I"''"*'-  '^''"^  '^  ^  remarkable 
sohent  of  common  India  rubber  res- 

'"'mn?fv 'l^r.»°''!^''  ^"'^  '"^"y  oils. 

INDIAN  TURNIP.    Annatnphul. 

llf  .V'^T'"'"-  A^-on'monmarsh 
plant,  the  bulbous  roots  of  which  con- 
tain much  starch,  and  are  occasion- 
ally eaten,  after  being  dried,  but  it  is 
I  acrid  when  fresh 

I  /.^^^^I«ESTION  This  is  charac- 
terized by  loss  of  appetite,  flatulen- 
cy, uneasiness  over  the  stomach,  ir- 
regularity of  the  bowels,  and  imper- 
fect dejections.  It  requires  to  be 
treated  by  exercise,  gentle  purges 
change  of  diet,  abstemiousness,  and 
tonics. 

INDICATION.  The  particular 
treatment  indicated  by  the  symptoms 
ot  a  disease. 

INDIGENOUS.  Native  plants 
&c.,  are  so  called. 

INDIGO.  A  blue  dye-stuff  pro- 
cured from  many  leguminous  plants 
but  chiefly  from  the  Indigofera  imcto- 
ria  (Fig.),  which  is  cultivated  in  the 


East  and  West  Indies,  the  continent 
ol  America,  and  the  United  States, 
as  It  yields  the  largest  amount  of  col- 
ouring  matter.     In    Guatimala.  the 


I 

i 


l.NDKK) 


shrubby,  /.  disperma,  yielding  a  supe- 
rior (lye,  is  cultivated.  Ure,  also, 
states  that  the  /.  pscudo  tinctoria  of 
tlie  East  Indies  furnishes  the  best  in- 
digo. The  most  successful  culture  of 
these  plants  is  near  the  tropics,  where 
the  mean  temperature  reaches  75^^ 
and  80=  Fahrenheit ;  but  species  of 
indigofera  grow  to  the  north  of  this 
position.  The  soil  should  he  light 
and  rich ;  the  seeds  are  sown  in  April 
in  drills,  run  at  distances  from  15  to 
20  inches  apart ;  they  require  moist- 
ure, but  should  not  be  planted  in  an 
undrained  soil.  Twelve  pounds  of 
seed  answer  fur  the  acre.  Tlie  young 
jjjants  are  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds, 
tlimned,  and  hoed  up.  The  plants 
are  cut  with  a  reaping  hook  near  the 
earth,  when  about  to  flower,  or  as 
soon  as  the  lowest  leaves  begin  to 
turn :  this  period  will  be  in  July  in 
South  Carolina.  A  second  crop  is 
taken  at  the  end  of  August,  and  a 
third  crop  in  Guatimala  and  India. 
The  root  stems  also  yield  good  indi- 
go a  second  year  in  rich  soils,  but 
one  year  is  usually  the  term  for  suc- 
cessful cultivation.  The  first  crop  is 
the  best.  The  excellence  of  the  in- 
digo will  depend  upon  the  brightness 
of  the  season  ;  long-continued  wet 
weather  produces  large  plants,  but  a 
smaller  quantity  of  die. 

Preparation  of  Fresh  Leaves. — The 
harvested  plants  are  at  once  carried 
to  a  vat  or  steeping-tank  of  wood  or 
masonry  ;  here  they  are  unmersed  in 
water,  being  kept  imder  by  weighted 
boards ;  fermentation  soon  begins, 
and  is  allowed  to  continue  about  18 
hours,  during  which  the  colouring 
matter  is  extracted  from  the  leaves. 
The  fermenting  vat  is  some  20  feet 
square,  and  two  to  three  feet  deep, 
and  the  bottom  set  on  a  level  with 
the  top  of  a  second  or  mashing-tank. 
As  soon  as  the  scum  produced  in  fer- 
mentation begins  to  subside,  the  li- 
quid should  be  allowed  to  flow  into 
the  lower  vessel.  The  decanted  fluid 
is  of  a  yellowish  tinge  ;  when  in  the 
mashing  vessel,  it  is  to  be  violently 
beaten  with  paddles  or  other  means 
for  an  hour  or  more,  when  the  blue 
begins  to  form  in  flocks  and  precipi- 


tate. At  first  there  is  much  froth, 
but  this  subsides  as  soon  as  the  flocks 
become  granulated ;  the  beating  is 
stopped  when  the  granulations  occur, 
and  the  fluid  begins  to  clear  if  allowed 
to  stand.  If  tlie  fermentation  has 
been  defective,  the  froth  is  very  abun- 
dant, and  must  be  allayed  by  pouring 
oil  over  the  surface  ;  if  over-ferment- 
ed, a  thick  fatty  crust  covers  the  li- 
quid, whicli  does  not  disappear  on  in- 
troducing oil.  In  this  ease  the  beat- 
ing or  churning  is  to  be  moderated. 
The  indigo  precipitates  during  20 
hours,  leaving  the  water  transparent 
and  free  from  froth.  Tlie  surface 
water  is  now  to  be  drained  off  by 
stop-cocks  or  plugs  in  the  side  of  tlie 
vessel.  In  Central  America,  the  thick 
semifluid  mass  of  indigo  is  scraped 
up  and  placed  on  a  stout  cloth,  to 
drain  and  dry  in  the  sun,  and  after- 
ward cut  into  small  pieces  for  the 
market. "  Stove-drying  is  equally  ef- 
fective. When  dried,  any  white  ef- 
florescence that  appears  should  be 
wiped  off.  Limewater  is  sometimes 
used  to  assist  the  precipitation  of  the 
indigo  ;  but  it  is  not  advisable,  as  the 
colour  is  injured. 

Preparation  of  Dried  Leaves. — In 
India  the  plants  are  sometimes  care- 
fully dried  in  the  sun,  the  leaves 
thrashed  from  the  stems,  and  stored 
in  barns  until  enough  is  accumulated 
for  sale  or  manufacture.  The  leaves 
change,  in  four  or  more  months,  from 
green  to  a  blue  gray  in  the  mass,  and 
then  become  ready  for  use.  They  are 
placed  in  the  steeping-vat  with  six 
times  their  weight  of  water,  and  con- 
tinually stirred  for  two  hours  or  more, 
until  the  floating  leaves  sink.  The 
solution  is  now  green,  and  to  be  im- 
mediately run  off  into  the  mashing- 
vat,  where  it  is  treated  as  before. 
There  is  no  fermentation  in  this  pro- 
cess. Limewater  is  sometimes  used 
to  hasten  the  granulation,  but  is  not 
necessary,  except  in  the  case  of  plants 
which  yield  little  colour,  as  woad 
[Isatis  tinctoria). 

In  some  cases  the  leaves  are  pound- 
ed ;  the  solution  is  then  strained  be- 
fore beating. 

The  product  of  indigo  in  South 
417 


INDIGO. 


Carolina  and  Louisiana  avprajes  65 
pounds  the  acre:  in  Guatimala,  112 
pounds  is  ol)tainrd  on  good  soils. 
The  low  price  of  labour  in  India 
tends  to  the  discouragement  of  the 
cultivation  of  indigo  in  the  United 
States  ;  it  is,  however,  raised  for 
plantation  purposes.  The  following 
is  a  sketch  of  the  plan  in  the  South 
for  this  object,  by  the  Southern  Agri- 
culturist ;  it  produces  an  imperfect 
article,  but  good  enough  for  the  plant- 
ers" use  : 

"  Cut  the  indigo  when  the  under 
leaves  begin  to  dry,  and  while  the 
dew  is  on  them  in  the  morning ;  put 
them  in  a  barrel,  and  fill  this  with 
rain  water,  and  place  weights  on  to 
keep  it  under  water.  When  bubbles 
begin  to  form  on  the  top  and  the  water 
begins  to  look  of  a  reddish  colour,  it 
is  soaked  enough,  and  must  be  taken 
out,  taking  care  to  wring  and  squeeze 
the  leaves  well,  so  as  to  obtain  all  the 
strength  of  the  plant ;  it  must  then 
be  churned  (which  may  be  done  by 
means  of  a  tolerably  open  basket, 
with  a  handle  to  raise  it  up  and  down) 
until  the  liquor  is  quite  in  a  foam. 
To  ascertain  whether  it  is  done 
enough,  take  out  a  spoonful  in  a 
plate,  and  put  a  small  quantity  of 
very  strong  lye  to  it.  If  it  curdles, 
the  indigo  is  cliurned  enough,  and 
you  must  proceed  to  break  the  liquor 
in  the  barrel  in  the  same  way,  by  ])ut-  \ 
ting  in  lye  (which  must  be  as  strong 
as  possible)  by  small  quantities,  and 
continuing  to  churn  until  it  is  all  suf- 
ficiently curdled  :  care  must  be  ta- 
ken not  to  put  in  too  much  lye,  as 
that  will  spoil  it.  When  it  curdles 
freely  with  the  lye,  it  must  be  sprin- 
kled well  over  the  top  with  oil,  which 
immediately  causes  the  foam  to  sub- 
side, after  which  it  must  stand  till 
the  indigo  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
barrel.  This  may  be  discovered  by 
the  appearance  of  the  water,  which 
must  be  let  off  gradually  by  boring 
holes  first  near  the  top,  and  afterward 
lower,  as  it  continues  to  settle.  When 
the  water  is  all  let  off,  and  nothing 
remains  but  the  mud,  take  that  and 
put  it  in  a  bag  (flannel  is  the  best), 
and  hang  it  up  to  drip,  afterward  ; 
418 


spreading  it  to  dry  on  large  dishes. 
Take  care  that  none  of  the  foam, 
wiiich  is  the  strength  of  the  weed, 
escapes  ;  but  if  it  rises  too  high,  sprin- 
kle oil  on  it." 

Indigo  is  found  in  numerous  legu- 
minous plants  besides  the  indigofera, 
as  the  Baplisia ;  it  also  exists  in  the 
Polygonum  tinclorium,  in  species  of 
ncrium  and  isatis.  One  plan  of  dis- 
covering the  presence  of  this  colour- 
ing matter  in  any  leaf  is  to  place  it 
in  strong  ether  until  the  green  is  ex- 
tracted, and  it  becomes  white  or  of  a 
light  yellow  ;  then  expose  this  freely 
to  the  air,  and  if  indigo  be  present, 
the  colour  is  changed  to  blue. 

Chemical  Observations  and  Dyeing. 
— The  lumps  sold  in  commerce  for 
indigo  are  a  mixture  of  several  bod- 
ies, as  gluten,  orgliadine,  brown,  red, 
and  blue  colours  ;  lime,  and  other 
mineral  substances.  The  proportion 
of  blue  colour  varies  from  19  to  75  per 
cent.,  according  to  the  experiments 
ofUre,  the  rich  purple,  violet-coloured 
samples  being  best,  and  the  East  In- 
dian generally  superior  to  the  Guati- 
mala. It  is  insoluble  in  water,  alco- 
hol, or  dilute  acids.  The  blue  indi- 
go sublimes  at  554°  Fahrenheit,  with 
a  purple  smoke,  and  forms  purple, 
shining  scales,  but  much  is  destroyed. 
The  sublimed  indigo  consists  of  car- 
bon, 73  1  ;  oxygen,  131  ;  nitrogen, 
108  ;  hydrogen,  4.  Indigogene,  of 
C4.5  His  N3  O4  . — (Dumas.) 

Indigo  is  readilydissolved  in  strong 
sulphuric  acid,  seven  to  eight  times 
the  weight  of  commercial  oil  of  vit- 
riol being  necessary ;  this  is  called  so- 
lution of  indigo,  sulphate  of  indigo, 
Saxon  and  chemical  blue,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  dyeing.  It  may  be 
prepared  in  quantity  and  kept,  and  is 
sold  at  the  proper  stores.  To  make 
it,  the  acid  must  be  placed  in  an 
earthen-ware  dish,  surrounded  with 
water  to  keep  it  cool,  and  the  pound- 
ed indigo  added,  with  stirring,  in  small 
quantities  ;  when  it  is  dissolved,  the 
whole  is  covered  and  left  for  48  hours  ; 
it  is  then  mixed  with  twice  its  weight 
of  pure  water,  and  bottled.  This  so- 
lution contains  the  indigo,  red  and 
brown  colours,  and  gluten,  and  does 


IND 

not  produce  a  clear  dye.  It  may  be 
puritied  by  adding  the  solution  to  a 
considerable  amount  of  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  putting  into  it  wool  to  mace- 
rate in  the  cold  for  24  hours.  The 
wool  becomes  deep  blue,  and  should 
remain  until  the  liquor  is  greenish 
blue  ;  it  is  then  to  be  taken  out, 
drained,  and  washed  in  a  stream  of 
pure  water  until  the  fluid  ceases  to 
be  coloured  or  acid.  The  washed 
wool  is  next  to  be  placed  in  a  copper 
full  of  water,  containing  two  per  cent, 
of  pearlash,  or  carbonate  of  soda  (or 
three  times  the  weight  of  indigo),  and 
kept  boiling  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ; 
The  pure  blue  (sulphate  and  hypo- 
sulphite of  indigo)  colours  the  wa- 
ter, the  wool  remaining  dyed  a  dirty 
brown  (indigo  red) :  the  solution  may 
be  used  as  a  dye,  yielding  a  bright, 
good  colour,  called  distilled  or  soluble  i 
blue.  I 

Wools  and  other  textures  are  first  [ 
boiled  in  alum  before  being  perma- 
nently dyed  in  the  soluble  blue,  the 
depth  of  tone  being  increased  by  sev- 
eral applications  of  alum  and  immer- 
sions in  the  solution  ;  it  also  serves 
to  make  olives,  greens,  and  other 
mixed  colours. 

Other  means  of  dyeing  are  exten- 
sively used,  founded  on  the  property 
of  indigo  to  become  s(jluble  in  alka- 
line solutions,  or  limewater,  and  col- 
ourless when  brought  in  contact  with 
a  deoxydizing  substance,  as  green 
vitriol,  and  recovering  its  hue  on  sub- 
sequent exposure  to  air.  The  indigo 
(indigogene)  may  be  thrown  down 
from  solution  by  acids  as  a  white 
body,  of  which  blue  indigo  is  suppo- 
sed to  be  the  oxide.  The  most  com- 
mon means  of  dyeing  is  the  cold  or 
copperas  vat ;  this  is  made  as  follows  : 
The  indigo  is  well  rubbed  into  a  fine 
paste  with  water  or  lye  ;  it  is  then 
stirred  into  a  vat  of  hot  water,  and 
newly  slacked  lime  added  ;  a  solution 
of  green  vitriol  is  then  stirred  into 
the  preparation.  The  quantities  em- 
ployed are  one  pound  of  indigo,  four 
pounds  of  lime,  and  three  pounds  of 
copperas  The  dyeing  vat  is  sep- 
arate, and  furnished  witli  the  result- 
ing solution,  which  conlaujs  deoxy- 


INF 

dized  indigo  of  a  reddish  yellow  col- 
our. There  is  a  precipitate  left  in 
the  preparing  vat  of  sulphate  of  lime, 
lime  mixed  with  indigo,  brown,  and 
some  blue,  and  peroxide  of  iron. 

In  using  this  cold  vat,  cotton  and 
linen  are  to  be  first  boiled  in  a  weak 
alkaline  lye,  and  the  cloth,  whether 
cotton,  wool,  or  silk,  is  to  be  merely 
I  dipped  without  starring,  and  allowed 
'  to  remain  from  eight  to  ten  minutes  ; 
they  are  hung  to  drain  over  the  vat ; 
1  they  are  then  to  be  exposed  to  the 
:  air  to  acquire  a  blue  colour,  and  dip- 
ped until  the  proper  tint  is  obtained. 
When  suitably  coloured,  they  must 
;  be  plunged  into  a  sour  bath  of  very 
I  dilute  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid  to 
remove  the  lime,  and  finally  rinsed 
in  running  water. 

j  Boussingault  is  of  opinion  that  the 
dye-stuff  might  be  prepared  in  the 
beginning  from  the  mash- vat  by  this 
process  with  great  advantage.  Nu- 
merous products  obtained  by  the  ac- 
tion of  re-agents  on  indigo  are  known 
in  chemistry,  but  are  of  little  impor- 
tance to  us. 

LNDUCTIOX.  The  process  of  ar- 
riving at  generalizations,  or  laws,  by 
a  judicious  investigation  of  numerous 
facts.  In  electricity,  it  is  the  influ- 
ence one  electrified  body  exerts  on 
another,  whereby  its  nearest  surface 
is  made  to  exhibit  a  kind  of  electri- 
city differing  from  that  of  the  excited 
substance. 

INDUMENTUM.  The  coating  of 
feathers  on  birds. 

INDUSLE.  The  cases  of  certain 
water  insects  ;  they  are  silicious, 
calcareous,  or  ferruginous. 

INDUSIUM.  The  thin  membrane 
covering  the  fruit  of  some  ferns. 

INDU\LE.  Organized  remains; 
the  withered  leaves  of  monocotyle- 
donous  trees,  &c. 

INERMIS.  Unarmed;  without 
spines  or  prickles. 

INERT  VEGETABLE  MATTER. 
Peat,  tan,  &c.,  which  does  not  readi- 
ly ferment ;  mixture  with  dung,  lime, 
or  ashes  reduces  it. 

INERTIA.      The   indifTerence  of 
matter  to  rest  or  motion 
INFIELD.   Under  improved  tillage 
419 


i.\(; 


INS 


and  rotations,  as  distinguislied  iVom 
outfield  lands. 

LN'FLAM.MATION.  An  unnatu- 
ral increase  of  circulation,  lilood,  and 
lieat  in  any  part.  It  originates  in 
irritation,  colds,  contagion,  and  un- 
healthy conditions  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  may  attack  any  part.  It 
begins  with  dryness,  heat,  pain,  and 
tension,  which  is  succeeded  hy  in- 
creased vascularity,  swelling,  and  se- 
cretion, and  terminates  naturally  hy 
resolution  to  the  primary  states,  by 
the  adhesion  of  parts  or  the  forma- 
tion of  pus,  ulceration,  mortification, 
and  death  of  the  part. 

If  the  animal  be  vigorous,  it  is  to 
be  treated  by  bleeding,  purging,  blis- 
ters, and  cooling  applications.  But 
the  inflammations  of  weakly  animals, 
especially  when  arising  from  conta- 
gion and  ending  in  ulcerations  and 
gangrene,  is  to  be  treated  by  stimu- 
lants and  tonics,  of  which  carbonate 
of  ammonia  {sal  volatile)  and  bark  are 
the  best. 

INFLATED.  Distended  like  a 
full  bladder,  as  the  carpels  of  some 
plants. 

INFLEXED.     Bent  inward. 

INFLECTION.  In  optics,  the 
same  as  diffrfiction. 

INFLORESCENCE.  The  group- 
ing of  flowers  on  the  stems  of  plants  ; 
the  principal  forms  are  the  spike,  ra- 
ceme, corymb,  umbel,  panicle,  tliyr- 
sus,  catkin,  capitulum. 

INFLUENZA.  An  epidemic  cold, 
with  sore  throat  and  fever,  prevail- 
ing in  some  springs. 

INFUNDIBULIFORM.  Shaped 
like  a  funnel. 

INFUSION.  A  liquor  obtained  by 
macerating  herbs,  &c.,  in  hot  or  cold 
water. 

INFUSORIA.  The  minute  ani- 
malcules of  infusions  and  stagnant 
waters  ;  some  possess  a  mineral  ca- 
sing ;  and  the  remains  of  innumera- 
ble myriads  are  found  in  rocks,  such 
as  tripoli,  polirsheifer  ;  hence  termed 
infusorial,  or  infusory  rocks  or  forma- 
tions. 

INGLUVIES.     The  crop  of  birds. 

INGUINAL.    Connected  with  the 
groin  (ingueti). 
4^0 


INK.  To  make  black  ink  of  the 
best  quality,  take  12  parts  gall-nuts, 
f)  of  green  vitriol,  and  5  of  gum  ;  the 
galls  are  to  be  well  pounded  and 
boiled,  and  the  other  ingredients  af- 
terward added  ;  1  gallon  of  water  is 
used  for  every  pound  of  galls.  Oak 
bark,  logwood,  and  otiier  substances 
are  often  used  in  place  of  the  galls  : 
the  quantity  must  be  two  or  three 
times  greater. 

The  indelible  ink,  for  marking  lin- 
en, is  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
(lunar  caustic).  It  is  used  with  a 
clean  pen  on  a  place  previously  soaked 
with  a  little  salt  ;  the  marking  is  to 
be  exposed  to  light  to  blacken.  It  is 
removable  by  chlorine  and  ammonia. 

Blue  ink  is  a  patent  solution  of 
Prussian  blue  in  oxalic  acid  and  wa- 
ter ;  gum  is  added  to  make  it  adhere 
to  paper ;  it  is  perishable,  and  easily 
dissolved. 

INJECTION.  In  farriery,  a  fluid 
medicine  thrown  into  any  cavity  of 
the  body  by  a  squirt  or  syringe. 

INNER  BARK.  The  liber  of  bof^ 
anists,  bass. 

INNOMINATUM  BONE.  The 
bone  of  the  buttock ;  aitch,  or  adze 
bone. 

INOCULATION.  The  introduc- 
tion under  the  skin  of  animals  of  a  par- 
ticular poison,  fluid,  or  virus,  to  pro- 
duce a  specific  disease,  as  smallpox. 
Budding  and  the  transfer  of  grass 
turfs  are  also  called  inoculation  by 
farmers. 

INORGANIC.  Not  organic  or  de- 
structible by  heat,  as  the  ashes  of 
plants,  minerals,  &c. 

INOSCULATION.  The  union  of 
the  extremities  of  veins  and  arteries. 

INSECTIVOROUS.  Birds,  ani- 
mals, or  reptiles  that  prey  on  insects. 

INSECTS.  The  following  brief 
sketch  of  Entomology  is  chiefly  by 
Mr.  Swainson,  from  Loudon's  Ency- 
clopaedia : 

"Insects,  above  all  other  animals, 
are  by  far  the  most  injurious  to  the 
agriculturist,  not  only  from  their  num- 
bers, but  from  their  attacking  the 
produce  of  the  earth  in  all  its  stages 
of  growth  and  maturity. 

"  Insects   are   distinguished   from 


INSECTS. 


worms  {Vermes,  Lin.)  by  always  liav- 
iiig  feet  in  their  perfect  state,  as  the 
beetle,  butterfly,  6cc.  Worms  crawl 
upon  their  bellies,  and  have  no  feet, 
as  the  earth-worm,  slug,  snail,  &c. 
The  generality  of  insects  have  only 
six  feet  (Hexapods) ;  but  some  few, 
generally  called  by  this  name,  have 
a  great  many,  as  the  wood-louse,  cen- 
tipede, &c. 

"  Nearly  all  insects  are  oviparous  ; 
that  is,  produced  from  an  egg.  These 
eggs  are  seldom  found  singly.  Tiiosc, 
of  some  species,  are  hatclied  in  a  few 
days,  while  others  remain  during  the 
winter,  and  tlie  young  do  not  come 
forth  untd  the  season  at  which  the 
leaves  of  the  plants  upon  which  they 
feed  begin  to  e.xpand. 

"  The  second  state  of  the  insect  is 
called  the  eruca,  or  larva.  Caterpil- 
lars are  those  larvaj  which  are  ex- 
posed, and  feed  upon  leaves  and 
plants.  The  larvae  of  beetles  usual- 
ly live  in  the  earth,  in  the  trunks  of 
trees,  or  in  the  substance  upon  which 
they  feed  ;  they  are  generally  of  a 
whitish  colour,  thick  and  clumsy  in 
form,  and  are  called  grubs  ;  whde 
the  name  of  maggots  is  usually  given 
to  the  larvaj  of  flies,  bees,  ants,  &c., 
all  of  which  live  in  the  same  confined 
state  as  those  of  beetles.  It  is  in 
this  stage  of  existence  that  insects 
are  most  voracious,  and,  consequent- 
ly, most  destructive  to  plants. 

"  When  the  larva  has  attained  to  its 
full  size,  it  changes  into  the  pupa  or 
chrysalis  state.  This  is  done  m  dif- 
ferent situations,  according  to  the 
tribes  to  which  they  belong.  The 
chrysalis  of  butterflies  are  naked,  and 
are  either  suspended  or  attached  to 
trees,  branches,  walls,  &.c.  Those 
of  moths  are  either  concealed  in  a 
case,  like  the  cocoon  of  the  silkworm, 
or  the  caterpdlar  undergoes  its  change 
in  the  earth.  The  period  in  which 
insects  remain  in  this  state  varies 
according  to  the  species  ;  but  in  most 
cases  ihey  are  inactive  and  torpid. 

•'  The  imago,  or  perfect  insect,  is 
produced  from  the  ciirysalis,  and  is 
t.'ie  only  state  in  which  all  its  parts 
and  members  are  fully  developed. 
'I'he  appearance  and  economy  of  per- 
N  .V 


feet  insects,  in  general,  is  totally  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  larva;  and 
pupae,  and  it  is  only  in  its  final  stage 
of  existence  that  the  species  can  be 
ascertained.  With  the  exception  of 
such  insects  as  form  the  aptera  of 
Linnajus,  all  others  are  furnished  with 
wings,  either  four  or  two  in  number. 
Some  few  exceptions,  however,  oc- 
cur to  this  rule ;  the  female  of  the 
glow-worm  and  of  some  few  moths 
are  apterous,  while  many  beetles  (al- 
though furnished  with  hard  winged 
cases)  are  destitute  of  real  wings. 
The  body  is  divided  into  a  head,  tho- 
rax or  chest,  and  abdomen  :  the  head 
sustains  a  pair  of  antennas,  resem- 
bling horns,  two  eyes,  often  very 
compound ;  the  parts  of  the  mouth 
are  a  labium,  labrum,  mandibles,  and 
maxilla;,  or  jaws  ;  to  the  latter  are 
attached  the  organs  of  feeling  (palpi). 

"The  duration  of  insects  is  ex- 
tremely variable  :  the  greatest  pro- 
portion appear  to  be  annuals,  emer- 
ging from  the  egg  and  passing  through 
the  three  stages  of  their  existence 
within  the  space  of  a  year.  But  there 
are  a  great  number  of  species,  particu- 
larly among  the  beetles,  which  pass 
three,  and  even  four  years  in  the  cat- 
erpillar state  ;  and  instances  are  on 
record  of  beetles  remaining  in  timber 
from  ten  to  fifteen  years.  The  greatest 
proportion  of  moths  are  biennial,  pass- 
ing the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state, 
and  closing  their  existence  in  the  suc- 
ceeding summer.  The  transitory  life 
of  the  ephemera  is  proverbial ;  the 
perfect  insect,  indeed,  exists  but  for 
a  day,  and  seems  born  only  to  con- 
tinue its  species,  yet  in  the  larva  state 
it  enjoys  a  life  of  one,  two,  or  even 
three  years. 

"  Anano-ement  or  Classification  of 
Insects. — AH  insects  may  be  divided 
into  two  groups  :  1.  Apterous  insects, 
having  either  no  metamorpho^s,  or 
only  that  kind  of  it  the  tendency  of 
which  is  confined  to  the  increase  of 
the  number  of  feet :  these,  as  their 
name  implies,  are  destitute  of  wings. 
2.  True  insects,  or  those  whose  met- 
amorphosis has  a  tendency  to  give 
wings  to  the  perfect  or  image  slate, 
but  never  more  than  six  feet. 

421 


INSECTS. 


"True  insects  are  again  divisible 
into  two  priiiiary  groups  :  the  first  of 
these  are  organized  lor  mastication 
in  tiicir  perfect  state,  and  the  second 
are  organized  for  suction  alone.  Each 
of  these  divisions,  according  to  the 
system  of  Macleay,  contains  five  sep- 
arate orders,  the  principal  characters 
of  which  we  shall  endeavour  to  naake 
intelligible  in  common  language. 

"  The  Mandibula/a,  or  masticating 
insects,  are  furnished  with  javvs(/ro- 
pA?)  of  a  horny  or  membranaceous  sub- 
stance, infinitely  diversified  in  their 
form  and  structure.  They  are  divi- 
ded into  the  following  orders  : 

"  1.  Trickoptera. — The  wings  are 
four,  soft,  and  generally  transparent ; 
the  upper  pair  slightly  hairy,  and  the 
lower  folded  when  at  rest.  The  in- 
sects of  this  order  are  comparatively 
iew.  The  caddy,  or  cadis  worm,  is 
the  larva  of  the  spring  ^y{Phrijganea), 
and  lives  in  the  water,  concealed 
within  a  tube  of  its  own  construction. 

"  2.  HymenopLcra. — The  wings  are 
four,  clear  and  transparent.  The  tar- 
sus (or  outer  division  of  the  foot)  is 
composed  of  five  joints,  and  the  body 
is  armed  with  a  sting.  The  bee,  the 
ant,  and  the  wasp  are  familiar  ex- 
amples. 

"3.  Coleoptera.  This  well-defined 
and  most  extensive  order  compre- 
hends all  insects  known  by  the  name 
of  beetles.  They  have  two  wings, 
concealed  beneath  a  pair  of  hard 
wing-cases,  which  meet  close  togeth- 
er in  a  straight  line  down  the  back. 
There  are  many  tribes  of  these  in- 
sects, which,  both  in  their  larva  and 
perfect  state,  are  extensively  injuri- 
ous to  man. 

"4.  Orthoptera. —  The  true  wings 
are  but  two,  very  large  when  expand- 
ed, and  folded  lengthwise  when  at 
rest.  They  are  covered,  either  par- 
tiali^or  wholly,  by  two  wing-cases  of 
a  thin,  tough,  and  rather  opaque  sub- 
stance, somewhat  resembling  parch- 
ment, and  reticulated  with  small 
nerves.  The  leading  characters  of 
this  order  are  exemplified  in  the  Blat- 
ta,  or  cockroach,  the  pest  of  tropical 
countries,  and  frequently  troublesome 
in  our  kitchens  and  larders. 
422 


"5.  Neuroptera. — The  wings,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  are  four  in  num- 
ber, clear,  transparent,  and  reticula- 
ted with  numerous  areolets,  or  irreg- 
ularly square  divisions  ;  the  tail  of 
the  female  is  not  armed  with  a  sting. 
Few,  if  any  of  these  insects  may  be 
considered  as  injurious  :  some  are, 
indeed,  beneficial ;  as,  from  their  pred- 
atory habits,  they  attack  and  devour 
a  vast  number  of  smaller  insects. 
This  is  more  particularly  the  habit  of 
the  green  dragon  fly  {Agrwn  virgo), 
which  every  one  may  see,  during  sum- 
mer, hovering  over  ponds,  and  flying 
about  like  a  hawk  in  search  of  its  prey. 
The  ephemera,  or  day-fly,  likewise  be- 
longs to  this  order. 

"  The  HaustcUata,  or  suctorial  in- 
sects, likewise  contain  five  orders. 
Although  apparently  destitute  of  jaws, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  rudiments  of  the  masticating  or- 
gans exist  in  these  insects,  but  that 
they  are  so  slightly  developed  as  to  be 
totally  useless,  and  only  discoverable 
under  a  very  strong  magnifier.  The 
suctorial  insects  in  their  larva  state 
are  mostly  furnished  with  strong  and 
well-defined  jaws,  and  feed  voracious- 
ly upon  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  ; 
yet,  from  the  perfect  insect  being  sup- 
ported by  suction  alone,  it  is  obvious 
that  in  this  state  they  can  do  no  in- 
jury to  the  agriculturist.  The  orders 
into  which  they  have  been  divided 
are  these  : 

"  1.  Lepidoptera. — The  wings  are 
four,  thin,  membranaceous,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  fine  powdery  substance, 
which,  by  the  magnifying  glass,  is 
shown  to  consist  of  minute  scales, 
lying  one  upon  another,  like  those  on 
fishes.  The  butterfly  and  moth  tribes 
are  familiar  to  every  one  as  well- 
known  examples  of  these  insects,  the 
larva  of  which  are  called  caterpillars. 

"  2.  D'lptera. — The  wings  are  two, 
clear  and  transparent,  like  those  of 
the  common  house-fly.  This  order 
is  very  numerous,  and  contains  many 
insects  which  are  injurious  to  vege- 
tables as  larva;,  and  troublesome  to 
man  in  a  winged  state,  as  the  gnat 
(Cvlcx),  whane-fly  {Tabanus),  crane- 
fty  {Tipula). 


INSECTS. 


'•  3.  Aplera. — Entomologists  of  the  t  ed  and  flat,  is  convex  and  thick  ;  the 


last  century  arranged  all  insects  with 
out  wings  under  this  order  ;  hut  it  is 
now  restricted,  by  Latreille  and  Mac- 
leay,  to  such  only  as  have  a  bivalve 
articulated  sheath  to  their  mouth  or 
rostrum,  and  no  wings,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  common  Ilea.  - 

"  4r.  Hcniiptira.— Insects  of  this  or- 
der are  furnished  with  two  folded 
wings,  covered  by  wing-cases,  also 
crossing  over  each  other,  of  a  semi- 
corneous  substance,  and  which  are 
likewise  useful  as  organs  of  flight. 
The  tarsi  are  composed  of  three,  two, 
or  sometimes  only  of  one  joint,  and 
the  body  is  much  flattened.  The  va- 
rious insects  commonly  called  fleld- 
bugs,  which  emit  a  strong  and  disa- 
greeable smell  when  handled,  are  all 
arranged  under  this  order. 

Homoptera.  —  These    insects 


wings,  also,  instead  of  being  folded 
over  each  other,  are  deflexed,  and 
embrace  the  sides  of  the  body. 

"  The  ditferent  orders  of  insects 
we  have  now  enumerated  are  con- 
nected by  others  of  an  inferior  ex- 
tent, and  which  are  called  osculent 
orders.  But  a  description  of  these 
is  not  essential  to  our  present  pur- 
pose, as  they  do  not  contain  any  de- 
cidedly injurious  insects. 

"  Insects  injurious  to  Live  Stock. — 
The  horse.  The  principal  foes  to  this 
animal  are  the  horse-\)ee{CEstrus  eq7ti) 
and  gadfly  (CE.  hccmorrhoidalis).  The 
first  deposites  its  eggs  on  such  parts 
of  the  body  as  are  liable  to  be  licked 
by  the  tongue,  and  the  animal  thus 
conveys  its  enemy  into  its  stomach  ; 
the  young  larvae  are  there  nourished, 
and  become  whitish  rough  maggots 


have  a  great  resemblance  to  the  last ;  j  {Fig.  1,  c).  which  are  known  by  the 
but  the  body,  instead  of  being  depress-  |  name  of  bols.     They  attain  their  full 

Fig.  1. 


size  about  the  latter  end  of  May,  and 
are  voided  about  the  end  of  June.  On 
dropping  to  the  ground,  they  find  out 
some  convenient  retreat,  where  they 


deposites  its  eggs  upon  the  lips,  and 
causes  excessive  and  distressing  un- 
easiness to  the  animal.  The  pre- 
vention of  bots  belongs  to  the  farm- 


change  into  a  chrysalis,  and  in  six  or  I  er,  the  cure  to  the  veterinary  sur- 
seven  weeks  the  fly  appears.  The  !  geon.  The  first  may  be  effected  by 
female  (i)  is  distinguished  from  the  '  watching  the  animal  at  the  season 
mal»(rt)  by  the  lenirthencd  shape  of  when  the  female  deposites  her  eggs 
her  body.  The  inside  of  the  knee  is  '  (usually  in  August  and  September), 
chiefly  selected  for  depositing  her  and  should  the  horse  appear  much 
eggs,  which  will  frequently  amount  '  agitated  in  its  pasture,  there  will  be 
tol'our  or  five  hundred  on  one  horse,  ijood  reason  to  suspect  it  has  been 
The  other  species  (ffi./ic2morr^oi(/a/;.v,  attacked  hy  the  fly;  the  eggs  may 
Lin.)  is  still  more  troublesome  ;    it ,  then  be  removed  by  the  brush  and 

423 


INSEC'l-S 


currycomb,  or  by  a  pair  of  scissors. 
When  the  disease  is  certain,  one  of 
the  best  methods  to  destroy  the  in- 
sect is  to  fasten  a  bag  net  on  the 
horse,  for  tiie  purpose  of  catching  the 
excrement,  as  well  as  the  full-fed  lar- 
vae. By  throwing  the  dung  every 
morning  into  a  deep  pit,  any  larvae 
that  may  be  enclosed  in  it  will  thus 
be  prevented  from  working  their  way 
to  the  surface  when  their  last  trans- 
formation is  about  to  take  place,  and 
their  death  will  cut  off  a  numerous 
progeny.  There  are  other  dipterous 
insects  which  feed  upon  the  blood 
both  of  horses  and  cattle  ;  the  most 
formidable  of  these  are  the  horse- 
flies {Tabani,  k,  I);  others,  much 
smaller  {Stomoxijs  calcitrans),  assail 
him  in  every  situation  during  sum- 
mer, and  dart  their  long  probosces 
into  his  legs  and  belly.  But  none  are 
more  trying  to  him  than  the  forest 
fly  {Hippobosca  equina,  L.),  which  runs 
sidewise  or  backward,  like  a  crab, 
and  shelters  itself  in  those  parts  least 
covered  by  hair  :  it  may,  however,  be 
caught  by  the  hand  when  the  animal 
is  in  his  stall ;  but  its  substance  is  so 
hard,  that  it  can  only  be  destroyed 
by  rolling  it  between  the  finger  and 
thumb. 

"  Horned  cattle  are  likewise  sub- 
ject to  the  attacks  of  a  peculiar  spe- 
cies of  gadfly  (GE.  hovis,  (i,c,/),  which 
causes  them  great  terror  and  distress. 
The  larva  (e)  is  smooth  and  fat,  and 
the  chrysalis  (/)  opens  by  a  lid  (m) 
when  the  insect  {<!)  emerges  from  it. 
The  herdsman  may  know  when  this 
insect  appears  among  his  flocks,  by 
the  agitation  they  exhibit;  the  whole 
herd,  with  their  tails  erect,  or  carried 
in  some  grotesque  attitude,  gallop 
about  and  utter  loud  lowings.  "When 
oxen  are  employed  in  agriculture,  the 
attack  of  this  fly  is  often  attended 
with  danger,  as  they  become  quite 
unmanageable,  and,  whether  in  har- 
ness or  yoked  to  the  plough,  will  run 
directly  forward.  Their  harness  at 
this  season  should,  therefore,  be  so 
constructed  as  to  be  easily  loosened. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  icithin  the 
skin  of  the  animal,  and  in  a  wound 
made  by  a  tube  resembling  an  auger, 
424 


with  which  the  female  is  provided. 
These  flies  only  attack  young  -and 
healthy  subjects  ;  but,  independently 
of  the  terror  they  create,  do  not  ap- 
pear to  occasion  any  material  injury. 
"  Sheep  are  also  infested  by  anoth- 
er species  of  gadfly  (CB.  ovis,  L.,  g,  h, 
i),  which  deposiles  its  eggs  in  the 
inner  margin  of  their  nostrils.  The 
moment  the  fly  touches  this  part  of 
the  sheep  they  shake  their  heads,  and 
strike  the  ground  violently  with  their 
fore  feet  ;  at  the  same  time,  holding 
their  noses  close  to  the  earth,  they 
run  away,  looking  about  them  on  ev- 
ery side,  to  see  if  the  fly  pursues:  they 
will  sometimes  crowd  together  in  a 
rut  or  dusty  road,  with  their  noses 
close  to  the  ground.  The  larvae  (i) 
are  white,  flat  on  one  side  and  con- 
vex on  the  other  ;  they  inhabit  the 
cavities  of  the  maxillary  sinuses, 
and  crawl,  when  the  animal  is  dead, 
into  those  of  the  horns  and  frontal  si- 
nuses ;  when  full  grown,  they  fall 
through  the  nostrils,  and  change  to 
the  chrysalis  (/;),  which  produces  the 
fly  {g)  in  about  two  months.  Swine, 
pigeons,  and  all  kinds  of  poultry  are 
subject  to  fleas  and  lice  of  various 
kinds,  but  never  to  such  a  degree  as 
to  occasion  death. 

'•  Fish,  in  their  young  or  fry  state, 
are  the  food  of  the  larvae  of  water- 
beetles  {Dylisci).  These  insects  are 
frequently  seen  in  great  numbers  in 
ponds  ;  they  may  be  caught  by  a  hand 
net  (made  of  very  small  meshes),  in- 
serted beneath  the  insect,  as  he  re- 
poses (With  his  head  downward)  on 
the  surface,  and  then  suddenly  drawn 
upward. 

"  Insects  injurious  to  Vegetables.— 
The  ravages  of  insects  upon  plants 
commence  from  the  time  that  the 
seed  is  committed  to  the  ground,  and 
continue  until  the  produce  is  gathered 
into  the  barn.  We  have  noticed  the  de- 
structive insects  which  are,  in  a  great 
degree,  peculiar  to  certain  plants, 
as  wheat,  barley,  &c.,  in  a  general 
way  ;  we  shall  now  enumerate  those 
that  infest  the  grains,  clover,  pas- 
tures, cabbages,  and  fruits,  planta- 
tions, as  well  as  those  universal  de- 
stroyers of  all  vegetables,  the  wire- 


INSECTS. 


worm,  tlie  plant  lice,  antl  the  differ- 
ent species  of  crane-fly. 

"  Wheat,  in  every  slate,  is  subject 
to  many  insect  depredators.  Mr. 
Marsham  describes  a  small  grub 
which  eats  into  the  young  plant  about 
an  inch  below  its  surface,  devours  the 
central  part,  and  thus  causes  its  im- 
mediate death.  At  a  later  period  this 
grain  is  attacked  by  a  fly  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  3Iosillu$  arcuatus  of  La- 
treille.  It  makes  a  lodgement  in  the 
licart  of  the  principal  stem  just  above 
the  root,  which  stem  it  invariably 
destroys,  giving  the  crop  at  first  a 
most  unpromising  appearance.  When 
tiie  wheat  blossoms,  it  becomes  ex- 
posed to  the  attack  of  a  small  or- 
ange-coloured gnat,  which  deposites 
its  eggs  in  the  centre  of  the  flower. 
The  weevil  is  destructive  to  wheat 
when  in  the  granary,  where  it  feeds 
both  in  the  larva  and  perfect  state. 

"  Rye  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a 
small  fly  {Musca  pumilionis),  which 
introduces  its  eggs  into  the  heart  of 
the  shoots,  and  occasions  a  loss  of 
from  eight  to  fourteen  plants  in  a 
square  of  two  feet.  No  remedy  has 
yet  been  proposed  for  this  pest,  which, 
if  not  extensive,  may  be  checked  by 
plucking  the  injured  ears  and  burn- 
ing them. 

"  Barley,  besides  other  insect  foes, 
has  one  peculiar  to  itself,  in  the  shape 
of  a  small  moth  (Tinea  hordci,  K.). 
This  fly  deposites  from  20  to  30  eggs 
on  a  single  grain ;  when  hatched, 
each  of  the  larva;  disperses,  and,  se- 
lecting a  grain  for  itself,  enters  from 
without,  and  lies  totally  concealed. 
Should  these  moths  be  observed  in  a 
granary,  the  injury  may  be  stopped 
by  carefully  covering  the  grain,  leav- 
ing a  few  handfuls  exposed;  upon 
these  the  moths  will  deposite  their 
eggs,  and  by  roasting  or  destroying 
this  small  quantity,  the  rest  may  be 
saved  from  infection. 

"  Oats  are  subject  to  few  diseases  ; 
but,  like  all  other  grain,  the  plants 
are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  that  uni- 
versal devastator,  the  wire-worm,  of 
which  a  more  particular  account  will 
be  found  in  treating  of  insects  uni- 
versally injurious  to  vegetables.  The 
N  N  2 


chinch  bug  is  often  very  injurious  in 
the  South. 

"  The  diseases  of  peas  are  mil- 
dew and  blight,  but  these  are  only  oc- 
casional ;  its  insect  enemies,  howev- 
er, are  formidable  ;  the  principal  of 
these  is  the  plant  louse  (Aphis),  one 
species  of  which  is  peculiar  to  this 
plant.  Beans  are  exposed  to  the 
same  injury  from  another  species  of 
aphis  of  a  black  colour,  which  begins 
at  the  top  of  the  plant,  and  multiplies 
downward.  In  both  cases  the  most 
cffectaal  remedy  is  to  top  the  plants 
at  an  early  period  of  the  infection, 
and  burn  the  parts  so  gathered  ;  this 
plan  is  likewise  advantageous,  as  it 
improves  both  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  the  crop.  The  earlier  pease 
are  sown,  the  better  chance  they 
stand  of  escaping  this  pest  ;  or  if  a 
small  quantity  of  quicklime  is  sprin- 
kled upon  them  when  they  are  a  few 
inches  high,  experience  has  shown 
that  the  plants  remain  uninjured, 
while  the  aphis  is  totally  destroyed. 

"  Turnips  are  subject  to  several 
peculiar  diseases,  and  are  the  food  of 
many  noxious  insects.  On  the  first 
appearance  of  the  leaves,  a  whole 
host  of  little  jumping  beetles  (Haltica 
ncmorum),  called  by  farmers  the  fly 
and  blackjack,  attack  and  devour 
them,  so  that  the  land  i«  often  obli- 
ged to  be  resown.  Nearly  as  much 
damage  is  sometimes  caused  by  a  lit- 
tle weevil  (Cwrcw/zo  contractus.  Marsh- 
am),  which  in  the  same  manner  pier- 
ces a  hole  in  the  cuticle  :  watering 
with  lime  water,  &c.,  may  serve  to 
check  both  these  evils. 

"  The  hop  is  liable  to  many  disea- 
ses caused  by  insects.  When  the 
plants  first  emerge  above  the  ground, 
they  are  infested  by  a  small  beetle 
(Haltica  concinna),  vulgarly  called  the 
flea.  In  a  more  advanced  state  the 
tops  and  branches  are  devoured  by 
the  hop  aphis,  known  to  some  by  the 
name  of  the  green  fly,  while  at  the 
same  period  the  roots  are  subject  to 
the  attack  of  the  caterpillar  of  a  sin- 
gular species  of  moth,  named  by  col- 
lectors the  ghost  moth. 

"  Clover  is  very  subject  to  be  in- 
jured by  a  very  small  weevil  (Apion 
425 


INSECTS. 


flavifcmoratum,  K),  which  at  all  sea- 
sons feeds  upon  the  seed  of  the  pur- 
ple clover,  while  another  species  of 
the  same  tribe  {A.  flaripcs)  devours 
that  of  the  white  or  Dutch  clover  ; 
the  injury,  unfortunately,  cannot  be 
known  while  the  plants  are  growing, 
as  they  have  then  every  appearance 


ofbeing  perfectly  healthy.  The  young 
shoots  of  the  purple  clover  are  often 
devoured  by  jumping  beetles  {Haltica, 
F.). 

"  Pastures  in  general  are  often  de- 
stroyed, to  a  very  great  extent,  by 
the  larva  or  grub  of  the  cockchafer 
(.Fig-  2,  a). 


Fi>.  2. 


"  The  ravages  of  the  larvae  are 
even  exceeded  by  those  of  the  per- 
fect insect,  which  sometimes  appears 
in  the  country  in  prodigious  multi- 
tudes, and,  like  a  flight  of  locusts, 
devour  every  green  thing  on  the  face 
of  the  earth.  The  eggs  of  this  terri- 
ble devastator  are  white,  and  are  de- 
posited in  the  ground,  where  they 
soon  change  into  a  soft  whitish  grub 
with  a  red  head,  and  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  long  (/)).  In  this  state  it 
continues  four  years,  during  which 
time  it  commits  most  destructive  rav- 
ages on  the  roots,  not  only  of  grass, 
but  of  all  other  plants  and  young  trees. 
"Whole  acres  of  the  richest  pastures 
are  thus  rendered  unproductive  ;  all 
verdure  is  lost,  and  the  turf  will  roll 
up  almost  with  as  much  ease  as  if  it 
had  been  cut  with  a  spade.  The 
whole  of  this  injury  being  carried  on 
under  ground,  admits  neither  of  pre- 
ventive nor  palliative  measures  ;  but 
the  destruction  to  be  expected  from 
the  perfect  insect  may  yet  be  prevent- 
ed. If  the  dried  and  withered  turf  is 
now  removed,  the  soil  underneath 
will  appear  turned  into  a  soft  mould 
for  about  an  inch  in  depth,  like  the 
bed  of  a  garden  ;  in  this  will  be  found 
the  grubs,  lying  on  their  backs  in  a 
curved  position,  and  vast  quantities 
may  be  gathered  and  given  to  pigs 


and  poultry.  "When  full  grown,  the 
larv£E  dig  in  the  earth  to  the  almost 
incredible  depth  of  five  or  six  feet, 
spin  a  smooth  case,  and  then  change 
into  a  chrysalis.  In  this  inactive 
form  they  remain  until  the  following 
spring. 

"  The  perfect  insect  or  beetle  then 
comes  from  the  ground,  and  com- 
mences an  immediate  attack  upon 
the  leaves  of  all  trees.  Their  num- 
bers are  sometimes  immense.  The 
best,  and,  indeed,  the  only  effectual 
remedy  for  the  destruction  of  the 
perfect  insect,  is  to  shake  the  trees 
or  bushes  at  noon,  when  they  are  ei- 
ther asleep,  or  in  a  state  of  stupor, 
and  then  to.  sweep  or  gather  them 
up.  One  person  in  this  way  has  been 
known  to  capture  a  thousand  in  a  day, 
which,  on  a  moderate  calculation, 
prevented  no  less  than  one  hundred 
thousand  eggs  from  being  laid.  Some 
judicious  farmers  plough  the  ground 
when  they  have  reason  to  think  it  is 
infested  by  the  grub,  and  this  is  gen- 
erally indicated  by  the  rooks  attempt- 
ing to  reach  them.  They  are  also 
greedily  devoured  by  crows  and  jays, 
whose  sole  employment,  for  nearly 
three  months  in  the  spring  of  tlie 
year,  is  to  search  for  insects  of  this 
sort ;  and  the  destruction  they  cause 
among  them  is  above  all  calculation. 


INSECTS. 


"  Cabbages,  ami  other  esculent  ve- 1  different  kinds  of  wliile  butterflies 
getablcs,  are  well  known  to  be  great-  (Fig.  3) ;  one  of  these  {Pieris  brassi- 
ly  injured  by  the  caterpillars  of  two  |  cec,  c)  is  much  larger  than  the  other  ; 

F(>.  3. 


the  caterpillar  is  pale  >ellow,  with 
black  spots  (a) :  when  full  fed,  it 
shelters  itself  on  walls,  pales,  or 
trunks  of  trees,  and  changes  into  the 
chrysalis  state  (i),  in  which  it  still 
preserves  the  same  cast  of  colouring. 
The  perfect  insect  (<:)  appears  early 
in  spring,  and  continues  until  the  end 
of  summer.  The  other  species  of 
caterpillar  is  green  (J) ;  the  chrysalis 
(«)  is  of  the  same  colour  ;  and  the 
butterfly  (/)  is  produced  about  the 

Far.  4 


same  time  as  the  preceding.  Hand- 
picking  the  larva,  and  searching  for 
the  chrysalis,  are  the  only  plans  of 
destruction,  either  for  these  or  the 
gooseberry  and  currant  caterpillars. 
"  Fruit-trees  of  all  kinds,  and  their 
produce,  are  attacked  and  devoured 
by  a  great  variety  of  insects.  We 
shall,  however,  advert  to  those  cu- 
rious, minute  insects  (Thrips  Physa- 
pus,  Fig.  4,  /,  h)  so  often  seen  in  flow- 
ers and  blossoms  during  the  spring, 


and  which,  in  their  natural  size  (/),    their  form  cannot  be  w^ell  distinguish 


appear  like  short  black  lin<'s.  Near- 
ly all  fruit-trees  are  liable  to  consid- 
erable injury  from  different  species 
of  Coccus,  or  cochineal  insects  ;  they 
are  mostly  so  small  (Fig.  4,  a,  </),  that 


cd  without  the  aid  of  a  magnifying 
glass  ;  many  of  them  resemble  small 
scales,  or  scabs,  fixed  on  the  bark  and 
shoots.  One  is  entirely  of  a  brown 
colour  (^Coccus  pcrsicorum.  a):  when 
427 


INSECTS. 


magnified  (//),  it  somewhat  resembles 
the  tortoise  beetle  (Caxsiila,  L  ),  the 
legs  and  head  being  only  iliscernilile 
when  the  insect  is  turned  on  its  back 
(c).  Another  (C.  fvl.  ijucrcits,  d,  c,  c) 
does  much  injury  to  tlie  oak  ;  while 
the  C.  fagi  attacks  the  twigs  of  the 
beech  {g),  and  causes  small  round 
excrescences  to  appear ;  these  arc, 
however,  very  different  from  the  gall- 
apples  of  the  oak  ( /),  which  are  often 
found  of  considerable  size,  and  are 
produced  by  the  C'ynips  quercus  folii, 
L.  (A),  or  oak-gall-fly,  and  always 
contain  either  the  larva  or  imperfect 
insect.  The  weevils  {Curculionidcz) 
form  an  exceedingly  numerous  fami- 
ly, subsisting  principally  upon  fruit, 
seed,  and  grain  ;  one  of  these  is  the 
nut-weevil  ( C.  nudum,  Fig.  2,  e,  e),  the 
larvae  of  which  (c,  d)  are  the  maggots 
so  frequently  found  in  this  fruit. 

"  The  Aphides,  or  plant  lice,  next 
to  locusts,  are  the  most  universal 
devastators  ;  almost  every  plant  has 
its  peculiar  species  ;  their  fecundity 
is  so  prodigious,  that  Beaume  has 
calculated  that  in  five  generations 
one  aphis  may  be  the  progenitor  of 
5,904,900,000  descendants  ;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  in  one  year  there  may 
be  twenty  generations !  Those  which 
attack  the  different  kinds  of  grain 
seldom  multiply  so  fast  as  to  be  very 
injurious  ;  but  those  peculiar  to  pulse 
increase  rapidly,  and  take  such  pos- 
session that  the  plants  are  greatly  in- 
jured, afid  frequently  destroyed,  be- 
fore the  seeds  are  matured. 

"  These  insects  are  equally  injuri- 
ous in  their  winged  (Fig-  4, 1,  magni- 
fied) and  in  their  larva,  or  apterous 
state  (m,  magnified)  ;  they  are  a  fa- 
vourite Ibod  of  sparrows  and  other 
birds,  who  destroy  numbers ;  they  are  j 
likewise  exposed  to  other  deadly  and  ; 
cruel  enemies  ;  one  of  these  is  a  small  ; 
hymenopterous  insect,  which  depos-  1 
ites  its  egg  in  the  body.    But  the  most  i 
inveterate  and  destructive  foe  to  the  { 
plant  lice  is  the  lady-bird,  or  lady-cow  , 
(Coccinella,  Lin),  which,  in  its  larva  i 
state,  feeds  entirely  upon  these  in- 
sects ;   and  the  havoc  made  among 
them  may  be   conceived,  from   the  | 
myriads  upon  myriads  of  these  little  j 
428 


creatures  which  are  usually  seen  in 
years  when  the  plant  louse  abounds  ; 
every  one,  probably,  destroying  tens 
of  thousands.  On  this  account,  the 
lady- bird  is  the  greatest  friend  to  the 
gardener  and  Airmer  ;  and  could  there 
be  any  method  devised  of  increasing 
these  useful  insects  at  will,  our  hot- 
houses, gardens,  fields,  and  hop  plant- 
ations would  soon  be  cleared  from 
the  ravages  of  plant  lice.  The  larvie 
of  several  bee-like  flies  {Si/rplui.s)  are 
no  less  useful  in  this  respect.  Their 
form  very  much  resembles  that  of  the 
leech,  having  no  apparent  head.  Some 
species  are  green,  with  a  white  stripe 
down  the  middle  ;  others  brown,  va- 
riegated with  darker  shades.  They 
are  always  found  upon  those  plants 
most  infected  by  aphides,  upon  which 
they  solely  depend  for  nourishment  ; 
hence  they  become  mo.st  beneficial, 
and  should  on  no  account  be  destroy- 
ed. As  palliative  measures,  the  ap- 
plication of  powdered  quicklime  may 
be  resorted  to,  or  the  infected  parts 
pruned  off  before  the  insects  greatly 
multiply. 

"The  wire-worm  is  a  name  that  has 
been  given,  without  discrimination, 
to  the  larva;,  or  grubs,  of  various  in- 
sects, totally  different  from  each  oth- 
er ;  hence  it  is,  that  much  confusion 
and  contradiction  will  be  found  re- 
specting it  in  agricultural  books  The 
true  wire- worm  is  the  grub  of  a  small 
beetle  {Elalcr  segctis),  and  it  derives 
its  name  from  its  slender  Ibrm  and 
uncommon  hardness.  It  lives  in  the 
larva  state  nearly  five  years,  during 
which  time  it  is  supported  by  devour- 
ing the  roots  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and 
grass,  which  it  attacks  indiscrimi- 
nately, and  causes  annually  a  large 
diminution  of  produce  ;  it  abounds 
chiefly  in  newly  broken-up  land,  and 
is  particularly  destructive  in  gardens 
recently  converted  from  pasture  land. 
In  the  larva  state  it  may  be  decoyed 
by  offering  it  more  tempting  food  ; 
but  no  method  has  yet  been  devised 
for  destroying  the  perfect  insect. 

"The  grub  is  a  general  name  for 
several  larvae  of  crane  flies  (Tipu- 
lida),  called  by  the  country  people 
long  legs,  or  gaffer  long  legs 


INSECTS. 


"  One  of  the  most  destructive 
among  these  insects  to  the  roots  of 
grass  and  grain  is  the  Tipiila  oleracea. 
The  larva  is  said,  by  some  authors, 
merely  to  loosen  the  roots  by  bur- 
rowing among  them  ;  but  others  as- 
sert that  it  likewise  feeds  upon  the 
fibres.  No  effectual  remedy  has  yet 
been  discovered  for  this  evil ;  and 
Steckney  observes,  that  the  insect  is 
not  killed  by  lime,  even  when  applied 
in  much  larger  doses  than  usual. 

"  There  are  several  other  species 
of  a  large  size,  as  the  Tipula  crocata 
{Fig.  5,  a),  and  Tipula  nro.?a(c)  which, 
in  a  less  degree,  are  also  injurious  to 
such  lands  as  are  moist  and  humid. 

"  Another  minute  species  is  partic- 
ularly destructive,  and  is  generally 
known  as  the  wheat  ^y  {Tipula  or  Ce- 
cidomyia  fritici,  d,  magnified) ;  its  his- 
tory and  economy  have  been  ably  in- 
vestigated by  Mr.  Marsham  and  Mr. 
Kirby.  The  injury  first  appears  in 
the  ear,  several  of  which,  on  being 
opened,  will  be  found  to  contain  an 
orange-coloured  powder  ;  in  this  are 
concealed  very  minute  larva?,  which, 
on  being  magnified,  are  seen  to  be 
thick  at  one  end,  extending  and  con- 
tracting themselves  at  pleasure,  and 
frequently  jumping  half  an  inch  at 
one  spring  :  they  take  their  station  in 
the  longitudinal  furrow  of  the  grain, 
and,  by  sucking  its  milky  juice,  cause 
it  to  shrink  up,  and  become  what  the 
farmers  call  pungled:  the  last  sown 
wheat  always  appears  the  most  in- 
fected.   In  the  beginning  of  June  the 


perfect  insect  (</)  may  be  seen  in  in- 
numerable multitudes,  flying  in  the 
evening  in  all  directions  over  the 
corn-fields  ;  but  during  the  day  not 
one  is  to  be  perceived.  The  female 
lays  her  eggs  by  means  of  a  retractile 
tube,  which  encloses  a  very  long  and 
acute  sting  resembling  a  hair  ;  but 
this  can  only  be  distinctly  seen  when 
the  insect  is  magnified.  The  wheat 
fly  would  soon  become  a  formidable 
enemy  to  mankind,  were  not  its  race 
exposed  to  an  inveterate  foe,  scarce- 
ly larger  than  themselves  ;  this  is 
the  Ichneumon  Tipula,  the  female  of 
which  carefully  searches  out  the 
grubs  of  the  wheat  fly,  and  deposites 
in  each  one  of  her  eggs  ;  these  are 
hatched,  and  ultimately  the  larva  de- 
vours the  body  which  gave  it  life. 
One  ichneumon  will  thus  cause  the 
death  of  many  dozens,  and  prevent 
the  future  multiplication  of  thou- 
sands. The  only  palliative  that  has 
been  recommended  for  stopping  the 
progress  of  this  insect  originated 
in  Mr.  Kirby  :  this  naturalist  thinks 
much  benefit  would  be  derived  by  fu- 
migating the  corn  with  tobacco  and 
sulphur,  when  the  wind  is  in  a  fa- 
vourable quarter  :  this  must  be  done 
as  soon  as  the  ear  begins  to  shoot 
from  the  leafy  stalk. — See  Wheat  In- 
sects. 

"  Insects  iiijurious  to  Food,  Clothing, 
cj-c. — The  cockroach  is  called  by  some 
the  black  beetle  {Blatta  oricntalis). 
Like  most  of  its  tribe,  it  shuns  the 
light,  both  natural  and  artificial.     It 


INSECTS. 


is  very  abundant,  and  indiscriminate- 
ly devours  broad,  meat,  flour,  and 
even  clothes.  The  young  arc  con- 
tained in  a  singular  horny  case,  which 
is  divided  into  a  number  of  trans- 
verse partitions  or  chambers  ;  it  is 
rather  flattened,  and  quite  smooth, 
except  one  side,  which  is  toothed. 
The  larva  and  pupa  are  both  without 
wings,  and  generally  larger  than  the 
perfect  insect. 

"  The  house-cricket  {Gnjllus  do- 
ttiest icus,  Lin.)  is  sometimes  abun- 
dant in  farm-houses.  It  devours  ev- 
ery kind  of  food,  and  is  often  found 
drowned  in  pans  of  water,  milk,  and 
other  fluids  ;  it  is  said  it  will  even 
attack  stockings,  or  linen  hung  out  to 
dry.  Another  species  is  peculiar  to 
pastures,  which,  in  conjunction  with 
the  mole  cricket,  feeds  only  upon 
roots. 

"  The  bacon-grub  (Dermeslcs  larda- 
rius,  Lin.)  is  a  great  pest  to  the  win- 
ter provisions  of  the  farmer,  devour- 
ing hams,  bacon,  and  all  sorts  of  dried  i 
meats.    This  is  principally  done  when 
the  insect  is  in  its  larva  or  grub  state  ; 
(Fig.  2,  /).    When  full  fed  it  becomes 
a  chrysalis  (g),  which  ultimately  chan- 
ges into  a  small  beetle  {h)  about  a  \ 
third  of  an  inch   long,  of  a   dusky 
brown  colour,  with  the  upper  half  of 
the  wing-cases  whitish  or  ash   col- 
oured,  marked   with   black    specks.  | 
The  grub,  from  lying  concealed  in  the  ] 
meat,  cannot  be  effectually  removed  ; 
but  by  watching  the  time  when  the 
perfect  insects  appear,  they  may  then 
be  destroyed,  and  a  recurrence  of  the 
evil  in  a  great  measure  prevented. 

"  Woollen   clothing   of  every  de-  I 
scription,  furs,  are  liable  to  be  de-  ! 
voured  by  the  larva;,  or  caterpillars, 
of  no  less  than  five  distinct  species 
of  small  moths.     Most  of  these  en- 
close themselves  in  little  tubular  ca-  '> 
ses  of  a  silky  texture,  and  are  so  well  i 
disguised  externally  by  fragments  of  j 
the  stuff  they  feed  upon  as  often  to 
escape  immediate  observation.    As  a 
preventive,  tobacco   leaves   may  be  i 
laid  between  the  folds  of  garments 
(in  drawers)  which  are  not  often  used. 
If  there  is  reason  to  fear  the  moths  ' 
are  in    the  house,   these  garments  | 
430 


1  should  be  frequently  opened,  and  air- 

;  ed    by    exposing   them   to    the   sun. 

j  When  furs  of  any  kind  are  laid  by 

I  for  the  summer,  they  may  either  be 

I  sprinkled  with  snuff  or  camphor,  and 

Russia  leather  or  tobacco  leaves  put 

I  in  the  drawer  or  box.     Should   the 

I  moth  actually  have  got  into  furs,  the 

only  way  of  checking  the  evil  is  to 

;  put  them  into  an  oven  moderately 

heated,  and  by  keeping  them  in  this 

situation  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  every 

j  grub  will  be  effectually  killed  ;  the 

degree  of  heat  maybe  ascertained,  in 

'  the  first  instance,  by  putting  in  some 

common  feathers,  which  should  come 

out  uninjured. 

"Means  of  suhduing  Insects. — The 
operations  for  destroying  insects,  or 
counteracting  their  injurious  effects, 
are  various,  and  in  most  cases  must 
be  regulated  according  to  the  species. 
These  we  have  already  pointed  out  in 
treating  upon  the  insects  themselves, 
or  of  the  particular  plants  upon  which 
they  feed.  It  only  remains  to  offer 
such  general  rules  as  are  more  or  less 
applicable  to  all  destructive  insects  ; 
these  are  of  three  kinds,  preventives, 
palliatives,  and  efficient  processes. 

"  The  preventive  operations  are 
those  of  the  best  culture  as  relates  to 
the  choice  of  seed  or  plant,  soil,  sit- 
uation, treatment,  and  climate  ;  the 
first  four  are  under  the  control  of 
man,  and  an  attention  to  them  will 
undoubtedly  lessen  the  risk  of  injured 
crops  ;  but  as  regards  weather,  nei- 
ther his  foresight  nor  care  can  avail 
anything. 

"  The  palliative  operations  are  nu- 
merous ;  and  such  as  are  eminently 
successful  may  be  considered  as  effi- 
cient, inasmuch  as  it  rarely,  if  ever, 
happens  that  any  insect  can  be  ex- 
terminated, even  from  one  district ; 
its  numbers  may  be  diminished,  but 
the  species  will  still  remain,  although 
in  such  small  numbers  that  its  oper- 
ations may  escape  notice.  Most  in- 
sects will  be  injured,  and  in  part  de- 
stroyed by  artificial  bad  weather,  such 
as  excessive  waterings,  stormy  appli- 
cation of  water  with  a  syringe,  and 
shaking  the  tree  or  plant :  many  will 
thus  be  bruised,  and  others  that  ar9 


INSECTS. 


shaken  to  the  ground  can  be  destroy- 
ed. Insects  may  be  farther  injured 
by  watering  the  plants  upon  which 
they  feed,  either  with  tobacco  or  lime- 
water,  solution  of  whale-oil  soap,  or 
by  scattering  upon  the  leaves  pow- 
dered quicklime,  soot,  ashes,  salt,  ilv-c. 
The  smell  of  tar  is  particularly  ofRMi- 
sive  to  all  insects,  and  the  eflects  pro- 
duced by  the  fumes  of  tobacco,  sul- 
phur, urine,  &,c.,  are  well  known. 
Hot  water  may  be  applied  with  much 
advantage.  Water  heated  to  120  or 
130  degrees  will  not  injure  plants 
whose  leaves  are  fully  expanded,  and 
it  may  be  increased  to  200  for  such 
as  are  without  leaves. 

"  Insects  may  be  destroyed  in  a 
much  more  effectual  manner  by  en- 
ticement, or  placing  in  their  way  oth- 
er food  as  a  trap.  The  late  Sir  Jo- 
seph Banks  has  the  merit  of  having 
recommended  and  made  known  this 
most  efficient  method.  It  simply  con- 
sists in  cutting  slices  of  potatoes  or 
turnips,  sticking  them  upon  skewers, 
and  then  burying  them  near  the  seeds 
sown  :  the  vermin  will  collect  upon 
them  during  night,  and  by  examining 
them  every  morning,  vast  numbers 
may  be  destroyed  ;  this  plan  has  been 
very  advantageously  tried  with  the 
wire-worm,  and,  no  doubt,  W'ould  be 
equally  beneficial  in  clearing  all  crops 
that  are  attacked  by  under-ground 
feeders.  Mr.  Kirby  states  '  that  it 
was  very  successfully  employed  to 
preserve  some  wheat-fields  from  the 
ravages  of  a  small,  gray  slug,  which 
tlireatened  to  demolish  the  plant. 
Having  heard  that  turnips  had  been 
used  with  success  to  entice  tbe  slugs 
from  wheat,  he  caused  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  dress  eight  acres  to  be  got 
together,  and  then,  the  tops  being  di- 
vided and  the  turnips  sliced,  he  di- 
rected the  pieces  to  be  laid  separate- 
ly, dressing  two  stetches  with  them, 
and  omitting  two  alternately,  till  the 
whole  field  of  eight  acres  was  gone 
over.  On  the  following  morning  he 
employed  two  women  to  examine  and 
free  from  the  slugs  (which  they  did 
into  a  measure)  the  tops  and  slices  ; 
and  when  cleared,  they  were  laid 
upon  those  stetches  that  had  been 
E  E 


omitted  the  day  before.  It  was  ob- 
served invariably,  tbat  in  the  stetch- 
es dressed  with  the  turnijis  no  slugs 
were  to  be  found  upon  the  wheat,  or 
crawling  upon  the  land,  though  they 
abounded  upon  the  turnips  ;  while, 
on  the  undressed  stetches,  they  were 
to  be  seen  in  great  numbers  both  on 
the  wheat  and  on  tiie  land.  The  quan- 
tity of  slugs  thus  collected  was  near 
a  bushel. 

"  The  turnip-net  is  the  most  suc- 
cessful expedient  that  has  yet  been 
thought  offor  the  capture  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  little  beetles,  called  by 
farmers  the  black  jack,  and  by  hop- 
growers  the  flea.  It  consists  of  two 
pieces  of  stout  wood,  the  ends  of 
which,  at  one  extremity,  are  fixed 
into  a  handle  in  a  forked  direction  ; 
the  other  ends  are  left  thick  and  curv- 
ed upward,  for  the  purpose  of  passing 
the  instrument  smoothly  and  easily 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  to- 
wards this  end,  the  sticks  are  con- 
nected by  a  cross-bar  formed  by  a 
thin  iron  rod,  that  may  be  taken  on 
and  off  at  pleasure  ;  these  three  sides 
constitute  the  frame  work  for  sup- 
porting a  long  and  ample  bag,  made 
of  strong,  glazed  calico.  The  meth- 
od of  using  it  is  by  the  operator 
shoving  it  before  him  on  the  ground, 
over  the  tops  of  the  turnips  or  other 
plants ;  by  this  means  tiie  insects  that 
are  upon  the  leaves  fall  into  the  bag, 
which  may  be  occasionally  shaken  du- 
ring the  process,  so  as  to  bring  them 
to  the  bottom  (which  is  made  nar- 
row), where  they  will  remain.  Vast 
quantities  of  insects,  which,  from  their 
smallness  and  agility,  defy  hand-pick- 
ing, will  be  thus  captured.  The  tur- 
nip-net may  be  made  either  large  or 
small ;  perhaps  two  feet  and  a  half 
for  the  side  sticks  is  the  best  lengtii, 
!  it  being  obvious  that  the  wider  they 
are  apart,  the  greater  space  will  be 
brushed  at  once. 

j  "The  lime-duster  (F/^.  6)  is  a  recent 
1  invention  by  Mr.  Samuel  Curtis,  and 
has  been  used  by  him  with  great  suc- 
cess in  throwing  pulverized  quick- 
lime over  apple-trees  infected  by 
caterpillars  and  other  insects.  His 
orchard,  containing  many  thousand 


INSECTS. 


fruit-trees,  and  occupying  fifty  acres, 
had  been  for  many  years  completely 
divested  of  most  of  their  foliage  and 
young  fruit  in  the  spring  months. 
A^'ashing  the  stems  and  branches  with 
lime  and  water  (as  might  have  been 
expected)  was  found  ineffectual  for 
the  destruction  of  insects  which  feed 
only  on  the  young  buds  and  leaves. 
The  instrument  in  question  consists 
of  a  canister  twelve  inches  long,  sev- 
en inches  wide  at  its  broadest,  and 
four  inches  on  its  narrowest  part  ; 
the  handle  (a)  is  five  inches  and  a 
half  long.  The  top  of  the  handle  is 
fitted  with  a  cap  (b),  which  is  put  on 
when  the  lime  is  to  be  thrown  on  low 
trees  ;  but  when  high  trees  are  to  be 
operated  upon  the  cap  is  removed, 
and  a  pole  of  sufficient  length  to  reach 
the  height  required  is  inserted  into 
the  handle.  Quicklime  pulverized 
(and  often  sifted  through  a  fine  sieve) 
is  put  into  the  canister,  and  shaken 
over  the  young  foliage  just  as  it  was 
expanding.  The  time  for  doing  tliis 
is  in  the  dew  of  the  morning,  or 
whenever  the  leaves  are  damp  ;  and 
if  there  should  be  a  gentle  breeze  suf- 
ficient to  carry  the  dust  obliquely 
through  the  head  of  each  tree,  it  is 
the  more  quickly  performed.  Under 
favourable  circumstances  of  this  na- 
ture, Mr.  Curtis  says,  '  I  found  that 
three  men,  provided  with  the  powder 
in  a  large  box  on  a  light  wheelbar- 
row, could  dress  from  two  to  three 
thousand  trees  in  a  day :  when  the 
wind  changed,  I  had  the  trees  dress- 
ed on  the  other  side.  Although  used 
ever  so  freely,  no  person  need  fear 
432 


any  injury,  from  the  caustic  quality 
of  the  lime,  on  the  most  delicate  and 
fresh  expanded  foliage ;  it  is  only  prej- 
udicial to  insects  of  all  kutds,  and  to 
dead  vegetable  matter.'  {Hort.  Trans.,  \ 
vol.  vi.,  pt.  2,  page  124).  We  know 
not  whether  the  lime-duster  has  ever 
been  tried  upon  hop  plantations  in- 
fected by  the  green  fly  or  plant  louse  ; 
but  it  appears  to  us  equally  well  adapt- 
ed to  effect  a  great  destruction  among 
those  insects. 

"  Grain  of  all  descriptions  that  is 
infected  by  weevils,  or  by  the  grubs 
of  other  insects,  should  be  spread  in 
the  sun,  and  frequently  turned  :  the 
warmth  will  bring  the  animals  out  of 
the  grain,  and  considerable  numbers 
may  be  destroyed.  It  has  been  said 
that  they  may  be  kept  away  by  strew- 
ing boughs  of  elder  or  branches  of 
henbane  among  the  grain,  but  this 
wants  confirmation.  It  should  be 
steeped  in  strong  brine. 

"  Hand-picking,  independent  of  the 
foregoing  methods,  is  too  tedious  and 
too  ineffectual  for  general  adoption 
in  large  crops,  but  is  probably  the 
best  that  can  be  resorted  to  in  gar- 
dens or  small  enclosures.  In  this 
way  the  different  esculent  vegetables, 
and  the  common  and  low  kinds  of 
fruit-trees,  as  currants,  gooseberries, 
&c.,  may  be  cleared  of  a  vast  num- 
ber of  caterpillars. 

"  Catching  the  perfect  insect  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  certain  plan  for 
preventing  a  return  of  the  same  in- 
jury the  following  year,  for  the  death 
of  one  female  will  cut  ofTa  generation 
of  a  hundred  larvae  ;  but  from  the  dif- 
ficulty that  attends  an  extensive  adop- 
tion of  this  plan,  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
much  attended  to. 

"  Worm-like  Animals  injurious  to 
Agriculture. — Of  worms  {Vermes,  L.), 
generally  so  called,  there  are  but  few 
which  may  be  considered  as  injurious 
to  agriculture.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  various  species  of  slug  (Arion, 
F.,  Limax,  L.)  and  the  large  and  small 
snails  (Helix  horlcnsis  and  nemoralis, 
L.),  mostly  found  in  garden  planta- 
tions. The  earth  or  dew  worm  (Lmto- 
bricus  terreslris,  L.),  unless  existing  in 
great  numbers  on  a  single  spot,  can- 


INS 


LNT 


not  be  ranked  among  injurious  ani-  I 
mals,  notwithstanding  the  prejudices 
of   farmers   and    gardeners   against 
them.      Without  worms,  the   earth 
would  soon  become  hard,  cold,  inca-  i 
pable  of  receiving  moisture,  or  of  ! 
giving  nourishment  to  roots  :    they 
are,  in  fact,  the  great  promoters  of  | 
vegetation,  by  boring,  perforating,  and 
loosening  the  soil  beneath,  and  by  i 
manuring  it  above  with  their  excre-  j 
ment,  which  is  thrown  up  into  lumps  i 
called  worm  casts.     Tiie  wire-worm  ; 
does  not  belong  to  this  tribe,  but  is  , 
the  larva  of  a  small  beetle  already 
noticed. 

"  Worms  of  the  slug  kind  are  with- 
out shells.     There  are  several  spe-  j 
cies,  all  of  which  subsist  on  leaves, 
ro(Jts,    and   vegetables.      The    most 
common   is  the   Lvmax   a^rcstis,  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties  inju-  ^ 
rious  to  the  agriculturist  and  garden- 
er ;  they  devour  the  young  shoots  of 
turnips,  wheat,  and,  indeed,  all  kinds 
of  grain,  frequently  to  a  ruinous  ex-  [ 
tent ;  their  eggs  are  small,  round,  of  a 
semipellucid  whiteness,  and  are  de- 
posited in  the  earth.     The  methods  of 
destroying  or  eradicating  the  perfect 
animal  have  been  already  described. 

"  The  shell  slug  (Teslacellus  mangi) 
is  a  native  of  TenerifTe,  remarkable 
for  feeding  upon  earth  worms  ;  and 
may,  therefore,  be  beneficially  intro- 
duced into  such  gardens  as  are  over- 
stocked by  that  otherwise  useful  an- 
imal. It  is  readily  distinguished  from 
all  other  slugs  by  having  a  thin,  oval 
shell  affixed  to  the  hinder  part  of  its 
body.  Slugs  in  general  are  easily 
enticed  by  cabbage  leaves,  scattered 
near  such  garden  vegetables  as  they  i 
appear  to  injure  most.  j 

"  Snails  are  slugs  covered  by  a 
shell.  The  two  species  most  preju- 
dicial to  cultivated  vegetables  are 
the  garden  snail  {Helix  aspersa,  Gm.), 
and  the  variegated  snail  (Helix  nemo- 
ralis) ;  both  these  seek  the  same  de- 
scription of  food,  and  are  equally  in- 
jurious as  slugs,  and,  like  them,  may 
be  enticed  by  cabbage  leaves  and  oth- 
er juicy  vegetable  refuse." 

The  most  important  insects  are  no- 
ticed under  each  plant. 
O  o 


INSERTION.  In  botany,  the  di- 
rection in  which  an  organ,  as  the  sta- 
mens, is  attached  to  the  part  that  sus- 
tains it. 

INSESSORES  (from  insideo,  I 
sit).  Birds  which  perch  on  trees. 
Pcj'chcTs. 

INSOLATION.  Scorched  by  the 
sun. 

INSPIRATION.  In  physiology, 
the  act  of  inhaling  air. 

INSTEP  OF  THE  HORSE.  The 
part  of  the  hind  leg  reaching  from  the 
ham  to  the  pastern  joint. 

INSULATION.  In  electricity,  sur- 
rounded by  non-conducting  substan- 
ces, as  glass,  resin. 

INTEGERRIMUS.  With  a  per- 
fect edse,  or  margin,  in  botany. 

INTEGRANT  PARTS.  The 
smallest  parts  of  a  body,  by  the  union 
of  which  the  mass  is  produced. 

INTEGUMENT.  A  membranous 
covering  or  expansion.  It  is  used  in 
botany  for  the  coverings  of  seeds. 

INTERCELLULAR  SPACES.  In 
botany,  the  minute  spaces  existing 
between  the  sides  of  cells.  Along 
these  the  movement  of  sap  occurs  in 
herbs  and  the  lower  plants.  In  some 
water  plants  they  are  large,  to  assist 
natation. 

INTERFERENCE  OF  LIGHT. 
The  effects  produced  by  causing  two 
pencils  of  light  to  be  reflected  or 
transmitted  at  very  minute  intervals 
or  distances  from  each  other,  where- 
by they  interfere  and  produce  col- 
ours. If  the  light  be  homogeneous, 
they  produce  bright  and  black  bands. 

INTERVAL  LANDS.  Lands  on 
the  margin  of  rivers.     Alluvial  lands. 

INTERNODE.  The  space  be- 
tween two  knots,  leaves,  or  leaf 
buds,  in  stems. 

INTESTINALIA.  Worms  inhab- 
iting the  interior  of  the  bodies  of  an- 
imals. Entozoa.  Those  of  the  in- 
testines are  destroyed  by  purges  and 
large  doses  (2oz.)  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

INTRADOS.  The  lower  line  or 
curve  of  an  arch. 

INTRORSE.     Turned  inward. 

INTUSSUSCEPTION.  The  fold- 
ing of  one  portion  of  the  intestines 
into  another. 

433 


lOD 


IRO 


INULIN.  A  variety  of  starch. 
It  is  coloured  yellow  by  iodine.  For- 
mula, C34  H21  0:i. — {Parnei.) 

INUNDATION  OF  LANDS. 
Fields  are  sometimes  covered  with 
water  in  agriculture,  especially  mead- 
ows, and  in  the  cultivation  of  rice. 
The  water  is  let  in  by  sluices,  and 
allowed  to  remain  for  several  days 
or  weeks,  and,  in  meadows,  during 
the  whole  winter.  It  kills  those 
weeds  which  are  not  aquatic,  serves 
to  manure  the  soil,  and,  in  the  case 
of  meadows,  advances  the  grass  by 
some  weeks,  the  water  protecting  it 
from  frost.  The  lands  should  be  well 
drained,  or  on  a  porous  soil ;  other- 
wise the  water,  sinking,  will  stag- 
nate, and  become  injurious  ;  it  should 
be  perfectly  let  out  by  numerous 
drains.  By  this  practice,  meadows 
have  been  rendered  fertile  without 
other  manure  for  ages.  The  sedi- 
ment deposited  is  sometimes  called 
wiirp,  and  the  inundation  warping. 

INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS, 
INVERTEBRATE.  Animals  with- 
out an  internal  skeleton  or  back  bone 
(vertebral  column),  such  as  crabs 
(crustaceans),  insects  (articulata),  or 
shell-fish  {molluscans),  &c. 

INVOLUCEL,  INVOLUCEL- 
LUM.  A  small  or  partial  involu- 
crum  surrounding  the  secondary  um- 
bels, &c. 

INVOLUCRUM.  A  collection  of 
bracts  at  the  union  of  several  flower 
stems.  A  covering  of  the  fructifica- 
tion of  ferns  and  equisetums  In 
anatomy,  a  name  for  the  membrane 
covering  the  heart  (pericardium). 

IODINE  (from  njdj],  violet).  An 
elementary  body,  of  a  black  colour, 
found  in  lustrous  scales,  converted 
by  a  heat  of  345°  F.  into  a  beautiful 
violet  vapour.  It  closely  resembles 
chlorine  in  its  chemical  characters  ; 
is  not  found  in  inland  plants,  but  only 
in  sea-weeds,  and  such  as  grow  in 
salt  marshes.  Its  equivaleiit  is  126, 
symbol  I.  It  combines  directly  with 
metals,  forming  iodides.  With  hydro- 
gen, it  forms  hydriodic  acid  ;  with  ox- 
ygen, it  forms  iodic  acid.  Iodine,  as 
well  as  most  of  its  compounds,  is 
poisonous. 
434 


lOLITE.  A  dark-blue  mineral, 
massive,  and  crystallized  in  six  or 
twelve  sided  prisms ;  found  imbed- 
ded in  primary  rocks.  Composition : 
silica,  49  17;  alumina,  33  10  ;  mag- 
nesia, 11-48;  oxide  of  iron,  4  33. — 
(Slromeyer.) 

IPECACUANHA.  Ccphaclis  ipe- 
cacuanha. A  shrubby  plant,  of  (he 
natural  tamily  Cinchoniacea,  the  root 
of  which  is  extensively  used  as  an 
emetic.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical 
America,  and  especially  Brazil,  from 
whence  it  is  exported.  In  20  grain 
doses  it  is  emetic  ;  but  in  smaller 
quantities,  expectorant. 

IPOALEA.  A  genus  of  plants  re- 
sembling the  convolvulus. 

IRIDESCENT.  Exhibiting  bright 
colours  by  reflection. 

IRIS.  In  anatomy,  the  coloured 
membrane  of  the  eye  which  sur- 
rounds the  pupil,  and,  by  its  contrac- 
tion or  dilation,  regulates  the  amount 
of  light  entering. 

IRIS.  A  genus  of  ornamental 
flowers,  the  flag.  The  /.  jlorentina 
yields  the  orris  root,  esteemed  for 
tooth-powder,  from  its  odour  resem- 
bling violets. 

IRISATED.  Exhibiting  the  pris- 
matic or  rainbow  colours. 

IRON.  A  ductile  metal,  sp.  gr. 
7  78  ;  susceptible  of  magnetism,  and 
taking  a  high  polish.  By  exposure 
to  damp  air,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  be- 
coming rust.  Its  ores  are  very  nu- 
merous. Few  soils  are  destitute  of 
some  admixture.  The  ashes  of  plants 
are  also  furnished  with  a  small  quan- 
tity. 

Cast  iron  contains  carbon,  sand, 
and  other  impurities,  w-hich  are  re- 
moved, to  a  great  extent,  in  wrought 
iron.  The  former  is  brittle,  harder, 
and  lasts  longer  when  exposed  than 
wrought  iron,  which  is  ductile,  soft, 
malleable,  and  fibrous. 

Steel  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and 
iron,  remarkable  for  its  elasticity  and 
hardness.  Iron  combines,  also,  with 
sulphur  and  halogen  bodies. 

The  equivalent  of  iron  is  27- 18, 
symbol  Fe  (ferrum).  It  combines 
with  two  proportions  of  oxygen,  and 
forms,  1st.  A  protoxide,  1  Fe  -j- 1  0= 


IRQ 

37  18.  This  is  the  black  oxide,  and 
exists  in  green  vitriol  and  the  proto- 
salts  of  iron,  serving  as  a  base.  2d. 
The  peroxide,  2  Fe-f  3  0  =  78  36. 
This  is  the  common  red  or  brown 
oxide  ;  it  is  also  a  base,  producing 
the  persalts  of  iron.  Iron  is  readily 
dissolved  by  acids,  being  lirst  oxidi- 
zed, and  then  uniting  with  the  acid. 
The  salts  of  the  protoxide  are,  for  the 
most  part,  instable,  changing  to  per- 
oxides when  exposed  to  moist  air. 

Iron  is  discovered  in  solution  by 
an  infusion  of  gall-nuts,  which,  soon- 
er or  later,  produces  a  black  colour 
(ink).  If  the  colour  arises  immedi- 
ately, the  peroxide  is  present ;  if  the 
mixture  requires  stirring  and  expo- 
sure to  air,  the  protoxide  is  present. 

Many  of  the  compounds  of  iron  are 
of  great  interest  to  the  farmer.  The 
protosulphate  (copperas)  is  much  used 
in  dyeing,  in  making  ink,  and  as  an 
emetic.  In  Switzerland  it  is  added  to 
urine  and  fluid  manures,  to  fix  their 
ammonia,  which  it  converts  into  a 
sulphate.  It  is  also  powerfully  disin- 
fecting, removing  bad  smells.  This 
body  is  sometimes  present  in  marshy 
and  peaty  soils,  and  makes  them  per- 
fectly barren  ;  they  are,  however, 
quickly  recovered  by  liming.  The  py- 
rolignate  of  iron  (persalt)  is  used  in 
dyeing  and  the  preservation  of  timber. 
The  muriate  has  the  same  properties, 
and  is  also  a  medicine.  Prussian  blue 
is  a  sesquiferrocyanide  of  iron. 

The  iron  work  of  the  farm  should 
be  painted  with  coal-tar  for  protec- 
tion from  rust,  or  kept  in  a  dry  place 
imder  cover.  Portable  fencing,  hur- 
dles, and  many  other  fixtures  on  a 
farm  are  now  made  of  iron,  which 
heretofore  were  wooden.  It  is  well 
adapted  for  the  sashes  of  hot-houses  : 
wire  is  extensively  employed  for 
slight  trellises.  Wires  should  be  pro- 
tected from  moisture  by  coal-tar,  or 
other  coarse  paint. 

IRON  PYRITES.  Native  sulphu- 
ret  of  iron  ;  it  forms  a  mineral  often 
crystallized,  of  a  golden  colour.  Its 
presence  in  soils  produces  barren- 
ness, which  is  soon  rectified  by  li- 
ming ;  it  is  the  origin  of  most  of  the 
sulphur  springs.   Water  flo\nng  over 


IRR 

the  pyrites  decomposes  it  in  part, 
and  becomes  tainted  with  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen. 

IRON  WOOD.     See  Homheam. 
IRRADIATION.     The  brightness 
that  surrounds  luminous  objects,  and 
increases  their  apparent  size. 

IRRIGATION.  "  Of  all  the  sub- 
stances which  concur  in  the  vegeta- 
tion and  growth  of  plants,  water  is 
the  most  essential ;  without  moist- 
ure the  seed  cannot  germinate,  nor 
can  the  plant  receive  nourishment. 
Hence  in  warm  climates,  where  rains 
are  periodical,  and  where  the  soil  is 
dried  and  parched  by  a  continued 
evaporation,  no  verdure  exists,  ex- 
cept where  springs  or  rivers  supply 
the  waste  of  moisture.  The  warm- 
er the  climate,  and  the  more  rapid 
the  evaporation,  the  more  luxuriant 
is  the  vegetation,  provided  there  be 
an  abundant  supply  of  water.  This 
circumstance  has  suggested  the  plan 
of  diverting  streams  and  conducting 
them  in  channels  to  fertilize  as  great 
an  extent  of  land  as  possible.  The 
water  used  always  contains  sahne 
and  other  matters  very  necessary  to 
the  growth  of  plants,  and  which  are 
supplied  by  irrigation. 

"  If  water  stagnates  and  is  evapo- 
rated, and  the  noxious  matter  held  in 
solution  remains  in  the  soil,  all  the 
advantage  of  irrigation  is  lost,  and 
the  better  kinds  of  grasses  are  suc- 
ceeded by  rushes  and  coarse  aquatic 
plants,  as  may  be  seen  in  all  marshy 
spots.     The  circulation  of  the  water, 
I  therefore,  appears  to  be  as  necessary 
I  as  its  presence  ;  and,  provided  there 
be  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  of  a 
proper  quality,  the  more  porous  the 
soil,  and  especially  the   subsoil   is, 
the  more  vigorous  is  the  vegetation. 
It  is  on  this  principle  alone  that  we 
can  rationally  account  for  the  great 
j  advantage  of  irrigation  in  those  cli- 
:  mates  where  rain  is  abundant,  and 
I  where  the  soil,  which  is  most  benefit- 
\  ed  by  having  a  supply  of  water  run- 
I  ning  through  it,  is  of  a  nature  to  re- 
j  quire  artificial  draining  as  an  indis- 
pensable preliminary  to  being  made 
'  fertile    by   irrigation.      By    keeping 
these  principles  in  view,  great  light 
435 


IRRIUATION. 


will  be  thrown  on  the  practical  part 
of  irrigation,  which,  having  been  long 
established  by  experience,  before 
these  principles  were  thought  of,  de- 
pends not  on  their  correctness,  but 
only  confirms  their  truth. 

"  The  whole  art  of  irrigation  may 
be  deduced  from  two  simple  rules, 
which  are.  first,  to  give  a  sufficient 
supply  of  water  during  all  the  time 
the  plants  are  growing  ;  and,  second- 
ly, never  to  allow  it  to  accumulate  so 
long  as  to  stagnate.  We  shall  see, 
hereafter,  one  apparent  exception  to 
this  last  rule,  but  it  will  be  readily 
explained. 

"The  supply  of  water  must  come 
from  natural  lakes  and  rivers,  or  from 
artificial  wells  and  ponds,  in  which  it 
is  collected  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
disperse  it  over  a  certain  surface. 
As  the  water  must  flow  over  the  land, 
or  in  channels  through  it,  the  supply 
must  be  above  the  level  of  the  land 
to  be  irrigated.  This  is  generally  the  | 
principal  object  to  be  considered.  If 
no  water  can  be  conducted  to  a  reser- 
voir above  the  level  of  the  land,  it 
cannot  be  irrigated  ;  but  there  must 
also  be  a  ready  exit  for  the  water, 
and  therefore  the  land  must  not  be 
so  low  as  the  natural  level  of  the 
common  receptacle  of  the  waters, 
whether  it  be  a  lake  or  the  sea  to 
which  they  run.  The  taking  of  the 
level  is  therefore  the  first  step  to- 
wards an  attempt  to  irrigate  any  ; 
lands.  ' 

"  Along  the  banks  of  running 
streams  nature  points  out  the  decliv- 
ity. A  channel,  which  receives  the 
water  at  a  point  higher  than  that  to 
which  the  river  flows,  may  be  dug 
with  a  much  smaller  declivity  than 
that  of  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  made 
to  carry  the  water  much  higher  than 
the  natural  banks  ;  it  may  thence  be 
distributed  so  as  to  descend  slowly, 
and  water  a  considerable  extent  of 
ground  in  its  way  to  rejoin  the  streain. 
This  is  by  far  the  most  common  mode 
of  irrigation,  and  the  shape,  size,  and 
direction  of  tlie  channels  are  regula- 
ted by  the  nature  of  the  surface  and 
other  circumstances,  which  vary  in 
almost  every  situation.  A  few  ex-  j 
436 


amples  will  give  to  those  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  the  best  modes 
of  irrigating  land,  a  pretty  accurate 
notion  of  the  system. 

"  We  shall  suppose  a  river  to  run 
I  with  a  rapid  current  between  high 
banks  :  at  some  point  of  its  course  a 
portion  of  the  water  is  diverted  into 
,  a  canal  dug  along  the  bank  with  a 
■  very  small  declivity.  The  water  in 
this  canal  will  flow  with  less  rapidity 
than  the  river,  but  will  keep  the  same 
level  as  that  part  of  the  river  where 
it  has  its  origin.  Thus  the  water 
may  be  carried  over  lands  which  are 
situated  considerably  above  the  bed 
of  the  river  farther  down.  All  the 
lands  between  this  canal  and  the  riv- 
er may  be  irrigated,  if  there  is  a  suf- 
ficient supply  of  water.  The  canal 
may  be  carried  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  river.  The  size  of 
the  canal  and  its  declivity  depend  on 
the  quantity  of  water  which  may  be 
inade  to  flow  into  it.  A  dam  is  often 
constructed  across  a  stream,  in  or- 
der that  as  much  of  its  water  as  is 
possible  may  be  diverted,  and  the 
original  channel  is  often  laid  quite 
dry,  to  take  advantage  of  all  the  wa- 
ter at  the  time  when  it  is  advanta- 
geous to  irrigate  the  land.  To  have 
an  entire  command  of  the  water, 
there  are  flood-gates  on  the  main 
channel  and  on  the  lesser  branches  ; 
by  opening  or  shutting  these,  the  wa- 
ter may  be  stopped  or  made  to  flow 
as  may  be  required.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that,  to  carry  water  to  a 
considerable  distance,  and  in  great 
quantity,  a  larger  channel  and  more 
rapid  declivity  are  required  ;  and  it 
is  a  matter  of  calculation  whether  it 
is  most  advantageous  to  bring  a 
smaller  quantity  to  a  higher  point,  or 
a  greater  abundance  somewhat  low- 
er. Having  a  certain  command  of 
water,  it  may  be  carried  from  the 
main  channel  by  smaller  branches  to 
different  points,  so  as  to  irrigate  the 
whole  equally.  These  branches  should 
be  nearly  horizontal,  that  the  water 
may  overflow  the  sides  of  them,  and 
be  equally  distributed  over  the  land 
immediately  below.  Every  branch 
which  brings  water  over  the   land 


IRRIGATION. 


should  have  a  corresponding  channel 
below  to  carry  it  off;  for  the  water 
must  never  be  allowed  to  stop  and 
stagnate.  When  it  has  run  15  or  20 
feet,  according  to  the  declivity,  over 
the  land  situated  below  the  feeder,  or 
the  channel  which  brings  the  water, 
it  should  be  collected  into  a  drain  to 
be  carried  off,  unless  it  can  be  used 
to  irrigate  lands  which  lie  still  lower. 
Finally,  it  runs  back  into  the  river 
from  which  it  was  taken  at  a  lower 
point  of  its  course. 

"When  there  is  a  considerable  fall 
and  a  sufficient  supply  of  water,  a  se- 
ries of  channels  may  be  made,  so  sit- 
uated below  each  other  that  the  sec- 
ond collects  the  water  which  the  first 
has  supplied,  and  in  its  turn  becomes 
a  feeder  to  irrigate  the  lower  parts 
of  the  declivity  ;  a  third  channel  re- 
ceives the  water  and  distributes  it 
lower  down,  until  the  last  pours  it 
into  the  river :  this  is  called  catch- 
work,  because  the  water  is  caught 
from  one  channel  to  another.  This 
method  is  only  applicable  where  there 
is  a  considerable  fall  of  water  and  a 
gentle  declivity  towards  the  river. 
But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
water  is  deteriorated  for  the  purpose 
of  irrigation  when  it  has  passed  over 
the  land,  and  that  it  is  not  advanta- 
geous to  let  it  flow  over  a  great  ex- 
tent when  a  fresh  supply  can  be  ob- 
tained ;  but  where  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  water  can  be  commanded, 
that  must  be  made  the  most  of;  and 
it  will  irrigate  three  or  four  portions 
of  land  in  succession  without  there 
being  any  very  marked  difference  in 
the  effect :  beyond  this  it  rapidly  loses 
its  fertilizing  qualities. 

"  The  general  principle  of  irriga- 
tion may  be  described  as  the  supply- 
ing of  every  portion  of  the  surface 
with  an  abundance  of  water,  and  ta- 
king it  off  again  rapidly.  In  many 
situations,  the  great  difficulty  in  irri- 
gation arises  from  the  want  of  a  sup- 
ply of  water  ;  but  even  then  a  partial 
irrigation  may  be  effected,  which,  al- 
though not  perfect,  will  have  its  ad- 
vantages. A  small  rill,  which  is  oft- 
en quite  dry  in  summer,  may  still,  by 
judicious  management,  be  made  to 
O  o2 


improve  a  considerable  portion  of 
land  ;  its  waters  may  be  collected 
and  allowed  to  accumulate  in  a  pond 
or  reservoir,  and  let  out  occasionally, 
so  that  none  be  lost  or  run  to  waste. 
If  there  is  but  a  small  quantity,  it 
must  be  husbanded  and  made  to  flow 
over  as  great  a  surface  as  possible. 
If  there  is  water  only  at  particular 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  at  a  time 
when  it  would  not  be  of  much  use  to 
the  land,  it  may  be  kept  in  ponds,  and 
it  W'ill  lose  none  of  its  qualities  by 
being  exposed  to  the  air.  If  animal 
or  vegetable  matter,  in  a  partial  state 
of  decomposition,  is  added  to  this  wa- 
ter, it  will  much  improve  its  quality, 
and  by  a  judicious  distribution  of  it 
over  the  land,  a  great  benefit  may  be 
obtained. 

"  If  there  is  not  a  want  of  water, 
there  may  be  a  want  of  declivity  to 
enable  it  to  flow  off,  which,  it  should 
always  be  remembered,  is  an  essen- 
tial part  of  irrigation  :  art  may  in  this 
case  assist  nature,  by  forming  a  pas- 
sage for  the  water,  either  in  its  course 
towards  the  land  to  be  irrigated,  or 
from  it  after  it  has  effected  its  pur- 
pose. Where  there  is  no  natural  ex- 
it— and  it  might  lead  to  too  great  an 
expense  to  make  an  artificial  one — 
the  water  may  sometimes  be  led  into 
shallow  ponds,  where  a  great  part  is 
evaporated  ;  or  porous  strata  may  be 
found  by  boring,  into  which  it  can  be 
made  to  run  and  be  dispersed.  Along 
rivers  where  the  fall  is  very  imper- 
ceptible, a  channel,  brought  from  a 
considerable  distance,  may  give  such 
a  command  as  to  throw  the  water 
over  a  great  extent  of  surface  ;  and 
to  carry  it  off,  another  channel  may 
be  cut,  emptying  itself  at  some  dis- 
tance below  ;  so  that  lands  which  lie 
along  the  banks  of  a  river  may  be  ir- 
rigated, although  they  are  actually  be- 
low the  level  of  the  river,  and  require 
banks  to  protect  them  from  inunda- 
tion. 

"  When  the  surface  to  be  irrigated 
is  very  flat  and  nearly  level,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  form  artificial  slopes  for 
the  water  to  run  over.  The  whole 
of  the  ground  is  laid  in  broad  beds, 
undulating  like  the  waves  of  the  sea. 
437 


IRRIGATION. 


The  upper  part  of  these  hods  is  quite 
level  from  end  to  end,  and  here  the 
channel,  or  float,  wliich  brings  the 
water  on,  is  cut.  From  the  edpe  of 
this  channel  the  jTround  is  made  to 
slope  a  foot  or  two  on  both  sides,  and 
a  ditch  is  cut  at  the  bottom,  parallel 
to  the  float  (Fisr-  3),  The  whole  of 
the  ground  is  laid  out  in  these  beds. 
All  the  floats  are  supplied  by  a  main 
channel,  at  right  angles  to  the  beds, 
and  somewhat  above  them,  and  all 
the  ditches  or  drains  run  into  a  main 
ditch,  parallel  to  the  main  float,  and 
below  the  lowest  drain.  The  course 
of  the  water  is  very  regular.  As  soon 
as  the  flood-gates  are  opened,  it  flows 
into  all  the  upper  channels,  which  it 
fills  till  they  overflow  in  their  whole 
length.  The  sloping  sides  are  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  sheet  of  running  wa- 
ter, which  the  lower  drains  collect, 
and  carry  into  the  main  ditch.  The 
upper  drains  should  be  puddled,  to 
hinder  the  water  from  sinking. 

"  Experience  has  shown  that  there 
are  particular  seasons  when  the  wa- 
ter has  the  best  efl^ect  ;  a  perfect 
command  of  it  is,  therefore,  indispen- 
sable, and  also  a  regular  supply.  Du- 
ring mild  frost,  when  all  dry  mead- 
ows are  in  a  state  of  torpor,  and  the 
vegetation  is  suspended,  the  water 
meadows,  having  a  current  of  water 
continually  flowing  over  them,  are 
protected  from  the  effect  of  frost,  and 
the  grass  will  continue  to  grow  as 
long  as  the  water  flows  over  it.  Too 
much  moisture,  however,  would  be 
injurious,  and  the  meadows  are 
therefore  laid  dry  by  shutting  the 
flood-gates  whenever  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  is  above  freezing.  By 
this  management  the  grass  grows 
rapidly  at  the  first  sign  of  spring. 
Before  the  dry  upland  meadows  have 
recovered  the  effects  of  frost  and  be- 
gun to  vegetate,  the  herbage  of  the 
water  meadows  is  already  luxuriant, 
the  effect  being  due  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water,  which  must  be 
above  that  of  freezing.  As  soon  as 
they  are  fed  off  or  cut  for  the  first 
crop  of  hay,  the  water  is  immediate- 
ly put  on  again,  but  for  a  shorter 
time  ;  for  the  warmer  the  air,  the 
438 


less  time  will  the  grass  bear  to  be 
covered  with  water.  A  renewed 
growth  soon  appears,  and  the  grass 
is  ready  to  be  cut  a  second  time  when 
the  dry  meadows  only  give  their  first 
crop.  Thus,  by  judicious  manage- 
ment, three  or  four  crops  of  grass  are 
obtained  in  each  season,  or  only  one 
abundant  crop  is  made  into  hay,  and 
the  sheep  and  cattle  feed  off  the  oth- 
ers. The  early  grass  may  be  fed  till 
the  end  of  April.  A  short  flooding 
soon  reproduces  a  crop,  which  is 
mowed  for  hay  in  June  ;  another 
flooding  gives  an  abundant  after-math, 
which  is  either  mowed  for  hay,  or 
fed  off  by  cows,  bullocks,  and  l^rses  ; 
for  at  this  time  the  sheep,  if  pastured 
in  water  meadows,  are  very  subject 
to  the  rot.  The  value  of  good  water 
meadows  could  scarcely  be  believed 
by  those  who  are  not  familiar  with 
them.  Where  the  water  is  suited  to 
irrigation,  they  never  require  manu- 
ring. The  fertility  is  kept  up  contin- 
ually, and  the  only  attention  required 
is  to  weed  out  coarse  aquatic  plants, 
which  are  neither  nutritious  nor 
wholesome  in  hay  or  pasture. 

"  The  best  soil  for  a  water  mead- 
ow is  a  good  gravel.  The  finest  wa- 
ter meadows  on  the  Avon,  in  Wilt- 
shire, where  the  richest  herbage  is 
found,  have  scarcely  any  soil  at  all, 
but  are  on  a  bed  of  shingle  and  peb- 
bles, matted  together  by  the  roots  of 
the  grass  ;  which  proves  to  demon- 
stration that  the  waters  of  the  Avon 
contain  all  the  principles  essential  to 
rapid  vegetation.  Great  attention  is 
required,  and  some  experience,  to 
irrigate  meadows  so  as  to  give  the 
greatest  profit. 

"  In  hot  weather,  when  we  should 
imagine  that  the  land  must  be  thirsty, 
and  that  too  much  water  cannot  be 
poured  over  it,  much  mischief  may 
be  done  by  injudicious  flooding.  In 
winter,  on  the  contrary,  the  land  may 
be  covered  with  water  for  weeks 
without  injury  ;  and  if  an  earthy  de- 
posite  takes  place,  the  subsequent  fer- 
tility is  greatly  increased.  But  this 
is  not  properly  irrigation  ;  it  is  inun- 
dation ;  and  the  effects  depend  on 
entirely  different  causes.     When  low 


IRRIGATION. 


meadows  are  inundated  in  winter 
and  spring,  it  is  the  muddiness  of 
the  water  which  enriches  the  land  ; 
a  fine  layer  of  extremely  divided  mat- 
ter is  deposited,  and  when  the  water 
subsides  this  acts  as  a  coat  of  ma- 
nure. 

"  Water  may  be  carried  in  small 
channels  through  meadows  without  j 
being  allowed  to  overflow  ;  and  in 
this  case  the  effect  is  similar  to  that 
caused  by  rivers  or  brooks  which 
wind  slowly  through  valleys,  and 
produce  a  rich  verdure  along  their 
course.  This  is  watering,  but  not 
properly  irrigating.  When  this  is 
done  judiciously,  the  effect  is  very 
nearly  the  same  as  when  the  land  is 
irrigated  ;  and  in  hot  climates  it  may 
be  preferable,  by  giving  a  constant 
supply  of  moisture  to  the  roots  while 
the  plants  are  growing.  The  great 
advantage  of  water  meadows  is  not 
so  much  the  superior  quantity  of  grass 
or  hay  which  is  obtained  when  they 
are  mowed,  as  the  early  feed  in  spryig, 
when  all  kinds  of  nutritive  fodder  are 
scarce.  At  that  time  an  acre  of  good 
grass  may  be  worth  as  much  for  a 
iiKJuth  as  a  later  crop  would  for  the 
rfinaiiider  of  the  year.  When  it  is 
intended  to  form  a  water  meadow  on 
a  surface  which  is  nearly  level,  or 
where  a  fall  of  only  two  or  three  feet 
can  be  obtained  in  a  considerable 
length,  the  whole  of  the  land  must  be 
laid  in  beds  about  20  or  30  feet  wide, 
ihe  middle  or  crown  of  these  beds 
being  on  a  level  with  the  main  feed- 
ers, and  the  bottoms  or  drains  on  a 
level  with  the  lower  exit  of  the  wa- 
ter, or  a  little  above  it.  To  form 
these  beds  most  expeditiously,  if  the 
ground  is  already  in  grass,  the  sod 
may  be  pared  oft' and  relaid  after  the 
beds  are  formed,  by  which  means  the 
grass  will  be  sooner  re-established  ; 
but,  except  in  very  heavy  soils,  where 
the  grass  is  some  time  in  taking  root, 
the  easiest  and  cheapest  way  is  to 
plough  the  land  two  or  three  times 
towards  the  centre,  and  dig  out  the 
draih  with  the  spade.  The  earth  out 
of  the  drains,  and  that  which  is  taken 
out  of  the  upper  trench  or  feeder, 
may  be  spread  over  the  bed,  to  give 


it  the  proper  slope.  A  roller  passed 
over  the  bed  in  the  direction  of  its 
length  will  lay  it  even,  and  the  seeds 
of  grasses  being  sowed  over  it,  the 
water  may  be  let  on  for  a  very  short 
time,  to  make  them  spring.  As  soon 
as  the  grass  is  two  or  three  inches 
above  ground,  a  regular  flooding  may 
be  given,  and  in  a  very  short  time  the 
sward  will  be  complete.  Instead  of 
sowing  seed,  turfs  of  grass  cut  from 
old  sward  may  be  spread  over  the 
newly-formed  beds,  and  they  will 
soon  cover  the  ground.  The  Italian 
rye  grass  grows  so  rapidly  that,  if  it 
be  sowed  as  soon  as  the  snow  and 
frost  are  gone,  it  will  aflbrd  a  good 
crop  to  feed  otf  in  May,  or  to  mow  for 
hay  by  June,  and  after  that  it  may 
be  cut  repeatedly  during  the  summer ; 
but  where  the  soil  is  good  and  the 
water  abundant,  good  natural  grasses 
will  spring  up  without  much  sowing, 
and  soon  equal  the  old  water  mead- 
ows. 

"  It  seems  essential  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  good  water  meadow,  that 
the  bottom  be  porous,  and  free  from 
stagnant  water  ;  hence  under-drain- 
ing is  often  indispensable  before  a 
water  meadow  can  be  established  ; 
and  a  peat  bog,  if  drained  and  consol- 
idated, may  have  water  carried  over 
its  surface,  and  produce  very  good 
herbage.  If  the  soil  is  a  very  stiflT 
clay,  draining  is  indispensable,  where 
a  water  meadow  is  to  be  made.  The 
more  porous  the  soil,  the  less  depth 
of  water  is  required,  which  is  not  ob- 
vious at  first  sight ;  but  the  clay  lets 
the  water  run  over  the  surface  with- 
out soaking  into  the  roots,  where- 
as the  porous  soil  is  soon  soaked  to 
a  considerable  depth.  The  water 
must,  therefore,  be  longer  on  the 
clay  than  on  the  sand  or  gravel  to 
produce  the  same  effect.  If  the  wa- 
ter is  properly  applied,  all  kinds  of 
soils  may  be  converted  into  fertile 
water  meadows.  On  very  stiff  clays 
a  coat  of  sand  or  gravel,  where  it  can 
be  easily  put  on,  will  greatly  improve 
the  herbage.  It  should  not  be  plough- 
ed in,  but  laid  on  the  surface,  two  or 
three  inches  thick. 

"The  usual  time  of  letting  on  the 
439 


lUllKJATION. 


water  on  water  mradows  is  just  be- 1  invariably  be  injured.     Small  ditches 
fore  spring,  and  it  may  continue  to    or  clianncls  are  usually  dug,  by  which 


flow  over  the  land  as  long  as  the 
frost  lasts  ;  in  mild  weather  it  may 
be  turned  off  during  the  day  and  put 
on  again  at  night,  until  the  frost  is 
gone.  The  grass  will  soon  begin  to 
grow,  and  be  ready  to  be  fed  off. 
When  this  is  done,  the  water  is  im- 
mediately let  on  for  a  short  time,  and 
turned  off  again  to  allow  the  ground 
to  dry  after  a  few  days'  flooding,  and 
the  water  is  let  on  again  at  short  in- 
tervals. The  warmer  the  air  is,  the 
shorter  time  must  the  water  be  al- 
lowed to  cover  the  meadows.  As 
soon  as  the  grass  is  five  or  six  inch- 
es long  it  must  be  left  dry  entirely 
till  it  is  mowed  or  fed  off.  In  sum- 
mer the  floodings  must  be  very  short, 
seldom  more  than  twenty-four  hours 
at  a  time,  but  frequent.  Thus  a  great 
weight  of  grass  may  be  obtained,  year 
after  year,  without  any  manure  being 
put  on  the  land,  care  being  taken  that, 
where  the  surface  is  not  quite  even, 
the  hollows  be  filled  up  with  earth 
brought  from  another  place,  or  dug 
out  of  the  drain,  if  that  should  be  par- 
tially filled  up  with  the  soil  which  the 
■water  has  carried  into  it.  We  allu- 
ded before  to  a  case  where  water 
may  remain  a  considerable  time  on 
the  land  without  injury  ;  this  is  when 
there  are  inundations  from  rivers 
which  rise  above  their  beds  in  spring, 
and  cover  the  low  meadows  which  lie 
along  their  banks.  In  this  case,  the 
grass,  which  had  not  yet  sprung  up, 
is  protected  from  the  cold  ;  and  if 
there  is  a  deposite  from  the  water, 
there  is  a  considerable  advantage  ; 
but  when  it  subsides  it  must  be  made 
to  run  off  entirely,  without  leaving 
small  pools,  by  which  the  grass  would 


all  the  water  may  run  off,  unless 
where  the  subsoil  is  very  porous,  or 
the  land  is  well  under-drained,  which 
is  seldom  the  case  in  these  low  mead- 
ows, for  the  drains  would  be  apt  to 
be  choked  by  the  earthy  deposite 
from  the  water.  These  inundations 
can  sometimes  be  regulated  by  means 
of  dikes  and  flood-gates,  in  which 
case  they  partake  of  the  advantages 
of  irrigation,  and  also  of  that  deposi- 
tion of  fertilizing  mud  which  is  called 
warping.     See  Warpi?!^. 

"  The  opposite  plan  (Fi^.  1)  will  ex- 
plain what  has  been  said  respecting 
the  different  modes  of  irrigating  land. 
A  A  is  a  river,  which  has  a  consider- 
able fall,  and  then  flows  through  a 
level  plain.  Channels  are  cut  at  B  B, 
where  there  is  a  rapid  fall  over  a  nat- 
ural or  artificial  dam.  The  channels 
are  carried  round  a  hill,  and  supply  a 
series  of  channels,  C,  C,  C,  placed 
below  each  other,  forming  catch- 
work  along  a  declivity.  A  portion  of 
the  water  goes  on  to  D,  where  it  sup- 
plies the  feeders  of  a  regular  set  of 
ridges,  or  beds,  made  as  before  descri- 
bed, from  which  the  water  returns 
into  the  river  by  a  main  trench,  into 
which  all  the  drains  run.  E  E  repre- 
sent flood-gates,  to  direct  the  water 
into  different  channels. 

"  On  the  other  side  of  the  river, 
where  the  slopes  lie  somewhat  dif- 
ferently, there  are  several  examples 
of  catch-work,  the  black  lines  repre- 
senting the  drains  which  receive  the 
water  after  it  has  flowed  over  the 
surface,  and  carry  it  into  the  river  be- 
low. It  is  evident  that  all  the  feed- 
ers are  nearly  horizontal,  to  allow 
the  water  to  flow  over  their  sides." 


Fig.  2  is  the  section  of  calch-work.     a,  a  are  the  feeders ;  b,  the  diaius ;  c,  c,  c,  c,  interme- 
diate channels,  which  act  as  feeders  and  drains. 

^^,.^^^-~~^,^^^        Fig- 3.        ^^..^L^-^-^,^^ 

Ridge-work. 
Fig.  3  is  the  section  of  two  adjoining  ridges,     a,  a  the  feeders  ;  b,  b,  b  the  drains, 
440 


Figure  4,  on  the  following  page,  ;  c,  c,  which  run  down  hill  ;  they  are 
represents  a  plan  of  irrigation  where  stopped  at  intervals  with  small  banks 
the  soil  is  very  porous  and  gently  of  clay  or  turf,  which  cause  a  portion 
inclined,  the  supply  of  water  being  of  the' fluid  to  shoot  out  over  the  land 
abundant.  The  flood-gate,  a,  which  and  moisten  the  field.  There  is  no 
may  be  replaced  by  the  perforated  |  catch-work  necessary,  as  the  excess 
trunk  of  a  tree,  allows  water  to  flow  i  of  water  percolates  into  the  soil, 
into  the  upper  straight  ditch,  b,  h.  The  inundation  practised  in  Carolina 
which  is  well  puddled  ;  from  this  the  and  elsewhere,  for  the  cultivation  of 
water  descends  into  the  channels,  c,  '  rice,  is  warping,  and  can  hardly  be 

441 


IKR 


ISO 


a'u}\ 


said  to  be  irrigation,  iiiasuuifh  as  the 
principal  object  is  to  kill  weeds. 

The  Dutch  and  Germans  often  dis- 
tribute fluid  manures  by  a  system  of 
irrigated  work.  "Where  a  head  of 
■water  is  wanting,  pumps  maybe  used 
to  raise  it,  the  fluid  running  in  a  gut- 
ter to  the  upper  ditch. 


Fiff.5. 


Fig.  5  is  a  simple  kind  of  sluice  to  regulate 
the  flow  of  water. 

IRRITABILITY  OF  PLANTS. 
Many  plants,  as  the  sensitive  mimo- 
sas, exhibit  a  power  of  contracting 
their  leaflets  upon  touch  ;  this  phe- 
nomenon, the  most  prominent  of 
those  attributed  to  the  irritability  of 
plants,  is  a  mechanical  function  de- 
pending upon  the  action  of  light. 
442 


Plants  possess  no  nervous  system, 
and  are  therefore  incapable  of  volun- 
tary motion,  or  any  other  than  chem- 
ical and  mechanical  movements. 

IRRITATION.  In  farriery,  an  in- 
creased vascularity  of  any  part,  with 
pain,  but  not  amounting  to  inflamma- 
tion. It  is  treated  like  inflammation, 
but  by  milder  means. 

ISCHIUM.  The  lower  portion  oi 
the  haunch  bone. 

ISCHURIA.     Retention  of  urine. 

ISINGLASS.  Pure  gdalin  obtain- 
ed from  the  sounds  of  flsh  ;  it  is  also 
manufactured  from  calves'  feet,  ckc. 

ISNARDIA.  A  genus  of  aquatic 
weeds. 

ISOLATED.  In  electricity,  sur- 
rounded by  non-conductors,  as  glass, 
dry  silk,  resin. 

ISOMERIS.M,  ISOMERIC  (from 
laoc,  equal,  and  fxepoc,  pari).  Com- 
pounds having  the  same  number  of 
atoms  of  the  same  bodies,  but  exhib- 
iting dissimilar  properties,  are  called 
Isomeric.  Chemists  consider  that  the 
difference  arises  from  a  distinct  group- 
ing or  aggregation  of  the  atoms. 
Very  many  organic  bodies  are  isom- 
eric, as  starch  {amylln)  and  dextiine: 
Ca  Hio  Oio :  cyanic  and  fulminic  acids. 


ISO 


ISO 


&c.  It  is  in  consequence  of  the  fre- 
quent isomerism  of  organic  com- 
pounds that  changes  so  readily  occur 
in  them,  either  in  plants,  or  by  the 
action  of  ferments. 

I S  O  M  O  R  P II I S  M,  ISOMORPH- 
OUS    (from   itrof,   and  fiop(pr},  form). 
Having  the  same  crystalline  form  ; 
this  is  associated  with  the  same  num- 
ber of  atoms,  but  of  unlike  elements, 
and    also    with    similar    properties. 
Thus,  alum  consists  of  sulphuric  acid, 
alumina,  and  potash  ;  but  cither  of 
these  bodies  may  be  replaced  by  cer- 
tain  other  isomorpkous  bodies  ;    the 
sulphuric  acid  by  the  selenic,  chro- 
mic, or  manganic  acids  :  the  last  two 
of  these  produce  a  difference  of  col- 
our  in   the   crystal,   but  little   else. 
The  alumina  may  be  replaced  by  per- 
oxide of  iron,  sesquioxide  of  manga- 
nese, or  sesquioxide  of  chromium  ; 
and  the  potash,  by  soda  or  hyd  rated  am- 
monia. Thus,  the  alum  may  have  none 
of  its  primary  constituents,  but  iso- 
morphous  atoms  of  the  same  number. 
Isonwiphis7n,  or  ttie  study  of  these 
changes,  is  of  great  importance  in  ag- 
riculture, for  it  is  found  that  the  same 
substitution  ttikes   place  in   organic 
bodies.    This  is  not,  however,  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference  ;  for  the  presence 
of  soda  in  grapes,  instead  of  potash, 
deteriorates  their  flavour  ;    lime   in 
the  place  of  potash,  in  tobacco,  in- 
jures its  excellence  ;  and  lime  or  pot- 
ash in  place  of  soda,  in  onions  and 


Sulphuric  acid  is  replaced  by  the 
telluric,  selenic,  chromic,  and  man- 
ganic acids,  none  of  which,  however, 
are  abundant  in  common  soils. 

Phos[)horic  acid  is  isomorphous 
with  the  arsenic  acid  (As  O5),  which 
will  seldom  be  found  in  soils. 

Iron,  as  the  peroxide  (Fco  O3),  is 
isomorphous  with  alumina  (AI2  O3), 
oxide  of  chrome  (Cr^  O3),  and  sesqui- 
oxide of  manganese.  These  substi- 
tutions, although  of  no  apparent  mo- 
ment, are  continually  occurring  in 
plants. 

ISOPYRE.  A  siliceous  mineral 
resembling  obsidian,  found  in  granite, 
basalt,  and  primary  rocks. 

ISOSCELES  (from  tcrof,  and  oktj- 
^or,  a  leg).  A  name  given  to  the 
angle  two  of  whose  sides  are  equal. 

ISOTHERMAL  (from  laoc,  and 
"^epfirj,  heat).  Having  the  same  aver- 
age temperature.  Geographical  lines 
drawn  over  the  surface  of  countries, 
and  passing  through  places  having 
the  same  average  heat,  are  termed 
isolhermal  lines ;  they  are  very  irreg- 
ular, in  consequence  of  the  occur- 
rence of  mountains  and  large  lakes 
or  surfaces  of  water,  which  modify 
the  temperature.  The  terms  Isothcr- 
al  and  Isochiinenal  are  used  also  ;  the 
first,  to  designate  a  line  showing  the 
places  having  the  same  summer  heat, 
and  the  last,  those  with  the  same 
mean  winter  temperature. 

According  to  Humboldt,  the  iso- 


asparagus,  is  also  injurious  to  their  !  thermal  line  which  corresponds  to  the 
mildness.  The  limit  of  isomorphous  temperature  of  32"^  Fahrenheit  pass- 
substitution  is  a  chemical  inquiry  :  so  '  es  between  L'lea,  in  Lapland,  lat.  66'= 


far  as  we  know,  there  are  groups  of 
bodies  wiiich  can  be  substituted  for 
one  another  only  ;  these  have  the 
same  amount  of  oxygen  in  their  com- 
position. Such  groups  as  are  of  im- 
portance to  the  farmer  or  gardener 
arc  appended. 

ISOMORPHOUS  GROUPS.  Pot- 
ash, soda,  hydratcd  ammonia  (N  H4  O, 
oxide  of  ammonium),  hydrate  of  lime 


and  Table  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Lab- 
rador, lat.  54°.  The  isothermal  line 
of  41°  passes  near  Stockholm,  lat. 
59^°,  and  St.  George's  Bay,  New- 
foundland, lat.  48 ^  The  line  of  50° 
passes  through  the  Netherlands,  lat. 
51°,  and  near  Boston,  in  the  United 
States,  lat.  42^°  ;  that  of  59°  between 
Rome  and  Florence,  lat.  43°,  and  Ra- 
leigh, in  North  Carolina,  lat.  36°.    In 


(Ca  O,  II  O).  Of  this  group  soda  only  ;  all  these  cases  we  see  that  the  iso- 
replaces  potash  in  cerealia  ;  but  lime,  thermal  lines,  in  passing  from  the 
ainuionia  (or  organic  alkalies),  can  western  side  of  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rcpl.  ce  potash  or  soda  in  plants  that  rope  to  tiie  eastern  coast  of  America, 
do  i;ol  require  solul)le  silicates,  as  deviate  very  considerably  towards 
tobacco,  potatoes,  &c.  |  the  south,  the  deviation,  lu  one  case, 

443 


IVY 


JKJ 


amounting  to  1H°  of  latitude.  In 
passing  over  the  American  continent 
they  again  recede  to  the  northward  ; 
and  in  California,  and  to  the  north 
of  that  peninsula,  along  the  western 
side  of  the  continent,  the  annual  tem- 
perature is  nearly  the  same  as  under 
similar  latitudes  in  the  west  of  Eu- 
rope. From  the  western  to  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  old  continent,  the  flex- 
ure of  the  isothermal  curves  and  the 
diminution  of  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature under  the  same  parallels 
are  not  less  conspicuous.  The  iso- 
thermal line  of  55°  passes  through 
Nantes,  lat.  47°,  and  Pekin,  lat.  39 p. 
Edinburgh  and  Kasan  (in  the  east  of 
Russia)  have  the  same  latitude  ;  but 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
former  is  48°,  while  that  of  the  sec- 
ond is  below  SS'^." 

ISSUE.  In  farriery,  an  artificial 
ulcer,  made  by  cutting  through  the 
skin  and  inserting  a  pea  or  smooth 
stone  in  the  wound  ;  it  is  to  be  care- 
fully dressed  and  washed  daily.  It 
is  a  means  of  establishing  a  local  ir- 
ritation to  relieve  some  important 
organ,  as  the  eye. 

ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.  LoUum 
perenne.     See  Grasses. 

ITCH.  A  disease  of  the  skin,  in 
which  small  vesicles  are  produced  in 
the  angles  of  the  body  by  the  irrita- 
tion of  an  insect.  It  is  cured  by  an 
ointment  of  sulphur  applied  daily.  It 
is  sometimes  called  mange  in  farriery. 

lULUS.  The  generic  name  of  the 
gaily  worm  ;  insects  with  numerous 
feet  (myriapoda). 

IVORY.  The  compact  bony  struc- 
ture of  the  tusks  of  elephants  ;  it  con- 
tains G6  per  cent,  bone  earth  and  24 
gelatin. 

IVORY  BLACK.     Bone  black. 

IVY.  Hcdera  helix.  A  hardy  ev- 
ergreen climbing  shrub,  used  for  rus- 
tic coverings  :  it  kills  trees.  It  is 
readily  propagated  by  cuttings,  and 
once  trained  to  a  wall,  will  hold  on 
by  its  own  branch  roots.  The  Vir- 
ginian creeper  is  sometimes  called 
American  ivy,  but  in  no  way  resem- 
bles true  ivy. 

IVY,  III  I  S  H  ( Canattensis).     "  A 
fast-growing  climber,  with  large  lobed 
4i4 


leaves,  which  soon  covers  walls  and 
houses.  It  is  propagated  by  layers, 
or  slips  taken  off  and  planted  where 
they  are  to  grow." — {Johnson.) 

J. 

JACK.  A  general  name  given  to 
engines  for  raising  heavy  weights,  as 
well  as  some  used  for  turning  spits, 
&c. 

JACKDAW.  A  species  of  crow 
{Corvus  moncdula.) 

JACK  TIMBERS.  Those  in  a  bay 
of  timbers  which  are  shorter  than  the 
rest. 

JACOB'S  LADDER.  Polemojiium 
ccruleum.     A  common  flower. 

JACOB'S  STAFF.  Thecross 
staff  used  by  surveyors  in  measuring 
heights  and  distances. 

JADE.     Nephrite. 

JALAP.  The  root  of  the  Ipomcea 
jalapa,  a  convolvulaceous,  Mexican 
plant,  which  might  be  readily  cultiva- 
ted in  the  Southern  States.  It  climbs, 
and  has  a  perennial  root,  or  tuber, 
which  is  large  enough  for  the  market 
in  three  years.  It  is  a  powerful  purge, 
the  dose  being  ten  to  twenty  grains 
for  a  man. 

JAMAICA  PEPPER.  Myrtus  pi- 
mcnta.  Allspice,  the  produce  of  an 
evergreen  tree  of  tropical  America. 
The  berries  are  warm  and  aromatic. 

JAMBS.  The  sides  or  posts  of 
any  aperture  or  door  which  bear  the 
cross  piece  on  which  the  weight  of 
the  wall  rests. 

JAMESTOWN  WEED.  Datura 
stramonium.  A  poisonous  weed.  See 
Stramonium. 

JASPER.  An  ornamental  and  col- 
oured silicious  mineral. 

JATROPA.  A  genus  of  euphor- 
beous,  tropical  plants,  of  which  the 
J.  Manihot  yields  a  root  from  which 
cassava  is  extracted  ;  the  J.  curcas, 
purging  seeds  resembling  castor  oil 
seeds. 

JAUNDICE.  A  disease  in  which 
the  biliary  secretion  is  much  changed, 
the  skin  coloured  yellow,  with  much 
lassitude. 

JEFFERSONITE.  A  kind  of  au- 
gite. 

JEJUNUM.      The  portion  of  tho 


JUJ 


J  UN 


Binall    intestines    next    the    duode- 
nmii. 

JELLY.  Gelatin  with  water:  ve- 
getable jelly  is  pectin. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE.  See 
Artichoke. 

JESSAMIN.  Jasminum  officinale. 
A  climbing  shrub,  the  flowers  of 
which,  when  distilled  with  water, 
yield  a  penetrating  perfume. 

JET.  A  bituminous  coal  of  fine 
te.xture,  and  taking  a  hiiih  jioli-sli. 
JETERUS.  The  yellows  of  plants. 
JOGGLED  JOINTS.  Joints  of 
masonry  or  wood,  which  are  made 
by  indenting  the  faces  and  fitting 
them  together. 

JOGGLE  PIECE.  A  truss  post, 
whose  shoulders  and  sockets  receive 
the  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 

JOHN'S  WORT.  Plants  of  the 
genus  Hypericum,  especially  H.  per- 
foratum, a  common  weed  in  mead- 
ows. Much  prejudice  exists  against 
it,  and,  being  a  perennial-rooted  plant, 
it  is  not  easy  of  extirpation.  A  kind 
of  itch,  and  even  inflammation  of  the 
stomach,  are  said  to  be  produced  by  it 
in  sheep,  but  salt  is  said  to  be  a  pre- 
ventive, and  the  itch  is  treated  with 
sulphur  ointment. 

JOISTS.  The  timbers  to  which 
the  flooring  is  nailed. 

JUBA.  The  mane,  or  crest  of 
hair  which  runs  along  the  back  bone 
of  animals.  I 

JUDAS-TREE.     An   ornamental 
genus  (Cercis)  of  trees,  of  which  the  j 
C.  Canadensis,  or  red  bud,  is  the  only  | 
indigenous  species. 

JUGAL  BONE.  The  cheek  bone. 
JUGULAR  VEINS.  The  veins 
running  on  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
which  bring  the  blood  from  the  head. 
The  external  jugular  is  that  from 
which  blood  is  taken  in  the  horse. 

JUGULUM.  The  fore  part  of  the 
neck  in  animals. 

JUJUBE.  Zizyphus  vuliraris.  The 
fruit  of  this  shrub,  or  sma'l  tree,  re- 
sembles a  small  plum,  and  is  edible ; 
is  red,  with  a  coriaceous  skin,  and  of 
tlie  size  of  a  large  olive  :  they  are 
readily  dried,  and  become  sweeter. 
It  is  a  native  of  Italy  and  Spain.  A  ; 
sirup  made  from  the  dried  fruit  and  j 
P  ? 


mixed  with  gum  forms  the  original 
jujube  paste. 

JULY.  In  the  North,  corn,  pota- 
toes, and  late  crops  are  tilled  for  the 
last  time,  and  white  crops  and  grass- 
es harvested  ;  late  cabbages  set  out ;. 
celery  put  into  trenches,  and  seeds 
collected.  After  harvest,  turnips,  car- 
rots, and  fall  crops  are  put  in  :  bud- 
ding is  performed  on  the  apple  and 
pear.  In  the  South,  cotton  and  to- 
bacco receive  a  last  working.  It  is 
the  great  month  for  working  the  soil, 
and  destroying  weeds  and  shrubs. 

JUNCACEiE.  Thefamilyof 
rushes. 

JUNE.  In  the  North,  potatoes  for 
winter  and  ruta  bagas  are  set ;  sheep 
sheared.  Weeding  is  very  important 
this  month.  Fruit-trees  are  trimmed, 
and  caterpillars  destroyed  ;  late  gar- 
den vegetables,  as  pease,  beans,  cab- 
bages, turnips,  melons,  are  also  sown. 
In  the  South,  this  is  the  month  for 
weeding,  hoeing,  and  working  corn, 
cotton,  tobacco,  sweet  potatoes  ;  of 
the  last,  increase  the  hills  by  cuttings. 
Carrots  and  other  roots  for  late  crops, 
as  well  as  cabbages,  may  be  sown  ; 
melons  require  working  ;  white  crops 
are  harvested. 

JUNE  BERRY.  Mespilus  arhorca. 
Wild  pear,  service.  This  tree  is  found 
extensively  ditrused  in  the  United 
States,  but  abounds  on  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  and  the  banks  of  its 
streams.  The  fruit  is  scattered, 
small,  one  third  to  one  half  an  inch 
across,  and  pleasant.  It  is  improved 
by  cultivation,  and  ripens  in  June. 
On  the  streams  of  the  West  it  some- 
times grows  thirty-five  to  forty  feet 
high. 

JUNGERMANNIACE-E.  A  nat- 
ural family  of  acrogens,  resembling 
mosses,  and  growing  on  the  bark  of 
trees,  and  in  moist,  shady  places. 
The  Hepalictr,  or  true  liverworts. 

JUNIPER  BERRIES.  Juniperus 
communis.  A  bushy  evergreen  shrub, 
the  berry  of  which  yields  an  aromatic 
flavour  to  gin.  The  shrubs  grow  read- 
ily on  the  poorest  soils  :  they  are  of 
the  pine  family  (conifcra). 

JUNIPERUS.     The  genus  yield- 
ing the  juniper  berries.     It  contains, 
446 


KID  KIR 

also,  the  J.  Sahina  (savine),  J.  Virgin- 
tana  (red  cedar). 


KALE.     A  name  for  some  varie- 
ties of  cabbage  or  borecole. 
KALE,  SEA.     See  Sea-kale. 
KALL     A  contraction  for  alkali, 
potash  ;  also  the  ashes  of  salsola  kali, 
or  barilla. 

KALIUM.  Potassium. 
KALML\.  A  genus  of  handsome 
flowering  shrubs,  called  American 
laurels.  The  leaves  and  flowers  are 
poisonous,  especially  to  lambs  :  those 
poisoned  should  be  drenched  with 
milk  and  castor  oil. 

KAOLIN.  Porcelain  clay,  the  fine, 
white,  disintegrated  feldspar  of  some 
primitive  countries. 

KATYDID.  A  kind  of  grasshop- 
per inhabiting  trees,  the  Plalyphylluvi 
concavum  of  Harris. 

KEEL.  Canna.  The  two  lower 
petals  of  papilionaceous  flowers  are 
termed  the  keel. 

KELP.  A  term  used  both  for  sea- 
weeds and  their  ashes.  See  Sea- 
weeds. The  ashes  used  to  be  sold 
for  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  glass, 
but  is  now  superseded,  in  a  great 
measure,  by  manufactured  carbonate 
of  soda. 

KENNEL.  A  hole  inhabited  by  a 
fox  or  other  animal.  A  shelter  for 
dogs.  It  should  be  kept  clean,  and 
the  straw  changed  often.  A  kennel 
is  also  used  to  designate  a  collection 
or  pack  of  hounds. 

KERMES   GRAINS.     Insects  of 
the  genus  Coccus,  or  bark  lice,  collect- 
ed from  numerous  plants,  as  the  oak,  I  malt,  grain,  &c 
&c.,  and  formerly  much  used  for  dye-   over   a   wire-work 
ing  a  red  colour,  but  to  a  great  ex- 
tent superseded  by  cochineal. 

KERMES  MINERAL.      The  hy- 
drosulphuret  of  antiinony. 
KETCHUP.     Catsup. 
KEUPER.     The  upper  portion  of 
the  new  red  sandstone  formation. 

KEY.  In  building,  apiece  of  wood 
let  into  another  in  the  contrary  di- 
rection of  the  grain. 

KEYSTONE.     The  central  stone 
of  an  arch. 
KID.     A  young  goat.     The  flesh  is 
446 


tender,  and  much  esteemed  by  some 
persons. 

KIDNEYS.  The  reins.  The  or- 
gans in  which  urine  is  secreted,  from 
whence  it  flows  along  tubes  (ureters) 
into  the  bladder.  They  are  situated 
in  the  loins  and  attached  to  the  spine. 
KIDNEY  BEAN.  See  Bean. 
KIDNEY  -  SHAPED.  Reniform, 
of  an  oval  figure,  with  one  side  in- 
dented, so  as  to  resemble  a  sheep's 
kidney. 

KIDNEY  VETCH.  Anthyllis.  An 
ornamental  flowering  plant. 

KILLING  ANIMALS.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  keep  oxen  two  days,  and 
smaller  animals  one  day  without  food. 
The  ox  is  felled  by  a  blow  on  the 
forehead,  and  his  throat  immediately 
cut.  The  Jews,  who  eat  no  meat 
with  blood  in  it,  do  not  fell  the  ani- 
mal, but,  having  tied  it,  divide  the 
throat  down  to  the  bone.  Animals 
killed  by  accidents  are  eaten  with 
propriety,  but  such  as  die  from  dis- 
ease are  unwholesome,  and  some- 
times poisonous.  A  method  of  kill- 
ing animals  by  pithing,  or  dividing  the 
spinal  marrow  high  in  the  neck  by  a 
sharp  knife,  is  practised  in  Southern 
Europe  ;  the  animal  falls  at  once,  but 
the  flesh  is  said  not  to  be  free  from 
blood. 

KILLINITE.  A  greenish  lamellar 
mineral,  consisting  of  silica,  alumina, 
and  iron,  with  six  per  cent,  potash. 

KILN.  A  furnace.  The  figure 
depends  on  the  object  in  view. 

KILN  ASHES.    The  ashes  of  the 

wood,  straw,  &c.,  used  in  burning. 

K  I  L  N-  DRYING.     Drying  hops, 

a  chamber,  or 

heated   to    120" 

Fahrenheit  and  upward  by  a  kiln  or 

stove  below. 

KILOGRAMME.  A  French 
weight,  equal  to  2  lbs.,  3  oz.,  5  dwts., 
avoirdupois. 

KING-POST.  The  central  post  of 
a  trussed  framing  for  supporting  the 
tie  beam. 

KINIO  ACID.  The  acid  with 
which  quina  is  associated. 

KINO.     A  dark-brown  astringent 
extract  containing  much  tannin. 
KIRSCHWASSER.     A  liquor  ob. 


KOH 

tained  by  fermenting  cherries  witli 
which  the  stones  are  pounded,  and 
distilling  the  fermented  liquid. 

KIT.     A  pail,  or  wooden  vessel. 

KITCHEN  GARDEN.  See  Gar- 
aen  Husbandry. 

KNAPWEED.  The  genus  of  per- 
ennial weeds  Ccntaurca. 

KNAWELL.  Sclcranthiis  annuus. 
A  weed  slightly  astringent. 

KNAR  S.  Knots  or  excres- 
cences on  tlie  bark  of  some  trees, 
which  contam  latent  buds  capable  of 
e.xpanding  into  branches  :  those  of  the 
olive  are  used  for  propagation,  being 
cut  with  a  part  of  the  stem  and  set  in 
the  ground. 

KNEE.  In  architecture,  an  artifi- 
cially or  naturally  bent  piece  of  timber. 

KNEE-PAN.  A  small,  flat  bone 
(patella)  situated  before  the  knee  jomt 
to  protect  it. 

KNEE  GRASS.  Rough  panic 
grass. 

KNOLL.     A  hillock,  or  small  hill. 

KNOPPERN.  Gall-like  excres- 
cences of  oaks,  used  for  dyeing  and 
tanning. 

KNUT  GRASS.  Holcus  avenace- 
us,  which  produces  bulbs  on  its 
roots.  The  common  weed  Polygo- 
mim  avicularc. 

KNOT  WEED.  A  general  name 
for  the  Pohisonum  genus,  many  of 
which  are  very  acrid. 

KOHL  RABI.  A  variety  of  cab- 
bage, the  stalk  of  which  is  terminated 
above  by  a  bulb  as  large  as  a  turnip, 
which  is  solid,  and  around  which  the 
leaves  are  situated.  It  requires  the 
same  management  as  cabbages,  and 
yields  as  much  as  ruta  bagas.  Two 
pounds  of  seed  supply  an  acre  ;  it  is 
sown  in  beds  in  the  fall  and  planted 
in  spring.  The  value  as  food  is  not 
given,  but  it  is  probably  about  the 
same  as  cabbages,  500  pounds  equal- 
ling 100  of  hay,  and  an  ox  requiring 
100  pounds  dady.  Kohl  rabi  is  cul- 
tivated in  Germany,  and  recommend- 
ed lately  in  England,  from  its  com- 
parative freedom  from  the  diseases 
of  turnips,  as  a  substitute  for  that 
root.  It  has  occupied  the  attention 
of  some  of  our  fancy  gardeners,  but 
is  not  raised  by  us  as  a  field-crop. 


LAO 

KRAMERIC  ACID.  It  is  obtain- 
ed  from  the  root  of  the  Kromeria  tri- 
andria,  or  rhatany. 

KY  ANTTE.  A  silicate  of  alumina, 
sometimes  coloured  by  iron  and  other 
bodies  :  it  occurs  in  doubly  oblique 
prisms  ;  is  white,  gray,  or  blue.  It  is 
common  in  primitive  formations,  and 
sometimes  forms  a  fine  blue  stone 
resembling  sapphire,  and  used  by  jew- 

KYANIZING.  The  process  of  Mr. 
Kyan  for  preserving  timber  by  soak- 
ing it  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate :  it  is  now  superseded  by  cheap- 
er fluids.    See  Preservation  of  Timber. 


LABARRAQUE'S  DISINFECT- 
ING LIQUID.  A  solution  of  car- 
bonate of  soda  charged  with  chlorine  : 
it  answers  the  same  purposes  as  chlo- 
ride of  lime  in  disinfecting  rooms. 

LABELLUM.  The  lower  petal  of 
a  labiate  or  orchideous  flower. 

LABIAT.E.  An  extensive  family 
of  plants,  characterized  by  a  two-lip- 
ped, monopetalous  corolla,  an  irregu- 
lar number  of  stamens,  and  four- 
lobed  ovary.  They  are  mostly  herbs, 
or  small  shrubs,  with  highly  aromatic 
flowers  and  leaves,  as  the  mint,  lav- 
ender, sage,  &c.  None  of  them  are 
poisonous. 

LABIUM.  A  lip,  the  divisions  of 
some  monopetalous  flowers.  In  en- 
tomology, the  moveable  organ  which 
is  at  the  front  of  the  head,  or  face, 
covering  the  mouth  and  representing 
the  upper  lip. 

LABORATORY.  The  workshop 
of  the  chemist :  chemical  manufacto- 
ries are  often  improperly  so  called. 

LABRADORITE,  or  LABRA- 
DORE  STONE.  An  iridescent,  opa- 
line variety  of  feldspar,  consisting  of 
silica,  55;  alumina,  S4  ;  lime,  10  25; 
soda,  3-50,  in  100  parts. — {Klaprotfi.) 

LABRU.M.  The  labium,  or  upper 
lip  of  insects. 

LAC.  The  dry  resinous  juice 
of  several  trees  of  Southern  India. 
The  trees  are  wounded  by  the  Coc- 
cus ficus,  a  bark  louse,  parts  of  which 
being  entangled  in  the  juice,  produce 
a  red  colour  like  cochineal.  The 
447 


LAC 


LAC 


fresh  lac,  incrusting  twigs  of  trees, 
is  called  stick  lac;  the  resin  being 
separated,  pounded,  and  stirred  witli 
water,  yields  a  red  solution,  which, 
when  evaporated  to  dryness,  forms 
lac  dye,  the  insoluble  portion  being 
grain  lac,  and,  when  melted  and  run 
on  leaves  or  wood,  shell  lac. 

LAC  DYE.  This  is  found  in  small 
cakes  ;  it  is  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of 
3  lbs.  tin  and  60  muriatic  acid.  To 
produce  a  rich  scarlet,  the  cloth  is 
mordanted  with  solution  of  tin. 

LAC,  SHELL.  This  is  much  used 
for  the  best  sealing-wax  by  various 
manufacturers,  and  in  varnishes.  It 
is  rapidly  dissolved  by  strong  alco- 
hol, by  dilute  muriatic  and  acetic 
acids.  Laccine  and  laccic  acids  are 
bodies  found  in  lac. 

LACERATED.  A  botanical  term, 
used  to  designate  a  leaf  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  torn. 

LACERTID-E.  The  famUy  of  liz- 
ards. 

LACHRYMAL  GLAND.  A  small 
conglomerate  gland  placed  in  the  up- 
per portion  of  the  outer  angle  of  the 
eye  ;  it  supplies  the  eye  with  moist- 
ure to  lubricate  the  surface  ;  an  ex- 
cessive flow  produces  tears.  The 
lachrymal  duct  is  a  small  channel 
from  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye  to 
the  inside  of  the  nose. 

LACINLVTE.  Fringe-like ;  petals, 
leaves,  &c.,  cut  into  numerous  thin 
shreds. 

LACQUER.  A  varnish  used  to 
cover  brass  and  other  metals,  made 
by  dissolving  shell  lac  in  alcohol,  and 
colouring  with  gamboge,  saffron,  and 
other  bodies. 

LACTARY.     A  dairy. 

LACTATION.  Giving  milk,  or 
suckling. 

LACTEALS.  Minute  vessels  run- 
ning from  the  interior  of  the  small 
intestines  along  the  mesentery  to  the 
thoracic  duct ;  they  convey  the  chyle 
or  nutritious  portions  of  digested 
food.  They  form  the  lacteal  glands 
of  the  mesentery. 

LACTIC  ACID.    The  acid  of  sour 

milk ;  it  is  also  found  in  digested  food, 

and   sour   starchy   substances,  saur 

kraut,  &c.     It  is  a  thick,  colourless, 

448 


sour  liquid,  soluble  in  water  and  al- 
cohol, and  coagulates  milk  :  formula 
Cr,  H4  O4.  It  readily  combines  with 
bases,  forming  lactates. 

LACTINE.     Sugar  of  milk. 

LACTOMETER,  or  GALACTOM- 
ETER.  "  A  term  applied  to  a  glass 
tube  for  ascertaining  the  proportion 
which  the  cream  bears  to  the  milk  of 
any  particular  cow,  or  the  produce 
of  a  whole  dairy.  Lactometers  of 
different  kinds  have  been  invented  ; 
the  best  is  called  the  four  or  five  glass 
lactometer  {Fig.). 


"The  principle  of  the  instrument 
is,  that  if  new  milk  is  poured  into 
glass  tubes  and  allowed  to  remain, 
the  division  between  the  cream  which 
floats  upon  the  surface  of  the  milk 
will  be  so  evident  that  its  depth  may 
be  easily  measured  ;  and  should  the 
milk  from  any  cow  produce  jnore 
cream  than  that  of  another,  the  dif- 
ference will  be  seen  by  the  divisions 
or  marks  on  the  glass  tubes.  The  lac- 
tometer consists  of  four  or  five  glass 
tubes,  about  half  an  inch  diameter 
and  11  inches  long,  fitted  into  an  up- 
right mahogany  frame ;  each  tube 
having  a  fine  line  drawn  round  it  10 
inches  from  the  bottom  ;  three  inch- 
es from  the  line  downward  it  is  grad- 
uated into  inches  and  tenths  of  inch- 
es. At  milking  time  each  tube  is  to 
be  filled  up  to  the  line  with  new  milk. 
After  standing  12  hours,  the  quantity 
of  cream  which  floats  upon  the  sur- 
face is  shown  by  the  scale  of  inches 
and  tenths  ;  each  division  will  there- 
fore represent  one  per  cent,  of  the 
whole. 

"  If  the  milk  given  by  a  cow  at  one 
meal  is  one  gallon,  or  eight  pints,  and 
the  thickness  or  depth  of  the  cream 
which  floats  upon  it  measures  14  di 
visions,  multiply  the  number  of  pints, 
8,  by  the  depth  of  the  cream,  14  ;  the 


LAC 

result  will  be  that  the  produce  of  the 
cream  of  that  meal  is  112,  or  one 
pint  twelve  one  hundredths.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  fill  these  tubes  as 
soon  as  the  pail  is  taken  from  under 
the  cow,  for  if  any  delay  takes  place 
some  of  the  cream  will  have  ascend- 
ed towards  the  top.  The  milk  should 
be   taken   from    the   middle   of  the 


LAIR.  The  resting-place  of  sav- 
age  animals  ;  sometimes  used,  also, 
for  that  of  oxen  and  cows. 

LAKES.  Pigments  obtained  by 
throwing  down  the  colouring  matter 
of  vegetable  solutions  by  alum. 

LAMB.  For  the  farmer,  late  lambs 
dropped  at  grass  lime  are  best,  as  the 
ewe  yields  more  milk  :  the  teat  of  the 


pail,  which  is  to  be  done  by  dipping  a  ,  ewe  should  be  cleared  of  any  tags 

cream-pot  below  the  fwth'"—{Jourii.  \  that  hinder  suckling  ;  if  she  does  not 

Roy.  Inst.)  ■  own  her  lamb,  put  them  together  in  a 

LACTUCARIUM.     The  dry  juice  1  pen  and  place  a  little  salt  on  the  lamb ; 


of  the  wild  lettuce  (Lacluca  virosa) : 
it  is  very  much  like  opium.  1 

LACtUGIC  ACID.  It  exists  in 
lactucarium. 

LACUNA.  A  small  pit.  The 
mouth  of  excretory  ducts. 

LACUNOSE.  Having  little  pits, 
or  shallow  indentations. 

LACUSTRINE.  Belonging  to  a 
lake. 

LADDER.  A  necessary  imple- 
ment on  the  farm  for  stackmg,  re- 
pairing, &c.  The  wall-tree  ladder  is 
furnished  at  the  top  with  two  pieces 
of  wood  projecting  10  inches,  to  hin- 
der it  from  injuring  the  trees  in  pru- 
ning, nailing,  &c.  An  arrangement 
of  three  ladders  on  a  frame,  capable 
of  being  wheeled  along,  and  in  which 
two  of  the  ladders  may  be  hoisted 
one  above  the  other,  so  as  to  reach 
to  the  top  of  trees,  is  called  an  orchard 
ladder. 

LADY  BIRD.  A  popular  name  for 
tiie  genus  Coccinclla.  Most  of  the 
species  are  useful  to  the  farmer  by 
preying  on  plant  lice,  or  aphides. 

LADY'S  MANTLE.  Plants  of 
the  genus  Alchcmilla  ;  they  are  slight- 
ly astringent,  but  w'holesome. 

LADY'S  SLIPPER.  Flowers  of 
the  genus  Cypripedium,  of  great  beau- 
ty. 

LADY'S    TRESSES.      Small  or- 
chideous  plants  of  the  genus  Ncotlia, 
of  no  importance. 
L.EVIS.     Smooth. 
LAGEN.EFORM.    Bottle-shaped. 
LAGOON.     A  shallow  lake,  into 
which  the  sea  flows. 

LAGOPUS.     The  genus  contain- 
ing the  grouse  and  similar  birds  feath- 
ered down  to  the  toes. 
P  p  2 


if  she  licks  it,  a  good  feehng  will  soon 
spring  up.  They  are  weaned  at  six 
to  eight  weeks  ;  the  rams  are  gelded 
at  one  to  three  weeks  old.  By  kill- 
ing lambs  at  six  months,  the  wool 
becomes  much  more  valuable.  The 
young  ewes  should  not  be  put  to  ram 
until  two  years. 

LAMBDOIDAL  SUTURE.  The 
line  of  junction  between  the  bone  at 
the  back  of  the  head  (occipital)  and 
the  side  bones  (parietal). 

LAMB'S  LETTUCE.  Corn  salad. 
LAMB  SKINS.  Their  value  de- 
pends on  the  fineness,  brightness,  and 
colour  of  the  wool,  black  being  most 
esteemed.  The  skin  is  extensively 
employed  in  making  gloves. 

LAMELL.E.  The  gills  of  mush- 
rooms. 

LAMELLICORNS.  A  division  of 
pentamerous  beetles,  in  which  the 
short  antennae  are  inserted  into  a 
deep  fossa  at  the  side  of  the  head  : 
the  body  is  ovoid  and  heavy  ;  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  head  is  commonly 
dilated,  and  projects  ;  the  mentum  is 
large,  covering  the  labrum  or  incor- 
porated with  it,  and  bearing  the  pal- 
pi. They  are  very  numerous,  feed  on 
excrements,  rotten  wood,  and  roots. 
LAMENESS.  "  In  the  horse  it 
is  brought  on  from  various  causes, 
sprains,  over-exertion,  diseases  of 
the  foot,  &c.  The  muscles  of  the 
shoulder  are  occasionally  sprained, 
and,  in  this  case,  the  animal  cannot 
lift  his  foot  without  great  difficulty ; 
indeed,  he  will  be  observed  to  drag 
his  toe  along  the  ground.  In  this 
case  few  local  measures  can  be  adopt- 
ed. The  horse  should  be  bled  from 
,  the  vein  on  the  inside  of  the  arm,  fo- 
419 


LAN 


LAR 


mentations  applied,  and  a  dose  of 
physic  given.  In  this,  as  in  most  oth- 
er cases  of  lameness,  quiet  and  rest 
are  essential  to  the  restoration  of 
the  animal."     See  Horse 

LAMINA.  The  flat  surface  of  a 
leaf. 

LAMIN.'E.  A  tribe  of  longicorn 
beetles,  distinguished  by  a  vertical 
head,  filiform  palpi,  antennae  bristly 
and  simple,  thorax  nearly  equal 
throughout  :  some  species  are  ap- 
terous. 

LAMINATED.  Rolled  or  beaten 
to  thin  leaves  or  foil. 

LAMPBLACK.  Fine  charcoal  ob- 
tained by  imperfectly  burning  resins, 
&c. 

LAMPYRID.E.  A  family  of  soft- 
skinned,  serricorn  beetles,  a  portion 
of  the  females  of  which  are  phospho- 
rescent. 

LAMPYRIN-E.  A  tribe  of  soft- 
skinned,  serricorn  beetles,  character- 
ized by  palpi  with  enlarged  termina- 
tions, a  soft,  straight,  slightly-de- 
pressed body,  by  the  thorax  project- 
ing over  the  head,  which  it  partially 
or  wholly  covers. 

LANATE,  LANATUS.  Covered 
with  wool,  or  having  the  appearance 
of  wool. 

LANCEOLATE.  Lance-shaped, 
oblong,  and  gradually  tapering  to  the 
ends. 

LAND.  In  agriculture,  the  bed,  or 
stitch,  between  two  water  furrows. 

LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 
The  art  of  laying  out  grounds  :  curv- 
ed lines,  clumps  of  trees,  with  a  rich 
sward,  and  shrubberies,  are  the  ele- 
ments of  landscapes  ;  fences  should 
be  sunken  so  as  not  to  interrupt  the 
view,  which  should  be  opened  as 
much  as  possible,  unless  unsightly ; 
in  the  latter  case,  a  clump  or  grove 
of  trees  may  be  made  to  hide  the  ob- 
jects. Fountains,  terraces,  urns,  and 
other  objects  of  art,  are  introduced  as 
ornaments.  A  winding  stream  is 
a  necessary  element  of  extensive 
grounds. — See  Loudon's  Encyclopedia 
of  Gardening. 

■  LANDSLIP,  or  LANDSLIDE.    A 
quantity  of  land  which  has  slidden 
down  the  side  of  a  hill :  it  is  caused 
450 


by  the  undermining  of  water  or  by  an 
earthquake. 

LAND  SPRINGS.  Springs  which 
only  come  into  action  after  heavy 
rains  :  all  springs  owe  their  origin  to 
rains.  In  the  case  of  land  springs, 
the  water,  when  it  sinks  through  the 
surface,  is  speedily  interrupted  by  a 
retentive  stratum  of  clay  or  rock,  and 
there  accumulating,  soon  bursts  out 
into  a  spring,  which  ceases  to  flow  a 
short  period  after  the  cause  which 
gave  it  birth  ;  but  the  water  which 
supplies  constant  springs  sinks  deep- 
er into  the  earth,  and  accumulates  in 
rocky  or  gravelly  strata,  which  be- 
come saturated  with  the  fluid. 

L  A  N  I  A  R  I  E  S.  Denies  laniarii. 
The  dog  teeth,  or  cuspidati,  conical 
teeth  at  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  next 
the  incisors. 

LANTANUM.  A  new  metal  found 
in  cerite. 

LAPIDEOUS.     Like  stone,  hard. 

LA  PILL  I.  Small  volcanic  cin- 
ders. 

LARCH.  The  European  larch 
{Larix  communis)  is  much  cultivated 
in  England  for  ship-building,  bridges, 
dock  gates,  and  other  purposes.  The 
timber  is  of  remarkable  excellence. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Tyrol,  and  grows 
with  great  rapidity  on  the  poorest 
soils  and  in  very  elevated  positions. 
The  bark  is  nearly  as  valuable  as  that 
of  the  oak  for  tanning,  and  the  trunk, 
w^hen  tapped,  yields  the  Venetian 
turpentine  ;  there  is  also  a  sweet 
gum  obtained  from  it  called  Brianvon 
manna. 

LARCH,  AMERICAN.  Hack- 
malac. 

LARD.     See  Hogs  Lard. 

LARK.  This  genus  of  birds  is 
granivorous. 

LARKSPUR.  The  genus  Delphi- 
nium, many  of  which  have  handsome 
blue  flowers  :  these  plants  are  diu- 
retic and  acrid.  The  D.  consolida  and 
staphisagria  were  formerly  used  in 
medicine. 

LARVA.  The  caterpillar  or  mag- 
got state  of  insect  life  ;  the  young  of 
some  amphibious  animals  are  also 
called  larvae. 

LARVIPARA.     Producing  larvae. 


LAT 

LARYx\GOTOMY.  The  opera- 
tion of  making  an  opening  into  the 
larynx  ;  this  is  sometimes  necessary 
in  eases  of  t-hoking  or  severe  inflam- 
mation, where  the  opening  of  the 
larynx,  along  which  air  passes,  is 
closed. 

LARYNX.  The  upper  part  of  the 
windpipe,  formed  of  cartilage,  and  ly- 
ing at  the  root  of  the  tongue. 

LAST.  A  quantity,  varying  in  dif- 
ferent countries,  and  with  respect  to 
various  articles.  The  loliowing  quan- 
tities generally  make  a  last :  12  doz- 
en of  hides  or  skins  ;  12  barrels  of 
meal ;  lOV  quarters  of  cole  seed  ;  10 
quarters  of  corn  or  rape  seed  (in  some 
parts  of  England  21  quarters  of  corn 
go  to  a  last) ;  12  sacks  of  wool ;  1700 
pounds  of  feathers  or  flax.  4000 
pounds  is  often  the  amount  of  a  last. 

LATENT  HEAT.  Heat  sup- 
posed to  be  present  in  all  bodies,  and 
on  which  their  form  depends  ;  it  can- 
not be  felt,  but,  by  a  change  in  the 
form,  is  given  out,  and  becomes  sen- 
sible or  free  heat.  Vapours  and  gas- 
es contain  most,  next  fluids,  and  last 
solids  ;  so  that,  by  the  abstraction  of 
heat,  vapours  are  condensed,  fluids 
freeze,  and,  by  the  reverse,  solids  be- 
come fluid  or  gaseous. 

LATERITIOUS  (from  later,  a 
brick).  A  deposite  of  a  reddish  colour 
from  urine,  &c. 

LATEX.  The  milky  or  elaborated 
juices  of  plants  :  it  circulates  in  a  pe- 
culiar arrangement  of  tubes  called  the 
laiiciferous  vessels,  which  anasta- 
mose  over  the  plant. 

LATH.  A  thin  slip  of  wood,  one 
fourth  or  three  eighths  of  an  inch 
thick,  used  in  plastering,  slating,  &c. 

LATHE.  A  machine  for  revolving 
pieces  of  wood,  metal,  &c.,  which  are 
cut  with  different  tools  while  rotating. 

LATH  FLOATED  AND  SET 
FAIR.  In  building,  three-coat  plas- 
terer's work,  in  which  the  first  is 
called  pricking  up,  the  second  float- 
ing, the  third,  or  finishing,  is  done 
with  fine  stuff. 

LATH  LAID  AND  SET.  In 
building,  two-coated  plasterer's  work, 
e.vcept  that  the  first  is  called  laying, 
and  IS  executed  without  scratchmg. 


LAX 

unless  with  a  broom.  When  used  on 
walls,  this  sort  of  work  is  generally 
coloured  ;  when  on  ceilings,  it  is 
white. 

LATHYRUS.  A  genus  of  hand- 
some climbing,  leguminous  plants, 
much  cultivated  for  ornament. 

L  ATI  CI  FERGUS  VESSELS. 
Milk  vessels  ;  they  carry  the  latex. 

L.\UD.\NUM.  Opium  dissolved 
in  alcohol,  tincture  of  opium. 

LAUREL.  Shrubs,  or  small  trees, 
of  the  genus  haunts  ;  several  are  ev- 
ergreen :  they  yield  aromatic  resins 
and  oils. 

LAURINE.  A  fatty,  acrid  sub- 
stance, found  in  the  berries  of  the 
common  laurel  (Laurus  communis). 

LAVA.  The  molten  mineral  mat- 
ter which  has  flowed  from  volcanoes  ; 
it  is  very  porous. 

LAYER.  A  sea-weed  (Porphrjra 
laciniata  and  vulgaris),  eaten  as  a  del- 
icacy when  boiled  ;  sometimes  green 
laver  (Ulm  latissima)  is  substituted. 

L.\ VENDER.  Lavendula  spica.  It 
grows  on  a  poor,  light  soil,  is  propa- 
gated by  slips  and  cuttings  of  the 
year's  shoots  ;  these  are  set  in  IMay, 
six  inches  apart,  in  a  shady  border, 
and  transferred  by  October  to  the 
permanent  beds,  about  two  feet  apart. 
The  ground  is  stirred  in  spring,  and 
the  flowers  gathered  early  in  July  ; 
the  beds,  with  a  little  care,  last  a 
long  time.  The  flowers  are  distilled 
for  their  rich  perfume,  which  is  the 
principal  ingredient  oi  eaude  Cologne. 

LAWN.  Ground  covered  with  tlie 
smaller  perennial  grasses,  kept  short 
by  mowing,  and  generally  situated  in 
front  of  a  house  or  mansion.  Lawns, 
when  once  established,  require  only 
to  be  kept  neat  by  the  ordinary  rou- 
tine of  rolling,  mowing,  and  sweep- 
ing, except  keeping  the  surface  per- 
fectly even,  by  making  up  small  hol- 
lows with  screened  mould  early  in 
spring.  When  lawns  become  worn 
out,  a  top-dressing  of  any  finely-divi- 
ded manure  will  refresh  them  ;  leach- 
ed ashes  are  particularly  useful,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  an  additional  quan- 
titv  of  grass  seed  may  be  sown. 

LAXATIVE.  A  gently-purging 
medicine. 

451 


LAY 


LLA 


LAXATOR.  Any  muscle  which 
relaxes  the  tension  of  the  part  into 
which  it  is  inserted. 

LAX,  LAXUS.     DifTiise,  loose. 

LAY,  LEY,  LEA.  A  term  applied 
to  land  in  tlic  state  of  grass  or  sward. 
This  kind  of  ground  is  frequently  dis- 
tinguisiied  into  such  as  has  been  long 
in  the  stale  of  sward,  and  such  as  is 
newly  laid  down  to  grass,  or  into  old 
and  new  lays.  An  old  lay,  fallowed 
or  turned  under,  yields  an  admirable 
preparation  for  potatoes,  corn,  wheat, 
and  numerous  other  crops.  The 
proper  method  of  managing  a  new 
lay  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
farmer,  which  Young  thought  should 
be  by  keeping  it  perfectly  free  from 
stock  for  the  following  autumn  and 
winter  after  being  laid  down,  when, 
in  the  spring,  it  will  afford  a  growth 
of  young  grass  highly  valuable  for 
s4ieep,  with  which  it  should  only  be 
well  stocked,  and  kept  down  then, 
and  during  the  following  summer ; 
nothing,  in  his  opinion,  being  more 
pernicious  than  mowing  a  new  lay, 
as  directed  by  certain  authors,  if  it 
be  intended  for  permanent  meadow. 

LAYERING.  Propagation  by  lay- 
ers, which  are  short  branches  of  plants, 
trees,  or  shrubs.  The  layer  is  strip- 
ped of  its  lower  leaves,  a  slit  made 
under  one  of  the  central  buds,  and 
the  branch  twisted  or  the  bark  taken 
partially  off,  and  then  bent  and  pinned 
down  in  the  soil  by  a  wooden  pin  ; 
the  wounded  portion  is  placed  from 
two  to  six  inches  under  the  soil,  and 
covered  with  line  mould  and  sand  ; 
the  end  of  the  branch  is  trimmed  to 
one  or  two  eyes  above  the  soil  ;  in  a 
few  weeks  it  will  have  thrown  out 
roots,  and  maybe  cut  away  and  trans- 
planted at  a  suitable  time  elsewhere, 
being  a  new  plant.  It  is  a  very  safe 
method  of  propagation,  and  in  some 
flower  plants  nearly  the  only  one.  It  is 
practised  in  the  summer  and  autunm, 
and  on  the  year's  shoots  in  many  ca- 
ses, but  usually  on  two-year  shoots. 
Plants  so  situated  as  to  render  it  im- 
possible to  bend  their  branches  to 
the  ground,  may  nevertheless  be  lay- 
ered by  having  shoots  introduced  into 
a  i)ot  or  box  of  soil  elevated  to  them, 
452 


and  supported  in  a  convenient  posi- 
tion. A  piece  of  bass  matting  tied 
around  the  limb  near  a  crotch  may 
be  made  to  sustain  the  soil.  This  is  a 
common  practice  among  the  Chinese, 
who  cause  branches  of  trees  to  root 
in  this  manner  by  partially  ringing 
them,  and  covering  such  parts  with 
a  ball  of  clay,  which  is  ke])t  moist. 

LAYERS  OF  ^VOOD.  The  cir- 
cular rings  of  wood  or  bark  produced 
annually.  The  number  of  wood  lay- 
ers in  a  trunk  gives  us  an  idea  of  the 
age  of  the  tree. 

LEA.     See  Laxj. 

LEAD.  A  soft,  inelastic,  and  duc- 
tile metal,  fusing  at  612°  Fahrenheit : 
sp.  gr.,  11-44.  Melted  in  open  ves- 
sels, it  absorbs  o.xygen,  and  becomes 
converted  into  massicot,  which,  being 
fused,  is  litharge,  the  protoxide  of 
lead.  The  equivalent  of  lead  is  103-73, 
symbol  Pb  {Plumbum).  The  metal, 
in  the  form  of  sheet,  is  very  use- 
ful for  covering  buildings  and  form- 
ing gutters.  From  its  softness,  it  is 
also  adapted  for  pipes,  which  are 
quite  flexible.  Lead  cisterns  and 
pipes  are  objectionable  as  reservoirs 
lor  rain  water.  It  is  used  as  an  al- 
loy with  other  metals.  Lead  is  read- 
ily soluble  in  nitric  acid,  and  slowly 
in  strong  acetic  and  carbonic  acids. 
Its  most  important  compounds  are 
the  carbonate  (white-lead)  and  ace- 
talc  (sugar  of  lead). 

LEAD,  BLACK.  Plumbago.  A 
native  carburet  of  iron. 

LEAF.  An  expansion  of  cellular 
tissue  and  vessels  appended  to  the 
stem  at  the  nodes  ;  it  receives  ves- 
sels from  the  new  wood  on  the  up- 
per, and  contributes  them  to  the  bark 
from  the  under  surface.  Along  the 
upper  channels  the  ascending  sap 
flows,  and  the  elaborated  juices  leave 
the  leaf  by  the  inferior  system,  de- 
scending between  the  new  wood  and 
bark,  and  organizing  new  wood  for 
the  next  year  and  roots.  Leaves  are 
articulated,  and  fall  off  entire  in  ex- 
ogenous plants,  but  are  expansions 
of  tlie  bark,  and  not  articulated  in 
endogens  ;  hence,  when  they  die,  the 
fragments  remain,  decaying  in  the  air. 
The  figures  of  leaves  are  innumera- 


LEA 


LEA 


ble,  and  furnish  the  principal  means  \ 
of  recognising  species  of  plants  ;  they 
are  also  occasionally  covered  with 
hairs,  glands,  prickles,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  with  minute  openings  on 
the  under  surface,  called  slomata.        i 
Physiologically,  the  leaf  is  not  only  . 
the  most  important  portion  of  a  plant, 
but  the  only  living  portion ;  the  trunk 
and  roots  are  only  fibres  extended 
from  the  leaves :  the  fruit  and  seed  I 
are  only  modified  leaves  ;  they  pro- 
duce the  buds   of  plants,  the  great 
means  of  propagation  ;  hence,  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  more  than  half  of 
the  known  plants  are  no  more  than  a 
leaf,  or  foliaceous  organ,  as  in  ferns, 
lichens,  sea-weeds,  fungi,  and  moss- 
es ;    and   the   leaf  alone    of   many 
plants  is  capable  of  giving  rise  to  a 
new  individual,  forming  a  root,  a  new  ; 
bud,  and  ultimately  the  entire  tree  or  j 
plant ;  thus,  the  orange,  water-cress,  j 
mint,  hoya,  clinanthus,  and  other  spe-  i 
cies,  have  been  'propagated  by  a  leaf.  | 
The  planted  leaf  swells  at  its  stalk,  ' 
emits  roots,  and  develops  a  bud. 

A  leaf  is  a  porous  or  spongy  body  ; 
the  gases  and  fluids  of  the  interior  of 
the  plant,  and  the  gases  and  fluids  of 
the  air  mingle  together  by  chemical 
laws  in  its  structure  ;  light,  acting 
on  these,  produces  a  change  of  com- 
position, and  establishes  a  move- 
ment. Out  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
water,  light,  and  the  chemical  actions 
of  the  leaf,  evolve  sugar,  gum,  starch, 
and  wood  ;  these  principles,  acted 
upon  by  other  substances  present, 
produce,  in  part,  albumen,  fibrin,  oils, 
&c.  ;  and  thus,  primarily  in  the  leaf, 
all  the  products  of  vegetation  are 
formed,  and  hence  they  l)ecome  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  whole  plant. 

The  leaf  only,  with  the  green  parts, 
can  elaborate  sap  for  the  whole  ve- 
getable ;  the  apparent  changes  in  the 
ascending  sap  are  an  increased  den- 
sity, and  the  separation  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen  gases,  which  escape  into 
the  air.  Leaves  are  to  be  carefully 
preserved  as  the  elaborating  organs 
of  the  plant,  out  of  which  come 
growth  and  vigour. 

L  E  A  F  B  U  D.  Tiie  collection  of 
small   leaves  with    a   central  point 


capable  of  expansion,  which  is  pro- 
duced at  the  base  or  axil  of  the 
leaves.  In  the  bark  is  laid  up  a  de- 
posite  of  food  for  their  use  in  spring, 
upon  which  the  bud,  whether  separa- 
ted to  another  tree  (m  budding),  or 
remaining  in  its  native  place,  feeds 
while  young ;  by  its  expansion,  a 
shoot  is  formed.  Leaf  buds  perpet- 
uate all  the  peculiarities  of  the  tree 
on  which  they  originated. 

LE.\FLET.  The  lesser  leaves  of 
a  compound  leaf. 

LEAF  MANL'RE.  The  dead  leaves 
of  the  forest  constitute  an  admirable 
manure  when  rotted  in  the  farm-yard, 
pig-stalls,  or  in  composts  ;  they  have 
precisely  the  value  of  straw,  being 
very  similar  in  their  action.  The 
leaves  of  oaks  and  plants  growing  on 
a  rich  soil  are  better  than  those  of 
pine,  or  such  as  grow  on  poor  lands. 
They  should  be  collected  as  early  as 
possible  in  the  fall.  If  ploughed  into 
the  soil  directly,  they  form  an  excel- 
lent amendment,  but  require  rather 
more  time  to  yield  vegetable  food. 
In  this  case,  lime  should  be  applied 
with  the  leaves. 

LEAF  STALK.  The  petiole. 
Leaves  destitute  of  stalk  are  called 
sessile. 

LEAGUE.  The  sea  league  is  the 
one  twentieth  of  a  degree,  or  345 
miles.  The  French  posting  league  is 
2-42  English  miles. 

LEA\-TO.  A  building  whose  raf- 
ters lean  or  pitch  against  the  wall  of 
another  building. 

LEASH.  A  line  to  couple  dogs. 
Three  head  of  game. 

LEATHER.  Skins  of  animals 
preserved  by  rendering  their  gelatin 
insoluble  and  impermeable  to  water  ; 
this  is  called  tanning,  when  a  solution 
of  tannin  is  used,  and  the  product 
becomes  tannogclatin. 

Tau-ed  leather  is  formed  by  steep- 
ing prepared  skins  in  potasti  liquor 
and  a  solution  of  common  salt  and 
alum  ;  in  this  way  the  resulting  salt 
of  alumina  combines  with  the  gela- 
tin :  glove  leather  is  so  formed. 
Curried  leather  is  smeared  with  oil 
while  moist,  which  gradually  pene- 
trates the  skin  as  it  dries.  A  perfect 
453 


LEE 


LE.M 


hide  of  leather  is  tested  by  its  section, 
which  should  he  glistening  and  mar- 
bled, without  any  wiiite  streaks,  but 
uniform  and  compact.     See  Tanning. 

LEATHER  WOOD.  Dircapalus- 
tris.  A  small  indigenous  shrub  with 
very  flexible  branches,  and  a  tough, 
leathery  bark. 

LEAVEN.  A  piece  of  sour  dough 
of  flour  or  corn  meal,  used  to  make 
other  dough  light ;  it  is  well  kneaded 
into  it,  and  produces  fermentation, 
but  is  altogether  inferior  to  yeast. 

LEDGERS.  In  building," the  pie- 
ces of  timber  used  in  scaffolding 
which  lie  parallel  to  the  wall,  and 
horizontal. 

LEECH.  Sanguisvga  officinalis 
and  medicinalis.  They  inhabit  shal- 
low brooks  and  ponds,  and  are  taken 
by  driving  a  horse  or  other  animal  in  ; 
the  leeches  attach  themselves  to  the 
legs.  They  are  invaluable  in  reliev- 
ing local  inflammations  by  drawing 
offan  excess  of  blood. 

LEEK.  Allium,  porrum.  This  is 
a  biennial  of  the  onion  genus,  hut 
without  heads ;  used  in  stews,  broths, 
&c.  The  best  variety  is  the  large 
London.  Leeks  are  obtained  by  seed, 
which  is  sown  in  a  bed  early  in  spring 
for  the  first  supply,  and  in  April  for 
the  crop.  The  seedlings  are  trans- 
planted when  six  or  eight  inches 
high,  being  previously  thinned  and 
weeded,  and  set  in  rows  ten  inches 
apart,  the  rows  being  eight  inches 
distant.  The  leeks  are  set  deep  in 
holes  made  by  a  dibble.  The  soil 
must  be  well  watered  and  loosened. 
Tlie  after-treatment  consists  of  hoe- 
ing and  occasionally  cutting  away 
the  tops  of  the  leaves  to  increase 
the  size  of  the  root.  The  plants  are 
used  from  June  to  winter.  Seed  is 
obtained  by  leaving  some  of  the  leeks 
in  the  seed-bed  8  inches  apart,  cover- 
ing with  straw  in  winter,  and  allowing 
them  to  flower  in  May.  The  seed  clus- 
ter is  to  be  cut  when  turned  brown, 
and  dried  before  being  thrashed. 

LEES.  The  dregs  or  refuse  of  fer- 
mented liquors  :  when  rotted,  they 
form  good  manure,  and  should,  there- 
fore, be  put  into  the  farm-yard  or  pig- 
geries. 
454 


LEGHORN  STRAW.  It  it  de- 
rived from  the  straw  of  wheat  In 
Tuscany,  the  long-awned  spring 
wheat,  called  marzolano,  is  cultivate^ 
on  the  sandy  hills  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Arno.  The  seed  is  sowa  in  March 
very  thick,  and  the  plants  pulled  when 
the  spikes  are  formed,  but  before  any 
grain  :  it  is  then  eighteen  inches  tall. 
It  is  bleached  by  exposure  to  air  like 
flax.  The  portion  of  straw  between 
the  car  and  uppermost  knot  is  ah  that 
is  employed  :  this  is  selected,  tied  in 
bundles,  and  carried  home.  Before 
use,  the  straw  is  bleached  by  the  va- 
pour of  sulphur,  either  in  barrels  or 
appropriate  rooms  ;  the  plait  is  also 
bleached,  and  the  bonnets  are  again 
bleached.  English  Leghorn  is  made 
from  rye  similarly  managed.  Both 
these  plants  yield  better  straw  than 
that  from  grasses. 

LEGUMEN,  LEGUME.  A  pod 
like  that  of  the  pea,  bean,  &c.  A 
one-celled,  one  or  many  seeded,  two 
valved,  superior,  and  commonly  de- 
hiscent fruit. 

LEGUMIN.  The  casein  of  legu- 
minous plants. 

LEGUMINOS^E.  An  extensive 
natural  family,  very  important  in  ag- 
riculture, from  yielding  pease,  beans, 
clovers,  indigo,  &c.  The  genera  are 
often  immense  trees  in  the  tropics, 
as  logwood,  mahogany,  but  are  usu- 
ally small  herbs  in  the  North.  The 
most  remarkable  characters  are  the 
presence  of  legumens  whh  irregular, 
often  papilionaceous  flowers. 

LEGUMINOUS  CROPS.  Crops 
of  clover,  beans,  tares,  lucern,  and 
other  leguminosa?.  Some  writers, 
however,  very  improperly  allude  to 
root  and  leaf  crops  under  this  term, 
imagining  that  all  ameliorating  crops 
should  be  called  leguminous,  as  being 
distinguished  from  white  or  culmif- 
erous  crops,  which  are  also  exhaust- 

LEICESTER  SHEEP.  See  Sheep. 

LEMON.  Curvs  mcdica.  A  small 
tree,  native  of  Asia,  but  extensively 
cultivated  in  tropical  America  and 
temperate  climates  free  from  heavy 
frosts.  The  citron,  lemon,  and  lime 
are  considered  only  varieties,  notwith- 


LEN 


LET 


standing  their  great  difference  in  size 
and  tlie  sharpness  of  the  juice.  The 
tree  can  be  cultivated  in  southern 
Florida,  but  requires  an  orangery 
northward. 

LEMON,  ESSENCE  OF.  The  oil 
distilled  from  the  peal,  mixed  with  al- 
cohol. The  pure  oil  is  termed  the  oil 
of  lemo/is. 

LEMON  SIRUP.  Lemon  juice  is 
kept  with  difficulty  in  bottles  ;  made 
into  a  strong  sirup,  it  is  better  pre- 
served. The  fluid  sold  by  this  name 
is  only  common  sirup,  acidulated  with 
a  little  oil  of  vitriol. 

LENITIVE.  Medicines  which 
gently  soothe  in  diseases.  A  gentle 
purgative. 

LENS.  A  thin  solid,  the  faces  of 
which  are  curved,  and  the  general 
figure  usually  circular.  The  glasses 
of  spectacles  are  lenses.  Those  len- 
ses which  have  two  conve.x  or  pro- 
tuberant sides,  or  one  side  plane,  mag- 
nify objects,  and  concentrate  the  rays 
of  heat  to  a  burning  focus ;  hence  they 
are  termed  magnifying  or  burning 
glasses.  Concave  lenses  minify,  and 
do  not  collect  heat  to  a  real  focus. 
The  name  of  the  lens  differs  with  the 
figure  of  the  curved  surface 

LENTICULAR.  Shaped  like  a 
double  convex  lens  ;  thus  (). 

LENTICELLS,  or  LENTICULAR 
GLANDS.  The  small  specks  or  knots 
on  the  stems  of  some  trees,  from 
whence,  if  in  the  soil,  roots  would 
proceed. 

LENTIL.     Ercum  lens  {Fig.).     A 


leguminous   annual,  similar  to  the 
vetch.  It  is  much  cultivated  in  France 


and  some  parts  of  Germany  as  food  for 
man.  The  French  have  three  varie- 
ties :  the  small  brown,  for  soups,  the 
yellowish,  and  the  large  Provence, 
with  luxuriant  straw,  and  which  may 
be  cultivated  in  the  place  of  tares. 

They  are  sown  on  a  dry,  warm, 
sandy  soil,  later  than  the  pea,  one  to 
one  and  a  half  bushel  to  the  acre, 
and  afterward  treated  like  pease,  un- 
less they  be  planted  for  horse  prov- 
ender, when  the  whole  plant  is  cured, 
as  in  the  case  of  tares.  The  yield  is 
much  less  than  from  the  latter  crop. 
The  lentil  is  as  nutritious  as  the  bean. 
It  contains  22  per  cent,  of  Icgumin 
(casein),  48  5  of  starch,  gum,  and  su- 
gar, and  2  5  oil.  Schwartz  states  the 
crop  at  39|  bushels,  of  62i  pounds 
each,  to  the  acre. 

LENTOR  (from  lentus,  clammy). 
Visciditv,  clamminess  in  fluids. 

LEPIDOPTERA.  Insects  of  the 
moih  and  butterfly  tribe.    See  Insects. 

LEPIDOTUS,  LEPIDOTE  (from 
/.e-Jic,  ascale).  Scurfy,  scaly.  A  bo- 
tanical term. 

LEPIS.M.\.  A  family  of  wingless 
insects,  the  bodies  of  which  are  cov- 
ered with  glistening  scales,  the  feet 
short.  They  are  very  active,  and 
found  about  old  wood,  and  in  dark, 
mouldy  places. 

LEPRA,  LEPROSY.  A  disease 
of  the  skin,  which  becomes  rough  and 
covered  with  scaly  patches.  Warm 
baths,  sulphur,  and,  lastly,  tar  oint- 
ment, with  proper  attention  to  the 
health,  are  the  best  remedies. 

LEPTURA.  A  genus  of  longi- 
corn  beetles,  of  the  family  Leplundce. 
'•  Head  inclined  posteriorly  behind  the 
eyes,  or  contracted  at  its  junction 
with  the  thorax  into  a  neck  ;  thora.x 
conical  or  trapezoid,  narrowed  ante- 
riorly ;  elytra  becoming  gradually  nar- 
rower ;  eyes  rounded  and  entire,  or,  if 
emarginate,  antennae  inserted  before 
emargination." 

LETHARGY.  Drowsiness,  mor- 
bid desire  to  sleep.  It  is  sometimes 
a  precursor  of  apoplexy,  and  calls  for 
blood-letting  if  occurring  in  a  full 
habit. 

LETTUCE.  Lactuca  saliva.  The 
varieties  are  very  numerous ;  the 
455 


LLV 


LEV 


most  hardy  are  tlie  large  green  heatl, 
cabbage,  tennis  ball,  Kgyj)tian  green 
coss,  larged  green  curled,  and  .Madei- 
ra, which  may  be  kept  alive  through 
winter  if  protec-ted  by  a  coating  of 
straw  :  they  are  sown  in  Scpieiiiber. 
Other  esteemed  spring  kinds  are  the 
early  Silesia,  sugar  loaf,  Paris  loaf 
coss,  pale  green,  and  a  later  sort, 
the  large  summer  Silesia.  Lettuces 
in  this  latitude  require  to  be  raised 
in  slightly  warmed  beds.  An  ounce 
of  seed  produces  upward  of  ten  thou- 
sand plants.  It  should  be  sown  very 
thin  early  in  March,  and  transplanted 
when  about  one  inch  and  a  half  high, 
as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and 
fine,  and  the  plants  set  a  foot  apart 
each  way.  They  must  be  well  wa- 
tered after  transplanting,  for  the  let- 
tuce is  partial  to  moisture.  The 
plant  must  be  kept  weeded  and  well 
worked,  at  least  every  fortnight ;  in 
this  way  they  will  head  before  hot 
weather,  after  which  they  usually  run 
to  seed  without  heading.  The  coss 
lettuces  required  to  be  blanched  by 
tying  up  the  leaves  with  a  bass  hand- 
age.  Seed  plants  are  procured  by 
allowing  fine  specimens  to  flower  : 
the  seed  sown  should  be  fresh,  as  it 
frequently  loses  its  vegetating  power 
after  two  j'ears. 

LETTUCE.  LAMB'S.   Corn  salad. 

LEVIGATION.  The  reduction  of 
hard  substances,  by  rubbing  or  tritu- 
ration, to  fine  powder. 

L  E  U  C  IN.  A  white,  crystalline 
body  like  spermaceti,  produced  by  the 
action  of  alkalies  or  sulphuric  acid 
on  protein  :  formula,  Ci^  Hi^  N  O4 

LEU  CITE.  White  Vesuvian 
garnet.  It  is  abundant  in  some  of 
the  Vesuvian  lavas,  and  contains  up- 
ward of  23  per  cent,  potash,  alumina 
23,  silica  54. 

LEUCOL.  One  of  the  products  of 
the  di.stillation  of  coal  tar. 

LEUCOMA.  Opacity  of  the  cor- 
nea, which  becomes  whitish. 

LEUCOPHLEGMATIC.  A  con- 
dition of  the  body  in  which  the  skin 
is  pale  and  flabby. 

LEVATOR    MUSCLES.      Those 
wOiich  raise  a  limb  or  part.     They  are 
456 


situated  in  the  front  portions  of  the 
animal. 

LEVEE.  A  provincial  name  for  a 
large  embankment. 

LEVEL.  An  instrument  for  as- 
certaining the  level  or  the  direction 
of  a  horizontal  line.  It  is  of  great 
utility  in  drainage,  building,  and  lay- 
ing out  grounds. 

Levels  in  which  the  plumb-line 
forms  the  essential  part  are  those 
most  usually  employed  for  the  com- 
mon purposes  required  by  bricklayers, 
masons,  carpenters,  &c.  They  are 
constructed  under  many  difTerent 
forms,  but  the  general  principle  is  as 
follows :  A  frame  or  board  is  prepared, 
having  one  edge  perfectly  straight, 
and  an  upright  line  is  drawn  on  the 
frame  at  right  angles  to  the  straight 
edge.  To  some  point  of  this  line  a 
thread  carrying  a  plummet  is  attach- 
ed ;  consequently,  when  the  frame 
is  placed  in  such  a  position  that  the 
thread  of  the  plummet,  hanging  free- 
ly, coincides  with  the  upright  line,  the 
straight  edge  of  the  frame,  which  is 
at  right  angles,  must  be  horizontal. 
See  Plummet. 

Spirit  Level. — By  far  the  most  con- 
venient and  accurate  level  is  the  spir- 
it level  (/-;-.  1),  p,^  , 
"  which  is  noth- 
ing more  than  a 
glass  tube  near- 
ly filled  with  spirit  of  wine,  the  bub- 
ble in  which,  when  the  tube  is  placed 
horizontally,  would  rest  indiflerently 
in  any  part,  if  the  tube  could  be  made 
mathematically  straight ;  but  that  is 
impossible  to  exe-  f,g,  2. 
cute,  every  tube  hav-   a  h 

ing  some  slight  cur-    j^ ^ 

vature."  k^^.^: 

The  spirit  level 
in  surveyors'  instru- 
ments is  fixed  to  a 
frame  carrying  a  tel- 
escope or  compass  ; 
Figure  2  represents  a 
spirit  level  mounted 
on  a  stafT,  for  com- 
mon farm  levelling. 

"  It  is  furnished 
with  eyesights,  a  h, 
and  when  in  use  is 


LEVEL. 


placed  into  a  framing  of  brass,  which 
operates  as  a  spring  to  adjust  it  to  the 
level  position,  (/,  by  the  action  of  the 
large-headed  brass  screw,  c.  A  stud 
is  affixed  to  the  framing,  and  pushed 
firmly  into  a  gimlet-hole  in  the  top  of 
the  short  rod,  e,  whicii  is  pushed  or 
driven  into  the  ground  at  the  spot 
from  whence  the  level  is  desired  to 
be  ascertained.  It  need  scarcely  he 
mentioned  that  the  height  of  the  eye- 


sight from  the  ground  is  to  be  deduct- 
ed from  the  height  of  observation. 

Fijx.  3  represents  a  useful  and  very 
simple  form  of  level.  "  A  slip  of 
wood  must  be  procured,  measuring 
three  inches  broad  by  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  sixteen  feet  nine  inches 
long,  which  must  be  cut  into  foui 
lengths  of  five  feet  three  inches,  five 
feet,  three  feet  three  inches,  and  three 
feet  three  inches,  marked  as  follows  : 


a  a,  five  feet  three  inches ;  h  b,  five 
feet ;  c  d,  three  feet  three  inches  ;  c  f, 
three  feet  three  inches  :  six  thick 
screw  nails  are  also  required,  one 
inch  long.  .loin  c  rf  and  e/ by  a  screw 
nail,  inserted  about  two  inches  from 
tlie  end  of  each,  and  exactly  one  inch 
from  their  upper  surfaces.  From  the 
point  i,  upon  c  /,  draw  a  line,  meas- 
uring thirty-six  inches,  towards/,  and 
exactly  one  inch  distant  from  the  up- 
per surface,  and  divide  this  line  into 
thirty-six  parts  or  inches.  It  is  self- 
evident  that  each  of  these  points, 
when  elevated  above  r  d,  will  show 
g  'J 


a  rise  of  one  in  fifteen,  twenty,  thir- 
ty-four, &c.,  as  the  case  may  be,  pro- 
vided c  d,  which  should  be  divided 
into  inches  numbered  on  the  upper 
edge,  shall  be  horizontal ;  and  e  f 
shall  point  to  a  pole  or  mark  as  high 
above  the  ground  as  c  </  is  ;  this  is 
effected  by  fixing  b  h  firmly  upon  c  d, 
at  right  angles,  and  either  having  a 
plummet,  g,  suspended,  as  in  the  fig- 
ure, or  a  spirit  level  fixed  on  the  top 
of  c  d.  I  prefer  the  plummet  made 
of  bobbin  or  small  cord,  with  a  pierced 
bullet  at  the  bottom.  The  instru- 
ment is  retained  in  a  level  or  hori- 
4.57 


LEV 


Lie 


zontal  position  by  the  assistance  of 
a  a,  whicli  is  upon  a  moveable  pivot, 
made  l)y  one  of  the  screw  nails  at  k. 
The  distance  of «  a  from  A  i  is  imma- 
terial. A  small  stoj)  is  fastened  at 
the  back  of  h  h,  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  c  /  from  falling  below  c  d. 
The  rise  of  a  road  is  shown  by  look- 
ing from  e  towards  /;  the  fall  of  a 
road,  of  course,  by  looking  from /to- 
wards e,  and,  if  great  correctness  is 
required,  the  observation  should  be 
rGvcrscd  " 

LEVELLING.  The  art  of  discov- 
ering the  level  of  surfaces,  or  how 
high  one  place  is  above  another  ;  jt 
also  means,  in  agriculture,  the  reduc- 
tion of  hills  or  mounds  to  a  level  or 
plain  surface,  which  is  done  by  the 
plough,  or  the  machine  figured  under 
the  article  Barren  Soil. 

The  level  set  on  a  rod  (F^o--  1)  in 
the  preceding  article  is  all  that  is  ne- 
cessary for  short  distances  ;  but  tel- 
escopes are  used  in  extensive  sur- 
veys. 

LEVELLING  STAVES.  Straight 
rods,  six  or  more  feet  high,  and  divi- 
ded into  marks  at  the  inches,  which 
can  be  distinctly  seen  at  a  short  dis- 
tance ;  in  more  delicate  observations 
the  stafT  carries  a  moveable  sight 
with  a  central  mark,  which  is  adjust- 
ed by  an  assistant,  according  to  the 
signs  of  the  surveyor,  until  the  level 
line  is  reached. 

LEVER.  An  inflexible  bar  capa- 
ble of  moving  around  a  prop  or  ful- 
crum :  the  advantage,  or  leverage, 
gained  depends  on  the  distance  at 
which  the  power  acts  from  the  prop, 
and  weight  or  resistance.  The  lever 
is  not  only  the  simplest,  but  the  only 
true  mechanical  power.  Writers 
speak  of  levers  of  the  first,  second, 
and  third  kinds  :  in  the  first,  the  ful- 
cnini  is  between  the  power  and 
w^eight ;  in  the  second,  the  fulcrum 
is  at  one  end  and  the  power  at  the 
other,  the  weight  being  between 
them  ;  in  the  third,  the  fulcrum  and 
weight  are  at  the  ends,  the  power 
intermediate  ;  in  this  case  there  is 
loss  of  power,  but  gain  in  the  rapidi- 
ty of  movement  of  the  weight  :  the 
treadle  of  a  lathe  is  an  instance. 
46S 


LEVERAGE.  The  advantage 
gaint^d  in  power  by  using  a  lever. 

LEVERET.     A  young  hare. 

LEVIGATION.  The  reduction  of 
a  solid  to  an  impalpable  powder  with 
the  assistance  of  water  or  other 
fluids  ;  this  may  be  done  in  a  mortar 
or  on  a  slab  ;  the  mixture  is  after- 
ward diffused  in  water,  and  the  light 
parts,  which  remain  suspended  some 
seconds,  poured  off  and  retained,  the 
heavier  portions  being  again  tritu- 
rated. 

LEY.    Grass  land. 

LEYDEN  JAR.     See  EhctrkUy. 

LIAS.  An  argillaceous  limestone 
of  the  secondary  rocks  ;  abundant  in 
Europe,  but  unknown  in  the  United 
States. 

LIBELLULINES.  A  tribe  of  neu- 
ropterous  insects  like  the  dragon-fly, 
which  are  found  about  water,  and 
prey  on  other  insects.  The  word  Li- 
bclliila  designates  a  genus  of  this 
family. 

LIBER.  The  innermost  bark  of 
trees. 

LICE  ON  ANIMALS.  Nearly  all 
animals  are  subject  to  some  of  these 
parasites  :  they  are  produced  from 
filth,confinement,  herding  with  infest- 
ed animals  ;  the  creatures  affected  be- 
come restless,  rub  themselves  against 
posts,  bite  the  accessible  parts  of 
their  skin,  and  even  become  subject 
to  skin  diseases.  The  best  remedies 
are,  access  to  water,  washing,  comb- 
ing, or  currying  the  hide,  anointing 
with  sulphur,  mercurial,  or  whale  oil 
ointment ;  decoctions  of  tobacco,  and 
other  narcotic  weeds,  are  also  valu- 
able. 

LICE  ON  PLANTS.    See  Aphulcs. 

LICHENIN.  The  starchy  matter 
of  lichens. 

LICHENS.  "  Plants  of  a  very  low 
organization,  which  grow  on  the  bark 
of  trees  or  rocks,  when  they  form  a 
kind  of  incrustation,  or  upon  the 
ground,  when  they  consist  of  irregu- 
lar lobes,  parallel  with  the  earth's 
surface.  Occasionally,  in  all  situa- 
tions, they  are  found  in  a  branched 
state ;  but  their  subdivisions  are  gen- 
erally irregular,  and  without  order. 
Their  fructification  consists  of  hard 


LIG 

nuclei,  called  shields,  which  break 
through  the  upper  surface  of  the  thal- 
lus,  or  main  substance  of  the  lichen, 
are  of  a  peculiar  odour  and  texture, 
and  contain  the  reproductive  parti- 
cles. Lichens  abound  in  the  cold  and 
temperate  parts  of  the  world.  The 
greater  part  are  of  no  known  use  ; 
but  some,  as  the  reindeer  moss  (^Ce- 
7wmyce  rangifcnna),  the  Iceland  moss 
{Cctrana  Islandica),  and  various  spe- 
cies of  Gyrophora,  are  capable  of  sus- 
taining life,  either  in  animals  or  man. 
The  Iceland  moss,  when  deprived  of 
its  bitterness  by  soaking  in  an  alkali, 
and  then  boiling,  becomes,  indeed,  a 
diet  recommended  to  invalids.  Oth- 
ers are  used  as  tonic  medicines,  as 
Variolaria  faginca  and  Parmclm  pari- 
etina.  Their  principal  use  is,  how- 
ever, that  of  furnishing  the  dyer  with 
brilhant  colours  ;  orchall,  cudbear, 
and  perolle,  with  many  more,  are 
thus  employed." 

LIFTING  PUMP.     See  Pump. 

LIGAMENTS.  Elastic  fibrous  tex- 
tures uniting  the  bones  together. 

LIGATURE.  A  bandage.  In  hor- 
ticulture, bass  is  used  chiefly  for  this 
purpose.  In  farriery,  a  ligature  is  a 
fine,  strong  thread  of  silk,  with  which 
blood-vessels,  &;c.,  are  tied  in  opera- 
tions. 

LIGHT.  An  imponderable  agent, 
emitted  in  great  brilliancy  by  the  sun  : 
it  travels  in  straight  lines  at  the  rate 
of  192,000  miles  the  second.  The 
sun's  light  consists  of  seven  different 
colours,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green, 
blue,  indigo,  violet,  which,  being  uni- 
ted, make  the  white  light :  they  may 
be  separated  by  a  prism  of  glass,  or 
a  coloured  transparent  body. 

Light  is  a  most  important  agent  in 
the  development  of  plants,  the  green 
colour  of  their  herbage  being  produ- 
ced by  its  action  ;  it  appears  to  be 
the  yellow  light  that  effects  this  re- 
sult. Although  mould,  and  some 
kinds  of  mushrooms,  exist  witliout 
light,  the  plants  usually  cultivated 
cannot  exist  without  its  presence  ; 
hence,  few  plants  do  well  in  the  shade. 
The  bending  of  stems  towards  the 
light  is  one  of  the  most  curious  phe- 
nomena of  vegetation  ;  it  seems  to 


LIL 

be  produced  by  the  blue  and  indigo 
rays. 

A  pencil  of  light  is  a  small  beam, 
the  parts  of  which  are  divergent. 

LIGHTxMNG.  The  discharge  of 
electricity  from  immense  surfaces  of 
clouds  ;  it  may  occur  from  one  cloud 
to  another,  or  to  the  earth ;  in  the 
latter  case,  the  highest  points  and  the 
best  conductors  receive  the  stroke. 
Hence,  rods  of  iron  one  inch  or  more 
thick,  and  rising  four  to  ten  feet  above 
buildings,  are  used  for  protection ; 
the  upper  ends  should  be  beaten  out 
into  several  points,  and  either  gilded 
or  covered  with  platina,  and  the  low- 
est extremity  buried  in  the  earth  sev- 
eral feet,  or  brought  in  contact  with 
moisture  ;  in  cities,  the  iron  or  lead 
pipes  circulating  through  the  streets 
form  a  good  point  of  attachment.  In 
a  large  building  several  rods  are  want- 
ed. Large  trees  are  admirable  con- 
ductors of  lightning,  but,  as  their  bark 
is  often  torn  off  violently  during  the 
passage  of  the  fluid,  it  is  dangerous 
to  take  shelter  near  them. 

LIGNEOUS-  (from  lignum,  wood). 
Wood-like. 

LIGNTN.  The  pure  fibre  of  wood 
divested  of  starch  and  other  impuri- 
ties ;  according  to  Payen,  it  consists 
of  an  investing  or  cellular  matter, 
cellulose,  Ciz  Hio  Oio,  isomeric  with 
starch,  the  true  internal  matter,  or 
lignin,  being  Gis  H.m  0;o.  Fine  linen 
from  hemp  or  flax  is  insoluble  in  wa- 
ter, decays  very  slowly,  and  is  con- 
verted into  dextrine  by  the  action  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  heat,  and 
finally  into  starch  sugar. 

LIGNIPEllDOUS  INSECTS. 
Those  insects  \\hich  bore  into  or  oth- 
erwise destroy  wood. 

LIGNITE.  A  kind  of  partially- 
formed  coal,  in  which  the  woody 
structure  is  distinct.  It  belongs  to 
the  secondary  formations. 

LIGULA.  An  appendage  of  the 
sheathing  petioles  of  some  grasses. 
The  lower  lip,  or  labrum,  of  insects. 

LIGULATE.  Shaped  like  a  rib- 
and. The  outer  florets  of  some 
composite  flowers  are  called  ligu- 
late. 

LILAC.  Syringa  vulgaris.  A  beau 
459 


LIM 


LIM 


tiful  ornamental  shrub,  readily  prop- 
agated in  a  rich,  light  soil. 

LlIJACE.i:.  A  family  of  endoge- 
nous plants,  remarkable  for  their  brill- 
iant llowers,  including  the  lilies,  hy- 
acinths, tuberoses,  &c.  They  are 
characterized  by  six  petals,  six  sta- 
mens, superior  ovary,  anthers  burst- 
ing inwardly. 

LILIACEOUS.  Flowers  resem- 
bling the  lily. 

LILY.  Lilium.  Several  species 
produce  beautiful  flowers.  They  are 
propagated  by  bulbs. 

LILY,  DAY.  Hcmcrocallis  fuha. 
This  has  been  recommended  as  a 
herbage  plant.  It  is  perennial,  stands 
the  summer  well,  and  cattle  are  very 
partial  to  the  leaves.  It  yields  abun- 
dantly. 

LILY  OF  THE  VALLEY.  Con- 
vallaria  majalis.  Sheep  and  cattle 
browse  on  it.  Propagated  by  part- 
ing the  perennial  root. 

LILY,  WATER.  Nymphea  alba. 
A  beautiful  ornament  on  ponds. 

LILY,  THE  AMERICAN  WA- 
TER. Nelumbium  lutcutn.  The  sa- 
cred bean.  It  bears  the  largest  flow- 
er in  the  Northern  States.  The  beans 
are  edible. 

LILY,  THE  YELLOW  WATER. 
Nupar  lutca.  Common  in  ditches  and 
ponds,  bearing  a  yellow  flower. 

LI.VIACID.E  (from  Umax,  a  slug). 
The  family  of  slugs  and  snails. 

LIMB,  LI.MBU8.  The  flat  or  ex- 
panded portion  of  the  petal. 

LI.ME.  The  oxide  of  calcium  ;  the 
latter  is  a  brilliant  wiiite  metal, known 
only  as  a  chemical  curiosity.  Lime, 
from  its  great  chemical  activity,  is 
unknown  in  nature,  but  always  exists 
combined,  chiefly  with  carbonic  acid, 
as  limestone,  chalk,  marl,  or  calcare- 
ous minerals.  It  is  also  combined 
with  sulphuric  acid  (gypsum),  phos- 
phoric acid  (bone  earth),  and  silicic 
acid. 

The  base  (quicklime)  is  separated 
from  the  carbonate  by  a  white  heat. 
It  is  white,  caustic,  soluble  in  500 
parts  water ;  specific  gravity,  23. 
The  solution  is  powerfully  alkaline, 
changing  vegetable  colours,  and  with 
an  acrid  taste.  It  is  much  used  as  a 
460 


test  in  the  laboratory.  The  equiva- 
lent of  lime  is  28  5,  symbol  Ca. 

When  a  small  quantity  of  water  is 
added  to  the  quicklime,  it  sv^"ells, 
cracks,  becomes  hot,  falls  into  pow- 
der, and  absorbs  the  fluid,  combining 
with  it,  and  forming  slacked  or  hydrate 
of  lime.  This  contains  24  per  cent, 
water,  and  is  highly  caustic.  If  quick- 
lime be  exposed  to  the  air,  so  as  to 
become  air  slacked,  it  absorbs  water 
and  carbonic  acid  to  the  extent  of  38 
per  cent.,  about  one  half  becoming 
carbonate  or  mild  lime,  and  the  rest 
hydrate.  This  mixture  is  slightly 
caustic.  Both  the  hydrate  and  air- 
slacked  lime  continue  to  absorb  car- 
bonic acid,  and  finally  become  alto- 
gether mild  ;  but  this  is  slower  in 
the  case  of  the  hydrate.  Lime,  be- 
ing an  active  base,  coml)ines  readily 
with  nearly  every  acid,  forming  a  host 
of  salts.  Its  presence  in  any  solu- 
tion is  made  known  by  the  action  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  precipi- 
tates if  as  an  insoluble  white  powder 
(gypsum). 

LIME  IN  AGRICULTURE.  It  is 
the  most  important  amendment  used 
in  farming,  and  is  employed  in  the 
state  of  quicklime,  water-slacked,  and 
air-slacked  lime,  and  in  quantities  de- 
pending upon  the  object  in  view. 

Its  uses  may  be  enumerated  as  fol- 
lows : 

1st.  It  assists  in  pulverizing  the 
soil,  by  acting  chemically  upon  the 
silicates  therein,  dissolving  out  a  por- 
tion of  the  silica,  and  liberating  pot- 
ash and  soda.  It  is  for  this  cause 
that  heavy  doses  of  lime  tell  so  well 
on  poor  granitic  soils.  The  quick- 
lime is  best  for  this  purpose,  plough- 
ed in  thoroughly  to  a  depth  of  three 
inches.  From  100  to  600  bushels  the 
acre  are  used  ;  wet,  stiff  lands,  and 
those  destitute  of  calcareous  matter, 
requiring  most.  It  should  be  applied 
upon  a  fallow  of  four  to  six  months, 
and  stirred  three  times.  This  large 
addition  shows  its  effects  for  many 
years.  It  should  be  made  to  poor 
lands  to  bring  them  into  tilth,  or  to 
destroy  insects  and  weeds.  Sandy 
soils  should  receive  much  less  lime 
than  stiff  lands. 


LIM 


LIM 


2d.  Lime  corrects  injurious  sub- 
stances in  the  soil,  as  sulphate  of 
iron,  &c.  For  this  purpose,  a  heavy 
dose  is  required. 

3d.  Liinc  breaks  up  or  pulverizes 
stiff  clays,  improving  their  texture. 
For  this  purpose,  a  heavy  dose  of 
quicklime  is  most  effective. 

4ih.  It  decomposes  inert  vegetable 
matter,  as  peat,  roots,  &c.  The  dose 
for  this  purpose  may  be  less  than 
above ;  30  to  100  bushels  will  be 
enough,  if  lime  has  been  previously 
employed ;  but  on  peat  lands,  well 
drained,  much  more  is  necessary. 

5th.  Lime  is  found  in  large  quan- 
tities as  an  ingredient  in  leguminous 
plants,  potatoes,  and  other  roots  ; 
hence  it  may  be  added  as  a  special 
manure  to  such  plants,  three  or  four 
bushels  being  placed  in  the  manure 
used  for  them. 

6th  It  hastens  the  decay  of  stable 
manure  and  putrescent  substances, 
and  may  be  sprinkled  over  them  when 
ploughed  into  the  soil,  but  not  allow- 
ed to  be  added  for  any  length  of  time 
to  heaps  of  manure,  for  it  drives  off 
any  ammonia  already  formed,  and  ul- 
timately reduces  the  action  of  the 
dung.  One  bushel  to  three  or  four 
loads  will  be  enough. 

A  first  liming  for  improvement  of 
barren  lands  may  be  heavy ;  but  if 
afterward  a  dose  of  20  bushels  the 
acre  be  added  every  four  or  five  years, 
it  will  save  a  very  heavy  addition  for 
some  time.  Quicklime  would  be  the 
best  to  add  as  an  amendment,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  handle,  from  its  causti- 
city, and  must  never  be  added  to  wet 
soils,  lest  it  convert  them  into  a  hard 
mortar.  On  the  whole,  therefore, 
water-slacked  lime  is  the  most  useful. 
Air-slacked  hme  is  used  as  a  top- 
dressing  to  meadows,  the  other  being 
too  caustic  ;  it  is  also  employed  to 
kill  and  annoy  insects,  which  it  does 
without  injury  to  the  plant.  It  is 
also  added,  in  doses  of  a  half  to  one 
peck,  to  the  roots  of  fruit-trees,  work- 
ed into  the  soil.  The  best  kind  of 
lime  for  the  former  is  that  obtained 
from  burned  shells,  the  common  lime- 
stone usually  containing  magnesia, 
M'hich,  in  a  caustic  state,  is  injurious 
Qg2 


j  to  vegetation,  from  the  slowness  with 
i  which  it  becomes  mild,  so  that  it  in- 
!  jures  the  roots  of  plants  long  after 
I  the  lime  has  become  quite  mild.  The 
!  older  limestones,  and  especially  those 
of  a  bright  white,  crystalline  appear- 
ance, form  the  best  lime. 

Lime  is  also  much  used  in  com- 
posts to  pulverize  inert  vegetable  mat- 
ter, which  it  does  very  effectually, 
converting  it  in  part  into  humate  of 
lime  ;  the  action  of  the  lime  is  simi- 
lar to  potash  or  soda,  and  termed  by 
1  chemists  catalytic,  or  predisposing. 

Lime-water,  and  a  cream  of  lime, 
made  by  mixing  lime  with  water  to 
the  consistence  of  cream,  are  much 
!  used  as  a  steep  for  seeds,  and  to  wash 
j  the  bark  of  trees,  &c.,  to  preserve 
them  from  insects  ;  it  is  also  suppo- 
sed to  preserve  timber. 

LLME-KILX.  A  rough  furnace  for 
burning  limestone  or  shells  into  quick- 
lime. It  is  usually  of  a  circular  fig- 
ure, constructed  of  hard  rock  or 
bricks,  arched  below,  and  furnished 
with  a  moveable  grate.  The  building 
is  six  or  more  feet  across,  and  15  to 
20  feet  high,  the  wall  being  nearly 
perpendicular.  The  limestone  is  bro- 
ken into  pieces  of  the  size  of  half  a 
brick,  and  thrown  from  above,  mixed 
with  half  or  one  third  part  of  wood 
or  other  fuel,  according  to  the  kind 
of  stone  used  ;  this  is  most  conve- 
niently done  when  the  kiln  is  erected 
against  a  steep  hill,  so  that  carts  can 
approach  near  the  mouth  to  throw  in 
the  charge.  Before  adding  the  charge, 
fuel  is  placed  above  the  grate  to  en- 
able the  whole  to  be  lighted ;  and  fresh 
quantities  of  limestone,  and  wood  or 
coal,  are  added  as  the  first  portions 
burn  and  settle  down.  In  the  com- 
mon kiln  the  charge  is  allowed  to 
burn  out,  and  then  drawn  when  cold 
by  removing  the  lower  grate  ;  but  in 
the  best  modern  kilns  the  charge  can 
be  partly  removed  without  allowing 
the  fire  to  die  out.  Good  stone  yields 
about  56  per  cent,  of  lime,  but  the 
impure  kinds  leave  more.  It  should 
slack  into  a  fine  powder  with  water, 
or  it  is  impure  or  imperfectly  burned. 
Shells  and  limestone,  or  marl,  can 
be  burned  in  mass  by  heaping  them 
461 


LIM 


LIN 


with  fuel  and  leaving  air  passages,  as 
in  making  charcoal. 

LIME,  MILD.  Carbonate  of  lime, 
which  possesses  little  of  the  action  of 
burned  lime.  Quicklime  returns  to 
this  condition  in  the  soil  after  a  time, 
depending  upon  the  porousness  of 
the  earth  and  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  it  contains.  Chalk  is  much 
used  in  England  as  an  amendment  ; 
but  with  us  the  reduction  of  lime- 
stones to  a  powder  would  be  much 
more  expensive  than  beneficial.  Marl 
answers  this  purpose  when  rich  in 
calcareous  matter ;  some  sands  and 
gravels  are  so  rich  in  broken  shells  as 
to  afford  a  good  calcareous  manure  : 
10  to  30  cart-loads  are  applied.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  is  slowly  soluble  in 
water  containing  carbonic  acid. 

LIMESTONE,  LIME  ROCK.  The 
best  for  agricultural  purposes  are  the 
oldest  crystalline  rocks  destitute  of 
magnesia.  Limestone  formations 
appear  from  the  earliest  transition 
epoch,  in  which  they  constitute  hard 
crystalline  marbles,  through  the  sec- 
ond, and  into  the  tertiary  period. 
They  frequently  form  the  richest 
lands  when  disintegrated,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  large  amount  of  corals 
and  organic  remains  they  contain, 
which  often  yield  two  per  cent,  of 
bone  earth  :  some  of  the  linest  wheat 
soils  are  of  this  kind.  Calcareous 
rocks,  sands,  or  gravels  are  of  every 
colour  and  admixture  ;  sometimes 
flinty,  sandy  ;  at  others,  aluminous  ; 
but  if  the  carbonate  of  lime  be  in  any 
quantity,  they  are  readily  recognised 
by  adding  a  few  drops  of  strong  acid, 
which  should  produce  an  evolution  of 
gas  or  effervescence. 

LLME  PLANT.  The  May  apple 
is  sometimes  called  by  this  name. 

LIME-TREE.  Tilm  Europea.  The 
linden,  a  tree  of  great  beauty,  often 
attaining  90  feet,  and  bearing  a  large 
amount  of  sweet  flowers  in  spring, 
which  constitute  a  favourite  food  of 
bees.  It  is  propagated  with  great 
ease  from  suckers,  layers,  seed,  and 
cuttings.  The  wood  is  soft,  but  used 
in  turning,  and  forms  a  fine  charcoal 
for  gunpowder :  the  inner  bark  af- 
fords the  best  bass. 
462 


The  linden  has  been  for  ages  a  fa- 
vourite tree  in  parks,  groves,  and 
avenues  of  towns ;  it  is  very  patient  of 
trimming,  and  can  be  cut  into  arches 
and  other  figures.  Several  varieties, 
differing  consideraoly  in  height,  are 
known. 

Michaux  describes  three  species  of 
American  trees  of  the  genus  TUia  .• 
the  alba,  Americana,  or  bass  wood,  and 
the  puhescens,  or  downy  ;  they  are 
not  of  much  economical  value,  the 
wood  being  soft  and  destructible. 

The  linden  of  Europe  is  frequently 
planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  ;  in 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  it  is, 
however,  extremely  hable  to  the  at- 
tacks of  numerous  insects  and  cater- 
pillars, and  requires  much  attention 
to  be  preserved  from  destruction. 
Numerous  span  and  canker  worms 
infest  the  young  buds  and  foliage  ; 
the  use  of  lime  and  tobacco  washes, 
or  smoke,  might  diminish  the  number 
of  these  enemies. 

LINACE.E.  The  family  of  plants 
to  which  flax  belongs  :  they  are  re- 
markable for  their  mucilaginous  seeds 
and  tough  fibres. 

LINCHPIN.  The  pin  at  the  end 
of  the  axletree  to  confine  the  wheel. 

LINDEN.     See  Lmie-trce. 

LINE  ATE,  LINEATUS,  LIN- 
EAR. Used  in  describing  leaves, 
&c.,  which  are  narrow  and  of  the 
same  width  throughout. 

LINEN.  The  cloth  or  texture  spun 
from  the  fibres  of  flax. 

LINE  OF  DIP.  In  geology,  the 
inclination  of  strata  from  the  hori- 
zontal line  ;  it  is  estimated  in  angles, 
and  the  direction  of  the  dip  towards 
the  point  of  the  compass  given. 

LINES.  In  agriculture,  these  are 
of  great  use  to  mark  out  the  straight 
direction  of  ditches,  banks,  hedges, 
&c.  In  gardening,  drills,  beds,  bor- 
ders, &c.,  are  made  by  means  of  a 
line.  It  is  usually  rolled  upon  two 
sticks,  which  are  pointed  at  the  lower 
ends,  and  can  be  fixed  into  the  ground. 

LING.  Common  heath  ( Calluna 
vulgaris).  It  grows  ver)'  abundantly 
on  the  barren  hill-sides  in  England 
and  Scotland  ;  the  woody  stems 
make  good  brooms  and  fuel,  and  the 


T' 


LIN 

seed  nourish  grouse  and  many  small 
animals. 

LINGUA.  A  tongue.  In  ento- 
mology, an  organ  placed  within  the 
labium,  and  serving  the  office  of  a 
tongue. 

LINGUATE,  LINGUATUS,  LIN- 
GUIFOR.VI.  A  thick  leaf,  &c.,  shaped 
like  the  human  tongue. 

LINLMENT  (from  lino,  I  anoint). 
In  farriery,  a  semitluid  omtniciit,  or 
a  soapy  application  to  rul>  u|)oii  pain- 
ful joints,  sprains,  tumours,  &c.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  s|)irituous  and 
other  stimulating  applications  for  ex- 
ternal use.  Liniments  are  intended 
either  to  lubricate  or  to  stimulate  ; 
but  in  either  case  they  can  only  be 
regarded  as  topical  applications,  their 
influence  not  extending  beyond  the 
part  to  which  they  are  applied.  In 
some  instances  thoy  are  anodyne, 
and  contain  solutions  of  opium  or 
camphor  in  oil. 

Linseed  oil  and  lime-water  form  an 
admirable  liniment  for  burns.  Harts- 
horn and  sweet  oil  for  tumours,  to 
discuss  them,  or  hinder  suppuration. 
Liniments  with  soap,  hartshorn,  and 
camphor,  or  opium,  for  stiff  and  pain- 
ful joints  or  sprains. 

LINING.  In  building,  any  cover- 
ing of  an  interior  surface.  The  li- 
nings, for  instance,  or  boxings  of 
window-shutters,  are  the  pieces  form- 
ing the  backs  of  the  recesses  into 
which  the  shutters  are  folded.  In 
doorways,  they  are  the  facings  on 
each  side  the  aperture  :  to  sashes, 
they  are  the  vertical  pieces  parallel 
with  the  surface  of  the  walls. 

LINSEED.  The  seed  of  flax.  It 
is  used  for  the  extraction  of  oil,  for 
feeding  cattle,  and  medicinal  purpo- 
ses. The  method  of  raising  the  crop 
is  detailed  in  the  article  on  Flax. 
The  composition  of  the  seeds  is  by 
no  means  well  known  ;  they  contain 
from  II  to  27  per  cent,  of  oil,  22  per 
cent,  of  starch,  gum,  and  mucilage  ; 
10  of  sugar,  and  six  parts  of  albumen 
and  fibrin.  The  oil  is  extracted  by 
grinding  and  pressing  ;  or  grinding, 
heating  by  steam,  and  pressing,  the 
hot-drawn  oil  being,  on  the  whole, 
best  for  painters,  &e.     The  produce 


LIN 

of  seed  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
10  to  30  bushels,  according  to  the 
richness  of  the  soil ;  the  latter  quan- 
tity will  furnish  385  |)ounds  of  oil  the 
acre,  leaving  69  per  cent,  of  cake  or 
refuse  after  pressure.  The  bushel  of 
seed  weighs  from  50  to  52  pounds, 
and  yields  a  quarter  of  oil 

The  entire  seed,  when  defective, 
is  sometimes  used  as  provender ;  it 
is  exceedingly  fattening,  and  in  all 
respects  strong  food ;  but  the  meal 
and  cake  are  belter.  The  seed  are 
also  boiled  or  steeped  in  boiling  wa- 
ter for  the  mucilage  they  afford ;  it 
is  mixed  with  hay,  and  used  at  the 
rate  of  three  pounds  daily  for  an  ox  ; 
rather  less  meal  is  necessary,  but  the 
refuse  cake  is  more  strengthening 
and  economical. 

LINSEED  CAKE.  The  refuse  of 
linseed  after  expression.  According 
to  Payen,  it  still  contains  9  per  cent, 
of  fattening  matters,  and  5  2  per  cent, 
nitrogen  ;  equal  to  nearly  32  per  cent, 
of  albumen.  22  lbs.  are  equal,  in  nu- 
tritious value,  with  100  of  prime  hay. 
It  is,  for  the  most  part,  used  to  fatten 
cattle  ;  four  or  five  pounds  of  the  cake, 
broken  into  powder,  and  either  boil- 
ed or  steeped  in  hot  water,  are  mi.xed 
along  with  hay  and  cut  straw.  The 
quantity  of  oil  it  contains  renders  it 
very  fattening,  at  the  same  time  that 
the  albumen  makes  it  strengthening. 
Some  persons  use  linseed  oil  with 
hay  and  meal,  adding  a  quart  of  oil  to 
a  bushel  of  bean,  oat,  or  other  meal. 

LINSEED  JELLY  or  MUCIL- 
AGE. This  is  made  by  boding  six 
quarts  of  water  on  one  quart  of  the 
seed  for  ten  minutes.  It  is  of  great 
use  in  the  cough  of  animals,  and 
forms  a  good  provender  for  calves. 

LINSEED  MEAL.  Ground  lin 
seed. 

LINSEED  OIL.  For  commercial 
purposes  it  is  nearly  always  hot- 
drawn.  It  forms  a  drying  oil  when 
boiled  with  white-lead  or  sugar  of 
lead,  and  is  much  used  by  painters 
and  others.  It  is  an  excellent  pur- 
gative for  cattle.  Sheep  and  calves 
require  2  to  3  oz.,  oxen  16  oz  ,  and 
horses  16  to  24  oz.  ;  but  castor  oil,  in 
smaller  doses,  is  equally  serviceable. 
463 


LIG 


LIT 


LINT.  The  staple  of  flax,  hemp, 
and  other  textile  plants.  The  scra- 
pings from  pieces  of  linen,  of  great 
use  in  dressing  wounds  and  stopping 
slight  haemorrhages. 

LINTEL.  A  horizontal  timber  or 
stone  over  a  door,  window,  or  other 
opening,  which  sustains  the  weight 
above. 

LIP.  Labcllum.  In  botany,  the 
divisions  of  a  monopetalous  corolla, 
as  the  sage,  mint,  &c.  It  is  divided 
into  an  upper  and  lower  lip. 

LIPPED  AND  HARLED.  A  wall 
built  without  mortar,  but  afterward 
having  the  joints  filled  with  mortar, 
and  the  whole  rough-cast  or  harled. 

LIQUEFACTION.  Melting,  fu- 
sion, converting  bodies  into  the  fluid 
state,  solution. 

LIQUID  MANURES.  Manures 
applied  in  a  soluble  state,  especially 
stable  urine.  A  watering  cart  is  used 
to  diffuse  it.  They  are  especially  of 
servit-e  to  produce  rapid  growth  in 
young  plants,  and  serve  for  steeps. 
In  very  dry  seasons  manures  may 
also  be  applied  in  this  state  ;  but 
when  added  any  length  of  time  be- 
fore the  plants  there  is  a  great  loss 
by  drainage  ;  and  the  expense  of  ap- 
plication must  always  be  heavy.  The 
liquid  soaked  into  peat,  charcoal,  &c., 
and  added,  as  a  top-dressing,  during 
moist  or  wet  weather,  appears  to  be 
much  preferred  in  the  United  States, 
and  to  be  more  economical.  See 
Urine. 

LIQUORICE.     GhjcyrrUza  glabra 


(Fig.).  Officinal  liquorice.  This  is  a 
leguminous  herb,  with  perennial 
roots,  which  grow  to  a  great  length, 
and  contain  a  peculiar  sugar, with  mu- 
cilage. The  roots  are  used  in  coughs, 
or  an  extract,  made  by  boiling,  and 
called  Spanish  juice,  liquorice,  Ponte- 
fract  lozenges,  &c.  It  requires  a 
deep  sandy  loam,  and  is  best  propa- 
gated from  root  slips  containing  an 
eye.  The  root  is  raised  in  the  third 
year,  in  November,  and  sold  fresh, 
or  made  into  extract ;  the  small  roots 
are  ground  into  powder.  The  ex- 
pense of  digging  is  considerable.  A 
fair  crop  is  1800  to  2000  lbs.  The 
root  is  extensively  raised  in  Italy  and 
Spain,  to  manufacture  into  the  com- 
mercial extract  (liquorice).  It  also 
grows  well  in  England. 

A  species  of  Glycyrrhiza  (lepidvta) 
is  indigenous  to  Missouri,  and  produ- 
ces fair  roots. 

LIQUORICE  SUGAR.  See  Gly- 
cyrrhizine. 

LIQUORICE,  WILD.  Galium  cir- 
cazans.  The  leaves  have  the  taste 
of  liquorice. 

LIQUOR  AMNIOS.  The  fluid  sur- 
rounding the  foetus  in  its  mother's 
womb.  In  botany,  a  fluid  contained 
in  the  nucleus  of  the  ovule,  and  sup- 
posed to  nourish  the  embryo.  It  is 
absorbed  during  the  ripening  of  the 
seed,  sometimes  leaving  behind  a  del- 
icate sack  only. 

LIQUOR  AMMONLE.  Solution 
of  ammoniacal  gas  in  water. 

LIQUOR  OF  FLINTS.  A  solu- 
tion of  silicate  of  potash,  made  by  fu- 
sing three  parts  carbonate  of  potash 
with  one  of  sand. 

LIRELLA.  In  lichens,  a  linear 
shield,  with  a  furrow  in  the  centre. 

LITHARGE.  An  impure  fused 
protoxide  of  lead.  It  is  used  for 
some  plasters. 

LITHIA.  A  rare  alkali,  resem- 
bling potash.     It  corrodes  platinum, 

LITHIUM.  The  metal  of  lithia  ; 
equiv.  10.     Lithia  is  the  protoxide. 

LITHIC  ACID.     Uric  acid. 

LITHOLOGICAL  (from  lidog,  a 
stone,  and  /lO^of,  a  discourse).  Re- 
lating to  the  structure,  characters, 
&c.,  of  minerals  or  stones. 


464 


LIT 


h\V 


LITHOMARGE.  A  kind  of  de- 
composed clay  slate;  sp.  gr.,  2-43: 
ye'.lowisli-gray  or  bluish,  soft,  adhe- 
sive to  the  tongue,  greasy  earthy, 
opaque,  giving  a  shining  streak.  A 
variety  consists  of  scaly,  glimmering 
particles. 

LITHONTRIPTICS  (from  /uOoc, 
bnd  rpiftcj,  I  wear  awai/).  Remedies 
which  are  supposed  to  dissolve  stones 
in  the  bladder.  .Many  bodies  have 
been  recommended  for  this  purpose, 
but  none  have  given  remarkable  re- 
sults. An  abundance  of  water  acid- 
ulated with  carbonic  acid  is  the  best. 

LITHOTO.MY  (from  Z/0of,  and 
Tsuvu,  I  cut).  The  operation  of  cut- 
ting through  the  perinccum  into  the 
bladder  to  extract  a  stone. 

LITHROTRITY  (from  ?u9oc,  and 
TEipcj,  I  break  down).  The  operation 
of  introducing  an  instrument  into  the 
bladder  through  the  natural  passage, 
to  crush  and  break  to  small  pieces  a 
stone. 

LITMUS.  Turnsole.  A  blue  col- 
our prepared  from  a  lichen  (Rocdla 
tarlarea),  and  used  in  the  arts  {archil) 
ami  in  chemistry.  Solution  of  lit- 
mus, or  paper  stained  thereby,  is  of 
great  use  m  detecting  any  acidity  in 
a  fluid,  the  blue  changing  rapidly  into 
red  by  the  acid.  Alkaline  mixtures 
restore  the  paper  so  reddened.  Both 
blue  and  reddened  litmus  paper  are 
extensively  used  in  the  laboratory. 

LITRE.  The  French  standard 
measure  of  capacity  in  the  decimal 
system.  The  litre  is  a  cubic  decime- 
tre ;  that  is,  a  cube,  each  of  the  sides 
of  which  are  3-937  inches ;  it  con- 
tains 61  028  English  cubic  inches, 
and  is,  therefore,  rather  less  than  our 
quart.  Four  and  a  half  litres  are  a 
close  approach  to  the  imperial  gallon. 

LITTER.  The  straw,  weeds,  or 
other  dry  substances  which  are  pla- 
ced under  horses  and  cattle  in  the 
stables,  cow-houses,  farm-yards,  pig- 
geries, &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  animals  clean  and  warm,  and 
providing  a  supply  of  manure.  In 
this  last  view,  all  sorts  of  dry  mate- 
rials should  be  carefully  collected  and 
stacked  up  for  winter  use. 

LITTORAL,  LITTORALIS  (from 


litus,  the  seashore).  Of  the  seashore 
Littoral  formations,  in  geology,  are 
such  as  have  evidently  been  ancient 
sea  beaches. 

LIVE  OAK.  Quercus  virens.  Ev 
ergreen  swamp  oak  of  Florida. 

LIVER.  A  large  gland  or  viscus, 
placed,  in  quadrupeds,  on  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  immediately  under 
the  chest,  and  adjoining  the  stomach 
It  is  saturated  with  blood-vessels, 
and  separates  the  bile  from  blood. 
The  bile  is  stored  up  in  a  small  bag, 
called  the  gall-bladder,  and  thrown 
from  hence,  during  digestion,  into  the 
small  intestines,  to  be  mixed  with  the 
chyme.  The  function  of  the  liver  is 
of  the  first  consequence  to  health  ; 
but  it  is  readily  impaired,  especially 
in  damp,  foggy  places,  subject  to  ague 
and  bilious  fevers.  Its  action,  when 
insufficient,  is  rapidly  stimulated  by 
the  use  of  calomel.  Jaundice  and 
yellowness  of  the  white  of  the  eye 
indicate  disturbance  of  the  liver. 

LIVER  OF  SULPHUR.  A  brown- 
ish substance,  of  a  t'oetid  smell.  Fu- 
sed sulphuret  of  potassium. 

LIVERLEAF,  LIVERWORT. 
Hepatiea  Americana.  An  herbaceous, 
perennial-rooted  plant,  of  small  size, 
found  on  the  skirts  of  woodlands.  A 
decoction  is  used  in  coughs. 

LH'ERWORTS.  The  plants  re- 
sembling Marcantia,  &c. 

LIVE  STOCK.  The  cattle,  hor- 
ses, sheep,  and  swine  kept  on  the 
farm. 

"The  live  stock  on  a  farm  must 
vary  according  to  circumstances. 
The  number  of  horses  or  oxen  kept 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  land  and 
other  farming  operations  should  be 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  work  to 
be  done.  If  they  are  too  few,  none 
of  the  operations  will  be  performed 
in  their  proper  time,  and  the  crops 
will  suffer  in  consequence.  If  there 
are  too  many,  the  surplus,  beyond 
what  is  strictly  required,  is  maintain- 
ed out  of  the  profits  of  the  farm.  To 
have  the  exact  number  of  animals 
which  will  give  the  greatest  profit  is 
one  of  the  most  important  problems 
which  a  farmer  has  to  solve  ;  what 
may  be  very  profitable  in  one  case 
465 


LIVE  STOCK. 


maybe  the  reverse  in  another;  and, 
as  a  general  maxim,  it  may  be  laid 
down,  that  the  fewer  mouths  he  has 
to  feed,  unless  they  produce  an  evi- 
dent profit,  the  less  loss  he  is  likely 
to  incur.  But  this  rule  admits  of 
many  exceptions.  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance, in  taking  a  farm,  to  calcu- 
late the  extent  of  the  arable  land,  so 
that  it  can  be  properly  cultivated  by 
a  certain  number  of  pairs  of  horses 
or  oxen.  It  is  an  old  measure  of 
land  to  divide  it  into  so  many  ploughs ; 
that  is,  so  many  portions  which  can 
be  tilled  with  one  plough  each.  When 
there  are  several  of  these,  it  is  useful 
to  have  an  odd  horse  over  the  usual 
number  required  for  two  or  three 
ploughs,  to  relieve  the  others  occa- 
sionally. The  work  is  thus  done 
more  regularly  and  with  greater  ease. 
Where  there  are  two  ploughs,  with 
two  horses  each,  a  fifth  horse  should 
be  kept,  and  so  in  proportion  for  a 
greater  number.  The  odd  horse  will 
always  be  found  extremely  useful,  if 
not  indispensable,  and  the  expense 
of  his  keeping  will  be  amply  repaid 
by  the  regularity  and  ease  with  which 
the  whole  work  of  the  farm  will  be 
done,  and  the  relief  which  occasional 
rest  will  give  to  the  other  horses. 

"  The  other  part  of  the  live  stock 
kept  on  a  farm  must  depend  on  vari- 
ous circumstances.  Where  there  is 
good  grazing  land,  the  profit  on  the 
improvement  of  the  live  stock,  or 
their  produce,  is  evident  and  easily 
ascertained.  But  where  animals  are 
kept  upon  artificial  food,  or  fatted  in 
stalls,  it  is  often  a  difficult  question 
to  answer  whether  there  is  a  profit 
on  their  keep  or  not.  In  most  cases, 
the  manure  which  their  dung  and  lit- 
ter afford  is  the  chief  object  for  which 
they  are  kept.  If  manure  could  be 
obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
recruit  the  land  at  a  reasonable  price, 
it  might  often  be  more  advantageous 
to  sell  off  all  the  hay  and  straw  of  a 
farm,  and  to  keep  only  the  cattle  ne- 
cessary to  till  the  ground  or  supply 
the  farmer's  family  ;  but  this  can 
only  be  the  case  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  large  towns.  In 
the  country  at  a  greater  distance  no 
466 


manure  can  be  purchased  ;  it  must, 
consequently,  be  produced  on  the 
farm  ;  and  for  this  purpose  live  stock 
must  be  kept,  even  at  a  loss.  The 
management  and  feeding  of  live 
stock  are,  therefore,  an  important 
part  of  husbandry.  The  object  of  the 
farmer  is,  principally,  to  obtain  ma- 
nure for  his  land  ;  and  if  he  can  do 
this,  and  at  the  same  time  gain  some- 
thing on  the  stock  by  which  it  is  ob 
tained,  he  greatly  increases  his  prof- 
its. Hence  much  more  skill  has  been 
displayed  in  the  selection  of  profita- 
ble stock  than  in  the  improvement 
of  tillage.  Some  men  have  made 
great  profits  by  improving  the  breed 
of  cattle  and  sheep,  by  selecting  the 
animals  which  will  fatten  most  read- 
ily, and  by  feeding  them  economical- 
ly. It  requires  much  experience  and 
nice  calculations  to  ascertain  what 
stock  is  most  profitable  on  different 
kinds  of  land  and  in  various  situa 
tions.  Unless  very  minute  accounts 
be  kept,  the  result  can  never  be  ex- 
actly known.  It  is  not  always  the 
beast  which  brings  most  money  in 
the  market  that  has  been  most  prof- 
itable ;  and  many  an  animal  which 
has  been  praised  and  admired  has 
caused  a  heavy  loss  to  the  feeder. 
Unless  a  man  breeds  the  animals 
which  are  to  be  fatted,  he  must  fre- 
quently buy  and  sell ;  and  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  qualities  of 
live  stock,  and  their  value,  both  lean 
and  fat,  is  indispensable.  However 
honest,  may  be  the  salesman  he  may 
employ,  he  cannot  expect  him  to  feel 
the  same  interest  in  a  purchase  or 
sale,  for  which  he  is  paid  his  com- 
mission, as  the  person  whose  profit 
or  loss  depends  on  a  judicious  selec- 
tion and  a  good  bargain.  Every  farm- 
er, therefore,  should  endeavour  to  ac- 
quire a  thorough  knowledge  of  stock, 
and  carefully  attend  all  markets  with- 
in his  reach,  to  watch  the  fluctuation 
in  the  prices.  It  will  generally  be 
found  that  the  principal  profit  in  feed- 
ing stock  is  the  manure  ;  and  to  this 
the  greatest  attention  should  be  di- 
rected. A  little  management  will 
often  greatly  increase  both  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  this  indispensable 


LOG 

substance,  and  make  all  the  difference 
between  a  loss  and  a  profit  in  the 
keeping  of  stock.'" — (IF.  L.  Rham.) 

LIXJVIATION.  The  process  of 
washing  out  the  soluble  from  the  in- 
soluble portions- of  mineral  substan- 
ces, as  in  making  lye  ;  hence,  Uziviiim 
means  a  lye  or  alkaline  solution. 

LIZARDS.  Lacertiil(P,  Lacertians. 
These  reptiles  are  perfectly  harmless, 
and  of  great  utility  to  the  farmer  from 
the  insects  which  they  devour. 

LOAD.  A  vague  measure ;  it  is 
better  understood  when  divided  into 
one,  two,  or  three  horse  loads.  A 
single  horse  load  is  generally  estima- 
ted at  thirty  bushels,  one  cubic  yard, 
or  one  ton  by  weight. 

LOAM.  A  very  vague  term,  mean- 
ing a  good  soil,  neither  too  light  nor 
too  stiff,  and  generally  containing  a 
large  proportion  of  vegetable  matter 
and  clay.  In  Prof.  Johnston's  lec- 
tures, a  loam  is  represented  as  a  soil 
containing  30  to  60  per  cent,  of  sand, 
the  rest  being  clay,  limestone,  or  ve- 
getable matter  :  a  clay  loam  contains 
but  20  to  30  per  cent,  sand,  and  a 
sandy  loam  upward  of  60  per  cent, 
sand.  This  word  is  often  improper- 
ly written  loom,  and  applied  to  a  fria- 
ble rich  soil,  containing  much  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter. 

LOBBY.     An  anteroom  or  hall. 

LOBATE,  LOBED.  Divided  into 
large  curved  segments  more  or  less 
circular. 

LOBELIA.  A  genus  of  plants  con- 
taining many  very  poisonous  species, 
as  the  Indian  tobacco  (L.  inflata), 
which  is  of  use  in  asthmas,  and  as  an 
emetic.  They  are  pretty  herbaceous 
plants,  with  perennial  roots,  and  oft- 
en cultivated  for  their  beauty. 

LOBLOLLY  BAY,  or  HOLLY 
BAY.  Gordonia  laxianlhus.  A  large 
Southern  evergreen  found  growing  in 
swamps,  producing  large  white  flow- 
ers. The  wood  is  rosy,  but  light  and 
brittle  ;  the  bark  is  extensively  used 
in  tanning  in  the  Southeastern  States. 
It  very  much  resembles  the  magnolia. 

LOBLOLLY  PINE.  The  old  field 
pine  {Piniix  l(F(1a). 

LOCKED  JAW.  Tetanus,  tris- 
mus.  A  consequence  of  injuries  about 


LOG 

the  feet,  worms,  or  severe  nervous 
diseases  ;  the  muscles  become  rigid, 
and  finally  locked  jaw  supervenes. 
When  it  arises  from  a  wound  or  la- 
ceration, the  case  is  usually  hopeless  ; 
when  it  is  a  disease  {telanus),  large 
doses  of  opium  are  found  to  do  most 
good,  with  the  removal  of  all  causes 
of  irritation.  The  strength  must  be 
sustained  by  injections  of  broths  and 
soups. 

LOCKING  WHEELS.  Hindering 
the  rolling  of  one  or  more  wheels  in 
descending  steep  hills.  It  is  done 
by  fastening  a  chain  from  the  body 
of  the  wagon  to  the  spokes  of  the 
wheel,  or  by  levers  or  a  drag. 

LOCOMOTION  (from  loci  motio). 
Change  of  place. 

LOCULAR  (from  locus,  a  place). 
A  cell  or  division  in  a  fruit ;  thus, 
fruits  are  unilocular,  bilocular,  &c. 

LOCULICIDAL.  A  terra  desig- 
nating the  bursting  (dehiscence)  of  a 
seed  vessel  along  the  back  suture. 

LOCUSTA.  The  inflorescence  re- 
sembling the  spike,  but  occurring  in 
grasses,  the  flowers  having  no  caly- 
ces, but  bracts  onlv. 

LOCUST  BORER.  Clytus  pictus. 
Found  on  the  trees  in  September ; 
it  is  velvet  black,  adorned  with  trans- 
verse yellow  bands  ;  the  eggs  are 
snow-white,  and  deposited  in  the 
crevices  of  the  bark  :  the  grubs  are 
soon  hatched,  and  bore  into  the  ten- 
der wood,  where  they  commit  great 
havoc  until  the  next  year.  White- 
washing, washing  with  whale  oil 
soap  solution,  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  catching  the  beetles,  are  to  be 
adopted  as  preventives,  otherwise  the 
trees  are  rapidlv  killed  by  these  borers. 

LOCUST,  HONEY.  See  Honey 
Locust. 

LOCUSTS.  Cicadeee.  Insects  of 
the  grasshopper  family.  The  per- 
fect msects  are  very  short-lived,  but 
the  larvffi  are  long-lived  ;  one  species 
{Cicada  scptcndccim)  existing  in  that 
state  in  the  earth  for  seventeen  years 
or  thereabout.  The  perfect  insect 
bores  the  young  twigs  of  trees  to  de- 
posite  its  eggs,  and  thereby  does  much 
mischief  to  orchards  and  forests.  The 
harvest,  or  dry  fly,  is  the  C.  canicularis. 
467 


LOG 


LCD 


These  locusts  are  in  no  way  simi- 
lar to  the  destructive  insects  which 
occasionally  devastate  the  east  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  Southern 
Europe  {Gnjllus  (acri/dium)  migrato- 
rius),  producing  famine  from  their 
ravages  on  the  grain  crops,  and  pes- 
tilence by  the  decay  of  their  bod- 
ies. The  immense  numbers  of  this 
large  grasshopper  which  move  for- 
ward over  whole  nations  is  almost 
incredible  ;  they  appear  like  dense 
black  clouds,  sometimes  hundreds  of 
miles  in  extent,  and  emit,  during 
flight,  a  loud,  sharp  noise. 

LOCUST-TREE.  Rohinia  fseuda- 
cacia.  Sometimes  improperly  called 
the  Acacia.  This  is  a  highly  orna- 
mental tree  of  the  leguminous  family, 
and  of  rapid  growth  while  small.  The 
seeds  are  usually  rather  imperfect, 
and  the  safest  method  of  propagation 
is  by  suckers  obtained  from  trees  cut 
down,  the  soil  being  ploughed  for  the 
purpose  of  dividing  the  roots.  The 
seeds  propagate  more  certainly  if  im- 
mersed in  boiling  water  before  plant- 
ing.— {Bard).  The  following  particu- 
lars from  Dr.  Ackerly  may  be  accept- 
able : 

"  I  was  led  to  admire  Judge  Mitch- 
ell's nursery  of  young  locust-trees, 
planted  in  the  spring. 

"The  judge  took  a  quantity  of 
seed  collected  on  Long  Island,  and 
put  it  in  an  earthen  pitcher,  and  pour- 
ed upon  it  water  near  to  boiling. 
This  he  let  stand  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  then  decanted  it,  and  se- 
lected all  the  seeds  that  were  any 
ways  swelled  by  this  application  of 
heat  and  moisture.  To  the  remain- 
der he  made  a  second  libation  of  hot 
water,  and  let  it  remain  also  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  then  made  a  second 
selection  of  the  swelled  seeds.  This 
was  repeated  a  third  time  on  the  un- 
changed ones,  when  nearly  all  were 
swelled,  and  then  he  prepared  the 
ground  and  planted  them.  He  plant- 
ed the  seeds  in  drills  about  four  feet 
apart,  and  in  eight  or  ten  days  they 
were  all  above  ground,  and  came  up 
as  regular  as  beans,  or  any  other 
seeds  that  are  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens. When  I  saw  them,  the  mid- 
468 


die  of  July,  they  were  about  a  foot 
high,  all  thrifty,  and  of  a  good  colour 
and  condition. 

"  It  is  the  judge's  intention  to 
leave  them  in  their  present  situation 
about  three  years, .and  then  trans- 
plant ;  and  provided  he  does  not  mu- 
tilate the  roots  in  removing  them, 
they  will  bear  transplanting,  live,  and 
thrive,  and  be  the  most  productive 
forest-tree  that  a  farm  can  have. 
This  method  of  preparing  the  seeds 
and  planting  the  locust  cannot  be  too 
warmly  recommended  to  the  farming 
interest.  On  Long  Island,  where 
fencing  timber  is  growing  scarce,  the 
cultivation  of  the  locust-tree  is  of 
great  moment.  In  the  centre  of  the 
island,  on  and  about  Hempstead 
plains,  where  there  is  no  timber  at 
ail,  it  must  be  a  most  valuable  acqui- 
sition ;  and  from  the  trials  made  in 
raising  it  from  the  seed,  all  difficulty 
must  be  removed  to  its  extensive 
cultivation. 

"After  this  account  was  written. 
Judge  Mitchell  transplanted  the  young 
trees  referred  to  on  a  side  hill  of 
waste  ground,  which  had  lain  for  many 
years  uncultivated,  and  his  farm  was 
soon  improved  by  the  addition  of  a 
large  grove  of  valuable  locust-trees 
in  the  most  thrifty  condition. 

"  When  planted  out  from  the  nur- 
sery the  young  trees  must  be  pro- 
tected from  cattle,  which  are  fond  of 
the  buds." 

The  locust  yields  a  timber  of  great 
solidity  and  durability ;  it  is  also  re- 
markably tougli,  and  resists  the  ac- 
tion of  moisture;  hence  it  is  of  great 
value  for  posts,  piles,  and  shipping. 
It  is  somewhat  cultivated,  and  prom- 
ises, on  the  prairies,  to  become  ex- 
tended for  its  utility  for  fencing,  fuel, 
and  rapid  growth.  In  the  northeast, 
it  has  been  much  injured  of  late  by 
the  borer.  Besides  the  borer,  the 
leaves  of  the  tree  are  sometimes 
stripped  by  the  ravages  of  a  large 
green  caterpillar,  the  larva  of  the 
Eudamus  tilyrus  :  the  perfect  insect 
is  seen  among  the  flowers. 

LODGE.  A  small  house  situated 
in  a  domain  ;  the  house  at  the  en- 
trance to  a  park. 


LOP 


LOY 


LODICULA.  The  two  minute 
fleshy  hypogynous  scales  beneath  the 
ovary  of  grasses. 

LOESS.  Alhivial  formations.  By 
the  English  it  is  often  used  for  a  yel- 
low loam,  with  chalky  concretions. 

LOG.  A  portion  of  the  trunk  of  a 
tree. 

LOGWOOD.  Hamatoiylon  Cam- 
peachianum.  A  small  leguminous  tree 
of  Central  America  and  the  tropics. 
The  central  heart  wood,  deeply  stain- 
ed, from  old  trees  is  preferred :  the 
logwood  bath  is  of  gi-eat  service  in 
the  production  of  black  dyes,  browns, 
and  reds. 

LOLIU.\L  The  generic  name  of 
rye  grass.     See  Grasses. 

LOMEXTUM.  An  indehiscent 
pod  resembling  a  legume,  but  divided 
bv  membranes  between  each  seed. 
'LONG-HORNED  CATTLE.  "A 
breed  of  neat  cattle  now  nearly  ex- 
tinct, chiefly  distinguished  by  the 
length  of  the  horn,  the  thickness  and 
firm  texture  of  the  hide,  the  length  and 
closeness  of  the  hair,  the  large  size 
of  the  hoof,  and  the  coarse,  leathery 
thickness  of  the  neck." — (Johnson.) 

LONGICORXS,  LOXGICORNES. 
Coleopterous  insects  with  long  an- 
tennee,  often  longer  than  the  body  : 
they  are  borers. 

LONG! PALPS,  LONGIPALPL  A 
family  of  short-winged  beetles,  with 
the  maxillary  feelers  {palpi)  almost  as 
long  as  the  head. 

LONG  MANURE.  Unfermented 
dung  and  straw. 

LOOM.  A  corruption  of  loam, 
which  see. 

LOOPERS.  Caterpillars  of  the 
familv  Geometers  :  span  worms. 

LOOSENESS.  Excessive  dis- 
charge from  the  bowels,  flux,  diar- 
rhoea. See  Ox,  Horse ;  and  for  the 
remedies,  Fharmacopceia. 

LOOSESTRIFE.  Small  weeds 
of  the  genus  Lysimachia ;  they  are 
wholesome.  The  creeping  loose- 
strife, or  money  wort  (L.  nummula- 
na),  is  said  to  be  a  good  remedy 
against  insects,  when  steeped  in  oil 
and  sprinkled  over  the  granary  floor. 

LOPPED  MILK.  Sour,  curdled 
milk. 

R  E 


:      LOPPING  TREES.    The  removal 
of  the  lateral  branches  for  profit.    The 
I  lop  of  a  timber-tree  is  a  subject  of 
bargain  witii  the  purchaser. 

LORE  (from  lorum,  a  strap).  In 
ornithology,  the  space  between  the 
bill  and  the  eye,  which  is  bare  in 
some  birds,  as  the  great  crested 
grebe,  but  is  generally  covered  with 
feathers.  In  entomology  the  term  is 
applied  to  a  corneous  angular  ma- 
chine observable  in  the  mouth  of 
some  insects,  upon  the  intermediate 
angle  of  which  the  mentuni  sits,  and 
on  the  lateral  ones  the  cardines  of 
the  maxillare,  and  by  means  of  which 
the  trophi  are  pushed  forth  or  retract- 
ed, as  in  the  hymenopterous  insects. 

LOTION.  An  external  wash :  it 
may  be  evaporating  (spirituous)  or 
watery.  Indolent  sores  require  stim- 
ulating lotions  ;  painful  wounds,  ano- 
dyne lotions,  &c.  Lotions  are  also 
used  to  discuss  tumours  and  inflam- 
mations near  the  skin. 
I  LOUSINESS.  '-An  affection  of  the 
j  skin,  arismg,  in  cattle,  from  the  irri- 
j  tation  of  lice  or  animalculee,  which 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  naked 
I  eye.  Most  animals,  and  even  insects, 
are  subject  to  this  annoyance.  Lou- 
siness in  live  stock  is  produced  by 
neglect  and  low  keep.  The  best  rem- 
edy is  more  attention  to  cleanliness, 
with  better  food.  The  lice  may  be 
killed  by  a  dressing'  applied  with  a 
brush  to  the  chiefly  affected  parts, 
composed  of  four  ounces  of  black  sul- 
phur, mixed  with  a  pint  of  train  oil, 
or  a  small  portion  of  weak  mercurial 
ointment."' 

LOUSE\\"ORT.  Pedicularis  Cana- 
densis. An  insignificant  perennial, 
herbaceous  weed  ;  the  rattle. 

LOYAGE.  .  Ligusticum  lecisticum. 
A  perennial  (biennial),  herbaceous, 
disagreeable  aromatic  plant,  of  the 
family  Umbelliferce.  the  seeds  of  which 
are  used  as  medicine  in  flatulence. 
The  seeds  grow  anywhere  on  a  dry, 
light  soil. 

LOVE  APPLE.     Tomato. 

LOVE  GRASS.  A  small  grass, 
ornamental,  with  pretty  spikelets. 
Eragrostis. 

LOY.^  A  narrow  spade 

469 


LUC 

LUBRICATION.  Anointing  with 
grease  and  oils. 

LUCAMA.  A  Chilian  fruit  resem- 
bling, in  size  and  flavour,  a  peach. 

LrCANIU.E,  LUCANINE.S.  A 
family  of  coleopterous  lamellicorn  in- 
sects, of  the  stag  beetle  kind  (Lm- 
canus). 

LUCERN.    Mcdicago  sativa{Fig.). 


Grand  trefoil,  French  clover,  alfalfa, 
Brazilian  clover.  A  perennial,  herba- 
ceous forage  plant  of  the  clover  family. 
It  forms  a  very  long,  vigorous  root, 
and  requires  a  deep,  rich  soil,  with 
some  lime,  for  cultivation.  It  is  oft- 
en cut,  year  by  year,  for  six  and  ten 
years,  and  yields,  in  three  cuttings 
each  season,  from  six  to  eight  tons 
of  excellent  fodder,  equal  to  the  best 
clover.  An  acre  soiled  will  supply 
three  to  four  cows  during  the  season. 
It  grows  eighteen  to  thirty  inches 
high,  and  bears  a  jnirple  flower,  and 
possesses  all  the  good  qualities  of 
clover  in  addition  to  its  preference 
for  a  dry,  warm  climate.  Fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  sown 
broad-cast,  with  a  few  oats,  early  in 
spring  ;  but  the  lucern  does  not  reach 
perfection  until  the  third  year ;  the 
land  must  therefore  be  harrowed  and 
rolled  to  keep  down  weeds.  It  is  not 
quite  as  hardy  as  clover.  The  vari- 
eties of  lucern  are  unimportant.  The 
seed  is  collected  and  hay  made  in  the 
same  manner  as  with  clover :  but  it 
is  best  for  soiling  cut  always  when 
470 


LUN 

the  flowers  first  show,  as  the  stems 
i)ecome  rigid.  Sometimes  the  seed 
is  drilled  in  rows,  at  nine  inches 
apart,  and  in  this  way  sooner  comes 
to  perfection,  and  less  seed  is  want- 
ed. Like  clover,  it  is  much  benefit- 
ed l)y  plaster  of  Paris  and  lime.  It 
will  grow  even  in  tropical  countries 
which  are  not  too  parched.  On  lands 
where  it  is  fully  established,  the  soil 
should  be  forked  twice  a  year,  after 
cutting,  and  a  top-dressing  applied 
every  second  or  third  season  :  it  must 
never  be  depastured  ;  eighty  pounds 
per  day  of  fresh  lucern  is  enough  for 
a  cow,  and  produces  an  abundance 
of  milk. 

LUCERN,  ASHES  OF.  One  hun 
dred  pounds  green  yield  2  58  pounds, 
and  one  hundred  pounds  dried  955 
pounds,  consisting  of 

Sprtngel. 

Potash 13-40 

Soda 615 

Lime 48-31 

Magnesia 3-48 

Phosphoric  acid      ....  13-07 

Sulphuric  acid 4-04 

Chloun 318 

Silica   .          3-30 

Iron,  alumina,  &c.      .     .     .  0-60 
95-53 

From  this  we  see  why  gypsum,  lime, 
marl,  and  ashes  are  so  serviceable  to 
lucern.  Bone-dust  and  salt  are  also 
to  be  considered  as  manures  for  it. 

LUG.  A  pole  of  land,  16^  feet ;  a 
vulgar  term  for  the  ear  of  animals. 

LUMBAR,  LUMBALIS.  Belong- 
ing to  the  loins. 

LUMBER.  Timber,  especially  in 
the  rough  state. 

LUMBRICUS.  The  generic  name 
of  worms  resembling  the  earth  worm ; 
some  species  infest  the  bodies  of  an- 
imals. The  earth  worm,  when  not 
too  numerous,  tend  to  improve  the 
soil  by  their  castings  ;  when  over  nu- 
merous, they  eat  the  roots  of  plants, 
and  may  be  destroyed  by  a  heavy 
salting  (twenty  bushels  to  the  acre), 
or  liming,  with  a  surruner  fallow. 

LUNAR  CAUSTIC,  LUNAR 
CORNEA.  Prepared  nitrate  of  silver, 
sold  in  thin  cylinders,  and  used  as  a 
caustic  .-  it  is  one  of  the  best  caustics. 
A  solution  is  very  valuable  as  a  lotion 
in  some  forms  of  inflammation. 


LUP 


LYC 


LUNATE  (from 
Crescent-shaped. 

LUNATION.  The  period  from 
one  new  moon  to  another,  the  synod- 
ic revohition. 

LUNGS.  The  viscus  in  which  air 
is  received,  and  the  blood  changed  by 
its  presence.  The  lights,  pulmonary 
apparatus.  The  substance  of  the 
lungs  resembles  a  fine  regular  sponge  ; 
they  are  so  light  as  to  float  on  wa- 
ter ;  the  windpipe  communicates  with 
every  cell  throughout  the  viscus 
Common  air  received  is  changed  in 
the  lungs  by  an  absorption  of  four 
percent,  of  oxygen  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  an  equivalent  of  carbonic  acid, 
derived  from  the  blood.  This  oxy- 
genation, or  aeration  of  the  blood, 
taking  place  in  the  lungs,  is  one  of 
the  great  functions  on  which  life  de- 
pends, and  cannot  be  interrupted  for 
a  minute  without  injury  or  death. 
By  this  change,  black  venous  blood 
is  changed  into  the  scarlet  arterial 
fluid,  which  alone  is  capable  of  sus- 
taining the  wants  of  the  body. 

LUNGWORT.  Pulmonaria  offici- 
nalis. An  exotic,  perennial,  herba- 
ceous plant.  The  whole  genus  are 
pretty  flowers,  and  readily  propaga- 
ted by  seeds. 

LUNULATE.     Crescent-shaped. 
LUPINE.    Lupinus  albus.    An  an- 
nual leguminous  herb  {Fig.),  cultiva- 


ted in  Italy  and  France  to  a  limited 
extent  for  forage  and  soiling.     The 


luna,  the  moon).  I  seeds  are  as  large  as  a  pea,  and  very 
]  nutritious  :  they  were  used  as  food 
by  the  Romans.  It  grows  on  poor, 
dry,  light  soils,  but  is  finest  on  rich 
loams  ;  the  seeds  are  sown  as  soon 
as  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  and  the 
plants  blossom  in  May  and  June.  It 
is  principally  raised  as  a  green  fallow 
crop,  and  ploughed  in  just  before  the 
second  flowering.  Plants  for  seed 
must  be  mowed  when  moist,  as  the 
pods  very  readily  burst.  The  lupin 
IS  considered  inferior  to  other  legu- 
mens  as  fodder,  but  is  valuable  for  fal- 
lows, from  growing  on  very  poor  lands, 
which  it  rapidly  enriches.  Por  this 
purpose,  there  is  no  doubt  the  Com- 
mon wild  blue  lupin  (L.  perennis), 
turned  in  the  first  season,  would  an- 
swer equally  well. 

LUPININE.  A  gummy  matter  of 
lupins.  Lupinitc,  a  bitter  substance 
extracted  from  the  leaves  of  the  lu- 
pine. 

LUPULINE.  The  yellow  resin- 
ous dust  hanging  about  the  scales  of 
the  hop,  on  which  its  flavour  and  val- 
ue depend. 

LURCHER.  A  coursing  dog,  of 
the  greyhound  tribe,  with  a  shaggy 
coat  and  pricked  ears ;  it  is  very 
swift  and  sagacious. 

LURID,  LURIDUS.  A  colour  of  a 
pale-yellowish  purple,  frequently  as- 
sociated with  poisonous  properties  in 
mushrooms  and  flowers. 

LUSUS  NATURAE.  A  sport 
of  Nature.  Unnatural  form  in  ani- 
mals. 

LUTE  (from  lutnni,  clay).  In  chem- 
istry, pasty  matter,  used  to  adapt  two 
vessels,  or  coat  their  surfaces  from 
fire.  Clay,  putty,  dough,  lime,  white 
of  eggs,  and  melted  India  rubber  are 
variously  used. 

LUTEOLINE.  A  yellow  crystal- 
line colouring  matter  of  weld. 

LUTESCENT  (from  luteus,  yel- 
low).    Yellowish. 

LUXATION.  A  dislocation  of  a 
joint. 

LYCOPERDON.  The  genus  of 
pufl!'-ball  mushrooms. 

LYCOPODIACE.E.     A  family  of 
cr\'ptogauuc  plants,  growing  in  moist 
places,  and  resembling  ferns,  but  with 
471 


MAO 

a  higher  organization,  approaching 
that  of  the  Comfcnr,  or  pine-trees. 

LYCOSA.  A  genus  of  spiders 
dwelling  in  holes  on  the  ground,  or 
in  chinks,  and  pursuing  their  prey 
with  great  activity.  The  tarantula 
is  of  this  kind. 

LYE.  A  fluid  saturated  with  pot- 
ash or  other  salts. 

LYME  GRASS.     See  FAymus. 

LYMPH.  The  fluid  of  "the  lym- 
phatic vessels.  It  is  slightly  milky, 
but  becomes  pink  on  exposure  to  air, 
and  divides  into  a  clot  and  fluid  part. 
It  is  the  surplus  nutritious  fluid  re- 
turned from  every  part  of  the  body 
to  the  blood  through  the  thoraric 
duct. 

LYMPHATIC  GLANDS.  In 
anatomy,  small  masses  formed  of 
contorted  lymphatics,  found  in  the 
groin,  axilla,  mesentery,  &c. 

LYMPHATIC  HAIRS.  In  bot- 
any, the  transparent  hairs  on  some 

LYMPHATIC  VESSELS.  Minute 
transparent  tubes,  found  in  every  part 
of  the  body,  and  discharging  their 
lymph  into  the  thoracic  duct. 

LYRATE,  LYRATUS.  A  leaf 
which  is  pinnatifid,  but  with  segments 
larger  at  the  extremity  than  the  foot 
stalk. 

M. 

MACARONI.  The  dough  of  some 
fine  wheats  drawn  out  into  tubes. 

MACE.  The  envelope  (anllus)  of 
the  nutmeg.  It  is  of  a  pleasant  aro- 
matic flavour,  and  contains  much  but- 
yraceous  oil. 

MACERATION.  The  softening 
of  animal  or  vegetable  bodies  by  im- 
mersion in  fluids,  either  water,  alco- 
hol, ether,  &c. 

MACHICOLATED.  With  para- 
pets projecting  beyond  the  walls,  and 
supported  by  arches  springing  from 
corbels  or  consoles. 

MACHINE.  In  a  general  sense 
this  word  signifies  anything  which 
serves  to  increase  or  regulate  the  ef- 
fect of  a  given  force.  Machines  are 
either  simple  or  compound.  The  sim- 
ple machines  are  usually  reckoned  six 
472 


MAD 

I  in  number ;  namely,  the  lever,  the 
wheel  and  axle,  the  pulley,  the  wedge, 
the  screw,  and  the  funicular  or  rope 
machine.  Compound  machines  arc 
formed  by  combining  two  or  more 
simple  machines. 

MACLAURA.  Maclaura aurantica. 
See  Osage  Orange. 

MACLE.  Dark  or  black  spots  in 
minerals,  supposed  to  arise  from  in- 
terruption in  crystallization. 

MACULATE,  MACULATUS 
(from  macula,  a  spot).     Spotted. 

MADDER.     Rubia  Unctorum  (.Fig). 


An  herbaceous  perennial  of  the  familj 
RubiacccB.  The  following  account  of 
its  culture  by  Mr.  Bateham  is  the 
plan  pursued  for  five  years  by  Mr. 
Swift,  of  Erie  county,  Oliio  : 

"  Soil  and  Preparation. — The  soil 
should  be  a  deep,  rich,  sandy  loam, 
free  from  weeds,  roots,  stones,  &c., 
and  containing  a  good  portion  of  ve- 
getable earth.  Alluvial  land  is  the 
most  suitable  ;  but  it  must  not  be  wet. 
If  old  upland  is  used,  it  should  receive 
a  heavy  coating  of  vegetable  earth 
(from  decayed  wood  and  leaves).  The 
land  should  be  ploughed  very  deep  in 
the  fall,  and  early  in  spring  apply 
about  one  hundred  loads  of  well-rot- 
red  manure  per  acre,  spread  evenly, 
and  ploughed  in  deeply  ;  then  harrow 
till  quite  fine  and  free  from  lumps. 
Next,  plough  the  land  into  beds  four 
feet  wide,  leaving  alleys  between 
three  feet  wide ;  then  harrow  the  beds 


MADDER. 


with  a  fine,  light  harrow,  or  rake  them 
by  hand,  so  as  to  leave  them  smooth 
and  even  with  the  alleys :  they  are 
then  ready  for  planting. 

"  Preparing  Sets  and  Planting. — 
Madder  sets,  or  seed  roots,  are  best 
selected  when  the  crop  is  dug  in  the 
fall.  The  horizontal  uppermost  roots 
(with  eyes)  are  the  kind  to  be  used  ; 
these  should  be  separated  from  the 
bottom  roots,  and  buried  in  sand,  in 
a  cellar  or  pit.  If  not  done  in  the 
fall,  the  sets  may  be  dug  early  in  the 
spring,  before  they  begin  to  sprout. 
They  should  be  cut  or  broken  into 
pieces,  containing  from  two  to  five 
eyes  each,  i.  e.,  three  to  four  inches 
long.  The  time  for  planting  is  as 
early  in  spring  as  the  ground  can  be 
got  in  good  order  and  severe  frosts 
are  over,  which,  in  this  climate,  is 
usually  about  the  middle  of  April. 
With  the  beds  prepared  as  directed, 
stretch  a  line  lengthwise  the  bed,  and 
with  the  corner  of  a  hoe  make  a  drill 
two  inches  deep  along  each  edge  and 
down  the  middle,  so  as  to  give  three 
rows  to  each  bed,  about  two  feet 
apart.  Into  these  drills  drop  the  sets, 
ten  inches  apart,  covering  them  two 
inches  deep.  Eight  or  ten  bushels  of 
sets  are  requisite  for  an  acre. 

"  After  Culture. — As  soon  as  the 
madder  plants  can  be  seen,  the  ground 
should  be  carefully  hoed,  so  as  to  de- 
stroy the  weeds  and  not  injure  the 
plants  ;  and  the  hoeing  and  weeding 
must  be  repeated  as  often  as  weeds 
make  their  appearance.  If  any  of 
the  sets  have  failed  to  grow,  the  va- 
cancies should  be  filled  by  taking  up 
parts  of  the  strongest  roots  and  trans- 
planting them ;  this  is  best  done  in 
June.  As  soon  as  the  madder  plants 
are  ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  the 
tops  are  to  be  bent  down  on  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  all  except 
the  tip  end  covered  with  earth  shov- 
elled from  the  middle  of  the  alleys. 
Bend  the  shoots  outward  and  inward, 
in  every  direction,  so  as  in  time  to  fill 
all  the  vacant  space  on  the  beds,  and 
about  one  foot  on  each  side.  After 
the  first  time  covering,  repeat  the 
weeding  when  necessary,  and  run  a 
single  horse  plough  through  the  al- 
ii K  -Z 


leys  several  times  to  keep  the  earth 
clean  and  mellow.  As  soon  as  the 
plants  again  become  ten  or  twelve 
inches  high,  bend  down  and  cover 
them  as  before,  repeating  the  opera- 
tion as  often  as  necessary,  which  is 
commonly  three  times  the  first  sea- 
son. The  last  time  may  be  as  late  as 
September,  or  later  if  no  frosts  occur. 
By  covering  the  tops  in  this  manner, 
they  change  to  roots,  and  the  design 
is  to  fill  the  ground  as  full  of  roots  as 
possible.  When  the  vacant  spaces 
are  all  full,  there  will  be  but  little 
chance  for  weeds  to  grow  ;  but  all 
that  appear  must  be  pulled  out. 

"  The  second  year  keep  the  beds  free 
from  weeds  ;  plough  the  alleys  and 
cover  the  tops,  as  before  directed,  two 
or  three  times  during  the  season.  The 
alleys  will  now  form  deep  and  nar- 
row ditches,  and  if  it  becomes  difficult 
to  obtain  good  earth  for  covering  the 
tops,  that  operation  may  be  omitted 
after  the  second  time  this  season. 
Care  should  be  taken,  when  covering 
the  tops,  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  beds 
as  high  as  the  middle,  otherwise  the 
water  from  heavy  showers  will  run 
ofT,  and  the  crop  suffer  from  drought. 

'•  The  third  year  very  little  labour 
or  attention  is  required.  The  plants 
will  now  cover  the  whole  ground.  If 
any  weeds  are  seen,  they  must  be 
pulled  out,  otherwise  their  roots  will 
cause  trouble  when  harvesting  the 
madder.  The  crop  is  sometimes  dug 
the  third  year ;  and  if  the  soil  and 
cultivation  have  been  good,  and  the 
seasons  warm  and  favourable,  the 
madder  will  be  of  good  quality  ;  but 
generally  it  is  much  better  in  quality, 
and  more  in  quantity,  when  left  until 
the  fourth  year. 

'■'■Digging  and  Harvesting. —  This 
should  be  done  between  the  20th  of 
August  and  the  20th  of  September. 
Take  a  sharp  shovel  or  shovels,  and 
cut  off  and  remove  the  tops,  with  half 
an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  ; 
then  take  a  plough  of  the  largest  size, 
with  a  sharp  coulter  and  a  double 
team,  and  plough  a  furrow  outward, 
beam  deep,  around  the  edge  of  the 
bed  ;  stir  the  earth  with  forks,  and 
carefully  pick  out  all  the  roots,  re- 
473 


MADDER. 


moving  the  earth  from  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow  ;  thon  ploiiirh  another  fur- 
row beam  deep,  as  before,  and  pick 
over  and  remove  the  earth  in  the 
same  manner;  thus  proceeding  until 
the  whole  is  completed. 

"  Washing-  and  Drying. — As  SOOn 
as  possible  after  digging,  take  the 
roots  to  some  running  stream  to  be 
washed.  If  there  is  no  running  stream 
convenient,  it  can  be  done  at  a  pump. 
Take  large,  round  sieves,  2J  or  3  feet 
in  diameter,  with  the  wire  about  as 
fine  as  wheat  sieves  ;  or  if  these  can- 
not be  had,  get  from  a  hardware  store 
sufficient  screen-wire  of  the  right 
fineness,  and  make  frames  or  boxes 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  long  and 
the  width  of  the  wire,  on  the  bottom 
of  which  nail  the  wire.  In  these 
sieves  or  boxes,  put  half  a  bushel  of 
roots  at  a  time,  and  stir  them  about 
in  the  water,  pulling  the  bunches  apart 
so  as  to  wash  them  clean  ;  then,  hav- 
ing a  platform  at  hand,  lay  them  on 
it  to  dry.  (To  make  the  platform, 
take  two  or  three  common  boards,  so 
as  to  be  about  four  feet  in  width,  and 
nail  cleets  across  the  under  side.)  On 
these  spread  the  roots  about  two  inch- 
es thick  for  drying  in  the  sun.  Carry 
the  platforms  to  a  convenient  place, 
not  far  from  the  house,  and  place 
them  side  by  side,  in  rows  east  and 
west,  and  with  their  ends  north  and 
south,  leaving  room  to  walk  between 
the  rows.  Elevate  the  south  ends  of 
the  platforms  about  eighteen  inches, 
and  the  north  ends  about  six  inches 
from  the  ground,  putting  poles  or 
sticks  to  support  them :  this  will 
greatly  facilitate  drying.  After  the 
second  or  third  day  drying,  the  mad- 
der must  be  protected  frotn  the  dews 
at  night,  and  from  rain,  by  placing  the 
platforms  one  upon  another  to  a  con- 
venient height,  and  covering  the  up- 
permost one  with  boards.  Spread 
them  out  again  in  the  morning,  or  as 
soon  as  danger  is  over.  Five  or  six 
days  of  ordinarily  fine  weather  will 
dry  the  madder  sufficiently,  when  it 
may  be  put  away  till  it  is  convenient 
to  kiln-dry  and  grind  it. 

"  Kiln-drying. — The  size  and  mode 
of  constructing  the  kiln  may  be  va- 
474 


!  ried  to  suit  circumstances.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  very  cheap  plan,  and  suf- 
ficient to  dry  one  ton  of  roots  at  a 
time  :  Place  four  strong  posts  in  the 
ground,  twelve  feet  apart  one  way, 
I  and  eighteen  the  other  ;  the  front  two 
fourteen  feet  high,  and  the  others 
eighteen  ;  put  girts  across  the  bot- 
!  tom,  middle,  and  top,  and  nail  boards 
perpendicularly  on  the  outside  as  for 
a  common  barn.  The  boards  must 
be  well  seasoned,  and  all  cracks  or 
holes  should  be  plastered  or  other- 
wise stopped  up.  Make  a  shed-roof 
of  common  boards.  In  the  inside, 
put  upright  standards  about  five  feet 
apart,  with  cross-pieces  to  support 
the  scaffijlding.  The  first  cross-pie- 
ces to  be  four  feet  from  the  floor,  the 
next  two  feet  higher,  and  so  on  to  the 
top.  On  these  cross-pieces  lay  small 
poles  about  six  feet  long  and  two 
inches  thick,  four  or  five  inches  apart. 
On  these  scaffolds  the  madder  is  to 
be  spread  nine  inches  thick.  A  floor 
is  laid  at  the  bottom  to  keep  all  dry 
and  clean.  When  the  kiln  is  filled, 
take  six  or  eight  small  kettles  or  hand- 
furnaces,  and  place  them  four  or  five 
feet  apart  on  the  floor  (first  securing 
it  from  fire  with  bricks  or  stones), 
and  make  fires  in  them  with  charcoal, 
being  careful  not  to  make  any  of  the 
fires  so  large  as  to  scorch  the  mad- 
der over  them.  A  person  must  be  in 
constant  attendance  to  watch  and  re- 
plenish the  fires.  The  heat  will  as- 
cend through  the  whole,  and  in  ten 
or  twelve  hours  it  will  all  be  suffi- 
ciently dried,  which  is  known  by  its 
becoming  brittle  like  pipe-stems. 

"  Breaking  and  Grinding. — Imme- 
diately after  being  dried,  the  madder 
must  be  taken  to  the  barn  and  thrash- 
ed with  flails,  or  broken  by  machin- 
ery (a  mill  might  easily  be  constructed 
for  this  purpose),  so  that  it  will  feed 
in  a  common  grist  mill.  If  it  is  not 
broken  and  ground  immediately,  it 
will  gather  dampness,  so  as  to  prevent 
its  grinding  freely.  Any  common 
grist  mill  can  grind  madder  properly. 
When  ground  finely  it  is  fit  for  use, 
and  may  be  packed  in  barrels  like  flour 
for  market. 

"  Amount  and  Value  of  Product,  &c. 


MAB 


MAG 


— Mr.  Swift  measured  off  a  part  of 
his  ground,  and  carefully  weighed  the 
product  when  dried,  which  he  found 
to  be  over  two  thousand  pounds  per 
acre,  notwithstanding  the  seasons 
were  mostly  very  dry  and  unfavour- 
able. With  his  present  knowledge  of 
the  business,  he  is  confident  that  he 
can  obtain  at  least  three  thousand 
pounds  per  acre,  \\  hich  is  said  to  bo 
more  than  is  often  obtained  in  Ger- 
many. The  whole  amount  of  labour 
he  estimates  at  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  days'  work  per  acre.  The 
value  of  the  crop,  at  the  usual  whole- 
sale price  (about  fifteen  cents  per 
pound),  is  from  three  hundred  to  four 
hundred  dollars.  In  foreign  coun- 
tries it  is  customary  to  make  several 
qualities  of  the  madder,  which  is  done 
by  sorting  the  roots  ;  but  as  only  one 
quality  is  required  for  the  western 
market,  Mr.  Swift  makes  but  one, 
and  that  is  found  superior  to  most  of 
the  imported,  and  finds  a  ready  sale." 

The  presence  of  calcareous  matter 
in  the  soil  is  an  essential  to  the  pro- 
duction of  good  dyeing  madder. 

Madder  is  used  in  dyeing  numerous 
colours,  as  black,  blue,  red,  olives, 
and  buffs,  and  alone  forms  the  rich 
Turkey  reds.  It  contains  several  col- 
ouring principles,  the  chief  of  which 
is,  however,  Alizarine,  an  insoluble 
crystalline,  bright  red  body. 

MADDER,  FIELD.  Shcrardia  ar- 
vensis.     An  insignificant  weed. 

MADDER,  WILD.  Ruhia  ■pcregri- 
na.    It  yields  an  inferior  madder  root. 

MADEIRA  CIDER.  Mix  new  ci- 
der with  honey  until  it  bears  an  egg  ; 
boil  in  a  copper  for  one  quarter  of  an 
hour,  skim,  cool,  barrel,  and  bottle  in 
March.  It  will  be  as  strong  as  Ma- 
deira wine  in  si.x  months. 

MADEIRA  NUT.     The  walnut. 

M  A  D  I  A.  Madia  sativa,  some- 
times called  Gold  of  Pleasure,  which 
see.  A  composite  plant  inhabiting 
South  America,  the  seeds  of  which 
yield  an  abundance  of  good  table  oil. 
Boussingault  obtained  41  per  cent, 
in  an  analysis,  and  264  per  cent,  by 
trie  conmion  press.  It  is  e.xtensively 
cultivated  in  Germany,  is  a  summer 
crop,  maturing  in  127  days  from  seed , 


in  Alsace,  and  yielding  2500  pounds 
of  seeds  per  acre,  or  635  oil,  and  1700 
of  excellent  oil -cake  for  fattening 
stock.  'I'lie  soil  should  be  rich  and 
in  good  tilth,  and  the  seeds  sown  in 
drills  in  spring,  and  the  young  plants 
kept  clean  from  weeds. 

MAGM.\.  A  thick  fluid,  or  mud. 
Thick,  feculent  matters  from  solu- 
tions. 

MAGGOT.  The  larva  of  dipterous 
and  other  insects.     The  fly  in  sheep. 

MAGNESIA.  An  alkaline  earth, 
very  similar  to  lime,  sp.  gr.  23,  the 
proto.xide  of  ma<rnc.sium.  It  is  spa- 
ringly soluble  in  pure  water,  but  unites 
freely  with  most  acids.  Its  equiva- 
lent is  20  (or  magnesium  12,  oxygen  8), 
symbol  Mg.  O.  Calcined  magnesia 
is  the  true  oxide,  common  magne- 
sia being  the  carbonate,  or  mild  mag- 
nesia. Caustic  or  calcined  magne- 
sia is  much  more  injurious  to  plants 
than  lime,  from  its  retaining  the  caus- 
tic quality  longer,  and  not  uniting 
with  carbonic  acid  so  readily.  It  also 
forms  a  harder  mortar  with  water, 
and  is  more  apt  to  cake  about  the 
stems  and  roots  of  herbage ;  but  mild 
magnesia  (the  carbonate)  is  of  ser- 
vice to  vegetation,  being  found  in  the 
ashes  of  most  plants,  in  all  probabil- 
ity replacing  lime.  The  carbonate  of 
magnesia  is  slightly  soluble,  and,  like 
mild  lime,  is  freely  dissolved  by  wa 
ter,  containing  carbonic  acid  in  solu 
tion. 

The  sulphate  of  magnesia,  Epsom 
salt,  is  the  most  important  salt.  Sil- 
icates of  magnesia  are  abundant  in  na- 
ture, forming  serpentine,  soapstone, 
&c. 

MAGNESIAN  LIMESTONE. 
Limestone  rocks  containing  magne- 
sia ;  they  abound  above  the  coal  for- 
mation. As  the  magnesia  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  injurious  when  lime  is 
wanted  for  farming,  its  amount  may 
be  discovered  by  the  following  means : 
Take  100  grains  of  the  rock,  add  four 
times  its  weight  of  strong  muriatic 
acid,  filter  the  clear  solution,  and  add 
clear  limewater  ;  it  will  precipitate 
all  the  magnesia  as  a  white  powder, 
which  may  be  collected,  dried,  and 
weighed. 

475 


MAI, 

MAGNESIUM.  The  metallic  ba- 
sis of  magnesia  ;  it  is  bright  and 
white  like  silver :  symbol  Mg.  ;  eq. 
1269. 

MAGNETIC  NEEDLE.  A  small 
bar  or  needle  of  steel,  fully  magnet- 
ized, and  suspended  or  supported  so 
as  to  move  freely  over  a  card  divided 
into  the  points  of  the  compass.  It  is 
much  used  by  surveyors  to  take  down 
the  bearing  of  the  fences  and  other 
lines  of  a  farm. 

MAGNETISM.  The  electric  fluid 
manifesting  itself  on  a  metallic  body  ; 
iron,  cobalt,  and  nickel  are  the  only 
magnetic  metals. 

MAGNOLIA.  A  genus  of  hand- 
some llowering  trees.  There  are 
about  15  native  species,  of  which  M. 
grandtfolia,  rising  90  feet,  is  the  no- 
blest. The  31.  macrophylla,  though  a 
small  tree,  produces  magnificent  flow- 
ers and  leaves.  The  M.  glauca  is  a 
favourite  in  Northern  shrubberies. 

M.AHALEB.  A  species  of  plum 
or  cherry,  used  as  a  grafting  stock  : 
the  fruit  affords  a  violet  dye. 

MAIDEN  HAIR.  Ferns  of  the 
genus  Adiantum,  a  beautiful  race  : 
the  sirup  of  capillaire  is  supposed  to 
be  made  from  a  species. 

MAIZE.    Indian  corn.    See  Corn. 
MALACODERMS  (from  fia/MKOi;, 
soft,  and  Sepua,  skin).  A  tribe  of  soft- 
skinned,  serricorn  beetles. 

MALARIA.  The  poisonous  exha- 
lations of  stagnant  marshes  and  low 
new  lands,  producing  bilious  fever, 
agues,  and  plagues.  It  is  most  ac- 
tive at  nightfall  and  during  night,  and 
may  be  partially  avoided  by  remain- 
ing at  home  at  these  times,  and  ta- 
king care  to  keep  the  premises  warm 
and  dry  :  the  spring  and  autumn  are 
the  worst  seasons.  Strangers  are 
more  liable  to  the  influence  of  mala- 
ria than  natives. 

MALE  FLOWERS.  Such  as  have 
stamens  only,  and  no  ovary  or  swell- 
ing under  the  petals. 

MALIC  ACID.  The  sour  princi- 
ple of  apples,  oranges,  and  numerous 
fruits  ;  wiien  pure,  it  is  intensely  sour 
and  crystalline  ;  combines  with  ox- 
ides to  form  mallates :  formula  0$  H^ 
Oj  +  2  H  0  :  it  is  bibasic.  By  heat- 
476 


MAL 

ing  the  hydrated  acid,  it  is  converted 
into  maleic  acid  and  fumaric  acid. 

MALIGNANT.  Rapidly  fatal,  poi- 
sonous. 

MALLEABILITY.  The  property 
of  being  extended  by  hammering,  as 
in  the  case  of  gold,  copper,  silver, 
platina,  iron,  &c. 

MALLENDERS.  A  disease  pro- 
duced in  horses  by  neglect  and  over 
work,  in  which  chaps  or  cracks  ap- 
pear on  the  inside  of  the  fore  legs, 
near  the  knees,  attended  by  a  dis- 
charge of  a  red  ichorous  fluid ;  the 
sores  should  be  washed  with  soap 
and  water,  and  kept  clean  ;  after- 
ward they  are  to  be  dressed  with  an 
ointment  containing  blue  vitriol :  the 
animal  is  also  to  be  kept  quiet  and 
purged. 

M  A  L  L  0  W.  The  genus  Malva ; 
plants  usually  with  perennial  roots, 
and  abounding  in  mucilage  :  they  are 
eaten  by  all  animals. 

M  A  L  T.  Barley  which  has  been 
prepared  or  malted,  by  which  sprout- 
ing is  induced,  and  the  grain  becomes 
much  sweeter. 

MALTING.  The  process  consists 
of  three  steps  :  1st,  steeping.  The 
good  barley  is  thrown  into  large 
wooden  cisterns,  and  covered  with 
water  a  few  inches,  being  left  for 
48  to  60  hours,  or  until  the  grains 
are  soft,  but  do  not  yield  milk  on 
pressure.  2d,  couching.  The  steeped 
grain  is  removed  to  a  floor  of  stone, 
and  piled  in  heaps  12  to  16  inches 
high  ;  here  it  first  dries,  and  then 
heats :  roots  begin  to  appear  as  the 
heat  advances;  the  couch  is  spread 
and  made  thinner  :  the  time  required 
is  from  16  to  20  days,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  GO-  Fahrenheit.  Indry weath- 
er, the  couch  is  watered  when  too 
dry.  3d,  kiln-drying.  As  soon  as  the 
barley  is  sufficiently  germinated  and 
become  dry,  it  is  carried  to  the  kiln 
to  destroy  the  vegetative  power  and 
secure  the  sugar  formed.  It  is  here 
laid  three  or  four  inches  deep,  and 
kept  at  100-  Fahrenheit,  till  all  the 
moisture  is  driven  off,  the  malt  being 
repeatedly  turned,  ^^'hen  nearly  dry, 
the  heat  is  raised  to  160^  Fahren- 
heit, until  the  grains  become  coloured 


MAN 

to  suit  the  beer  or  market ;  the  fire 
is  then  allowed  to  die  out.  The  pro- 
cess requires  nearly  two  days.  The 
malt  should  he  kept  in  a  dry  loft  un- 
til wanted  :  100  jwunds  of  good  bar- 
ley will  yield  80  of  malt.  The  kiln,  in 
small  operations,  need  be  no  more 
than  a  room  with  a  draught  through 
it,  heated  by  the  pipe  of  a  stove.  In 
drying,  the  small  roots  break  off,  and 
furnish  the  malt  dust. 

MALT  DUST.  It  is  sometimes 
called  malt  combs,  and  has  been  found 
useful  as  a  manure  or  a  top-dressing 
when  sown  over  the  cereal  grasses 
in  the  early  spring  season. 

The  proper  quantity  of  dust  is,  if 
top-dressed,  for  wheat,  36  to  40  bush- 
els ;  if  drilled  with  the  crop,  for  bar- 
ley and  turnips,  30  to  34  bushels.  It 
is  also  eminently  calculated  for  grass 
lands,  and  if  applied  in  the  latter  pro- 
portion, it  will  produce  a  very  con- 
siderable increase  of  the  best  feed. 
Malt  dust  is  also  in  some  places  em- 
ployed in  the  feeding  of  milch  cows 
and  pigs. 

M  A  L  U  S.  The  generic  name  of 
the  apple. 

MALVACEAE  (from  Malca,  one  of 
the  genera).  "  A  natural  order  of 
mucilaginous,  exogenous  plants,  with 
polypetalous  flowers  and  monadelph- 
ous  stamens.  The  species  are  herbs, 
bushes,  or  trees,  and  are  found  all 
over  the  temperate  and  tropical  parts 
of  the  world,  especially  the  latter. 
Their  flowers  are  in  many  cases  large 
and  handsome  ;  but  the  order  is  chief- 
ly interesting  from  the  Gossypium,  or 
true  cotton  plant,  forming  a  part  of 
it.  Another  species  is  the  marsh- 
mallow,  or  Allhaa  officinalis  ;  and 
some  yield  a  fibre  fit  for  manufacture 
into  cordage." — (Lindlci/.) 

MAMMALIA  (from  mamma,  a  teat). 
The  highest  division  of  animals,  with 
developed  extremities,  a  vertebral  col- 
umn, and  mammsR. 

M  A  M  M  A  R  V.     Relating  to  the 

M  A  M  MILL  A  R  Y.  In  minerals,  | 
covered  with  rounded  knobs  like  small 
teats 

MANDIBLE,  MANDIBULA  (from 
mandibiUa,  a  jaw).    In  zoology,  this  I 


MAN 

term  is  applied  to  the  lower  jaw  of 
mammals,  and  to  both  jaws  of  birds 
(except  by  Illiger,  who  restricts  its 
appellation  to  the  lower  jaw  in  this 
class  also).  In  insects,  it  is  applied 
to  the  upper  or  anterior  pair  of  jaws. 

MANDIBULATES,  MANDIBU- 
LATA.  The  name  of  a  grand  section 
of  insects,  including  all  those  which 
preserve  their  organs  of  mastication 
in  their  last  or  perfect  state. 

MANDISC.  The  cassava  plant 
{Janipha  manihot). 

MANDRAKE.     A  fabulous  root. 

MANDREL.  A  revolving  shank 
to  which  turners  affix  their  work  in 
the  lathe. 

MANEGE.  The  management  of 
horses. 

MANGANESE.  A  black  mineral, 
the  peroxide  of  manganese.  The 
metal  is  gray,  brittle,  and  hard  ;  sp. 
gr.,  8  :  not  used  in  the  arts.  The  black 
oxide  is  used  to  obtain  oxygen;  it 
consists  of  Mg.  28  -f-  oxygen  16. 
The  protoxide  of  manganese  forms 
numerous  salts,  some  of  which  are 
occasionally  present  in  the  ashes  of 
plants,  probably  as  a  substitute  for 
iron  ;  they  do  not  appear  to  be  im- 
portant. There  is  also  a  vmnganic 
and  per  manga7iic  acid,  which  are,  how- 
ever, without  agricultural  interest. 

MANGE.  "  A  skin  disease,  which 
attacks  several  domestic  animals,  es- 
pecially the  dog,  and  which  is  at- 
tended with  an  eruption  and  loss  of 
hair. 

"  In  the  horse  it  is  known  to  exist 
by  the  animal's  constantly  rubbing  or 
biting  himself,  so  as  to  remove  the 
hair,  and  sometimes  produce  ulcera- 
tion. The  hair  of  the  mane  and  tail 
frequently  falls  off,  and  small  scabs 
may  generally  be  observed  about  the 
roots  of  those  which  remain.  This 
disease  is  seldom  met  with,  except  in 
common  stables,  where  scarcely  any 
attention  is  paid  to  the  horses,  and 
where  their  food  is  of  the  worst  qual- 
ity :  horses  highly  kept,  if  not  prop- 
erly attended  to,  are  also  subject  to 
this  disease,  which  is  very  conta- 
gious. 

"  The  causes  of  mange  are  sud- 
den charges  of  temperature,  hot  sta- 
477 


MAN 

bics,  baddiet,  joined  to  want  of  clean- 
liness. The  perspirable  nialter  being 
never  properly  removed  by  friction, 
and  being  frequently  mixed  with  dust, 
&.C.,  completely  plugs  up  the  exter- 
nal exhalants,  whereby  they  become 
obstructed,  and  a  diseased  action 
takes  place.  It  may  also  be  caused 
by  infectious  matter  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  skin  ;  as  when  a  sound 
horse  rubs  himself  against  the  stall 
in  which  a"  mangy  horse  has  been 
kept.  The  principal  symptoms  are 
the  horse  growing  very  thin  with- 
out any  apparent  cause,  attended 
with  a  staring  of  his  coat  ;  this  is 
soon  follovved  by  eruptions,  which 
discharge  a  thick  yellowish  matter, 
forming  a  kind  of  scurf,  which  peels 
off,  and  is  succeeded  by  fresh  erup- 
tions, and  the  hair  falls  off.  This, 
though  partial  at  first,  soon  spreads 
all  over  the  body,  is  attended  with  an 
itching,  and  causes  the  horse  to  rub 
against  everything  he  comes  near. 
In  this  disease,  great  attention  to 
cleanliness  is  necessary. 

"  In  the  horse,  the  following  will  be 
found  the  best  remedy.  Bleed  to  the 
extent  of  two  or  three  quarts,  ac- 
cording to  the  constitution  of  the  an- 
imal, and  after  first  preparing  the 
horse  by  bran  mashes,  give  the  fol- 
lowing dose  of  physic : 

Barbadoes  aloes 6  drachms 

Powdered  ginger 2      " 

Castile  soap 2       " 

Oil  of  caraways 20    drops. 

Honey  or  molasses,  sufficient  to  form 
a  ball.  After  which,  give  the  fol- 
lowing alterative  balls  :  2  oz.  each  of 
powdered  black  antimony,  powdered 
nitre,  flour  of  sulphur,  Castile  soap, 
and  anise  seed  powder,  1  oz.  of  rosin, 
added  to  a  sufficient  quantity  of  hon- 
ey to  make  eight  balls,  one  to  be  giv- 
en every  night. 

"  The  following  ointment  may  be 
applied  externally : 

Black  sulphur 8  ozs. 

Strong  mercurial  ointment     .     .  2     " 

Soft  soap 4     " 

Train  oil 1  pint. 

"These    ingredients    to   be   well 
mixed,  and  one  third  part  carefully 
rubbed  in  daily.     If  the  above  oint- 
ment  should   be    found   ineffectual, 
478 


MAN 

four  ounces  of  spirit  of  tar  may  be 
added. 

"Dogs  and  swine  are  frequently 
subject  to  mange.  For  the  common 
scabby  variety  in  the  dog,  the  fol- 
lowing ointment  is  recommended : 

Powdered  sulpliur 4  ozs. 

Muriate  of  ammonia,  powdered  .  J  " 

Venice  turpentine J  " 

Lard,  or  other  fatty  matter     .     .  6     " 
Well  mixed. 

MANGEL  WURZEL,  MANGOLD 
WURZEL.     See  Beet. 

MANGER.  The  trough  or  crib 
from  which  animals  eat. 

MANGO.  "  It  is  a  very  large  fruit- 
tree,  inhabiting  the  tropical  parts  of 
Asia,  throughout  all  which  it  is  as 
extensively  cultivated  as  the  apple 
and  pear  trees  are  in  Europe.  Old 
specimens  have  been  seen  with  a 
trunk  from  10  to  15  feet  in  circum- 
ference. The  fruit  is  something  like 
a  nectarine,  but  more  compressed, 
longer,  and  more  curved.  It  contains 
a  large  stone,  covered  with  coarse 
fibres,  which  lose  themselves  in  the 
succulent  flesh.  The  wild  and  infe- 
rior varieties  of  this  fruit  taste  so 
strongly  of  turpentine  as  to  be  wholly 
unfit  for  use  by  Europeans ;  but  in 
the  fine  varieties  this  flavour  is  re- 
placed by  a  rich  sugary  quality,  which 
renders  it  very  delicious.  The  fruit 
of  the  Mangifera  Indica,  a  tree  culti- 
vated in  Asia,  is  also  called  mango." 
— (Brandc.) 

MANGOSTEEN.  The  fruit  of  the 
Garcinia  mangostana.,  growing  in  Ja- 
va and  the  Molucca  Islands  ;  it  is  of 
the  size  of  an  orange,  and  of  a  deli- 
cious flavour. 

MANGROVE.  Small  trees  of  the 
genus  Rhizophora,  inhabiting  the  riv- 
ers and  coasts  of  the  tropical  world. 

M  A  N  H  AD  D  E  N.  Clupea  manha- 
den.  A  migratory  fish,  resembling 
the  herring,  taken  in  immense  quan- 
tities off  the  eastern  and  northern 
coasts  for  manure  ;  they  should  be 
made  into  a  compost  with  earth  or 
peat :  some  apply  them  naked  to  the 
land. 

MANIOC.     Cassava,  tapioca. 

MANIPULATION.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  laboratory. 

MANITRUNK,  MANITRUNCUS. 


iM.W 

The  anterior  segment  of  the  trunk  of 
insects,  on  which  the  head  is  placed. 

MANNA.  A  sweet,  giinnny  exu- 
dation of  the  ash  (F.  ornus)  and  otli- 
,  er  trees,  used  in  medicine  as  a  laxa- 
-  tivc.  Manna,  dissolved  in  hot  alco- 
hol, and  allowed  to  cool,  deposites 
a  white  powder  (mannitc)  ;  this,  al- 
though sweet,  is  incapable  of  vinous 
fermentation. 

MANTEL.  In  building,  the  wood, 
stone,  &c.,  lying  from  one  jamb  to 
the  other  of  the  chimney. 

MANTIS.  A  genus  of  orthopte- 
rous  insects,  with  an  exposed  head, 
long  and  narrow  body,  and  wings 
plaited  longitudinally  :  they  are  vege- 
table eaters. 

MANURES.  Substances  intended 
to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  earth. 
They  are  usually  divided  into  miner- 
al or  fossil,  animal,  and  vegetable 
manures,  as  they  are  derived  from 
these  kingdoms  ;  but  in  this  way  we 
gain  no  knowledge  of  their  action  on 
the  soil  or  plants.  A  better  division 
is  into  Amendments,  or  such  manures 
as  improve  the  texture  of  soils,  as 
lime,  marl,  peat ;  Manures  supplying 
elements  deficient  in  the  soil,  as  gyp- 
sum, bone  earth,  ashes  ;  and,  third- 
ly, manures  intended  to  advance  or 
stimulate  vegetation,  as  putrescent 
animal  matters.  But  the  greater  num- 
ber of  manures  are  natural  composts 
that  supply  everything  necessary  to 
the  development  of  plants,  in  a  more 
or  less  concentrated  form,  as  stable 
manure,  straw  of  different  kinds,  gua- 
no, night-soil,  &c.  The  manures  are 
treated  under  their  separate  heads,     i 

In  the  application  of  manures  in-  j 
tended  to  remedy  a  defect  in  the  soil,  I 
as  gypsum  where  sulphuric  acid  is  i 
absent ;  bone  earth  where  phosphor- 
ic acid  is  wanting,  it  may  be  econom-  I 
ical,  by  an  analysis  of  the  soil,  to  be  j 
certain  that  such  a  deficiency  exists,  ' 
otherwise  our  manures  might  be  bet- ' 
ter  applied  elsewhere.     But  most  of 
our  soils  require  good  tillage,  amend- 
ments, and  then  natural  composts  to 
increase  the  crop  ;  hence  the  values 
of  manures  in  the  experience  of  the 
farmer  does  not  exactly  coincide  with 
the  theoretical  value,  and  the  amount 


MAN 

of  nitrogen  or  stimulating  element 
they  contain  is  in  practice  the  best 
criterion  of  their  effects,  the  soil  be- 
ing in  good  order  and  tilth.  Hence 
Boussingault  and  Payen,  practical 
men,  have  constructed  a  table  of  the 
value  of  all  maimres,  as  compared 
with  farm-yard  manure,  on  this  basis. 
The  first  column  gives  the  kind  of 
manure  in  its  ordinary  state,  the  sec- 
ond the  amount  of  water  it  contains, 
the  third  and  fourth  the  per  centage 
of  nitrogen  in  the  dry  and  wet  states, 
the  fifth  and  sixth  the  quality  of  the 
manure  in  the  dry  and  wet  states,  so 
far  as  the  effects  of  the  ammonia  or 
nitrogen  are  concerned,  the  seventh 
and  eighth  columns  represent  the 
amount  of  the  manures,  respectively, 
equivalent  to  100  lbs.  of  farm-yard 
manure,  both  in  the  dry  and  wet 
states,  so  far  as  the  nitrogen  is  con- 
cerned. Thus  we  learn  that  8  lbs.  of 
linseed  oil-cake  are  equally  servicea- 
ble with  100  lbs.  of  farm-yard  manure 
in  the  ordinary  state  of  moisture,  &c. 
(For  table,  see  the  following  pages.) 

The  greatest  improvements  in  ma- 
nures recently  made  are  their  econ- 
omy for  different  plants,  or  the  sys 
tem  of  special  manures  referred  to 
under  the  principal  crops  in  this  work, 
and  their  application  with  the  seed 
or  on  growing  plants,  by  drills  and 
other  contrivances.  The  old  method 
of  scattering  immense  amounts  over 
the  soil  a  long  time  before  the  crop 
is  justly  considered  unprofitable. 

The  following  table  of  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  yard  of  several  manures 
is  of  some  practical  value  : 

cwts.  qr3.  lbs. 

Garden  mould 19    3    23 

New  dung 9     3     18 

Leaves  and  sea-weed     ...      90      3 

Water 15    0      3 

Compost  of  dung,  with  weeds 

and  lime 1-J     0      5 

— See  Farm-yard  Manure. 

MANURES,  ARTIFICIAL  AND 
SPECIAL.  These  are  compounds 
prepared  for  sale  to  farmers,  as  arti- 
ficial guano,  poudrette,  silicate  of 
soda,  sulphate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  soda  ash,  solution  of  bones, 
saltpetre,  and  urate.  Special  manures 
are  those  which  are  designed  to  ad- 
vance particular  crops. 

479 


MAMKES. 


TAULE  OF  THE  COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  MANURES,  DEDUCED  FROM  ANALYSES  MADK 
BY  MESSRS.  PAYEN  AND  BOUSSINGAULT. 


- 

^ 

Qua 

ity  «c- 

Equivalent 

s. 

lUOt)f  matter 

ing  to 

according  to 

Kinds  of  Manure. 

ts 

> 

stale. 

state. 

Remarks. 

Dry. 

Wet 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

FHrmyard  dung. 

mT 

1-9.') 

0-41 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Average  of  Bechelbrono. 

Dung  wnter 

a'j-6 

1-54 

0-06 

78 

2 

127 

68 

Washed  by  the  rain. 

Whcnt  straw 

19-3 

0-30 

0-24 

lo 

60 

6,'H) 

167 

Fresh,  of  Alsace,  1838. 

Rve  straw   . 

l'Z-2 

0-20 

0-17 

10 

42-5 

975 

233 

Of  Alsace. 

Mem    . 

I-2-6 

O-.W 

0-42 

26 

105 

390 

95 

Environs  of  Paris,  1841. 

Oat  straw 

21-0 

0-.3fi 

0-28 

18 

70 

543 

143 

1 

Barlej  straw 

n-u 

0-2  ti 

0-23 

13 

57-5 

750 

174 

Whrat  chiiH- 

7-6 

0-94 

0-85 

48 

212-3 

207 

47 

y  Of  Alsace. 

Pea  straw    . 

8-5 

l-9.i 

1-79 

100 

447-5 

100 

22 

1 

Millet  straw 

19-0 

0-9'i 

0  78 

49 

195 

203 

61 

J 

Buckwlieat  straw 

11-6 

0-54 

0-48 

27 

1-20 

3(il 

83 

Lentil  straw 

9-2 

112 

1-01 

67 

250 

174 

40 

Dried  potato  lops 

13-9 

0-43 

0-37 

22 

92-5 

453 

108 

Withered  madia  stalks 

143 

0-66 

0-57 

33 

142-5 

295 

70 

Afler  seeding. 

Idem  turned  under  while  j 

reen 

70-6 

1-53 

0-45 

79 

113 

136 

89 

Before  seeding. 

Dried  broom 

10-4 

)-37 

1-22 

70 

305 

142 

33 

Stalk  and  leaves. 

Withered  leaves  cf  beet  ro 

ot 

88-9 

4-60 

0-50 

230 

125 

43 

80 

Of  mangel  wurzel 

Do.  of  potatoes  . 

-f,0 

2-30 

0-55 

117 

137-5 

85 

73 

Withered  top  and  leavea. 

Do.  of  carrots 

70-9 

2-94 

0-85 

150 

212-5 

66 

47 

Leaves  of  heather 

7-0 

1-90 

1-74 

97 

425 

103 

23 

Dried  in  the  air. 

Do.  of  pear-trees 

14-5 

lTi9 

1-36 

81-5 

340 

137 

29 

Do.  of  oak   . 

25-0 

1-37 

1-18 

80 

293 

125 

34 

Do.  of  poplar 
Do.  of  beech 

51-1 
:i9-3 

1-17 
1-91 

0-54 
1-18 

66 
78 

134 

294 

167 
102 

74 
34 

>  Leaves  fallen  in  autumn. 

Do.  of  acacia 

53-6 

166 

0-72 

80 

180 

1-25 

66 

Box-tree      . 

59-3 

2-89 

1-17 

147 

293 

68 

34 

Branches  and  leaves. 

Clover  roots 

9-7 

1-77 

1-61 

90 

402-5 

no 

25 

Dried  in  the  air. 

Fucus  digitatus  . 

39-2 

1-41 

0-86 

72 

215 

139 

46 

J 

Idem    .... 

40-0 

1-58 

0-95 

81 

237-5 

123 

42 

>  Dried  in  the  air. 

Fucus  saccharinus      . 

40-0 

2-29 

1-38 

117 

345 

85 

29 

s 

75-5 

0-54 

135 

74 

Fresh. 

Burned  .sea  weed 

3-S 

0-40 

0-38 

20 

95 

488 

103 

Oyster  sliells 

17-9 

0-40 

0-32 

20 

80 

488 

1-25 

Sea  shells    . 



0-05 

005 

3 

13 

3750 

769 

Dried  sea  shells  of  Dunkirk. 

Mud  of  the  Morlaix  River 

3-7 

0-42 

0-40 

21 

100 

464 

100 

>  Sea  sand. 

Trez  of  Roscofi'  roads 

0-5 

0-14 

0-13 

7 

32-5 

1393 

308 

Sea-side  Marl      . 

1-0 

0-a2 

0-51 

26-5 

138 

377 

78 

Salt  cod-fish 

38-0 

10-86 

6-70 

,537 

1675 

18 

6 

Cod-fish  washed  and 

iress 

2d 

10-0 

18-74 

16-86 

961 

4315 

10 

3M 

Dried  in  the  air. 

Fir  sawdust 

24-0 

0-22 

0-16 

11 

40 

886 

250 

>  Dried  in  the  air. 

Idem    . 

24-0 

0-31 

0-28 

15 

57-6 

629 

174 

Oak  sawdust 

2rv0 

0-72 

0-54 

36 

133 

2.56 

74 

S 

White  lupine  seed 

10-5 

4-35 

3-49 

2-23 

872-3 

46 

n\H 

Tuscan,  boiled  and  dried. 

Malt  grains . 

6-0 

4-W 

4-51 

251 

1127-6 

40 

9 

Grape  husks 

48-2 

3-31 

1-71 

169 

427-6 

57 

23 

Oilcake  of  linseed 

13-4 

6-00 

6-20 

307 

1300 

33 

8 

Do.  of  colewort  . 

10-.-3 

b-M 

4-92 

282 

12-30 

35 

8 

Do.  of.-iracliis     . 

6-6 

8-89 

8-33 

655 

2083-5 

21 

4H 

Do.  of  madia 

11-1 

6-70 

5-06 

292 

1263 

34 

8 

Do.  ofsejanie     . 

6-5 

6-93 

5-52 

304 

1378 

33 

^M 

Do.  of  hemp  seed 

5-0 

4-78 

4-21 

245 

1052 

41 

9H 

Do.  of  poppy 

6-0 

6-70 

6-3G 

292 

1340 

.34 

7>3 

Do.  of  beech  mast 

6-2 

3-53 

3-31 

181 

838 

56 

12 

Do.  of  walnuts    . 

6  0 

s-.io 

5-24 

287 

1310 

.33 

73^ 

Do.  of  cotton  seed 

U-O 

4  62 

402 

231 

1000 

32 

10 

Cider-apple  refuse 

«-4 

0-63 

0-.59 

32 

147 

309 

68 

Dried  in  the  air. 

Refuse  of  hops    , 
Beet- root  refuse  . 

730 

2-23 

0-66 

114 

140 

88 

67 

9-3 

1-26 

1-14 

64 

283 

153 

35 

Dried  in  the  ,iir. 

Idem    ... 

70-0 

0-38 

64 

85 

106 

Fresh  from  the  press. 

Squeezed  beet  root 

94 '5 

1-76 

0-01 

90 

2 

HI 

4137 

Process  of  Dombasle. 

Pot.ito  refuse 

73-0 

1-95 

0-53 

100 

131-5 

100 

76 

1*01,-110  juice 

95-4 

8-28 

0-38 

425 

94 

23 

106 

.Settled  and  decanted. 

AVater  of  the  starch  m-anufactory 

99-2 

8-28 

0-07 

425 

17-6 

671 

(  From  washing  in  fourvol- 
f     unies  of  water. 
Drainings  from  heap. 

Deposite  from  the  water  of  do. 

80 

1-81 

0-36 

92 

90 

108 

111 

Idem 

1,1 
86-9 

1-81 
2-30 

1-.54 
0-32 

92 
117 

384-6 
80 

24 
126 

Dried  in  the  air. 

Solid  cow  diing   '. 

84 

Urine  of  cows      . 

88-3 

3-80 

0-44 

194 

110 

61 

91 

Mixed  cow  dung 

84-3 

2-59 

0-41 

132 

102-5 

7.3 

98 

Solid  liorse  dung 

75-3 

2-21 

0-55 

113 

1-37-5 

88 

73 

Horse  urine 

79-1 

12-50 

2-61 

641 

632-5 

15K 

15.S' 

The  horse  drank  but  little; 

Mixed  horse  dung 

7.i-4 

3-02 

0-74 

154 

185 

66  " 

64 

the  urine  was  thick. 

Pig  dung 

81-4 

3-37 

0-63 

172 

1,37-6 

68 

63 

Sheep  dung 

ra-o 

2-99 

111 

1.53 

277-5 

65 

36 

Goat  dung   . 

4GO 

3-93 

2-16 

201 

640 

60 

18K 

Liquid  Flemish  manu 
Idem    .        .        . 
P.iudrette  of  Belloni 

0-19 
0-22 
3-85 

47-5 
55 
962 

210 
182 

In  the  normal  state. 

T?! 

4-40 

225 

44 

Dried  in  the  air. 

Do.  of  Montfnucon 

4I-'4 

2-67 

1-56 

137 

390 

73 

25l<< 

Urine  of  public  vats 

96 

17-56 

16-83 

900 

4213 

U 

2''i 

Dried  in  the  stove. 

Idem    .        .        . 

96-9 

23-11 

0-72 

1133 

179 

8',; 

56 

riiin,  ammoniacal. 

480 


MANURES. 


TABLE  (Continued  ) 


Kinds  or  Manure. 


Ss 


Dry.     Wet. 


(Juality  ac- 
cording to 
state. 


Equivalent 

according  to 

state. 


Wet.       Dry.     Wet 


Animalized  black 

Idem  from  the  neiglibourhood  > 

of  Pans J 

Idem,  called  Dutch  manure 
Animalized  sea  weed 

Pigeon's  dung 

Quano  imported  into  England 

Idem 

Do.  imported  into  France 
Silk-worm  litter  . 

Idem 

Chrysalis  of  silk-worm 
Cockchafers 
Dried  muscular  flesh 
Soluble  dried  blood     . 
Liquid  bloud 

Idem 

Blond  coa^Iated  and  pressed 

Insoluble  dried  blood  . 

Dregs  from  Prussian  blue  mjxi- 

ulactory    .        .        .        • 
Melter's  bones    , 
Fresh  bones        •        • 
Fat  bones,  not  heated 
Drega  of  bone  blue     . 
Glue  dregs  .... 
Graves         .... 
Animal  black  of  the  sugar  refiners 
Sugar  reBner's  black  . 
Scum  from  the  sugar  refinery 

Fijli-h  black      . 

F-t;liers      .... 

*    .-.v  hair  (lock     . 

^^'oAlle^  raga 

H    rn  sh.-ivings     . 

'    >  il  !ioot      .... 

^^^.od  soot  .... 


6-:o 

7t« 
l.i-73 
3-4S 
3-71 
8-99 
13-93 
I -1-25 
le-aO 


etable  mould   from  In 

111^  (terreau) 


0-91 
5-63 

12-93 
2-04 

1901 
1-38 
8-0-2 

17-til 

15-1-2 

15-73 
1-59 
1-31 

071 
1-03 


I -84 
1-36 
2-40 
8-30 
6-00 
540 

13-93 
3-» 
3-1:9 
1-93 
3-20 

13-04 

1-2-18 
9-13 
2-71 
4-51 

!4-M 

1-31 
7-02 
5-31 
6-2-3 
0-53 
3-73 

11-88 
1-06 

13-75 


6-93 
1.3-34 
13-78 
17-98 
14-36 
1-33 
1-13 
0-65 


3-23 
361 
807 

178-7 


310-: 

340 

600 

2075 
1247 
1349 
3487 
827 
823 
485 


580 
1128 
371^ 


1754 
1326 
1334 

IS3 

933-3 
•29693<5 

265 
3437 

134 
1733 
3835 
3445 
4495 
3390 

337-5 


21K 
31>i 


21K 


i3v; 

1-2>| 


29K 
16>£ 


2")^ 


2K 
30>^ 


?« 


Prepared  for  11  moDth& 
Recently  made. 
Made  at  Lyons. 

(  Dried  in  stove  (fromM^^ 

{      .eilles). 

of  Bechelbronn. 

In  the  ordinary  state. 

Sifted. 


Dried  in  the  air. 

As  sold. 

From  slaughter  bouse*. 

From  worn-out  horses. 

Just  out  of  the  press. 

Dried  in  manufactory. 

Animalized  with  blood. 

Dried  in  the  air. 

As  sold  by  tlie  melters. 

Including  0-10  of  Tat. 

As  sold  by  the  maken. 

As  sent  out. 

From  Paris. 

5  From  the  sugar  baiery  of 

\      Vigneuj. 

Blood,  lime,  soot. 


Dried  in  the  stove. 


^lAPLE.  Trees  of  the  genus  Acer, 
of  which  seven  are  indigenous  to 
America  ;  they  are  for  the  most  part 
natives  of  the  North  and  Canada, 
where  extensive  forests  of  the  sugar 
maple  exist.  The  wood,  though  often 
beautifully  ornamental,  curled  and 
spotted  (bird's-eye  maple)  from  the 
sugar-maple  trees,  is  soft,  and  inca- 
pable of  enduring  exposure  ;  it  is 
therefore  confined  to  cabinet  uses, 
and  forms  excellent  fuel,  yielding  an 
ash  from  which  four  fifths  of  the  pot- 
ash of  commerce  is  derived.  The 
maples  require  a  deep,  light  soil,  and 
become  fully  developed  on  rich  allu- 
vial plains. 

The  white  maple  (.4.  eriocarpum)  is 
a  Western  tree,  ver>'  early,  and  yields 
a  saccharine  juice,  from  which  sugar 
is  made  in  Ohio.  The  red  (A.  rubnim) 
is  also  sweet,  and  yields  a  handsome 
wood  :  it  flourishes  on  rich  bottoms. 
The  striped  or  moose  wood  {A.  stri- 
atum) is  confined  to  the  most  North- 


em  localities,  and  furnishes  excel- 
lent browse  for  cattle.  The  mount- 
ain maple  (.1.  viontanum)  is  a  small 
Northern  dwarf,  of  six  or  eight  feet. 
■The  sugar  maple  {A.  saccharinum) 
abounds  from  43°  to  46°  North  lati- 
tude :  it  often  rises  to  70  or  80  feet, 
with  a  beautiful  white  bark.  The 
wood  is  highly  ornamental.  The 
trees  are  tapped  with  a  three-quarter- 
inch  auger  early  in  March,  at  eighteen 
to  twenty  inches  from  the  ground  ; 
two  holes  are  made  in  each  tree,  not 
deeper  than  two  inches  within  the 
wood.  Tubes  of  wood  are  inserted 
into  the  holes,  which  convey  the  sap 
to  troughs  or  buckets  on  the  ground. 
The  sap  is  collected  each  day,  and 
kept  in  casks  until  it  can  be  boiled 
down.  All  the  arrangements  for  fin- 
ishing the  work  are  taken  to  the  su- 
gar camp,  so  that  the  boiling  advan- 
ces nearly  as  fast  as  the  juice  is  ob- 
tained. The  boilers  are  of  iron,  of 
fifteen  to  twenty  gallons,  and  only 
4S1 


MAP 

half  filled.  The  process  of  boiling  is 
rapid  ;  and  if  much  scum  rises,  a  little 
butter  or  lard  is  used  to  hinder  it  from 
flowing  over  :  the  sirup  is  sufficient- 
ly strong  when  a  small  portion  gran- 
ulates on  cooling.  The  sirup  is  pour- 
ed into  granulating  moulds,  and  the 
molasses  drawn  oft". 

Great  care  is  necessary  as  the  sir- 
up approaches  the  crystallizing  point, 
to  prevent  burning  ii ;  as  in  such  a 
case,  instead  of  sugar,  only  a  black, 
wax-Uke  mass  will  be  produced,  bit- 
ter to  the  taste,  and  unfit  for  culinary 
purposes.  The  excellence  of  maple 
sugar  is  in  a  great  degree  dependmg 
on  the  cleansing  of  the  sirup.  To  do 
this  effectually,  the  sirup,  after  being 
brought  to  the  proper  consistence, 
should  be  strained  and  allowed  to  be- 
come cool,  when  it  will  be  of  the 
thickness  of  good  molasses.  Into 
this  some  albuminous  substance  (the 
whites  of  eggs  are  the  best,  though, 
where  eggs  are  not  to  be  had,  milk 
will  do  very  well)  must  be  thorough- 
ly incorporated  by  stirring,  while  it 
is  cool,  and  then,  when  placed  on 
the  fire,  suffered  to  remain  entirely 
at  rest  until  on  the  point  of  boiling. 
The  albumen  diffused  through  the 
mass  coagulates  by  the  heat,  and 
rising  to  the  surface,  brings  up  with 
it  all  the  impurities  contained  in  the 
sirup.  If  this  operation  of  cleansing 
is  performed  skilfully,  the  sirup  re- 
maining in  the  kettle  will  be  pure  li- 
quid, free  from  specks,  and  when 
crystallized  will  make  a  beautiful  su- 
gar. The  skimming  of  the  sirup 
should  be  carefully  kept  from  all  ani- 
mals, for,  though  nearly  all  are  ex- 
ceedingly fond  of  it,  it  is  injurious  to 
all.  and  fatal  to  many.  Maple  sugar 
is  hard,  of  a  light  brown,  with  an  aro- 
matic taste  ;  it  yields  the  purest  re- 
fined sugar,  and  is  as  good  as  any 
variety  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  sap  flows  of  good  quality  for 
six  weeks,  and  afterward  the  juice  is 
only  fit  for  molasses.  A  tree  some- 
times yields  two  gallons  daily  of  sap, 
containing  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of 
crystallizable  sugar  to  the  gallon. 
The  sap  rapidly  ferments  in  warm 
weather,  running  into  vinegar  in  three 
482 


MAR 

or  four  days.  This  may  be  partially 
averted  by  adding  a  little  lime-water 
to  the  juice.  Three  persons  can 
manage  250  trees,  and  may  expect 
1000  lbs.  of  sugar,  or  four  pounds  from 
each.  The  sugar  yielded  from  trees 
previously  tapped  increases.  ; 

In  the  Western  States,  sugar  is  ! 
made  from  the  black  maple  {A.  ni-  , 
grum),  the  leaves  of  which  are  dark- 
er than  the  Northern  sugar  maple. 
The  white  maple,  from  the  quickness 
of  its  growth,  has  been  recommend- 
ed for  sugar  plantations  as  far  south 
as  North  Carolina. 

Marasmus.  Leanness.,  wasting 
away. 

MARBLE.  Limestones  with  a 
granular  and  crystalline  appearance  ; 
they  are  for  the  most  part  primary  or 
transition.  The  colours  and  varie- 
gations are  adventitious,  depending 
upon  the  presence  of  other  minerals. 
Good  marble  being  entirely  carbonate 
of  lime,  yields  56  per  cent,  of  lime 
when  well  burned. 

MARC.  The  refuse  remaining  in 
the  press  after  expression  of  fruits. 

MARCESCENT.  Withering  on 
the  stem,  like  the  leaves  of  endogens, 

MARCH.  The  third  month,  in 
which  the  soil  is  yet  frozen,  hut  gar- 
den operations  in  frames  should  be 
pushed  forward,  manures  collected 
and  carried  out,  and  everything  got 
in  readiness  for  the  start  of  vegeta- 
tion. In  the  South,  early  grains  are 
sowed,  and  the  soil  is  prepared  for 
the  staple  crops. 

MARE.     Female  of  the  horse. 

MARE'S  TAIL.  Hippuris  vulgaris. 
A  useless  weed,  growing  in  wet, 
sandy  places. 

MARGARIC  ACID.  The  acid  of 
margarine,  obtained  by  saponifying. 
It  IS  pearly,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
readily  in  hot  alcohol  ;  fuses  at  140°, 
reddens  litmus,  and  resembles  stear- 
in. It  exists  in  human  fat  and  nu- 
merous oils  :  formula,  Ces  Hoe  Og  -}- 
2  H  O. 

MARGARINE.  The  solid,  white 
fat  of  olive  and  other  oils.  A  mar- 
garate  of  glvcvrine. 

MARGARITIC  ACID.  One  of  the 
fat  oils  peculiar  to  castor  oil. 


MAR 

MARGARONE.  A  product  of  the 
distillation  of  inargaric  and  stearic 
acids  ;  a  white,  pearly  mass  :  formu- 
la, C33  IIm  O. 

MARGARYL.  A  compound  rad- 
ical :  formula,  C34  H33  O3. 

MARIGOLD.  Calendula  officinalis. 
A  composite  plant,  with  bright  yel- 
low flowers,  partially  used  in  soups. 
It  is  an  annual,  readily  propagated  by 

MARINE  ACID.  Muriatic  acid, 
hydrochloric  acid. 

'marine  salt.  Common  salt, 
chloride  of  sodium,  muriate  of  soda. 
MARIOTTE'S  LAW,  BOYLE'S 
LAW.  The  law  which  expresses  the 
constant  relation  between  the  bulk 
and  pressure  of  a  permanent  gas,  the 
elasticity  or  pressure  being  directly 
proportional  to  the  density,  and  in- 
versely to  the  bulk. 

MARJORA.M.  Origanum.  "A  ge- 
nus of  well-known,  pungent,  and 
gratefully  aromatic  herbs.  The  plants 
are  all  of  easy  cultivation  ;  the  shrub- 
by kinds  are  increased  by  cuttings  or 
slips  ;  the  herbaceous  species  by  di- 
viding at  the  roots.  There  are  as 
many  as  eight  species,  besides  nu- 
merous varieties.  The  species  gen- 
erally cultivated  are  the  common  or 
pot  marjoram  (O.  vulgarc),  and  sweet 
or  summer  marjoram  (O.  majorana), 
and  bastard  or  winter  marjoram  (0. 
heracleoticum). 

"  A  light,  dry,  and  moderately  fer- 
tile soil  is  required  for  their  healthy 
growth  ;  and  if  it  is  one  that  has  not 
been  cropped  for  a  considerable  time, 
it  is  the  more  favourable  for  them. 
If  the  soil  is  wet  or  rich,  they  are  de- 
ficient in  their  essential  qualities,  and 
the  perennials  are  unable  to  with- 
stand severe  weather.  The  situation 
cannot  be  too  open.  The  sweet  mar- 
joram is  propagated  solely  by  seeds  ; 
the  two  perennials  by  seed,  as  well 
as  by  parting  their  roots,  offsets,  and 
slips  of  their  branches.  Sowing  may 
be  performed  of  all  the  species,  from 
the  conclusion  of  February,  if  open 
weather,  to  the  commencement  of 
June  ;  hut  the  early  part  of  April  is 
the  usual  time  for  performing  it.  Por- 
tions of  the  rooted  plants,  slips,  ikc, 


MAR 

may  be  planted  from  February  until 
May,  and  during  September  and  Oc- 
tober. 

"  The  sowing  is  performed  eithei 
in  drills,  six  inches  apart,  or  broad- 
cast, in  either  case  the  seed  being  bu- 
ried not  more  than  half  an  inch  deep. 

"  The  tops  and  leaves  of  all  the 
species  are  gathered  when  green,  in 
summer  and  autumn,  for  use  in  soups, 
&,c.  ;  and  a  store  of  the  branches  is 
cut  and  dried  in  July  or  August,  just 
before  the  flowers  open,  for  winter's 
supply." — {Jo/utson.) 

^IARK.  The  black  dot  on  the  cor- 
ner teeth  of  the  horse  when  five  and 
a  half  years  old.  It  is  gone,  or  rased, 
when  he  is  eight  years. 

MARKETS,  AGRICULTURAL. 
"  The  more  numerous  markets  are  in 
any  well-cultivated  country,  provided 
they  are  at  a  sufficient  distance  not 
to  interfere  with  each  other,  and  on 
different  days  of  the  week,  the  great- 
er saving  there  is  of  time  and  labour 
of  conveyance.  Good  roads  or  nav- 
igable rivers  are  of  great  importance 
to  a  market-town  ;  and  if  there  are 
mills  in  the  neighbourhood  where 
corn  can  be  ground,  they  will  increase 
the  advantage  to  the  farmer  by  caus- 
ing a  regular  demand  above  what  the 
immediate  consumption  of  the  place 
may  require. 

"  The  vicinity  of  a  good  market, 
where  every  kind  of  agricultural  prod- 
uce will  always  find  purchasers  at  a 
fair  price,  greatly  adds  to  the  value 
of  a  farm,  especially  if  good  roads 
lead  to  it ;  and  the  advantage  is  the 
greater  if  it  be  a  populous  town,  which 
not  only  consumes  much  produce,  but 
from  w  hich  various  kinds  of  manure 
may  be  brought  by  the  teams  which 
have  carried  the  produce  to  market. 
It  is  this  which  so  much  enhances 
the  rent  of  land  near  London  and  all 
great  cities,  and  makes  the  agricul- 
ture there  approach  nearer  to  horti- 
culture, which  entirely  depends  on 
extraneous  manure  " 

MARKING  INK.  See  Indelible  Ink. 

MARKING  NUT.  The  seed  of 
the  Semicarpus  anacardium,  a  tropical 
tree,  the  juice  of  which  stains  hnen 
of  an  indelible  black. 

483 


MAR 


MAR 


MARL.  A  mixture  of  earths  con- 
taining a  largo  amount  of  mild  lime. 
It  is  clayey  or  arjjillaceous  when  it 
has  the  mechanical  characters  and 
touch  of  clay,  sandy  when  silicious, 
and  calcareous  when  almost  entirely 
composed  of  mild  lime  :  it  is  also 
shelly  when  full  of  fossil  shells.  There 
is  one  feature  common  to  all  true 
marls,  viz.,  effervescence  with  acids. 
Marl  may  be  derived  from  ancient 
formations,  more  especially  the  upper 
red  sandstone,  but  is  for  the  most 
part  of  tertiary  origin,  or  modern,  be- 
ing produced  in  ponds  and  rivers  flow- 
ing in  limestone  countries.  The  rich- 
est shell  kinds  are  best,  as  they  con- 
tain bone  earth.  The  value  of  marls 
is  precisely  as  the  amount  of  lime 
they  contain.  When  very  rich,  they 
may  be  burned  for  quicklime,  which 
much  increases  their  activity  and  val- 


ue. Marls  seldom  contain  more  than 
twenty  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime 
associated  with  sands  or  clay.  They 
are  applied  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to 
thirty  wagon  loads  the  acre,  and  do 
much  good  by  altering  the  texture  of 
some  soils,  as  when  a  clay  marl  is 
applied  to  sandy  lands.  In  some  ca- 
ses one  hundred  wagon  loads  have 
been  applied.  They  are  chiefly  indi- 
cated where  the  soil  lacks  lime,  or 
may  be  improved  mechanically  ;  but 
being,  for  the  most  part,  mineral  com- 
posts, marls  arc  usually  serviceable, 
and  often  extremely  beneficial,  espe- 
cially to  poor,  sandy  lands.  Shell  and 
coral  sands  are  of  the  nature  of  si- 
licious marls,  but  more  active,  from 
containing  organic  matter. 

The  following  analysis,  by  Spren- 
gel,  gives  the  composition  of  sever- 
al kinds  of  marl : 


c 

omposition 

of  MarJs  from 

I.uneburg. 

Osna- 

Magde- 

Bruns- 

Wewr- 

Bruns- .: 

bruck. 

burg. 

wick. 

marsh, 

wick. 

Powdery. 

Stony. 

Clayey. 

Loamy, 

Powdery. 

Stonv. , 

Quartz-sand  and  silica     . 

5-6 

230 

56-4 

734 

78-9 

71  i 

Alumina 

0-4 

10-0 

8-4 

1-9 

31 

4-0 

Oxides  of  iron 

4-2 

1-9 

6-7 

32 

3-8 

6-5 

Do.    of  magnesia 

trace 

trace 

03 

0-3 

0-3 

11 

Carbonate  of  lime    .... 

85-5 

35  0 

J8-2 

18-1 

8-2 

133 

Do.        of  magnesia    . 

1-25 

0-9 

''3-8 

1-5 

30 

2-6 

Sulphuret  of  iron     .... 



T-3 









Potash   and    soda,   combined  with  ( 
silica    .         .         .        .         .         .  i 

0  05 

trace 

1-6 

0-8 

0-9 

0-2 

Common  salt    .        •         .         .         . 

0-03 

trace 

trace 

trace 

01 

trace 

Gypsum 

006 

0-9 

21 

01 

0-5 

trace 

Phosphate  of  lime  (bone  earth) 

23 

0-5 

0-5 

0-7 

1-2 

1-2 

Nitrate  of  lime         .... 

001 

carbon 







Organic  matter        .... 

0-6 

20-05 





100 

lUO 

100 

100 

100 

100 

The  marls  are  usually  applied  on  a 
fall  fallow,  on  the  surface,  and  left  to 
crumble  during  the  winter  and  spring; 
they  are  also  applied  as  top-dressings 
to  meadows. 

The  quality  of  any  marl  is  ascer- 
tained by  weighing  300  grains  of 
strong  muriatic  acid  into  a  flask, 
and  then  100  grains  of  the  marl,  add- 
ing it  to  the  acid  carefully  in  pow- 
der ;  and  weighing  again  after  all  ef- 
fervescence has  subsided,  the  loss 
in  the  400  grains  will  be  carbonic 
acid,  and  is  about  equivalent  to  the 
amount  of  lime  in  the  specimen,  in 
the  ratio  of  22  gas  to  28  lime.  Marl- 
ing is  particularly  serviceable  for  clo- 
4S4 


vers,  pease,  beans,  hemp,  and  pota- 
toes. 

i  MARMALADE.  A  sweatmeat  of 
the  pulp  of  fruit,  usually  of  the  peel 

j  of  oranges, 

MARMORATUM,     In  building,  a 

cement  of  pounded  marble  with  lime. 

MARRAM.  The  sea  reed  {Arundo 

I  arenaria). 

\  MARROW.  The  oily  fat  filling 
the  cavities  of  the  long  bones. 

I  MARSH.  A  low,  partially  flooded 
tract  of  land  overgrown  with  coarse 
grasses  and  sedges.  The  herbage  of 
salt  marshes  is  often  very  good  fod- 
der, and  regularly  cut  for  cattle.  They 

I  are  frequently  made  available  by  em- 


MAS 

oankments  and  drainage,  and  consti- 
tute fertile,  wet  meadows. 

MARSH  MALLOW.  AUhcea  offi- 
cinalis. An  herbaceous  perennial,  of 
the  family  Malvacat,  preferring  moist 
lands,  and  very  readily  cultivated  by 
seeds,  slips,  &c.  It  is  very  mucilagin- 
ous, and  is  used  in  coughs  as  a  sirup. 
MARSH  MARIGOLD.  Caltha. 
Ornamental  water  plants. 

MARSH  MIASM.  The  pestilen- 
tial emanations  from  marshes,  produ- 
cing agues  and  intermittent  fevers. 

MARSH  MUD.  The  scrapings  of 
rivers,  bogs,  and  marshes  often  yield 
a  fertile  mud,  which  may  contain 
much  decaying  vegetable  matter, 
marl,  or  other  fertilizing  bodies.  It 
i.s,  therefore,  occasionally  added  to 
lands  with  great  advantage,  especial- 
ly where  there  is  much  difference  in 
the  texture  of  the  land  and  mud. 
That  which  is  black  and  foetid  will 
usually  be  best :  admixture  with  lime 
will  greatly  improve  it.  As  much  as 
twenty  per  cent,  of  vegetable  matter 
has  been  found  in  some  specimens, 
but  as  the  composition  is  very  differ- 
ent, it  is  best  for  the  farmer,  while  he 
recognises  the  utility  of  marsh  mud, 
to  make  small  trials  with  it  first,  be- 
fore going  to  much  expense  in  cart- 
ing a  quantity  out.  It  may  be  applied 
in  the  natural  state,  after  being  ex- 
posed one  winter  to  frost,  or  compost- 
ed with  lime,  animal  matter,  &c. 
Thirty  or  more  loads  are  applied  per 
acre,  and  where  a  different  texture  is 
to  be  given  to  the  land,  several  hun- 
dred may  be  used.  The  point  to  be 
considered  is  the  economy  of  using 
such  coarse  amendments. 

MARSUPIALS.  Quadrupeds  with 
an  abdominal  pouch,  in  vvhich  their 
young  reside,  as  the  opossum,  kan- 
garoo. 

M  A  R  T I  \  G  A  L.  A  part  of  the 
bridle  fastened  by  a  thong  to  the  girth, 
and  furnished  with  two  straps  carry- 
ing rings,  throuirh  which  the  reins 
pass.  It  hinders  the  horse  from  toss- 
ing his  head. 

MARUM.     Bitter,  strong-scented. 
MASCAGNIN.      Native   sulphate 
of  ammonia,  found  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts. ] 
S  s  2 


MAT 

MASH.  A  mixture  in  hot  water. 
A  soft  sort  of  diet  occasionally  given 
to  horses.  It  is  prepared  by  pouring 
boiling  water  upon  a  small  quantity 
of  ground  malt,  bran,  or  other  similar 
substance,  m  a  pail,  so  as  just  to  wet 
it  well.  After  this  has  been  done,  it 
should  be  well  stirred  about,  till  it  is 
thoroughly  mixed  and  sweetish  to 
the  taste,  when,  after  becoming  luke- 
warm, it  is  in  a  proper  state  to  be 
given  to  the  animal.  It  is  frequently 
used  after  purges  to  increase  their 
operation,  as  well  as  after  hard  la- 
bour, and  in  the  time  of  disease. 
Mashes  are  very  useful  for  restoring 
animals  in  these  circumstances. 

MASONRY.  The  art  of  building, 
especiallv  with  stones. 

MASSETER.  The  muscle  which 
moves  the  lower  jaw. 

MASSICOT.  Yellow  oxide  of 
lead. 

MAST.  The  nuts  of  beach,  oak, 
chestnut,  &c.,  forming  admirable  food 
for  hogs,  and  often  worthy  of  collec- 
tion for  winter  store. 

MASTIC.  The  resin  of  the  Pista- 
cia  Icntiscus,  extensively  used  in  ma- 
king varnishes.  Also  a  cement  used 
in  plastering  walls. 

iMASTlCATION.  Chewing.  The 
reduction  of  grains,  &c.,  into  meal 
by  the  teeth.  Old  animals  require 
this  to  be  done  artificially  for  them. 
It  is  very  essential  to  health  that  it 
be  properly  performed. 

MASTIFF.  The  large  guard  dog. 
He  has  .small,  drooping  ears,  smooth 
skin  ;  is  variously  coloured,  hanging 
lips,  large  jaws,  and  is  strong,  and 
very  large. 

MASTOID.     Small  knobs  or  ele- 
vations on  bones,  &c. 
MATE.     The  Paraguay  tea. 
MATERIA   MEDICA.      The  col- 
lection of  drugs  used  in  medicine,  far- 
rierv,  &c. 

MAT  GRASS.  Nardus  stricta. 
An  insignificant  Southern  grass, 
growing  un  barren  lands. 

M  A  T  R  ASS.  A  chemical  flask, 
with  a  long  neck,  used  for  heating  or 
boiling  fluids. 

MATRIX.     A  womb.     A  place 
where  anything  is  formed.    The  min- 
485 


May 


ME  A 


eral  in  which  motallic  ores  or  choice  ]  viilla,  and  other  plants.  Perennial- 
crystals  are  imbedded.  rooted,  composite  herbs,  overrunning 
MATTER.     Anything  that  has    rich  cultivated  lands  ;  they  should  be 


weight  or  sensible  properties,  as  di- 
visibility, impenetrability,  extension. 
It  is  organized  or  inorganic,  element- 
ary or  compound. 
MATTOCK.     The  pickaxe.     The 


mowed  before  flowering,  and  exter- 
minated by  cultivating  hoed  crops. 

MEAD.  A  wine  made  by  ferment- 
ing one  part  honey  boiled  in  three 
parts  water,  and  flavoured  with  va- 


iron  ends  may  be  pointed  or  of  the    rious  aromatic  herbs,  according  to 
figure  of  a  chisel ;  the  handle  of  oak  |  the  taste. 


or  ash. 

MATURATION.  Ripening.  The 
formation  of  pus  in  abscesses. 

MAT  WEED.     The  sea  reed. 

MAUL.  A  large  mallet,  or  beetle, 
to  split  wood. 

MAW.  The  stomach.  Maw  shin 
is  the  prepared  stomach  for  rennet. 


M  E  A  D  0  W  S.  "  Properly,  low 
grounds  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  which, 
being  kept  moist  by  their  situation, 
and  also  occasionally  flooded  by  the 
rise  of  the  waters,  are  best  adapted 
for  the  growth  of  grass,  and  are  gen- 
erally mown  for  hay. 

■  \Vhen  meadows  are  private  prop- 


MAW  SEED.  The  small  Poppy,  erty  they  become  much  more  valua- 
which  see.  ble.     The  flooding  is  encouraged  or 

AIAXILLA.  The  jaw.  In  zoolo-  .  prevented,  according  to  circumstan- 
gy,  it  means  the  upper  jaw  ;  in  ento-  ces,  and,  in  many  cases,  artificial  ir- 
mology,  the  inferior  pair  of  jaws.        |  rigation  is  adopted  (see  Irrigation). 

Maxillary.  Related  to  the  if  they  are  exposed  to  be  too  often 
jaws,  as   the  maxillary  glands,  ar-  |  inundated,   they    are    protected    by 


teries 

MAY.  The  most  important  agri- 
cultural month.  In  the  North,  oats 
being  sowed,  and  the  land  manured 
and  in  good  tilth,  corn  planting  is 
commenced  ;  potatoes  are  also  to  be 
set  out ;  meadows  should  be  harrow- 
ed where  wanted,  and  manured  ; 
hemp  and  most  crops  are  sown  this 
month  ;  everything  is  to  be  done  out 
of  doors  ;  in  the  garden,  cabbages,  cu- 
cumbers, melons,  lettuce,  &c.,  are 
transplanted  from  the  hot  -  beds  ; 
pease,  beans,  root  crops,  &c.,  sowed  ; 
spring  budding  and  grafting  are  car- 
ried on  until  trees  are  in  leaf  In  the 
South,  tobacco  is  transplanted,  the 
young  cotton  plants  are  cleaned, 
pease  are  sown  in  the  corn-hills,  the 
sugar-cane  is  to  be  worked,  and  sweet 
potato  cuttings  set  out. 

MAY-APPLE.  Podophyllum  pel- 
tatum.  Wild  mandrake.  An  herba- 
ceous perennial,  growing  in  moist 
woods,  bearing  one  stem  with  two 
leaves  ;  the  roots  are  cathartic  :  the 
yellow  fruit,  often  two  and  a  half  inch 


I  dams  and  sluices. 
I  "  The  herbage  of  low,  wet  mead- 
I  ows  is  generally  coarser  and  less 
nutritious  than  that  of  those  which 
lie  higher ;  hence  upland  hay,  as  it  is 
called,  is  preferred  for  the  better  sort 
of  cattle.  Good  grass  land,  to  which 
the  floods  never  rise,  is  often  called 
meadow  land  when  the  natural  herb- 
age is  permanent,  and  frequently 
made  into  hay. 

"  Upland  meadows  are  very  valua- 
ble wherever  there  is  a  demand  for 
good  hay.  A  considerable  degree  of 
attention  is  required  to  make  them 
most  productive.  Not  being  annual- 
ly recruited  by  flooding,  they  would 
soon  degenerate  if  some  pains  were 
not  taken  to  keep  up  their  natural  fer- 
tility. This  may  be  done  in  various 
ways  :  the  most  obvious  is  to  recruit 
them  frequently  with  the  richest  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  manure,  which, 
being  spread  over  the  surface  at  a 
time  when  showers  are  abundant, 
that  is,  either  early  in  spring  or  im- 
mediately after  midsummer,  is  wash- 


es long,  is  acid  and  pleasant :  it  is  :  ed  down  to  the  roots  of  the  grass. 

worthy  of  cultivation.  A  rapid   growth   is   thus    produced, 

MAY-TREE.     The  hawthorn.  which  is  soon  perceived  by  comparing 

MAY- WEED.  Matricaria  chamo-  the  appearance  of  a  meadow  which 
486 


MEADOWS. 


lias  hern  rnanuiPd  with  that  of  one 
left  in  its  natural  state.  It  has  been 
asserted  l)y  many  agricultural  au- 
thors tiiat  the  |)ro(iuce  of  hay  is  great- 
er when  the  meadows  are  mown  ev- 
ery year,  provided  they  he  occasion- 
ally manured,  than  when  mown  and 
depastured  alternately.  But  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  a  meadow  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  circumstances  of  soil 
and  situation.  A  meadow,  the  soil 
of  which  IS  naturally  of  a  rich  nature, 
and  adapted  t<»  produce  fine  grasses, 
may  he  mown  year  after  year  with- 
out any  perceptible  change  in  the 
quality  of  the  hay  ;  while  another  of 
inferior  quality  requires  to  be  occa- 
sionally cropped  close,  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  coarser  grasses,  and  to 
allow  the  finer  to  rise  As  to  the 
effect  of  taking  off  the  hay  by  mow- 
ing it,  compared  with  that  of  the  bite 
of  cattle,  there  is  little  difference, 
except  that,  in  pasturing,  the  grass 
is  repeatedly  cropped  close  to  the 
ground  as  soon  as  it  rises  to  such  a 
height  that  the  teeth  of  the  cattle 
can  sever  it.  It  consequently  spreads 
by  the  roots,  and  the  pile  becomes 
closer. 

"  The  urine  of  the  cattle  greatly 
promotes  luxuriant  vegetation  in 
rainy  weather,  but  in  hot,  dry  weath- 
er it  does  more  harm  than  good.  The 
dung,  when  dropped  on  the  grass,  is 
of  little  or  no  value  compared  with 
what  it  would  be  if  mixed  up  with 
straw,  earth,  or  peat,  or  diffused 
through  water  in  a  tank.  It  is  there- 
fore an  excellent  practice  to  employ 
women  and  children  to  collect  the 
fresh  dung  in  the  pastures,  and  to 
carry  it  to  a  heap  of  earth,  where  it 
may  be  covered  up,  or  to  a  tank, 
where  it  may  be  diluted  with  water. 

"  Of  late  years  the  practice  q{  soil- 
ing has  been  extensively  adopted  ; 
that  i.s,  all  the  grass  is  mown  and  car- 
ried every  day  in  a  green  state  to 
cows  or  horses  tied  up  in  a  stable.  By 
this  means  all  the  advantage  of  mow- 
ing for  hay  is  obtained,  besides  an 
abundant  supply  of  rich  manure, 
which  can  be  applied  to  the  land  in  a 
liquid  and  diluted  state,  when  its  ef- 
fect  ic  powerful  and  certain.     So 


much  more  fodder  is  produced  from 
the  land  by  the  system  of  soiling,  that 
arable  fields  are  converted  into  arti- 
ficial and  temporary  meadows,  in 
which  tiie  different  species  of  grasses 
are  sown,  in  order  to  he  cut  green  or 
made  into  hay  ;  and  when,  from  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  the  herbage  degen- 
erates, the  field  is  ploughed  up  again, 
greatly  improved  by  this  change  of 
cultivation. 

"When  a  natural  meadow  has  been 
neglected,  and  the  grass  is  of  an  in- 
ferior quality,  and  mixed  with  rank 
weeds  and  moss,  it  requires  much 
care  to  restore  it  to  its  original  fer- 
tility. In  most  cases,  the  bhoriest 
method  and  the  best  is  to  plough  it 
up,  clean  and  manure  it  during  a 
course  of  tillage,  without  taking  very 
exhausting  crops  from  it,  and  then 
to  lay  it  down  again  in  a  clean  and 
enriched  state,  by  sowing  the  best 
sort  of  grass  seeds  ;  or,  which  is  pref- 
erable, by  inoculating,  or  planting  in 
it  small  tufts  of  grass  from  some  rich 
meadow,  which  will  soon  increase, 
and  produce  a  new  and  improved 
sward.  But  where  the  soil  is  a  very 
stiff  clay,  with  only  a  small  depth  of 
good  mould  over  it,  there  is  some 
danger  in  breaking  the  old  sward,  for 
it  will  take  a  long  time  and  much  ma- 
nure to  reproduce  a  proper  covering 
of  grass.  In  this  case  it  is  a  prefer- 
able practice  to  scarify  the  mead  >w 
by  means  of  instruments  which  do 
not  go  deep,  but  only  tear  up  the  sur- 
face. If  this  is  done  early  in  spring, 
when  the  ground  is  moist,  and  the 
whole  surface  is  brought  to  resemble 
a  fallow  field,  good  grass  seeds  may 
be  immediately  sown.  If  rich  ma- 
nure, mixed  with  lime  orchalk,  is  then 
spread  over  the  land,  and  the  whole 
well  harrowed  and  rolled,  the  old  and 
young  grass  will  spring  up  together, 
and  show  a  wonderful  improvement 
in  a  very  few  months.  It  is  prudent  to 
mow  this  renovated  meadow  before 
the  seeds  of  the  grasses  are  formed, 
contrary  to  a  common  notion,  that  in 
a  thin  meadow  the  seed  should  be  al- 
lowed to  shed,  in  order  to  increase 
the  number  of  plants.  The  notion  is 
good,  but  it  should  be  done  by  sow- 
487 


mi:  A 


MEA 


ing  seed  which  has  been  produced  on 
other  ground  ;  for  the  ripening  of  the 
seed  tends  to  exhaust  the  soil.  If  the 
grass  be  cut  before  the  flower  is  fa- 
ded, the  roots  will  soon  spread,  and 
produce  a  new  and  improved  sward. 

"  It  must  be  observed  that  it  is  not 
indifTerent  what  cattle  are  turned 
into  the  meadow  after  hay-making. 
Horses  invariably  produce  coarse 
weeds  by  their  dung  and  urine  ;  cows 
may  be  depastured  in  autumn,  as  long 
as  the  surface  is  dry  ;  but  sheep  are 
far  more  advantageous,  and  may  be 
kept  in  the  meadows  at  all  times,  if 
they  are  not  too  wet  for  the  health 
of  the  sheep,  and  if  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  their  having  the  rot.  As  soon 
as  the  surface  becomes  soft  by  the 
autumnal  rains,  all  heavy  cattle 
should  be  excluded  :  every  tread  of 
a  horse  or  cow  at  this  time  destroys 
a  portion  of  good  grass,  and  makes  a 
hollow,  in  which  the  water  remains, 
killing  the  finer  grasses,  and  produ- 
cing rushes  and  aquatic  plants. 

"  The  meadows  which  are  to  be 
mown  should  be  shut  up  early  in 
spring,  and  those  which  are  soft  and 
■wet  should  have  nothing  larger  than 
a  sheep  in  them  from  November  till  af- 
ter hay-making  time  the  next  year." 

MEADOW  FOXTAIL.  Alopecu- 
rus  pratensis.     See  Grasses. 

MEADOW  GRASSES.  See 
Grasses. 

MEADOW  SAFFRON.  See  Col- 
chiaim. 

MEAL.  The  flour  of  corn,  oats, 
pease,  &c.  A  meal  of  milk  means 
the  quantity  obtained  at  a  milking. 

MEASLES.  A  skin  disease  of 
hogs.     See  Hng,  Diseases  of. 

MEASURES.      See    Weights   and 
•  Measures. 

MEASURING  CHAIN.  A  chain 
of  100  links,  or  22  yards,  used  in  sur- 
veying ;  the  link  is  792  inches. 

MEAT.  "  L  Selection  of  Cattle  and 
Beef. — In  the  selection  of  cattle  to  be 
sent  alive  to  market,  they  should  in- 
variably possess  fine  symmetry  and 
small  bone,  carrying  the  greatest 
weight  of  beef  on  the  most  valuable 
points,  such  as  rumps,  loins,  and 
crops  ;  the  back  well  covered,  the 
488 


buttocks  and  flanks  well  filled  up,  and 
the  whole  carcass  exhibiting  a  ful- 
ness of  flesh,  excepting  the  necks  and 
coarser  parts.  They  should  handle 
hard  and  firm,  in  order  to  stand  well 
the  voyage,  and  handle  and  look  well 
in  the  market.  Firm  handlers,  wheth- 
er heifers  or  oxen,  always  cut  well 
up.  An  ox  or  heifer  of  these  proper- 
ties, weighing  80  stones  (stone  of  8 
lbs.),  will  actually  realize  more  money 
than  a  coarse  ox  or  heifer  weighing 
100  stones.  Heavy  cattle,  however, 
do  not  take  readily  in  market,  unless 
they  are  remarkably  handsome  ;  nor 
do  very  light  cattle,  under  40  stones, 
for  two  or  three  months  in  summer, 
unless  they  are  really  neatly  shaped, 
and  thick  on  the  backs  and  best 
points. 

"  The  meat  intended  to  be  sent  to 
the  carcass  market  should  be  taken 
from  such  cattle  as  we  have  descri- 
bed. It  is  not  large  quantities  of 
lean  and  fat  that  are  wanted  there, 
but  both  well  mixed.  Ox  and  heifer 
beef  of  equal  quality  command  ti\e 
same  prices.  Rumps,  loins,  crops, 
and  other  fine  parts  fitted  for  roast- 
ing and  steaks,  are  more  in  demand 
than  the  boiling  pieces,  and  realize 
comparatively  higher  prices. 

"  2.  Selection  of  Sheep  and  Mutton. 
—  Ripe,  compact  sheep,  of  light 
weights,  carrying  a  large  proportion 
of  lean  on  the  back,  loins,  and  shoul- 
der, with  a  full,  round  leg,  and  hand- 
some carcass,  are  admirably  suited 
for  market.  Such,  from  14  lbs.  to  20 
lbs.  per  quarter,  will  take  readily  ; 
but  they  are  most  valuable  from  16 
lbs.  to  18  lbs.  The  nearer  the  form 
and  quality  approach  those  of  South 
Downs,  the  more  likely  are  they  to 
command  the  top  prices ;  for  the 
Downs  have  long  been  unrivalled  fa- 
vourites. Pure  bred  Leicesters  are 
too  fat,  unless  they  are  sent  young, 
and  do  not  exceed  20  lbs  per  quar- 
ter ;  when  above  that  weight,  they 
fetch  inferior  prices. 

"The  carcasses  of  mutton  to  be 
sent  to  market  should,  of  course,  be 
those  of  sheep  such  as  are  here  rec- 
ommended to  be  sent  alive.  Large 
quantities  of  fat  are  not  so  desirable 


MEAT. 


as  a  proportionable  mixture  of  fat 
with  the  lean.  In  using  the  loins 
and  other  parts  of  very  fat  mutton 
lor  chops,  much  of  it  has  to  be  pared 
away,  and  sold  i'or  the  price  of  raw 
fat.  The  great  point  is  to  select 
ripe  mutton  and  sheep,  for  the  latter 
will  stand  the  journey  better  than  half 
fat,  and  will  not  lose  half  the  quan- 
tity of  llesh  in  three  days  as  tiie  lat- 
ter. IS'o  overgrown  animals,  having 
masses  of  fat  on  one  place  and  not 
on  another,  would,  therefore,  com- 
mand the  top  price  ;  but  those  having 
plump  carcasses,  well  mixed  with  fat 
and  lean,  firmly  and  equally  laid  on, 
with  fine  symmetry  and  valuable 
points,  will  always  command  the  top 
price,  both  at  Smithfield  and  the  car- 
cass markets. 

"3.  Selection  of  Lambs.  —  Lambs 
are  a  favourite  stock  to  send  to  mar- 
ket, and  they  are  always  sent  alive. 
Leicester  lambs  are  admirably  adapt- 
ed for  the  market.  They  are  hand- 
some, compact,  thick  on  all  the 
points  ;  and  although  they  might  be- 
come too  fat  when  grown  to  sheep, 
they  cannot  be  too  fat  as  lambs. 
Their  flesh  is  white,  and  every  joint 
of  them  looks  well  on  the  table.  The 
lambs  of  the  cross  between  the  Lei- 
cester and  the  Cheviot  and  black- 
faced  ewes  are  next  best  for  fat  and 
lean,  and  cut  well  into  joints,  although 
they  have  not  the  handsome  figures 
of  the  pure  Leicester.  No  lambs 
should  be  sent  to  market  until  they 
are  at  least  three  months  old,  and 
have  attained  the  weight  of  9  lbs.  or 
10  lbs.  a  quarter;  and  if  they  are  not 
fat  enough,  and  have  not  attained 
that  weight  at  that  age,  they  should 
be  kept  on.  Ewe  lambs  are  prefer- 
red, being  more  delicate  than  weth- 
ers, which  are  next  in  value.  All 
wether  lambs,  therefore,  should  he 
castrated  when  a  few  days  old,  and 
their  tails  cut  short,  leaving  not  more 
than  three  inches.  The  docking  gives 
them  a  very  compact  form,  and  it 
causes  the  flesh  to  grow  up  towards 
the  back,  long  tails  giving  a  contrary 
tendency. 

"  4.  Selection  of  Pigs  and  Pork. — 
A  very  mistaken  notion  prevails  that 


pigs  must  be  fat  to  suit  the  market. 
The  fact  is  quite  the  reverse,  for 
the  larger  the  pig  is  fattened  the  less 
money  per  pound  it  fetches.  Pigs 
are  worth  the  most  money  when  their 
weight  ranges  from  3.5  lbs.  to  40  lbs. ; 
and  from  this  weight  up  to  60  lbs.  or 
70  lbs.  they  are  termed  dairy  fed  pork- 
ers. If,  at  the  former  weight,  they 
are  of  good  symmetry,  fine  quality, 
delicate  and  white  in  the  flesh,  and 
not  more  than  1  inch  or  1|  inch  thick 
of  fiit  on  the  back,  they  will  fetch  the 
top  price  of  the  day.  Indeed,  we  need 
not  be  surprised  at  this  preference, 
when  we  consider  that  only  the  small 
lean  and  fat  porkers  are  used  for 
roasting,  chops,  and  pickled  pork,  and 
the  large,  fat  pigs  are  chopped  down 
for  sausages.  No  pigs,  therefore, 
should  be  sent  to  market  exceeding 
100  lbs.,  exclusive  of  head  and  feet, 
but  which  are  only  moderately  fat 
and  of  fine  quality ;  all  other  quali- 
ties should  be  cured  as  bacon  and 
hams.  Occasionally  they  arrive  in 
pretty  good  order  in  carcass  ;  but  in 
carcass,  in  thick  weather,  the  flesh 
becomes  very  soft,  and  the  skin  dry  ; 
and  in  dry  weather  the  skin  becomes 
quite  hard  and  brown  coloured.  Of 
equal  qualities,  the  live  pig  will  draw 
from  a  halfpenny  to  a  penny  a  pound 
more  than  in  carcass.  Feeders  of 
pigs  should  be  careful  on  what  they 
feed  their  pigs,  especially  fish.  The 
retail  butchers  are  such  nice  judges 
of  pork  that,  on  buying  a  carcass  and 
cutting  a  slice,  they  can  detect  the 
least  peculiarity  in  taste. 

"  Cutting  up  Meat. — The  mode  of 
cutting  up  meat  is  more  diversified 
even  than  the  slaughtering ;  but  as 
London  is  the  great  emporium  of  th^ 
export  meat  trade,  the  method  of  cut- 
ting up  meat  in  the  metropolis  should 
constitute  the  particular  study  of  the 
shippers  of  meat.  In  the  carcass  of 
any  animal,  an  ox,  for  instance,  there 
are  different  qualities  of  meat,  and 
these  qualities  are  situated  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  carcass.  All  the  best 
parts-are,  in  London,  used  for  roast- 
ing and  steaks,  and  the  inferior  for 
boiling,  either  in  pieces,  or  making 
stock  for  soups,  or  minced  meat,  in 
48Q 


MKAl'. 


the  various  forms  of  pies,  sausages,  l  into  the  following  pieces,  as  may  be 
&c.  seen  on  referring  to  the  numbers  on 

"The  carcass  of  an  ox  is  cut  up  |  the  annexed  cut  {Fig.  1). 


Hind  Quarter. 

1.  Lnin. 

2.  Rump. 

3.  Itch  or  adze-bone. 

4.  Buttock. 

5.  Hock. 

6.  Thick  flank. 

7.  Thin  flank. 

8.  Fore  rib. 

"The  relative  value  of  these  differ- 
ent cuts  of  an  ox  may  be  stated  at 
their  current  value,  namely,  when 
the  rumps,  loins,  and  fore  ribs  of  a 
line  ox  fetch  8d.  a  pound,  the  thick 
flank,  buttock,  and  middle  rib  will 
fetch  6d. ;  the  itch  or  adze-bone,  thin 
flank,  chuck  rib,  brisket,  and  leg-of- 
mutton  piece,  od. ;  the  clod  and  stick- 
ing, and  neck,  3d.  ;  and  the  legs  and 
shins,  2(f.  a  pound.    Such  is  the  differ- 


Fore  Quarter. 
9.  Middle  rib. 
}0.  Chuck  rib. 

11.  Brisket. 

12.  I,eg-of-mutton  piece. 

13.  Clod  and  sticking  and  neck. 

14.  Shin. 

15.  Leg. 

ence  in  value  of  the  different  cuts  of 
an  ox  in  the  meat  markets  in  London. 
"  As  an  object  of  comparison,  we 
shall  also  give  a  figure  of  an  ox  cut 
up  in  the  Xew-York  method,  as  in 
Fi^.  2,  and  the  great  difference  be- 
tween both  methods  may  be  seen  at 
a  glance.  It  is  from  the  American 
Agriculturist.  The  prices  are  those 
asked  in  the  New-York  market,  Jan- 
uary, 1845. 


a    b\c\d 

liilL 

-Vr 

772. 
1          S 

The  01  as  cut  up  for  fresh  ir.eat. 

"  a.  Neck,  for  corning  or  mince  I  left  in  one  whole  piece,  for  large 
meat ;  price,  2  to  3  cents  per  lb.         |  roasts  for  hotels  or  public  dinners, 

"A,  c,  d.  Chuck  rib,  for  roasting  [  and  sometimes  cut  in  two  pieces  only, 
pieces  or  steaks.  It  is  sometimes  j  If  the  animal  be  small,  it  may,  for 
490 


MEAT 


moderate  roasting  cuts,  be  divided 
into  two  only  ;  price,  7  cents  per  lb. 
for  roasts,  and  8  cents  for  steaks. 

"  ^'  />  ffy  ^'  '■  ^fiddle  or  crop  rib 
roasting  pieces,  also  called  prime 
ribs.  They  are  sometimes  left  in 
two  or  three  pieces,  only  for  the 
same  reason  as  the  chuck  rib  ;  price, 
9  cents  per  lb. 

";'.  Sirloin  or  tenderloin  steaks.  It 
is  cut  into  thin  slices,  for  steaks,  as 
wanted.  Steaks  should  not  be  cut 
to  the  required  size  until  they  are  to 
be  put  on  the  gridiron,  as  they  thus 
lose  their  juice  ;  price,  9  to  10  cents 
per  lb. 

"A-.  Sirloin  roasting  piece;  price,  9 
cents  per  lb. 

"  /,  m.  Rump  steaks.  The  steaks 
from  I  are  nearly  (perhaps  quite)  as 
good  as  those  of  the  sirloin  ;  these 
pieces  are  also  corned.  If  the  steaks 
be  cut  from  I  only,  they  are  worth  7 
to  8  cents  ;  if  from  I  and  m  together, 
6  cents  per  lb. 

"  n,  t.  Brisket,  for  corning,  and  the 
finest  corning  beef  in  the  animal, 
when  there  is  a  full,  deep  brisket. 
These  pieces  are  subdivided  before 
corning  ;  price,  5  cents  per  lb. 

"o.  Shoulder,  or  arm,  for  soup  and 
mince  meat  ;  also  corned  ;  price,  2 
to  3  cents  per  lb.  It  is  sold,  ordina- 
rily, by  the  piece. 

"/).  Cross-piece,  for  roasting,  and 
also  cut  for  steaks  ;  it  makes  a  good 
corning  piece.  From  the  cross-piece 
is  cut  the  shoulder  clod  ;  cross-piece 
is  worth  6  cents  ;  shoulder  clod,  5 
cents  per  lb. 

"y.  Plates  for  corning.  When 
corned,  it  is  cut  smaller  :  price,  5 
to  6  cents  per  lb. 

"r.  Flank,  for  corning  ;  price,  4  to 
5  cents  per  lb. 

"s.  V.  Thigh  or  round,  for  beef  a 
la.  mode ;  s,  worth  5  cents,  and  i',  4 
cents  per  lb. 

"  u.  Navel,  for  corning  ;  to  be  cut 
smaller  before  corning  ;  price,  5  to  6 
cents  per  lb. 

"  if.  Shank,  for  soup,  or  mince 
meat,  or  corning;  price,  2  to  3  cents 
per  lb.,  or  sold  by  the  piece.  This, 
as  well  as  the  shoulder  or  arm  piece, 
o,  makes  poor  corned  beef,  and  is 


more  economically  used  for  soups ; 
and,  after  serving  that  purpose,  may 
be  made  into  mince  meat  or  hash. 

"  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  corn 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  quarter  for 
dried  beef  If  so,  m,  s,  and  v  are  left 
in  one  piece,  /  and  w  being  taken  off ; 
/  is  made  into  steaks  or  corned,  and 
ic  into  soup  or  mince  meat.  The  bal- 
ance of  the  thigh,  consisting  of  m,  s, 
and  V,  is  cut  into  long,  narrow  pieces, 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  down ; 
they  are  broad  at  top,  and  run  to  a 
point  below.  When  corned,  they  are 
hung  up  to  dry  and  smoke,  and  should 
be  hung  up  by  the  small  or  lower  end. 
"  e,  f,  g,  are  the  primest  roasting 
pieces  in  the  carcass  ;  next  come  c, 
d,  h,  i ;  then  k ;  then  b.  Many  per- 
sons prefer  k,  the  sirloin  roasting 
piece,  to  all  others  ;  but  a  true  epi- 
cure in  beef  always  chooses  the  rib 
cuts  ;  and  of  the  rib  cuts,  the  crop 
ones  are  far  the  finest. 

"  The  butchers  ask  most  for  e,f,  g, 
h,  i,  _f*  k.  They  are  about  equal  in 
price  ;  but  e,  f,  g  are  more  valuable 
for  roasts,  and  h  for  steaks.  Prices 
vary  according  to  the  goodness  or 
badness  of  the  animal  ;  as  he  may 
be  good  in  his  chine  and  crops,  and 
bad  in  his  loins  and  rumps  ;  or  the 
reverse  ;  or  equal  in  both  ;  also,  ac- 
cording to  the  knowledge  of  the 
butcher,  founded  on  the  fancy  of  his 
customers.  The  highest  price  is  al- 
ways asked  for  sirloin  steaks  when 
cut  by  the  butcher.  Next  come  f>, 
c,  d,  chuck  rib  roasting  pieces  and 
steak.s,  and  /,  the  rump  steaks  ;  then 
m,  lower  part  of  rump,  p,  cross-piece, 
q,  plate,  and  «,  navel ;  r,  flank  ;  s, 
round  ;  n,  t,  brisket ;  v,  lower  round 
or  thigh  ;  a,  neck ;  o,  shoulder  ;  and 
ic,  leg. 

"  We  would  respectfully  suggest 
to  all  our  readers  to  follow  the  above 
directions  in  cutting  up  their  beef  It 
is  the  most  economical,  as  proved  by 
long  experience,  and  will  avoid  all 
waste.  It  separates  all  the  pieces 
properly,  so  that  the  good  and  indif- 
ferent are  not  joined.  If  a  prime  part 
be  left  coupled  with  an  inferior  one, 
and  roasted,  the  prime  only  will  be 
eaten,  and  much  of  the  inferior  waa» 
491 


MEAT. 


ted,  or  used  in  some  other  form,  as 
for  hash  or  mince  meat.  There  are 
parts  enough  for  those  purposes  that 
ought  not  to  be  wasted,  and  should 
not  be  corned.  The  roa.sting  cuts 
and  the  steaks  require  the  juiciest 
meat,  with  inlersporsod  fat,  making 
what  is  called  marbling  or  sparkling 
cutting  ;  and  the  fat  should  not  be  in 
separate  masses,  nor  in  great  abun- 
dance. The  prime  parts  are  all  juic}'. 
For  corning,  beef  should  be  fat ;  and 
the  proper  corning  parts  have  fat  in 
large,  separate  masses.  If  the  prop- 
er corning  piece  be  roasted  fresh,  the 
lean  gets  soaked  with  melted  tallow, 
and  the  roast  is  worthless.  A\'hen 
boiled,  this  does  not  take  place.  Ju- 
dicious cutting  is,  therefore,  of  great 
importance. 

"  Sheep  and  swine  are  cut  up  near- 
ly in  the  same  manner  as  the  ox,  and 
have  nearly  the  same  relative  value 
of  the  different  parts." 

"Veal  is  cut  up,  in  London,  in  a 
different  way  from  any  other  «rieat. 
The  knife  is  drawn  between  the  but- 
tock and  itch  bone,  and  through  the 
pope's  eye,  taking  a  sloping  direction 
through  the  coarse  end  of  the  but- 
tock, leaving  a  flap.  The  piece  thus 
cut  out  is  called  ?i  fillet  of  veal.  It  is 
like  a  round  of  beef,  with  a  part  of 
the  thin  flank  left  to  be  skewered 
around  it.  The  round  bone  is  taken 
out,  and  stuffing  put  into  its  place. 
When  the  itch  bone  and  hook  bone 
are  cut  from  the  loin,  the  piece  is 
called  a  chump  of  veal.  The  hind 
quarter  of  veal  thus  consists  of  fillet, 
chump,  loin,  and  leg.  The  fore  quar-  | 
ter  is  cut  in  the  same  manner  as 
mutton,  having  shoulder,  breast,  and 
neck.  In  Scotland  veal  is  cut  very 
much  like  mutton." 

Jugged  beef  consists  of  the  lean 
parts  of  the  flanks,  salted,  and  dried 
in  the  sun. 

Curmg  Beef  for  Exportation  to  Eng- 
land.— '•  Beef  is  uniformly  cut  into 
eight-pound  pieces,  and  cured,  in  all 
particulars,  precisely  as  pork  (see 
Hog),  except  a  larger  proportion  of 
saltpetre  is  used  in  packing.  Beef  is 
almost  entirely  packed  in  tierces.  For 
export,  tierces  only  should  be  used. 
493 


I      "A   tierce   of   prime   India   beef 
should  contain  42  pieces,  eight  lbs. 
each,  and   weigh  not  less  than  336 
pounds  nett.     It  should  be  made  from 
I  well  fed  bullocks,  and  contain  32  pie- 
j  ccs  of  loins,  flanks,  ruinps,  plates,  but- 
j  tocks,  and  briskets  ;   10  pieces  con- 
I  sisting  of  four  chines,  two  mouse  but- 
I  tocks,  two  shells  of  rumps,  two  pie- 
ces cut  close  up  to  the  neck,  with 
j  bone   taken   out  ;    no   shins,   thigh- 
bones, or  necks.     To  be  well  salted, 
and  capped  with  St.  Ubes,  or  other 
i  coarse  salt. 

"A  tierce  of  prime  mess  beef 
should  contain  38  pieces  of  eight 
I  pounds,  and  weigh  not  less  than  304 
pounds  nett.  It  should  be  made  from 
!  prime  fat  cows  or  heifers  ;  28  pieces 
of  prime,  from  loins  and  chines,  with 
one  rib  in  each,  flanks,  rumps,  plates, 
briskets,  and  buttocks,  with  10  coarse 
pieces,  consisting  of  two  neck  pieces 
(not  the  scrag),  two  thighs  or  but- 
tock bones,  with  some  meat  to  them, 
two  shells  of  rumps,  two,  or  even 
four  chines,  not  cut  too  close  to  the 
neck,  and  two  shoulder  pieces,  with 
part  of  the  blade  bone  in  them,  well 
salted,  and  capped  with  St.  Ubes, 
or  other  coarse  salt.  The  tierces, 
whether  for  beef  or  pork,  must  be 
made  of  well-seasoned  oak,  with 
eight  wooden  and  three  iron  hoops 
on  each  end. 

"  No  pains  to  be  spared  in  prepa- 
ring and  putting  up,  as  the  neat  and 
tasty  appearance  of  the  packages  will 
ensure  a  more  ready  sale  than  if  put 
up  in  a  slovenly  manner. 

"  It  may  be  useful  to  see  the  mode 
of  cutting  up  the  carcass  of  an  ox  in 
London.  The  provisions  exported 
from  that  metropolis  rule  the  trade 
in  the  West  India  Islands,  and  ia 
other  distant  places  abroad.  It  is 
very  proper,  therefore,  that  American 
packers  should  understand  the  Eng- 
lish methods. 

"  The  relative  value  of  the  differ- 
ent cuts  of  an  ox  may  be  stated  at 
their  current  value,  viz.  :  when  the 
rumps,  loins,  and  fore  ribs  of  a  fine 
ox  fetch  Sd.  a  pound,  the  thick  flank, 
buttock,  and  middle  rib  will  fetch  6(/. ; 
the  itch  or   adze  bone,  thin   flank, 


MED 


mi:d 


chuck-rib,  brisket,  and  leg  of-mutton 
piece,  5d.  ;  the  clod  and  sticking,  and 
neck,  3d. ;  and  the  legs  and  shins,  2(Z. 
a  pound.  Such  is  the  difference  in 
value  of  the  diffei-ent  cuts  of  an  ox 
in  the  meat  markets  in  London. 

"  It  is  well  to  observe  that  the 
greatest  attention  should  be  paid  to 
making  the  brine  or  pickle,  whether 
for  beef  or  pork.  Pure  water  should 
he  used  in  its  manufacture  ;  for  the 
sediment  from  that  which  is  impure 
will  settle  down  upon  the  meat,  and 
give  it  a  bad  colour  and  a  slimy  feel. 
Whether  river  or  rain  water  is  used 
(and  soft  water  sliould  always  be  pre- 
ferred), it  would  be  exceedingly  desi- 
rable to  tilter  it  through  sand,  or,  at 
least,  to  strain  it.  A  great  deal  of 
beef  and  pork  is  utterly  unfit  for  ex- 
portation by  the  use  of  unfiltered  wa- 
ter in  making  the  brine. 

'•  In  packing  provisions,  the  tier- 
ces, barrels,  &c.,  should  be  made 
with  great  care  and  neatness.  Clean, 
handsome  ash  staves  are  preferred, 
and  of  such  other  hard,  close-grained 
woods  as  will  not  stain  the  meat. 
Tierces  should  have  four  iron  hoops, 
or  three — one  at  each  bilge  and  one 
at  each  chime  ;  barrels^  with  an  iron 
hoop  at  each  chime.  The  fuller  hoop- 
ed the  barrel  or  tierce  is,  the  better." 

MECHANICAL  POWERS.  The 
simple  machines,  the  lever,  pulley, 
wheel  and  axle,  rope  machine,  wedge, 
and  screw. 

MECHOACAX.  Convolvulus  pan- 
duratus.  Wild  potato  vine.  A  peren- 
nial, herbaceous  bindweed,  with  tu- 
berous root,  of  a  slightly  cathartic 
property. 

MECONIG  ACID  (from  meconium, 
opium).  The  acid  with  which  mor- 
phia is  combined.  It  is  tribasic,  white, 
crystalline,  acid,  and  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol :  the  solution  turns  red 
when  a  per  salt  of  iron  is  introduced 
into  it.  Formula,  3  HO  C14  HO,i-{- 
G  HO  (Graham),  with  6  atoms  of  wa- 
ter of  crystallization.  Comenic  and 
pyro-meconic  acids  are  derivatives. 

MECONIUM.  Opium.  The  ex- 
crement found  in  the  intestines  of 
new-born  animals. 

MEDIAS  riNIJM.  The  portion  of 
Tt 


the  cavity  of  the  chest  made  by  the 
folding  of  its  membrane  (pleura). 

M  E  D  I  C.  The  genus  Mcdicago. 
The  principal  species  is  the  M.  sativa, 
lucern.  They  are  mostly  small  an- 
nuals, with  minute  leguminous  flow- 
ers, are  all  very  nutritious  and  readily 
propagated.  M.  lupulina,  or  black 
medic,  is  indigenous,  but  small ;  M. 
falcala,  yellow  medic,  has  been  recom- 
mended lor  cultivation,  and  is  hardi- 
er, although  not  so  luxuriant  or  suc- 
culent as  lucern :  it  is  perennial. 
They  all  prefer  a  dry,  calcareous,  01 
marly  soil. 

MEDICINES  FOR  CATTLE.  See 
PkarmacopcBia. 

MEDIUM.  In  science,  the  sub- 
stance in  which  any  body  is  immer- 
sed. It  is  called  rare,  dense,  opaque, 
or  transparent,  according  to  its  na- 
ture. It  causes  resistance  to  motion, 
and,  more  especially,  acts  upon  the 
passage  of  light,  bending  (refracting) 
It  from  its  straight  course.  Astron- 
omers  are  disposed  to  admit  the  ex- 
istence of  a  very  rare  medium  or 
ether  beyond  the  earth's  atmosphere, 
filling  the  space  of  our  solar  system. 

MED  L  A  R.  31espilus  Germanica. 
A  European  tree  resembling  the  pear ; 
the  fruit  is  about  two  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  llattened  ;  it  is  very  hard 
and  austere  until  decayed,  when  it 
becomes  of  a  pleasant  acid  sweet- 
ness. The  Dutch  and  Nottingham 
varieties  are  best ;  but  as  the  fruit 
keeps  only  for  a  short  time  when 
ripe,  and  is  in  no  way  handsome,  it 
is  but  little  cultivated.  The  wood  is 
hard  and  tough,  resembling  that  of 
the  apple  and  pear.  It  is  propagated 
in  the  same  way  as  these  trees. 

MEDULLA.  Marrow,  pith,  the 
pith  of  herbaceous  plants.  The  me- 
dulla oblongata  is  the  uppermost  por- 
tion of  the  spinal  marrow,  which  is 
sometimes  called  the  medulla,  and  its 
membranous  coverings  the  medulla- 
rtj  sheath.  The  same  term  is  used  in 
botany  to  designate  the  vessels  sur- 
rounding the  pith  of  exogenous  plants. 

MEDULLARY  RAYS.  The  sil- 
ver grain  of  wood,  a  prolongation  of 
the  pith  of  trees  from  the  centre  to 
the  bark,  in  exogens. 

493 


\ 


MEL 

MEDULLARY  SUBSTANCE.: 
The  whitp,  internal  portions  of  the  [ 
brain.  Mcdullanj  tumours  contain  a  j 
substance  of  the  same  appearance. 

MEDULLIN.  T[ie  pith  of  plants  ;  [ 
the  cellulose  of  Payen,  to  a  consider-  ! 
able  extent. 

MEERS,  MERES.  Pools,  lakes, 
ponds. 

MELASOMES,  MELASOMA.  A 
tribe  of  heteromerous  coleoptera,  of 
a  black  or  dark  uniform  colour. 

MELASSIC  ACID.  The  product 
of  heat  and  alkalies  on  solutions  of 
grape  sugar  ;  the  acid  of  molasses. 

MELIC  GRASS.  Mclica.  A  ge- 
nus of  perennial,  harsh  grasses,  but 
little  esteemed.  M.  spccwsa  is  the 
only  indigenous  species :  it  grows 
near  Charlestown,  South  Carolina. 
Some  species  are  made  into  domestic 
brooms  and  baskets  in  Europe. 

M  E  L I  L  O  T.  Tnfoliu  m  officinale. 
"  The  melilotus,  or  honey-lotus  of 
botanists,  so  called  from  its  smell,  is 
a  tall,  yellow-flowered  annual.  It  has 
loose  racemes  of  small  flowers,  form- 
ed like  those  of  clover,  of  which  it 
was  once  regarded  as  a  species. 
The  melilotus  has  long  roots,  and  a 
branching  stem  two  or  three  feet 
high.  It  grows  wild  in  woods,  hedg- 
es, and  neglected  fields.  "When  cul- 
tivated in  a  dry  soil  and  made  into 
hay,  it  has  a  powerful  aromatic  smell, 
and,  mixed  in  a  small  proportion  with 
meadow  hay,  gives  it  an  agreeable 
flavour.  This  plant  is  used  in  ma- 
king the  Swiss  cheese  called  Schab- 
zieger.  It  is  ground  in  a  mill,  and 
mixed  with  the  curd  into  a  kind  of 
paste,  which  is  put  into  conical 
moulds  and  there  dried. 

"  The  white  or  Siberian  melilot  (M. 
alba)  rises  several  feet  high,  with  a 
strong,  branching  stem,  often  six  feet 
high.  It  was  strongly  recommended 
by  Tliouin,  in  a  memoir  addressed  to 
the  Agricultural  Society  of  Paris  in 
1788,  and  has  been  tried  occasionally 
with  some  success  by  various  agri- 
culturists, without,  however,  having 
been  so  generally  adopted  for  cultiva- 
tion as  might  have  been  expected  from 
the  high  encomiums  pas.sed  upon  it. 
It  will  bear  four  cuttings  in  the  year, 
494 


MEL 

and  produces  a  very  great  quantity 
of  green  fodder.  It  should  be  cut  be- 
fore the  stems  become  woody,  and 
thus  it  will  continue  several  years  in 
the  ground,  although  it  is  naturally 
only  biennial.  A  light  and  moist  soil 
suits  this  plant  best.  It  is  thorough- 
ly acclimated." 

MELILOTUS  MAJOR.  Bokhara 
clover.  See  Clover.  It  grows  nine 
feet  high,  but  becomes  woody  when 
above  two  feet. 

MELLIPHAGANS  (from  fic?.i, 
honey,  and  <j>a-/u,  I  eat).  A  family  of 
birds  ( Tenuirostcrs),  some  of  whom 
feed  on  honey. 

MELOE.  A  genus  of  coleopterous 
insects.  The  wings  are  wanting;  the 
outer  cases  oval  or  triangular  ;  abdo- 
men large.  They  crawl  on  the  ground 
and  low  plants,  and  are  remarkable 
for  the  blistering  power  they  possess. 

MELOLONTHIANS.  The  family 
of  coleopterans  to  which  the  May-bug, 
or  cockchafTer,  belongs  {Melolontha 
vulffaris). 

MELON.  Cucumis  melo.  An 
Asiatic  fruit,  of  the  family  Cucurbita- 
cecE,  much  improved  by  cultivation. 
The  best  varieties  are  Skillman'snet' 
ted,  green-fleshed  citron,  green-flesh- 
ed nutmeg,  large  yellow  cantaleup, 
green-fleshed  Persian,  pineapple,  and 
musk-scented.  The  first  is,  for  the 
most  part,  cultivated  for  the  New- 
York  market.  The  varieties  of  mel- 
on require  a  rich,  sandy  soil ;  it  should 
be  well  prepared  and  rich,  a  spade  of  H 
old  dung  being  dug  into  the  place  .H 
where  the  seeds  are  dropped.  Sow 
in  shallow  hills,  five  or  si.x  leet  apart 
each  way,  soon  in  .May.  Six  to  ten 
seeds  to  the  hill  will  be  enough,  one 
ounce  serving  for  100  hills :  plant 
over  in  ten  days,  if  the  seeds  fail. 
They  are  to  be  managed  like  cucum- 
bers, two  or  three  plants  being  left  in 
the  hill.  When  fine  fruit  is  preferred 
to  great  numbers,  the  branches  should 
be  summer-pruned  after  a  few  melons 
are  set ;  otherwise,  when  many  are 
required,  the  first  fruits,  near  the 
centre,  should  be  plucked  off.  The 
fruit  ripens  in  six  weeks  :  it  should 
part  from  the  stem  readily,  be  very 
fragrant,  and  well  cracked  or  marked. 


MKR 


MET 


Never  plant  melons  near  other  cucur- 
bitacea;,  and  keep  choice  kinds  quite 
separate.  The  Persians  cover  tiie 
younij  melons  with  leaves  and  a  little 
earth,  to  obtain  them  larger  and  more 
tender.  An  acre,  well  planted,  will 
produce  400  bushels  of  cantaleups. 
Guano  and  a  compost  of  fowl  dung 
are  especially  reputed  as  manures  for 
melons. 

MELON,  WATER.  Cumrbita  ci- 
trullus.  Varieties  :  New-Jersey,  (Car- 
olina, dark-skinned  Spanish,  Good- 
win's imperial. 

They  require  a  loose,  dry,  sandy 
soil,  made  rich  as  for  the  muskmel- 
on  ;  hills  six  to  eight  feet  apart.  An 
ounce  of  seed  serves  for  forty  or  fif- 
ty hills.  The  skins  make  good  pre- 
serves with  spices.  The  juice  is  fer- 
mented into  a  beer  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  :  when  boiled  down  to  a 
proper  consistence,  it  makes  a  good 
sirup. 

MEMBRANE.  The  tissue  or  ex- 
pansion of  animal  or  vegetable  mat- 
ter surrounding  the  bones  and  lining 
cavities.  That  lining  the  intestinal 
and  urinary  apparatus  is  mucous. 
The  fibrous  membrane  covers  all  the 
bones  and  many  muscles ;  and  the 
serous  tissue  exists  on  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  lungs  and  intestines,  &c. 

MENDING.  Improving  the  tex- 
ture or  quality  of  land. 

MENISCUS.  A  lens,  concave  on 
one  side  and  convex  on  the  other. 

MENISPERMIC  ACID.  An  or- 
ganic acid  in  Cocculus  Indicus. 

MENSTRUUxM.  Any  fluid  which 
dissolves  a  given  solid. 

MENSURATION.  The  admeas- 
urement of  the  contents  of  solids  or 
areas  of  surfaces. 

MENTUM.  The  chin.  The  low- 
er and  anterior  portion  of  the  under 
jaw  of  animals. 

MENYNGES,  or  MENINGES. 
The  membranes  which  cover  the 
brain. 

MEPHITIS.  A  noxious  vapour; 
hence  mepiiitic. 

MERCURY.  Quicksilver,  fluid, 
white,  brilliant :  sp.  gr.,  13-5  ;  freezes 
at  — 40^  ;  boils  at  660°,  rising  in  va- 
pour unchanged  ;  equivalent,  101-43  ; 


symbol,  Hg.  {Hydrargyrum).  It  is 
soluble  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  oxides 
combine;  with  numerous  acids.  Cal- 
omel is  a  chloride  of  mercury  ;  cor' 
rosivc  sublimate,  a  bichloride,  has  been 
used  to  preserve  timber,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  fatal  poisons. 

MERCURY,  MERCURIALIS.  A 
genus  of  insignificant  weeds. 

MERIDIAN  (from  mcr'uUes,  mid- 
day). A  great  circle  passing  through 
the  zenith  of  any  place  and  the  North 
and  South  Pole,  on  which  the  sun 
comes  at  12  o'clock.  The  magnetic 
needle  lies  nearly  in  the  meridian,  the 
departure  from  this  line  being  called 
its  variation  east  or  west. 

MERINO  SHEEP.     See  Sheep. 

MESENTERY.  The  membrane 
which  binds  the  small  intestines  to 
the  back  bone  ;  it  is  a  fold  of  the  per- 
itoneum, and  contains  the  vessels, 
nerves,  and  absorbents,  going  to  or 
from  the  bowels. 

MESITE,  MESITEN.  Substances 
existing  in  wood  spirit. 

MESITYLENE.  An  oily  product 
from  acetone. 

MESLIN.  In  Spain,  a  union  of 
flocks  ;  more  commonly  a  mixture 
of  seeds  sown  together,  as  wheat  and 
rye,  oats  and  pease,  &c. 

MESO  (from  /^fffof,  middle).  An 
affix  to  many  compound  words,  mean- 
ing the  middle. 

MESOCOLON.  The  membrane 
surrounding  the  colon. 

M  E  S  O  P  H  Y  L  (from  ixeaoc,  and 
(^vl7.ov,  a  leaf).  The  central  layer 
of  the  leaf;  we  have  also  mesocarp, 
the  fleshy  part  of  the  fruit. 

MESOTHORAX  (from  fiecoc,  and 
^(jpa^,  the  chest).  In  entomology, 
the  posterior  segment  of  the  thorax, 
bearing  the  second  pair  of  wings  and 
third  pair  of  legs. 

MESOTYPE.  The  silicate  of  alu- 
mina and  soda  ;  it  occurs  in  trap  and 
ancient  lavas. 

MESTA.     A  mixture  of  flocks. 

META  (from  jiera,  between).  A 
prefix  to  many  compound  words. 

METABOLIANS.  Insects  which 
undergo  complete  metamorphosis. 

METACARPAL.  That  portion  of 
the  hand  between  the  lingers  and 
495 


MET 

wrist ;  metatarsal  is  the  same  part  in 
the  foot. 

METAGALLIC  ACID.  Galhc 
acid  changed  by  licat ;  its  formula  is 
Cij  H..,  O3. 

METALLOID.  Potassium,  sodium, 
and  other  alkaline  metals  ;  it  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  inflammable  el- 
ements, as  sulphur,  phosphorus. 

METALS.  Elementary  bodies,  re- 
markable for  their  lustre  ;  they  con- 
duct electricity  and  heat,  and  are  neg- 
ative electrics.  The  following  table 
gives  their  names,  specific  gravity, 
and  melting  points : 


Names  of  Metals. 

Specific 

Melting 

Gravity. 

Points. 

i''a/tr. 

1.  Gold        .... 

19-25 

2016" 

2.  Silver      . 

10-47 

1873 

3.  Iron 

7-78 

C2800? 

(  Smith'efbrgo. 

4.  Copper  . 

8-89 

1996 

5.  Mercury 

13-56 

—39 

6.  Lead 

11-35 

612 

7.  Tin 

7-29 

442 

8.  Antimony 

6--0 

9.  Bismuth 

9-80 

497 

10.  Zinc 

-7-00 

773 

11.  Arsenic  , 

5-88 

12.  Cobalt    . 

8-53 

2810? 

13.  Platinum 

20-)8 

(  oxyhydrogen 
>      blowpipe. 

H.  Nickel     . 

8-37 

2810? 

15.  Manganese 

6-85 

Smith's  forge. 

16.  Tungsten 

17-60 

17.  Tellurium 

6-11 

620? 

18.  Molybdenum 

7-40 

1      ° 

19.  Uranium 

9-00 

^ 

20.  Titanium 

5-30 

<< 

21.  Chromium 

22.  Columbmm 



"^■3 

23.  Palladium 

11-50 

■  a'J 

24.  Rhodium 

" 

2.5.  Iridium  . 



sr 

26.  Osmium 



i 

27.  Cerium  . 

. 

1 

28.  Potassium 

0-86    - 

136 

29.  Sodium  . 

0-97 

190 

30.  narium  . 





ST.  Strontium 





32.  Calcium 



. 

33.  Cadmium 

8-60 

442 

34.  Lithium  . 



3.5.  Silicium  . 





36.  Zirconium 



. . 

37.  Aluminum 





38.  Glucinum. 





39.  yttrium  . 





40.  Thorium 





41.   M.asnesium 





4-2.  Vanadium 





METAMORPHOSIS  (from  fiera, 
change,  and  uopcpri,  form).  Transform- 
ation. In  entomology,  the  changes 
the  metabolian  insects  pass  through 
of  larva,  pupa,  and  imago.  In  botany, 
the  doctrine  that  the  flowers,  sta- 
mens, carpels,  and  seeds  are  modifi- 
cations of  the  leaf 

METAPHOSPHORIC  ACID.  See 
Phosphorus. 

METASTASIS  (from  uera,  change, 
496 


MIC 

and  araaic,  place).  The  change  of  an 
affection  or  pain  from  one  part  of  the 
body  to  another. 

Metayer,  a  farmer  who  rents 
land  at  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
crop,  usually  half,  the  owner  finding 
tools  and  animals. 

METEOROLOGY  (from  fzereopuc, 
aerial,  and  ?.oyoc).  The  science  which 
treats  of  the  physical  changes  occur- 
ring in  the  atmosphere,  the  formation 
of  clouds,  fogs,  rain,  winds,  and  the 
phenomena  of  lightning. 

METEORITE,  AEROLITE.  The 
masses  of  metallic  iron  occasionally 
precipitated  to  the  earth  ;  they  are 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  the 
moon  :  showers  of  many  hundreds 
have  sometimes  fallen  together. 

METEORS.  The  transitory  phe- 
nomena occurring  in  the  air  ;  thus, 
aerial  meteors  are  winds,  tornadoes, 
&c.  ;  aqueous  meteors  are  rains,  hail, 
fogs ;  luminous  meteors  are  halos, 
rainbows,  lightning,  northern  lights. 

METHEGLIN.    Mead. 

METHOL.  A  hydrocarbon,  ob- 
tained by  distilling  xyhte  with  sul- 
phuric acid. 

METHYL.  A  volatile,  combusti- 
ble spirit,  soluble  in  water,  closely 
resembling  alcohol,  is  obtained  from 
wood,  and  contains  this  compound 
radical,  symbol  Me. ;  formula,  C2  H.-) ; 
it  has  not  been  isolated.  Numerous 
compounds  of  methyl  are  known. 

MEZEREOX.  Daphne  mczereum. 
A  highly  ornamental  shrub  with  pink 
flowers,  the  spurge  laurel .-  the  w  hole 
plant  is  poisonous.  It  is  readily  cul- 
tivated, although  exotic. 

MEZZANINE.  In  architecture,  a 
low  story  introduced  between  two 
taller  ones. 

MIASM.  Malaria,  infectious  va- 
pours from  marshes,  &c. 

MICA.  Isinglass,  silver.  A  bright 
laminated  mineral  of  every  colour, 
elastic,  and  more  or  less  transparent. 
An  ingredient  in  granite  and  most 
ancient  rocks,  often  occurring  in 
large  sheets,  and  used  as  a  substitute 
for  glass.  It  consists  of  silica,  42 ; 
alumina,  16  ;  magnesia,  25  ;  potash, 
7i  ;  manganese,  iron,  &c.,  9-5  in  100 
parts. 


MICA  SLATE.  A  transition  slate, 
full  of  bright  specks  of  mica  mixed 
with  quartz. 

MICROMETER.  An  instrument 
affixed  to  microscopes  and  telescopes 
for  measuring  the  size  of  objects. 

MICROPYLE.  In  botany,  a  small 
hole  over  the  apex  of  the  nucleus  of 
a  seed. 

MICROSCOSMIC  SALT.  Phos- 
phate of  ammonia  and  soda,  used  in 
blowpipe  analysis. 

MICROSCOPE  (from  lUih-pof,  small, 
and  oKo-eu,  I  vieiv).  An  optical  in- 
strument which  enables  us  to  see  and 
examine  objects  which  are  too  mi- 
nute to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 
Microscopes  are  single  or  compound, 
according  to  the  nature  of  their  con- 
struction ;  a  single  microscope  being 
one  through  which,  whether  it  con- 
sists of  a  single  lens  or  a  combina- 
tion of  lenses,  the  object  is  viewed 
directly  ;  and  a  compound  microscope 
one  in  which  two  or  more  lenses  are 
so  arranged  that  an  enlarged  image 
of  the  object  formed  by  one  of  them 
is  magnified  by  the  second,  or  by  the 
others,  if  there  are  more  than  two, 
and  seen  as  if  it  were  the  object  it- 
self. A  single  microscope  is  no  more 
than  a  magnifying  glass. 

MIDDEN.    A  dung  heap. 

MIDDLE  RAIL.  The  central  rail 
of  the  door,  on  which  the  lock  is 
placed. 

MIDRIB  OF  A  LEAF.  The  cen- 
tral collection  of  woody  fibres  and 
vessels  ;  the  prolongation  of  the  leaf 
stem. 

MIDRIFF.  The  diaphragm;  the 
muscle  which  divides  the  cavity  of 
tiie  chest  from  the  abdomen. 


Fig.  1. 


-MIL 

MIGNONETTE.  Reseda  odorata 
An  annual,  but  may  become  peren- 
nial by  keeping  in  a  hot-house  during 
winter  and  pruning. 

MIGRATORY.  Of  the  habit  of 
migrating  or  moving  with  the  season 
to  the  north  or  south,  as  numerous 
birds  and  fishes. 

MILDEW.  This  is  a  thin  and  whi- 
tish coating  with  which  the  leaves 
of  vegetables  are  sometimes  covered, 
occasioning  their  decay  and  death, 
and  injuring  the  health  of  the  plant. 
It  is  frequently  found  on  the  leaves 
of  hop,  pea,  hazel,  fruit-trees,  and 
the  white  and  yellow  dead-nettle  ;  it 
is  found  also  on  wheat,  in  the  shape 
of  a  glutinous  exudation,  particularly 
when  the  days  are  hot  and  the  nights 
without  dew.  J.  Robertson  {Hort. 
Trans.,  v.,  178)  considers  it  as  a  mi- 
nute fungus,  of  which  different  spe- 
cies attack  different  plants.  Sulphur 
he  has  found  to  be  a  specific  cure. 
In  cultivated  crops  mildew  is  said  to 
be  prevented  by  manuring  with  soot; 
though  by  some  this  is  denied,  and 
soot,  by  rendering  the  crop  more  lux- 
uriant, is  said  to  be  an  encourager  of 
mildew,  the  richest  parts  of  a  field 
being  always  most  infected  by  it.  As 
it  is  least  common  in  airy  situations, 
thinning  and  ventilation  may  be  con- 
sidered as  preventives. 

Liming,  the  use  of  salt,  and  saline 
manures  generally  act  as  prevent- 
atives. The  varieties  of  mildew  are 
many,  the  Puccinia  graminis  being 
that"  affecting  wheat  and  grasses. 
See  TJreio.  The  eflTects  of  mildew  and 
bhght  have  sometimes  been  averted 
by  lighting  fires  to  windward,  so  that 
the  smoke  swept  over  the  field,  and 


Fis.  2. 


T  T  2 


497 


MIL 


MIL 


also  by  drawing  a  rope  tliroiigh  the 
field  and  moving  it  across  the  wheat 
or  grain  in  the  morning  wiicn  the  dew 
was  on  the  plants  in  dull  weather. 
One  of  the  commonest  forms  of  the 
white  mildew  that  covers  leaves  is 
that  of  the  Aspergillus  {Fig.  \) :  a  is 
the  plant  enlarged.  The  mildew  of 
roots,  which  destroys  potatoes,  &:c., 
is  usually  the  Rhizoctonia  (Fig.  2). 

MILE.  1760  yards.  The  sea  mile 
is  l-60th  of  a  degree,  or  2025  vards. 

MILFOIL.  Achillea  milUfolmm. 
Yarrow.  A  common  flowering  plant 
in  meadows,  marking  a  good  soil. 

MILIARY.  Granulated,  like  many 
small  seeds. 

MILK.  The  secretion  of  the  mam- 
mary glands,  but  especially  that  from 
the  cow.  Its  composition  varies 
somewhat,  but  averages  per  cent.,  of 
curd  or  casein,  4-5  parts  ;  of  butter, 
3-2  ;  milk-sugar,  48  ;  saline  matters, 
•60  ;  water,  86-9.  The  butter  is  held 
in  suspension  in  the  milk,  but  sep- 
arates when  it  is  heated  or  much 
shaken.  The  specific  gravity  of 
fresh  milk  is  1  03.  The  flavour  and 
quality  of  milk  vary  much  with  pas- 
ture and  food  ;  it  is  also  affected  by 
cleanliness.  See  Butter,  Cheese,  Cow. 
Milk  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time 
sweet  if  heated  in  bottles  to  180° 
Fahrenheit  and  tightly  corked  while 
the  steam  is  issuing,  and  immediately 
after  removing  it  from  the  fire. 

MILK  FEVER.  Puerperal  fever. 
"  Cows  in  high  condition  are  most  sub- 
ject to  this  fever.  This  inflammato- 
ry disease  sometimes  appears  as  ear- 
ly as  two  hours  after  parturition.  If 
fourorfive  days  have  elapsed,  the  ani- 
mal may  generally  be  considered  safe. 
On  the  appearance  of  the  fever,  from 
six  to  ten  quarts  of  blood  should  be 
taken,  according  to  the  age  and  size 
of  the  animal.  The  bowels  must  be 
opened,  or  the  disease  will  run  its 
course ;  and  purging  once  established 
in  an  early  stage,  the  fever  will,  in 
the  majority  of  instances,  rapidly  sub- 
side, leaving  the  strength  of  the  con- 
stitution untouched."  Calomel  pur- 
ges are  best  in  the  first  stage. 

MILK  CELLARS.     Dairy. 

MILKING.  "  When  you  milk, 
498 


take  a  vessel  of  cold  water  and  sponge. 
Wash  the  udder  and  teats  clean,  dash- 
ing on  the  cold  water.  This  will  pre- 
vent the  teats  from  becoming  sore, 
and  the  udder  hot  and  feverish.  Milk 
with  clean  hands.  The  whole  busi- 
ness of  milking  is  frequently  conduct- 
ed in  such  a  slovenly  manner  that 
the  milk  is  entirely  unfit  for  food. 
The  cow  should  be  milked  while  eat- 
ing her  fodder  at  morning  and  even- 
ing. She  should  always  be  milked 
and  fed  at  the  same  time  in  the  day, 
and  uniformly  by  the  same  person. 
Milk  without  interruption.  Be  sure 
to  milk  the  cow  as  dry  as  possible. 
To  be  milked  by  different  hands,  at 
different  times  in  the  day,  in  a  slow, 
interrupted  manner,  and  leaving  part 
of  the  milk  in  the  udder,  will  ruin  the 
best  cow  in  the  world.  If  the  cow 
have  sore  teats,  foment  them  before 
milking  with  warm  w-ater,  and  after- 
ward dress  them  with  the  following 
salve  :  Melt  together  one  oz.  of  yel- 
low wax  and  three  oz.  of  lard,  and  as 
these  begin  to  get  cool,  rub  in  a  quar- 
ter of  an  oz.  of  sugar  of  lead,  and 
a  drachm  of  finely-pounded  aloes." — 
(Youatt.) 

MILK  SICKNESS.  Trembles.  A 
frightful,  contagious  disease,  attack- 
ing the  cattle  of  certain  districts  of 
the  Western  States,  more  especially 
Indiana  and  Illinois  ;  one  of  the  in- 
fected districts  lies  for  100  miles 
near  the  banks  of  the  Wabash.  The 
animals  are  poisoned  by  some  arti- 
cle of  food  or  drink  ;  their  breath  is 
foetid,  eyes  blood-shot,  gait  stagger- 
ing and  wild  ;  when  driven,  they  fall 
into  convulsions,  and  frequently  die. 
The  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  meat 
of  such  animals  are  highly  poisonous, 
two  or  three  ounces  bringing  on  the 
same  disease  in  man  and  other  ani- 
mals in  from  six  hours  to  four  days. 
In  man  it  com.mences  with  foetid 
breath,  general  uneasiness,  lassitude, 
loss  of  nervous  power,  vomiting  fre- 
quently with  blood,  loss  of  appetite, 
constipation,  loss  of  biliary  secre- 
tion, and,  finally,  all  the  symptoms  of 
low  typhus  fever,  with  nervous  tre- 
mours  and  delirium,  the  brain  and  me- 
ninges becoming  inflamed  :  it  is  very 


MIL 


MIL 


fatal.  The  cheese  and  butter  of  the 
infected  districts  are  abundantly  ex- 
ported to  St.  Louis,  Louisville,  &c., 
and  frequently  produce  fatal  effects. 
It  IS  probable  that  the  extensive  poi- 
soning in  this  city  (Xew-York)  in  the 
spring  of  1840  arose  from  cheese  im- 
ported thence. 

The  treatment  is  very  doubtful, 
but  should  proceed  as  in  typhus  fe- 
vers, by  sustaining  the  strength,  and 
allaying  nervous  irritability. 

There  seems  to  be  much  connex- 
ion between  this  peculiar  disease  and 
the  malignant  pustule,  which  affects 
cattle  in  Europe,  and  occasionally 
the  seaboard  states,  except  only  that 
it  is  said  to  be  strictly  local  in  places 
now  infested,  having  been  so  for  100 
years,  as  known  to  the  settlers,  and 
there  is  no  pustule  produced. 

MILK  PARSLEY.  Sclinumpalus- 
trc.  A  perennial,  herbaceous  weed, 
growing  in  wet  places  in  Europe  ; 
the  roots  are  acrid,  and  said  to  serve 
the  Russians  for  ginger. 

MILK,  SUGAR  OF.     See  Milk. 

MILK-TREE,  COW-TREE.  Pa- 
lo de  leche,  Galactodcndron  duke.  A 
tree  of  Upper  South  America  (Carac- 
cas),  of  the  same  family  as  the  fig 
( Urticacea).  The  sap  obtained  by  tap- 
ping is  precisely  like  milk,  and  very 
palatable;  it  contains  a  creamy  matter  i 
like  bees"  wax,  fibrin,  sugar,  an  acid, 
salts,  and  water.  Other  trees  about 
Maracaibo  yield  good  milk,  as  the 
Clusea  galactodcndron.  In  the  East, 
at  Ceylon,  the  Tabcrnamontana  utilis 
also  yields  a  good  milk.  The  rnilky 
juice  of  most  plants  is  acrid,  and  oft- 
en very  poisonous. 

MILK  VESSELS.  In  plants,  the 
anastomosing  tubes  lying  in  the  bark 
or  near  the  surface  of  plants,  in  which 
a  white  turbid  fluid  is  secreted  ;  they 
are  one  of  the  forms  of  the  vital  veins  I 
(latici/erons)  of  Schahz,  the  fluid  being 
called  the  latex.  I 

MILK  VETCH.  Plants  of  the 
genus  Astragalus :  they  are  legumi- 
nous, wholesome  weeds.  The  A. 
bwlicus  is  cultivated  for  its  seeds, 
which  resemble  cofli'ee. 

MILK  WORT.  Plants  of  the  ge- 
nus Polygula,  mostly  annuals,  with 


pretty  leguminous  flowers  ;  the  roots 
are  often  medicinal,  especially  the  P. 
Senega,  or  snake-root. 

MILL.     A  machine  in  which  va- 
rious   substances    are    crushed    or 
]  ground  bv  a  rotatory  motion.     See 
!  Gnst  Mill  Oil  Mill. 
I      MILLEPEDE.     The  thousand 
feet ;  the  centipede. 

MILLET.  Several  distinct  plants 
are  known  under  this  name,  two  of 
which  arc  much  cultivated,  viz.,  the 
common  millet  {Paiucum  miliaccum), 
and  the  doura  or  Indian  millet  (Sor- 
ghum vulgare).  Besides  these,  there 
is  a  Polish  millet  {Digitaria  sangui- 
nalis),  German  millet  {Setaria  Ger- 
manica),  and  Italian  millet  {S.  Italtca), 
of  which  the  Polish  only  is  at  all  cul- 
tivated now. 

Common  millet  rises  from  three  to 
four  feet  high,  is  like  a  reed,  and  bears 
a  large  loose  panicle  of  seeds  hang- 
ing on  one  side. 

"  Culture. — This  plant  will  grow 
upon  any  soil  of  tolerable  richness, 
though  it  does  best  on  a  loam.  The 
ground  should  be  prepared  as  for  or- 
dinary crops.  The  seed  may  be  sown 
broad-cast,  and  covered  with  the  har- 
row. If  sown  early,  the  crop  may  be 
gathered  in  August,  though  if  sown 
any  time  before  the  25th  of  June  it 
will  come  to  maturity.  If  seed  is  the 
object,  four  quarts  of  seed  to  the 
acre  will  be  enough  ;  but  if  intended 
principally  for  cattle  feed,  the  quan- 
tity of  seed  may  be  increased  to  eight 
quarts.  Birds  are  fond  of  the  seed, 
and  devour  it  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
ripen  ;  the  crop  should  be,  therefore, 
cut  before  the  whole  has  matured, 
and  while  the  straw  is  green.  It  may 
be  cut  with  a  sickle,  scythe,  or  cra- 
dle, and  should  be  housed  as  soon  as 
it  is  sufficiently  dry. 

"Product. — The  product  will  be  ac- 
cording to  the  soil,  and  will  vary  from 
10  to  30  bushels  of  seed,  and  from 
one  to  three  tons  of  forage  on  the 
acre.  It  sometimes  produces  more 
than  a  thousand  fold  return. 

"  Use. — We  have  found  it  an  excel- 
lent substitute  for  corn  in  fattening 
hogs,  either  ground  or  boiled,  and  its 
early  maturity  renders  it  particularly 
499 


iMIN 


MIS 


useful  for  this  purpose.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent food  for  poultry,  pigs,  and,  if 
ground,  would  probably  be  useful  for 
neat  cattle  and  horses.  The  straw 
is  eaten  freely  by  cattle,  and  both  the 
seed  and  straw  abound  in  nutritious 
matter." 

Indian  Millet. — This  plant  very 
closely  resembles  broom  corn,  ex- 
cept that  the  seeds  are  collected  to- 
gether in  a  bunch  at  the  top  of  the 
stalk.  It  grows  from  five  to  seven 
feet  high  ;  the  seeds  are  round,  yel- 
lowish, and  easily  thrashed.  It  re- 
quires the  same  management  as  In- 
dian corn,  but  may  be  sown  in  much 
closer  drills.  It  often  yields  80  bush- 
els per  acre  of  seed,  besides  an  abun- 
dant straw.  The  grain  is  good  fod- 
der for  horses,  cows,  pigs,  and  poul- 
try, and  forms  nearly  the  only  bread- 
stuff of  the  Arabians.  The  meal  is 
very  much  like  that  of  corn.  Eight 
quarts  of  seed  are  enough  for  the 
acre :  it  is  sown  in  May  on  land  pre- 
pared as  for  corn. 

MILLET  GRASS.  Milium.  The 
only  species  which  appears  to  be  cul- 
tivated is  the  M.  ejjusum  ;  this  is  per- 
ennial, from  four  to  eight  feet  high, 
with  a  loose,  spreading  panicle  :  it 
very  much  resembles  the  panic  grass- 
es. If  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  fall 
broad-cast,  and  raked  in,  it  will  ripen 
in  the  following  July.  It  is  indige- 
nous. 

MILL-STONE.  See  Buhr-slone. 
Conglomerates,  or  sandstones,  are 
sometimes  used  for  coarse  purposes, 
but  should  not  be  set  up  for  flouring. 

MILL-STONE  GRIT.  A  geologi- 
cal formation  immediately  under  the 
coal,  and  made  of  beds  of  coarse 
quartzoze  sandstone. 

MILSEY.  A  sieve  in  which  milk 
is  strained. 

MILVINES.  A  family  of  raptorial 
birds,  of  which  the  kite  {Milvus)  is  a 
member. 

MIMUS.  The  genus  of  passerine 
birds,  of  which  the  mocking-bird  {M. 
polijglottus)  is  a  species. 

MINUERERUS  SPIRIT.  Solu- 
tion of  acetate  of  ammonia,  a  febri- 
fuge. 

MINERALOGY.    The  science 
500 


which  has  for  its  object  the  exam- 
ination and  description  of  minerals. 

M  1  N  I  .M.  A  measure  equal  to  a 
drop  of  water:  there  are  sixty  min- 
ims in  a  fluid  drachm. 

MINIUM.  Red-lead,  used  in 
painting. 

MINT.  The  genus  Mentha,  but, 
especially,  the  M.  viridis,  or  green 
mint ;  a  well-known  fragrant  peren- 
nial, of  the  natural  family  Labiala, 
used  in  juleps,  with  pease,  &c.  The 
M.  ■piperita  yields  the  valuable  pep- 
permmt  oil. 

All  the  mints  are  creeping-rooted 
perennials  ;  they  require  a  rich,  moist 
soil,  and,  when  cultivated  for  their  oil, 
are  grown  in  beds  with  trenches  be- 
tween them  for  irrigation.  They  are 
propagated  from  pieces  of  stem,  set 
in  rows  six  inches  apart  each  way, 
in  April :  the  third  year  gives  a  full 
crop,  which  is  continued  for  five  or 
six  seasons.  The  plants  are  cut  as 
soon  as  the  flowers  expand,  and  dis- 
tilled while  fresh,  with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water,  the  essential  oil  pass- 
ing over  with  the  steam,  and  float- 
ing on  the  cooled  distilled  water : 
the  latter  forms  the  best  peppermint 
water. 

MINUS.  Less,  distinguished  by 
the  mark  — ,  and  used  in  physics  to 
designate  quantities  below  a  stand- 
ard ;  thus,  all  degrees  of  temperature 
below  zero  (0)  are  minus,  and  read 
minus  50,  — 30,  &c. 

MIOCENE  (from  /jeiuv,  less,  and 
Kaivoc,  recent).  The  intermediate 
portion  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  in  which 
some  seventeen  per  cent,  of  recent 
shells  are  discovered. 

M  I  R  A  G  E,  FATA  MORGANA, 
LOOMING.  An  optical  delusion,  in 
which  ships  and  objects  at  sea  appear 
depicted  against  the  clouds. 

MIRROR.  A  looking-glass,  spec- 
ulum, or  any  polished  surface,  used 
as  a  reflector.  Mirrors  are  plane, 
concave,  or  burning  (magnifying), 
and  convex,  or  minifying. 

MISCARRIAGE.     See  Abortion. 

MISLETOE.  Viscus  album,  verti' 
cillatum.  Shrubby,  parasitical  plants, 
growing  occasionally  on  large  trees. 
Manv   fabulous  virtues  are   attribu- 


MOL 


MON 


ted  to  it ;  sheep  are  said  to  be  very  , 
fond  of  the  leaves.     The  white  ber-  j 
ries  make  good  birdlime,  when  pre- 
pared, i 

MIST.     Fog. 

MITES.  Wingless  insects  of  the 
genus  Acariis,  inhabiting  animal  mat- 
ters in  certain  stages  of  decay.  Tlie 
cheese  mite  is  the  Acanis  domcsticus. 

MITRAL  V.\LVES.  The  valves 
of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart. 

MITRE.  In  building,  the  junction 
of  two  pieces  of  wood,  Sec,  by  cross 
fitting. 

MOCKING-BIRD.  A  species  of 
thrush.     See  Mimus. 

MIXEN.     A  compost. 

MOBILITY.  Capacity  tor  move- 
ment, mobile. 

MODILLON.  An  ornament,  or 
scroll,  placed  at  intervals  under  the 
corona. 

MOHAIR.  The  silky  hair  of  the 
Angora  goat,  used  for  camlets  and 
other  costly  stuffs. 

MOLARS,  MOLARES  (from  mola, 
a  mill).  The  grinding  teeth,  placed 
behind  the  incisors. 

MOLASSE.  A  soft,  green  sand- 
stone, of  the  miocene  epoch,  found 
in  Switzerland 

MOLASSES.  The  thick,  dark 
fluid  which  runs  from  the  Muscovado 
sugar  ;  it  consists  of  uncrystallizable 
sugar,  an  acid,  aromatic  bodies,  and 
water  :  when  fermented,  it  yields 
rum  by  distillation.  But  under  this 
name  the  refuse  of  the  sugar-house 
is  also  sold,  a  compound  which  is 
more  correctly  called  treacle.  The 
inspissated  juice  of  the  corn,  maple, 
&.C.,  is  also  called  molasses  by  some 
persons. 

MOLE.  The  American  mole  is  the 
Scalops  aquaticus,  an  animal  distinct 
from  the  European  (Talpa  Europea). 
Moles  live  in  pairs,  in  rich  soils 
abounding  in  worms,  slugs,  and  m- 
sects,  upon  which  they  feed  ;  they  do 
much  good  in  this  way,  and  should 
not  be  disturbed  unless  in  great  num- 
bers. They  may  be  destroyed  by  set- 
ting traps  in  their  paths  ;  the  trap  is 
no  more  than  a  half  cylinder  of  wood 
made  hollow,  each  end  of  which 
should  be  furnished  with  a  ring  con- 


taining a  noose,  orloop,  of  horsehair  ; 
these  are  loosely  fastened  in  the  cen- 
tre by  means  of  a  moveable  peg,  and 
the  hair  stretched  above  the  ground 
by  a  bent  stick  capable  of  springing 
up.  As  the  mole  passes,  he  forces 
the  central  peg  away  when  half 
through  the  trap,  and  the  spring  above, 
acting  on  the  hair,  draws  it  tightly 
and  strangles  the  animal. 

MOLE  CRICKET.  Achcta  gryllo- 
talpa.  Earth  crab.  A  kind  of  crick- 
et, with  a  remarkable  hand  like  a 
mole,  by  which  it  burrows  in  the  soil ; 
it  devours  the  roots  of  plants,  and  is 
often  very  injurious  to  meadows : 
when  found,  they  should  be  killed. 

MOLECULE.  An  atom  not  ca- 
pable of  being  reached  by  mechani- 
cal subdivision. 

MOLE  PLOUGH.  A  plough  pro- 
vided with  a  deep  sharp  foot  beneath 
the  sole  to  penetrate  the  earth.  See 
Draining. 

MOLE-TREE.  Euphorbia  lalhjrus. 
Spurge  caper,  epurge.  A  biennial 
herb,  the  fruit  of  which,  when  half 
ripe,  is  pickled  for  capers.  It  is  an 
acrid  plant,  and  was  supposed  to  be 
injurious  to  moles. 

MOLLITES  (from  mollis,  soft).  A 
disease  of  the  bones,  hoofs,  &c.,  in 
which  they  become  soft,  and  often 
flexible. 

MOLLUSKS,  MOLLUSCA.  The 
animals  inhabiting  shells,  and  those 
of  similar  conformation,  but  without 
that  covering  :  they  are  of  low  or- 
ganization, and  cold-blooded. 

MOLYBDENUM.  A  rare  metal, 
not  used  in  the  arts. 

MO.MENT,  MOMENTUM.  The 
available  force  of  a  moving  body  at 
any  time  ;  its  velocity  multiplied  into 
its  weight. 

MONADELPHOUS,  MONODEL- 
PHIA  (from  /novoc,  one,  and  a6e?.(pia, 
a  fratcrintij).  Flowers  in  which  the 
stamens  are  united  into  one  mass  by 
their  tilaments. 

MONANDROUS,  MONANDRIA 
(from  fiovor,  and  avrip,  male).  Plants 
or  flowers  having  one  stamen  only. 

MONAS,  plural  MONADS.  A  ge- 
nus of  extremely  minute  simple  poly- 
gastric  infusiorials. 

501 


MON 


MOO 


MON  I  LI  FORM  Resembling  a 
siring  of  beads. 

MONKSHOOD.  Acomtuni  napcl- 
lus.  Wolfsbane,  aconite.  Handsome 
perennial-rooted  plants,  witb  large 
blue  flowers,  inucli  cultivated.  Tbey 
are  very  poisonous  and  narcotic.  An 
extract  of  tbe  leaves  of  monkshood  is 
used  in  medicine. 

MONO  (from  fiovo^,  one,  single).  An 
affix  to  many  compound  words. 

MONOCHROMATIC  (from  jiovo^, 
and  xP^I^'^1  colour).  Having  but  one 
colour,  incapable  of  decomposition  by 
the  prism. 

MONOCHLAMYDE.^,  MONO- 
CHLAMYDEOUS  (from  fiovo<:,  and 
Xkafiv^,  a  coat).  Flowers  with  only 
one  envelope,  or  perianth,  as  the  tu- 
lip, lily.  Those  furnished  with  a  ca- 
lyx also,  are  called  diclamydeous. 

MONOCOTYLEDONS,  MONO- 
COTYLEDONIA  (from  iiovo^,  and 
KOTvlsduv,  lobe).  Endbgens.  Those 
plants  and  trees  the  seeds  of  w-hich 
have  but  one  lobe,  as  grasses  and 
palms. 

MONCECIA  (from  fiovoc,  and  oikoc, 
a  house).  The  twenty-first  class  of 
Linnaeus ;  plants  which  bear  pistillate 
and  staminate  flowers,  perfectly  dis- 
tinct, but  on  the  same  stem,  as  In- 
dian corn. 

MONOGYNTA  (from  /.lovog,  and 
yvvri,  a  female).  Flowers  with  one 
pistil. 

MONOMERANS  (from  fiovoc,  and 
(iTjpo^,  a  limb).  A  section  of  the  co- 
leopterous insects,  in  which  the  tarsus 
is  supposed  to  be  formed  of  a  single 
joint. 

MONOPETALOUS.  A  corolla, 
the  petals  of  which  cohere  into  a  tube  : 
synpetalous,  gamopetalous. 

MONOPHYLLUS.  A  calyx  with 
the  sepals  united.  Monoscpalous  is 
used  to  indicate  the  same  form. 

MONOSEPALOUS.  With  the  se- 
pals of  the  calyx  united  into  one 
tube. 

MONSOONS.  The  periodical 
trade  winds  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

MONSTROUS    PLANTS,    MON- 
STROSITY.    Plants  which  by  cul- 
tivation or  otherwise  have  become 
changed  from  their  original  forms. 
502 


MONTANT.  In  building,  any  up- 
right piece  in  framing. 

M  O  O  N.  The  common  notions 
of  the  operation  of  the  moon  on 
changes  of  weather,  &c.,  have  been 
often  and  fully  proved  to  be  errone- 
ous :  they  are  altogether  destitute  of 
truth. 

MOONSTONE.  Adulana.  Sem- 
itransparent  feldspar. 

MOON  TREFOIL.  Medicago  ar- 
borea.     A  species  of  medic. 

MOON  WORT.  Botryclnum  fuma- 
rmdes.  An  indigenous,  unimportant 
fern. 

MOOR.  "  A  name  given  to  exten- 
sive wastes  which  are  covered  with 
heath,  and  the  soil  of  which  consists 
of  poor  light  earth,  mixed  generally 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  peat. 
The  want  of  fertility  in  moors  arises 
chiefly  from  a  deficiency  or  supera- 
bundance of  moisture,  the  subsoil  be- 
ing either  too  porous  to  retain  it,  or 
too  impervious  to  allow  it  to  escape. 
Both  extremes  occur  in  some  moors, 
which  are  parched  up  in  dry  weather, 
and  converted  into  a  dark  mud  by  any 
continuance  of  rain.  A  considerable 
portion  of  iron  is  also  generally  found 
in  the  soil  of  moors,  which  is  very 
hurtful  to  the  vegetation  of  plants, 
except  heath,  furze,  and  other  coarse 
plants,  which  almost  entirely  cover 
the  moors.  This  iron  is  carried  down 
through  the  light  surface-soil,  and,  if 
it  meets  with  a  less  porous  eartli  be- 
low, is  frequently  deposited  in  a  thin 
layer,  cementing  the  particles  of  si- 
licious  sand,  which  are  carried  down 
with  it,  and  forming  what  is  called 
the  hcatk-pan  or  moor-band.  This  sub- 
stance is  perfectly  impervious  to  wa- 
ter, and  wherever  it  exists  in  a  con- 
tinous  state,  all  attempts  at  improve- 
ment are  vain,  till  it  is  broken  through 
or  removed.  The  roots  of  trees  oc- 
casionally find  a  passage  through  in- 
terstices or  fractures  of  the  pan,  and 
then  often  grow  luxuriantly.  But 
wherever  young  trees  are  planted, 
without  the  precaution  of  breaking 
through  the  moor-band,  they  invaria- 
bly fail,  and  disai)i)oint  the  expecta 
tions  of  the  planter,  who,  seeing  fine, 
large  trees  growing  around,  naturally 


MOO 


MOO 


imagined  that  the  soil  was  peculiarly 
fitted  for  them.  If  the  stump  of  a 
large  tree,  which  has  been  cut  down, 
is  grubbed  up,  pieces  of  the  moor- 
band  may  often  be  seen  all  around 
the  stem,  at  a  short  depth  below  the 
surface,  so  arranged  as  to  show  evi- 
dently that  the  tap-root,  having  found 
an  aperture,  and  extending  its  fibres 
downward  into  a  better  soil,  has,  in 
swelling,  broken  the  pan  and  pushed 
it  aside.  When  the  moor  consists  of 
a  loose,  peaty  earth  of  little  depth  in- 
cumbent on  a  rock,  as  is  the  case  in 
many  mountainous  countries,  no  art 
can  fertilize  it.  In  dry  weather  the 
whole  surface  has  the  appearance  of 
a  brown  powder  like  snuf^",  which  be- 
comes a  spongy  peat  as  soon  as  it 
is  soaked  with  rain.  The  hardiest 
heaths  and  mosses  alone  can  bear 
this  alternation  ;  and  where  the  sub- 
stratum of  rock  is  not  broken  into 
crevices  through  which  the  roots  pen- 
etrate, ail  vegetation  ceases  except 
mosses  and  lichens. 

"  ^foss  land  is  often  confounded 
with  moor  ;  but  it  is  very  distinct  in 
its  nature.  Moss  land  is  produced  by 
the  accumulation  of  aquatic  plants, 
and  its  origin  is  chiefly  vegetable. 
When  it  has  a  considerable  depth, 
and  its  substance  has  lost  all  power 
of  vegetation,  it  forms  peat  bogs  of 
more  or  less  consistency,  as  the  wa- 
ter is  dramed  otf  or  retained  in  its 
pores.  In  the  latter  case  it  appears 
like  a  spongy  vegetable  mass,  con- 
sisting almost  entirely  of  fibres,  so 
interwoven  as  to  form  a  very  light 
substance,  in  which  water  is'easily 
retained,  which  keeps  up  a  kind  of  in- 
ternal vegetation,  by  which  the  quan- 
tity of  the  moss  is  gradually  increas- 
ed. This  is  the  substance  which  cov- 
ers the  surface  of  bogs,  and  where  it 
is  of  some  consistence  it  allows  a 
passage  over  them  ;  but  where  it  is 
very  thin  and  loose  it  deceives  the 
eye  by  an  appearance  of  solidity,  like 
that  of  a  smooth,  green  pasture, 
which,  however,  gives  way  to  the 
pressure  of  the  foot,  and  allows  it  to 
sink  through  it  with  very  little  resist- 
ance. The  only  way  to  improve 
moss  is  to  drain  it,  and  then  convert 


the  vegetable  matter  of  which  it  is 
composed  into  soil,  by  means  of  lime 
and  pressure.  The  latter  is  efTccled 
by  putting  on  a  considerable  quantity 
of  earth,  especially  sand  and  gravel, 
which,  incorporating  with  the  moss; 
consolidates  it,  and  assists  the  lime 
in  decomposing  the  vegetable  fibre. 
After  this  it  becomes  extremely  fer- 
tile, producing  abundant  crops  of  po- 
tatoes and  oats  ;  and  whenever  it  has 
acquired  sufiicient  solidity  by  the 
treading  of  sheep  and  cattle,  it  will 
produce  good  crops  of  wheat,  or,  if 
laid  down  to  grass,  give  abundance 
of  hay  and  pasture.  Trees  do  not 
thrive  in  mossy  soil,  there  being  too 
little  solidity  for  the  roots,  and  the 
large  trunks  which  are  frequently 
found  in  bogs  must  have  grown  be- 
fore the  moss  was  formed.  This  may 
be  easily  imagined.  A  wood  laid  flat 
by  a  storm  or  hurricane  may  obstruct 
the  natural  flow  of  the  waters,  and 
cause  them  to  accumulate.  The  pros- 
trate trees  become  surrounded  by 
aquatic  plants,  which  spread  their 
fibres  and  roots  freely  through  the 
water,  and,  decaying,  make  room  for 
others.  Thus  the  trees  are  gradually 
covered  and  buried  in  the  moss  till 
future  generations  find  them,  when 
the  moss  or  bog  is  explored  for  fuel 
or  for  improvement.  The  trees  which 
are  found  buried  in  mosses  frequent- 
ly show  evident  signs  of  having  been 
gradually  covered.  The  upper  sur- 
face is  often  decayed  and  uneven, 
while  the  lower  surface  shows  that 
it  has  remained  submerged  and  pro- 
tected from  the  contact  and  influence 
of  the  air,  and  has  thus  been  preserv- 
ed from  rottins  " — {W-  L.  Rham.) 

MOOR-BAND  PAN.  The  incrus- 
tation produced  in  some  ferruginous 
soils.  See  Muor.  The  pan  may  be 
calcareous  in  limestone  soils,  and 
when  not  very  hard  can  be  destroy- 
ed bv  the  subsoil  plough. 

MOOR  GR.\SS.  Scsleria  dactylo- 
ides.  An  unimportant  Southern  grass. 

MOOSE.  Cervus  alecs.  The  lar- 
gest of  the  deer  genus.  They  live  in 
troops  in  swampy  places,  and  are  con- 
fined to  the  northern  portions  of  the 
States,  and  to  Canada. 

503 


MOU 


MOR 


MOOSE  EI.M.     The  red  elm. 

MOOSE  WOOD.  Acer  striatum. 
The  striped  maple.  Thi.s  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  Dirca  ■paltistns,ox\edi\.\\- 
er  wood. 

MORAINE.  The  longitudinal 
masses  of  stones  and  rubbish  found 
at  the  bases  and  along  the  edges  ol 
great  glaziers,  or  in  places  where 
they  have  existed. 

MOR.^SS.     Swampy  moor  land. 

MORDANT.  A  substance  which 
unites  chemically  with  the  fibre  of 
wool,  cotton,  &c.,  and  with  the  col- 
ouring matter  also,  forming  with  both 
insoluble  compounds.  See  Cotton 
Dyemg.  Acetate  of  alumina,  alum, 
solution  of  tin,  and  pyrolignite  of  iron 
(red  liquor)  are  the  most  important 
mordants. 

MORDELLA.  A  genus  of  coleop- 
terans,  now  the  type  of  a  family,  Mar- 
dellidcp.  They  are  heteronierans,  with 
an  elevated  and  arched  body,  low 
head,  thorax  semicircular,  or  trape- 
zoid, elytra  very  short,  pointed  at  the 
tips. 

MOREL.  Morchdla  esculcnla.  Lat- 
ticed mushroom.  An  edible  mush- 
room much  esteemed  in  Europe, 
where  it  is  stuffed  with  force-meat, 
and  fried  for  the  table.  It  grows  in 
woods,  has  a  wide,  hollow  stalk  two 
inches  high,  with  a  yellowish  or  gray- 
ish ribbed  head,  of  small  width,  arid 
two  or  three  inches  deep. 

MOROCCO  LEATHER.  The  true 
sort  is  of  goat's  skins,  tanned  on  the 
grain  side  ;  but  sheep  skins  are  often 
sold.  The  skins  are  first  steeped  in 
a  fermenting  mixture  of  bran  and 
water  for  a  few  days,  worked  on  the 
horse,  steeped  twelve  hours  in  fresh 
water,  and  rinsed.  They  are  then 
steeped  in  lime-pits  until  the  hair  can 
be  removed,  cleansed,  and  the  sur- 
face dressed  with  hard  schist  to  ex- 
pel the  lime.  They  are  then  work- 
ed on  the  horse-beam,  and  subjected  I 
afterward  to  a  species  of  fulling  by 
being  agitated  by  pegs  in  a  revolving  | 
cask  with  water. 

The  skins  are  again  immersed  a 

night  and  day  in  a  fermentmg  bath, 

worked,  and  salted  for  dyeing.     They 

are  first  mordanted  by  solution  of  tin 

504 


or  alimi,  two  skins  being  sowed  to- 
gether to  make  a  bag  to  hold  the  fluid, 
and  the  colour  given  by  a  solution  of 
cochineal,  in  cream  of  tartar  and  wa- 
ter. 

MOROXITE.    A  native  phosphate 
of  lime  of  a  mulberry  colour. 
I      MOROXYLIC  ACID.  An  acid 
tound  in  the  bark  of  the  white  mul- 
berry-tree. 
I      MORPHIA.     The  active  narcotic 
•  principle  of  opium.  It  is  extremely  poi- 
sonous :    composition,  72  34  carbon, 
}  6-36  H  .  5  N.,  16  3  oxygen.— ([//•£.) 

MORPHOLOGY  (from /iop0;/, 
\  form,  and  /.oyor,  a  discourse).     The 
'  doctrine  of  the   metamorphosis   of 
I)lants,  from  which  it  appears  that  pe- 
1  tals,  stamens,  and  carpels  are  merely 
modified  leaves  ;  that  their  position 
and  mode  of  development  are  similar 
with  that  of  leaves.     A  seed  is  also 
analogous  to  a  leaf  bud. 
[      MORTAR.    "  This  is  composed  of 
quicklime    and  sand,  reduced   to    a 
paste  with  water.     When  dry,  it  be- 
comes as  hard  as  stone  and  as  dura- 
ble ;  and  adhering  very  strongly  to 
the  surface  of  the  stones  which  it  is 
employed  to  cement,  the  whole  wall, 
in  fact,  becomes  nothing  else  than 
one  single  stone.  The  bricks  or  stones 
should  be  dipped  in  water  before  mor- 
i  tar  is  added,  otherwise  it  does  not 
j  adhere  to   them  so  perfectly.     But 
this  effect   is   produced  very  imper- 
!  fectly  unless  the  mortar  be  very  well 
I  prepared.    The  lime  ought  to  be  pure, 
i  completely  free  from  carbonic  acid, 
i  and  in  the  state  of  a  very  fine  pow- 
der ;  the  sand  should  be  free  from 
clay,  and  partly  in  the  state  of  fine 
sand,  and  partly  in  that  of  gravel ; 
j  the  water  should  be  pure,  and  if  pre- 
I  viously  saturated  with  lime,  so  much 
j  the  better.    The  best  proportions,  ac- 
i  cording  to  the  experiments  of  Doctor 
j  Higgins,  are  three  parts  of  fine  sand, 
I  four  parts  of  coarse  sand,  one  part  of 
quicklime,  recently  slacked,  and  as 
I  little  water  as  possible.     The  stony 
j  consistence  which  mortar  acquires  is 
]  owing  partly  to  the  absorption  of  car- 
I  bonic  acid,  but  principally  to  the  com- 
■  bination  of  part  of  the  water  with  the 
,  lime.     This  last  circumstance  is  the 


MOR 

reason  that,  if  to  common  mortar  one  j 
fourth  part  of  lime,  reduced  to  pow- 
der without  being  slacked,  be  added,  I 
the  mortar,  when  dry,  acquires  much 
greater  solidity  than  it  otherwise 
would  do.  This  was  first  proposed 
by  Loriot ;  and  afterward  Morveau 
found  the  following  proportions  to  an- 
swer best ; 

Paris. 

Fine  s.ind 3 

Cement  of  well-baked  bricks  ....     3 

Slacked  lime 2 

Unslacked  lime _2 

10 

The  same  advantages  may  be  ob- 
tained by  using  as  little  water  as  pos- 
sible in  slacking  the  lime.  Higgins 
found  that  the  addition  of  burned 
bones,  in  the  proportion  of  not  more 
than  one  fifth  of  the  lime  employed, 
improved  mortar  by  giving  it  tenaci- 
tv,  and  rendered  it  less  apf  to  crack." 
'  M  O  R  T  A  R,  H  Y  D  R  AU  L  I  C. 
"  When  a  little  clay  is  added  to  mor- 
tar, it  acquires  the  important  property 
of  hardening  under  water,  so  that  it 
may  be  employed  by  the  farmer  in 
places  whicii  are  constantly  exposed 
to  the  action  of  water.  Limestone  is 
found  not  unfrcquently  mixed  with 
clay;  and  in  that  case  it  becomes 
brown  by  calcination, instead  of  white. 
These  native  limestones  are  employ- 
ed for  making  leater  mortar  ;  but 
good  water  mortar  may  be  made  by 
tlie  followiuL^  process  :  Mix  together 
four  parts  of  blue  clay,  six  parts  of 
black  oxide  of  manganese,  and  90 
parts  of  limestone,  all  in  powder  ; 
calcine  this  mixture  to  expel  the  car- 
bonic acid  ;  mix  it  with  60  parts  of 
sand,  and  form  it  into  a  mortar  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  The 
best  mortar  for  resisting  water  is 
made  by  mixing  lime  with  puzzolano, 
a  volcanic  sand  brought  from  Italy. 
Morveau  informs  us  that  basalt,  which 
is  very  common,  may  be  substituted 
for  puzzolano.  It  must  be  heated  in 
a  furnace,  thrown  while  red-hot  into 
water,  and  then  passed  through   a 

MORTIFICATION.      Gangrene ; 

the  death  of  a  part  of  the  body.  When 

it  occurs  in  the  limbs,  a  distinct  line 

of  separation  of  a  red  colour  may  he 

I'  r 


MOS 

seen  between  the  mortified  and  living 
parts  ;  the  limb  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  possible  above  the  healthy 
part.  Mortification  of  internal  or- 
gans, when  extensive,  is  necessarily 
fatal ;  when  it  comes  on,  there  is 
great  loss  of  strength,  freedom  from 
pain,  usually  a  disagreeable  or  gan- 
grenous odour,  delirium,  cold  sweats, 
and  death.  The  lungs  are  most  sub- 
ject to  gangrene,  as  a  consequence 
of  inflammation.  Sloughs  and  spha- 
celus are  small  portions  of  gangrenous 
flesh  removed  from  wounds. 

MORTISE.  Tiie  union  of  two  pie- 
ces of  wood  or  other  substance,  by 
introducing  one  into  a  hole  made  in 
the  other :  the  former  is  called  the 
tenon. 

MORUS.  The  generic  name  of 
the  mulberry,  now  often  applied  to 
the  Chinese,  or  M.  muUicauUs. 

MOSAIC  WORK.  Inlaying  pave- 
ments, walls,  &c.,  with' small  dies  of 
different  shapes,  colours,  and  mate- 
rials, more  especially  to  represent 
historical  subjects. 

MOSSES.  Musci.  In  common 
language,  any  minute,  small-leaved, 
cryptogamic  plants.  Thus,  club-moss 
is  a  lycopodium  ;  Iceland  and  rein- 
deer mosses  are  lichens,  and  the  nu- 
merous species  of  Jungermannia  are 
all  comprehended  under  the  same 
term  ;  but  in  systematical  botany, 
no  plants  are  considered  mosses  ex- 
cept such  as  belong  to  the  natural  or- 
der BniacecE  or  Musci.  Such  plants 
are  sitri pie-leaved,  without  spiral  ves- 
sels or  stomata  ;  with  a  distinct  ax- 
is of  growth,  and  with  the  sporules, 
or  reproductive  matter,  enclosed  in 
cases,  called  sporangia  or  thecae,  cov- 
ered by  a  cap  or  calyptra  ;  they  have 
cases,  called  staminidia,  containing 
I  powdery  matter.  None  of  the  moss- 
i  es  are  of  any  known  use,  except  for 
the  purpose  of  packing  plants,  and 
surrounding  their  roots  when  they 
are  sent  to  a  distance. 

MOSS  LANDS,  or  MOSSES.  See 
Moor. 

MOSS  IN  PASTURES.  See  Mead- 
owx.  Scarifying  and  manuring  with 
ashes  form  the  most  ready  method  of 
treatinff  Uu*  defect. 

505 


MOT 


MUU 


MOTH.  The  perfect  insect  of  an 
extensive  class  of  lepidoineroiis  in- 
sects, furnished  with  scaly  wings. 
The  houschuld  nuisances  known  un- 
der this  name  are  usually  of  the  tribe 
tineans  ( Tineada).  The  clothes  moth 
is  the  Tinea  vcslianclla;  the  carpet 
moth,  T.  tapetzella;  the  fur  moth,  T. 
jiellionella. 

They  lay  their  eggs  in  the  spring, 
and  the  moth  dies  immediately  after  ; 
their  eggs  are  hatclied  in  15  days  ; 
the  white  caterpillars  begin  at  once 
to  feed  on  the  fabric,  covering  them- 
selves with  fragments  of  its  texture, 
which  they  mould  into  a  tube.  With 
these  protections  they  move  about 
all  the  summer;  in  the  autumn  they 
fix  their  habitation,  remain  torpid  in 
the  winter,  change  to  crysalids  in 
spring,  and  some  twenty  days  after, 
in  May  and  June,  come  cut  as  moths 
to  lay  their  eggs  in  the  evenings. 

Preventives^ — In  spring  bring  out 
all  the  clothing,  feathers,  &c.,  sub- 
ject to  their  ravages,  expose  them  to 
the  sun  for  some  hours,  taking  care 
to  brush  and  shake  them  thoroughly  ; 
by  this  means  the  insects  are  dis- 
lodged. When  they  are  in  the  crev- 
ices of  walls,  &c.,  all  suspected  pla- 
ces should  be  reached  with  spirits  of 
turpentine  or  tobacco  smoke.  There 
should  be  placed  in  clothes-drawers 
camphor,  tobacco  leaves,  pennyroyal, 
and  lavender  ;  it  is  found,  also,  that 
cedar  wood  is  offensive  to  moths. 
Where  there  is  no  cause  against  it, 
substances  infested  may  be  dipped  in 
boiling  water,  or  a  solution  of  corro- 
sive sublimato,  "which  is  a  violent  poi- 
son. 

The  Tinea  granella  sometimes  at- 
tacks stored  wheat  and  other  grains, 
but  they  are  destroyed  by  kiln-drying 
at  180°  Fahrenheit. 

MOTHER-W^\TER.  In  chemis- 
try, the  solution  from  which  crj'stals 
have  been  obtained,  and  which  furnish 
a  second  supply  when  evaporated. 

MOTION.  "  In  mechanical  philos- 
ophy, motion  is  the  change  of  place  ; 
that  is,  of  the  part  of  space  which 
the  body  occupies,  or  in  which  it  is 
extended.  Motion  is  real  or  absolute 
when  the  moving  body  changes  its 
506 


place  in  absolute  space  ;  it  is  relative 
when  the  body  changes  its  place  only 
with  relation  to  surrounding  bodies; 
and  it  is  apparent  when  the  body 
changes  its  situation  with  respect  to 
other  bodies  that  appear  to  us  to  be 
at  rest.  All  the  phenomena  of  mo- 
tion are  derived  by  mathematical  de- 
ductions from  the  three  I'oUowing 
laws  of  motion  of  Newton  : 

"  1 .  A  body  must  continue  forever  in 
a  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  motion  in 
a  straight  line,  if  it  be  not  disturbed  by 
the  action  of  an  external  cause. 

"  2.  Every  change  of  motion  pro- 
duced by  any  external  force  is  pro- 
portional to  the  force  impressed,  and 
in  the  direction  of  the  straight  line  in 
which  the  force  acts. 

"3.  Action  and  reaction  are  equal, 
and  in  contrary  directions  ;  that  is, 
equal  and  contrary  changes  of  mo- 
tion are  produced  on  bodies  which 
mutually  act  on  each  other." 

MOTOR.     Producing  motion. 

MOTTLED.  Maculalus.  Stained 
with  coloured  blotches  or  dots 

MOULD.  Finely  divided  soil,  rich 
in  vegetable  matter :  it  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  decayed  leaves,  &c., 
which  constitute  vegetable  mould  or 
humus. 

M  O  U  L  D-B  0  A  R  D.  The  large 
curved  side  of  a  plough,  which  turns 
the  furrow  slice. 

MOULDEB.ERT,  MOLLEBART. 
A  Flemish  levelling  machine,  figured 
in  the  article  Barren  Lands. 

MOULDINESS,  MOULD,  MII^ 
DEW.  Minute  cryptogamic  plants, 
of  a  grayish  aspect  usually,  but  of  all 
colours,  which  appear  upon  damp 
linen,  cotton,  and  vegetable  substan- 
ces, as  bread  ;  they  belong  to  the 
genera  Aspergillus,  Mucor.  and  other 
mucedines,  and  are  to  be  avoided  only 
by  dryness,  and  proper  exposure  to 
the  sun  and  dry  air.  The  genera 
which  appear  on  plants,  as  the  hop, 
pea,  &c.,  are  very  numerous. 

M  O  U  L  D  1  N  G.  The  curved  or 
straight  lines,  or  fillets,  used  in  archi- 
tecture, as  decorations,  or  members 
of  the  common  orders. 

MOULTING.  Change  of  plumage. 
It  takes  place  annually  for  the  entire 


MOW 

plumage,  and  also  partially  whrre 
feathers  of  new  colours  are  produced. 

MOUNTAIN  ASH.  Pyms  aucu- 
partd.  Rowan-tree.  A  handsome  ex- 
otic shrubbery-tree,  with  beautiful 
hunches  of  red  berries,  which  are  oc- 
casionally prepared  by  soaking  in  wa- 
ter, and  preserved  as  a  sweetmeat. 

MOUNTAIN  LAUREL.  Kalmia 
lalifolia.  A  handsome  shrubbery 
plant ;  the  flowers  are  poisonous.  It 
sometimes  grows  to  15  or  20  feet. 

MOUNTAIN  LIMESTONE.  The 
strata  of  this  material  immediately 
below  the  coal  measures. 

MOUNTAIN  MAHOGANY.  Be- 
lula  Icnta.     The  black  birch. 

MOUNTAIN  RICE.  Oryzopsisas- 
perifolia.  A  perennial,  native  of  the 
South  ;  culm  almost  naked,  leaves 
rigid,  erect,  and  sharp  at  the  point ; 
flowers  in  a  panicle  ;  height  IS  inch- 
es :  flowers  in  May. 

MOURAT.  A  name  given  to  the 
brown  wool  of  some  sheep. 

MOUSE.  Several  species  of  the 
genus  ^[us,  of  the  family  Rodenlia. 
They  are  the  food  of  cats,  the  terrier 
family  of  dogs,  hedgehogs,  snakes, 
and  owls.  Mice  not  only  destroy  the 
products  of  the  farm,  but,  when  they 
are  shut  out  by  well-made  granaries, 
gnaw  the  trunks  and  roots  of  trees, 
doing  much  mischief  to  the  orchard. 
See  Field  Mice.  Numerous  common 
traps  are  contrived  for  their  capture. 
The  carbonate  of  barytes  is  recom- 
mended in  the  Mark  Lane  Express  as 
a  poison  in  the  place  of  arsenic  ;  a 
drachm  should  be  mixed  in  the  food 
for  each  mouse,  which  should  also  be 
flavoured  with  oil  of  anise  seed  to  at- 
tract them.  The  removal  of  grain 
stacks  is  a  good  occasion  to  destroy 
mice  and  rats  :  let  the  stack  be  sur- 
rounded at  four  feet  by  a  few  stakes, 
some  four  feet  high  ;  stretch  around 
these  either  hurdles  or  a  coarse  can- 
vass, so  that  the  vermin  cannot  es- 
cape underneath  ;  as  the  grain  is  re- 
moved, they  will  attempt  to  run  away, 
and  may  be  killed  by  sticks  within 
the  enclosure. 

M  0  W.  The  mass  of  hay,  straw, 
grain,  &c.,  put  up  to  dry  and  be  pre- 
served. 


MUC 

MOW-BURNED.  Injured  by  fer- 
mentation in  the  mow.  Fodder,  when 
too  green,  heats  rapidly,  becomes 
black,  and  acquires  a  bituminous 
taste ;  this  is  disagreeable,  and  some- 
times injurious  to  cattle. 

MOWING.  The  operation  of  cut- 
ting down  grass  or  other  crops  with 
a  scythe.  The  instruments  used 
are  the  common  scythe,  the  cradle- 
scythe  where  grain  is  cut,  and  the 
Hainhault  scythe  and  hook,  which 
answers  for  heavy  crops.  The  op- 
eration is  extremely  fatiguing,  and 
requires  great  strength  and  practice 
from  youth,  as  the  body  is  swung 
round  in  a  very  unusual  manner. 

MOWING  MACHINES.  See 
Reaping  Machines. 

MOXA.  A  conical  mass  of  calico 
or  linen,  rolled  tightly,  and  with  a 
base  of  half  an  inch  or  more  ;  used 
to  produce  a  sore  on  the  skin  in  cer- 
tain diseases.  The  moxa,  being  pla- 
ced on  the  part  selected,  is  set  oa 
fire  at  the  upper  part,  and,  burning 
slowly  downward,  acts  as  an  actual 
cautery.  The  sore  is  kept  open  by 
being  dressed  with  basilicon,  savin, 
and  irritating  ointments,  and  serves 
as  an  issue. 

MOYA.  Mud  poured  out  by  vol- 
canoes. 

MUCIC  ACID.  An  acid  produced 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  gum 
and  sugar  of  milk.  It  is  a  white, 
crystalline  powder,  feebly  acid,  solu- 
ble in  six  parts  boilmg  water,  and 
insoluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  bibasic. 
Formula,  C12  Hs  Om  -f-  2  HO.  It  was 
formerly  called  saccholactic  acid. 
Mucic  acid  is  converted  into  the  py- 
romucic  by  dry  distillation.  Cm  H3  O5 
-j-  HO.  Both  these  acids  form  chlo- 
ro  compounds  with  chlorine. 

MUCIL.\GE.  A  thick  solution  of 
gimi  in  w^ater.  The  ropy  fluids  ex- 
tracted from  certain  plants  by  pres- 
sure are  also  called  mucilage. 

MUCIVORA.  A  family  of  dipte- 
rous insects,  which  feed  on  the  juices 
of  plants  and  decaying  matters. 

MUCK.  A  vulgar  name  for  peat, 
marsh  mud,  and  decaying  vegetable 
matter  generallv. 

MUCOUS  MEMBRANE.      The 
507 


MUL 


MUL 


membrane  which  lines  the  mouth, 
nostrils,  exterior  of  tlie  eyes,  lungs, 
stomach,  intestines,  bladder,  and  uri- 
nary apparatus.  It  secretes  an  ani- 
mal fluid,  uuiciis,  by  which  it  is  moist- 
ened and  [)r()tectcd  from  tlie  contact 
of  air  and  other  substances.  Irrita- 
tions and  inflammations  are  very 
common,  and  do  not  extend  so  rap- 
idly as  in  otber  membranes.  They 
are  usually  subdued  by  bleeding,  ca- 
thartics ;  or  special  medicines,  when 
the  lungs  or  urinary  membrane  is  at- 
tacked. 

MUCIIONATE.  In  botany,  a  leaf 
or  other  organ,  having  a  rounded  ex- 
tremity, tipped  with  a  sharp  point  or 
prickle. 

MUCUS.  The  viscid,  ropy  secre- 
tion of  the  mucous  membrane.  It 
contains  five  per  cent,  solid  matter 
(albumen),  and  is  azotized. 

MUD.  The  fine  particles  of  earth 
and  organic  matters  suspended  in 
rivers,  &c.,  and  deposited  by  subsi- 
dence. When  mellowed  by  exposure 
to  frost,  and  composted  with  one 
bushel  of  lime  to  tbe  cubic  yard,  it 
makes  a  good  amendment  to  loose, 
thin  soils,  destitute  of  humus. 

MUD  WALLS.     See  Cottages. 

MUDAR.  Calotropis  giganica. 
An  asclepiadeous  plant,  used  medi- 
cinally in  scrofula  in  the  East. 

MUFF  L  E.  A  serai-cylindrical 
vessel  of  earthen-ware,  capable  of  re- 
sisting a  high  temperature,  in  which 
crucibles  are  placed  in  assaying,  and 
by  which  means  they  are  exposed  to 
a  great  heat  without  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  fuel.  The  upper,  curv- 
ed side,  is  usually  cut  into  slits,  to 
allow  the  passage  of  reflected  heat. 

MUGWORT.  Artemisia  xndgaris. 
A  kind  of  wormwood.  It  is  used  in 
decoction,  as  a  weak  stomachic  bit- 
ter. 

MULBERRY.  The  genus  Morus. 
They  prefer  a  moist,  deep,  loamy  soil, 
and  good  exposure.  The  mulberries 
are  readily  propagated  by  layers  and 
cuttings  put  down  in  spring.  The 
black  fruit  {M.  nigra)  mulberry  grows 
to  a  large  size.  The  fruit  is  rather 
sickly,  and  used  as  a  sirup  in  medi- 
cine. There  is  a  red  variety.  The 
ri08 


wood  is  yellow,  and  tolerably  hard  ; 
it  is  used  in  carving  and  turning. 
The  bark  makes  strong  ropes,  when 
separated  by  steeping  in  water  and 
twisted.  A  common  wine  is  made 
from  mulberries  in  some  parts  of  Eu- 
rope. The  bark  of  the  root  is  a  ver- 
mifuge and  cathartic. 

The  wild  mulberry  {Mortis  rubra) 
of  the  United  States  yields  smaller 
and  pleasant  fruit.  The  M.  tarlanca 
of  the  north  of  Europe  yields  an  in- 
sipid fruit,  which  is,  however,  pre- 
served, dried,  and  made  into  a  wine 
and  spirit. 

The  31.  tinctoria,  or  yellow  mulber- 
ry, yields  the  fustic  of  commerce. 
See  Fustic. 

The  white  Italian  mulberry  {M. 
alba)  is  a  small  tree  of  15  to  20  feet, 
and  extensively  cultivated  in  France 
and  Italy  as  food  for  silk-worms. 
This  tree  has  been  much  developed 
and  improved.  From  it  the  choice 
Moretta,  Provence,  and  Lombardy 
mulberries,  for  silk  culture,  have  been 
obtained.  The  multicaulis,  Broussa, 
and  Canton,  with  the  hybrid  multi- 
caulis, are  most  suitable  for  silk  cul- 
ture in  the  United  States,  especially 
the  last,  which  can  bo  cut  down  to 
the  roots  annually,  and  thus  kept  per- 
fectly free  of  frost,  for  all  the  mul- 
berries are  tender  with  respect  to 
climate.  The  Broussa  and  white 
yield  the  earliest  foliage,  but  that  of 
the  latter  is  too  small. 

The  paper  mulberry  {Broussonetia 
papyrifcra)  is  a  tree  of  some  20  feet, 
cultivated,  in  China  and  .Japan,  for 
the  paper  which  is  made  from  the 
bark  of  the  young  shoots.  The  bark 
is  steeped  in  water,  then  boiled, 
washed,  and  beaten  into  a  pulp  ;  this 
pulp,  being  put  into  water,  separates 
like  grains  of  meal ;  to  this  a  miTci- 
lage  from  rice  and  the  root  of  the 
manihot  is  added,  to  give  it  consist- 
ence ;  it  is  then  spread,  pressed,  and 
dried.  The  juice  of  the  tree  also 
furnishes  a  glutinous  varnish,  used 
in  gilding.  The  inner  bark  of  the 
same  tree  supplies  the  Otaheitans 
with  a  white  cloth.  The  muUicau- 
lis  and  other  varieties,  treated  in  the 
same  way,  make  a  coarse  paper  ;  the 


MUL 


MUR 


the  pulp  is  best  prepared  by  steam- 
ing. 

MULBERRY  CALCULUS.  A 
stone  of  the  bladder  of  the  colour 
and  appearance  of  the  mulberry  fruit, 
and  consisting  of  oxalate  of  linie.  It 
is  uncommon. 

MULCH.  Straw  or  litter  half  rot- 
ted. Shrubs  surrounded  with  it  are 
said  to  be  mulched. 

MULE.  "The  well-known  off- 
spring of  the  ass  and  the  mare,  or  of 
the  she  ass  and  the  horse.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  produce  is  called  a 
jennet,  and  is  much  less  hardy,  and 
therefore  rarely  bred.  The  term 
mule  is  generally  applied,  in  the  ani- 
mal creation,  in  the  same  sense  with 
hybrid  in  the  vegetable  world,  signi- 
fying tiie  intermixture  of  two  distinct 
species.  Mules  are  very  hardy  ani- 
mals, and  therefore  much  used  in 
warm  climates,  where  they  are  pre- 
ferred to  horses,  either  for  the  pur- 
poses of  draught  or  carriage.  No 
animal  is  more  sure-footed  or  more 
hardy ;  but  the  pace  of  the  mule  is 
disagreeable  to  those  unaccustomed 
to  its  action.  The  diseases  to  which 
the  mule  is  liable  are  few.  He  at- 
tains double  the  age  of  the  horse, 
and  is  much  more  easily  maintained. 
The  mules  of  the  South  of  Europe 
are  frequently  very  fine  animals,  16 
or  17  hands  in  height,  active,  hand- 
some, and  peculiarly  patient  of  la-  ^ 
hour,  but  very  inferior  in  beauty  to 
the  horse,  particularly  about  the  head 
and  tail.  The  importation  of  Span- 
ish jacks  has  tended  greatly  to  im- 
prove mules,  many  of  which,  when 
bred  with  care,  are  sufficiently  thick- 
set and  heavy  for  all  those  purposes 
in  which  our  largest  draught-horses 
are  employed.  I 

"To    have   large    and  handsome  I 
nmles,  the  mare  should  be  of  a  large 
breed,  well  proportioned,  with  rather 
small  limbs,  a  moderate-sized  head, 
and  a  good  forehead ;   and  the  ass  I 
should  be  of  the  large  Spanish  breed."  I 
They  are  incapable  of  propagation.     I 

MULING.  Hvbridizmg.  ^ee  Hy- i 
brid.  '  j 

MULLEIN.    Verhascum  thapsus.   A 
common,  biennial,  large  weed,  with  ] 
U  u  2 


yellow  flowers.  They  are  readily 
overcome  by  cultivation,  and  are  usu- 
ally seen  only  on  neglected  fields. 
There  are  other  species  of  Verbas- 
ciim,  but  they  arc  unimportant  weeds. 

MULLION.  The  upright  post  or 
bar  dividing  two  lights  in  a  window. 

MULTIARTICULATE.  A  term 
applied,  in  natural  history,  to  the  an- 
tenna;, legs,  &c.,  of  animals  or  in- 
sects which  have  many  joints. 

MULTIFID.  Divided  into  many 
segments. 

MULTILOCULAR.  Having  many 
compartments  or  chambers. 

MUMPS.  An  irritation  of  the  pa- 
rotid and  neighbouring  glands,  at- 
tended with  much  swelling. 

MUNJEET.  A  kind  of  madder 
cultivated  in  the  East. — (Urc). 

ML'KEXIDE.  A  beautiful  red  prod- 
uct of  the  decomposition  of  uric  acid 
by  nitric  acid.  Murexan  is  formed 
by  dissolving  murexide  in  solution  of 
caustic  potass. 

MURIACITE.  A  kind  of  sulphate 
of  lime,  containing  common  salt. 

MURIATES.  Salts  containing 
chlorine,  more  properly  called  chlo- 
rides ;  muriate  of  soda  is  common  salt. 

MURIATIC  ACID,  SPIRITS 
OF  SALT,  HYDROCHLORIC 
ACID,  MARINE  ACID.  The  sub- 
stance obtained  in  commerce  is  a  so- 
lution of  the  true  gaseous  acid  ;  it  is 
of  a  yellowish  colour  from  impurities, 
and  at  specific  gravity  1-15  contains 
30  per  cent,  of  real  acid  :  this  fluid 
fumes,  possesses  a  disagreeable  smell, 
and  is  highly  caustic  ;  it  decomposes 
carbonates  rapidly,  and  unites  with 
most  mineral  oxides.  The  composi- 
tion of  pure  hydrochloric  acid  is  1 
equivalent  chlorine  with  1  hydrogen  ; 
its  combining  number  is,  therefore, 
36  47 :  it  is  procu^^d  by  distilling 
common  salt  with  sulphuric  acid  in 
an  earthen-ware  apparatus,  and  re- 
ceiving the  vapour  i.i  water. 

Muriatic  acid  forms  soluble  com- 
pounds with  many  oxides,  and  is 
iience  extensively  u.sed  as  a  solvent 
in  chemistry  ;  the  pure  acid  should 
be  colourless  and  yii.'ld  no  precipitate 
with  solution  of  barytes.  The  pres- 
ence of  muriatic  acid  and  chlorine  is 
509 


ML'S 


MUS 


detected  by  the  peculiar  curdy  pre- 
cipitate they  yield  with  nitrate  of  sil- 
ver, which  is  soluble  while  I'resh  in 
ammonia,  but  blackens  by  exposure 
to  light. 

A\'hen  muriatic  acid  acts  on  a  me- 
tallic oxide,  there  results  a  chloride 
of  the  metal  for  the  most  part,  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  acid  and  oxygen  of  the 
oxide  forming  water. 

MURICATE.  Thorny.  In  zoolo- 
gy, a  surface  armed  with  short  conical 
eminences,  having  a  sharp  apex. 

MURID.E.  A  famUy  of  rodents,  of 
which  the  mouse  is  a  type. 

MURRAIN.  "  A  contagious,  ma- 
lignant epidemic,  which  prevails  in 
hot,  dry  seasons  among  cattle,  carry- 
ing off  numbers.  It  once  used  to 
sweep  off  the  horned  stock  of  whole 
districts.  It  principally  appears  in 
marshy  and  woody  districts,  or  where 
draining  has  been  neglected,  or  the 
cattle  have  been  exposed  and  half 
starved.  The  disease  is  known  by 
the  animals  hanging  down  their 
heads,  which  are  swollen,  by  short 
and  hot  breathing,  cough,  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  staggering,  an  abundant 
secretion  of  viscid  matter  in  the  eyes, 
rattling  in  the  throat,  and  a  slimy 
tongue.  The  early  stage  of  murrain 
is  one  of  fever,  and  the  treatment 
should  correspond  with  this :  bleed- 
ing and  small  doses  of  purgative  med- 
icine will  be  serviceable.  The  pecu- 
liar foetid  diarrhoea  must  be  met  with 
astringents,  mingled  also  with  vege- 
table tonics.  In  combating  the  pus- 
tular and  gangrenous  stage,  the  chlo- 
ride of  lime  will  be  the  best  external 
application ;  while  a  little  of  it,  ad- 
ministered with  the  other  medicines 
inwardly,  may  possibly  lessen  the 
tendency  to  general  decomposition. 
Above  all,  the  infected  animal  should 
be  immediately  removed  from  the 
sound  ones." — {Youatt  on  Cattle.) 

MUSACE^.     A  small  family  of 
tropical  plants,  resembling  the  ma- 
rantaceae,  and  including  the  plantain 
(Musa  sapientum)  and  banana  {M.  par-  I 
adisiaca),  which,  together,  yield  the  , 
greater  part  of  the  nourishment  of  j 
tropical  America.     The    leaves   are  i 
also  used  for  thatch,  and  the  fibres  of  j 
510 


the  stem  for  cordage.     The  curious 

flowering  plants  called  strelitzias  are 
of  this  family, 

MUSCHEL-KALK.  Shell  lime- 
stone, the  strata  belonging  to  the  new 
red  sandstone  series. 

MUSCI.     See  Mosses. 

MUSCICAPA.  Agenus  ofdenti- 
rostral  passerine  birds  ;  they  live  on 
insects  and  small  birds. 

MUSCID.E.  A  family  of  dipterous 
insects,  resemblmg  the  fly  (musca). 

MUSCLE.  Fleshy  fibres,  suscep- 
tible of  contraction  and  relaxation, 
and  by  which  the  phenomena  of  mo- 
tion in  animals  takes  place.  They 
are  voluntary,  or  under  the  influence 
of  the  will,  and  involuntary,  as  the 
heart,  the  muscles  of  the  intestines, 
&c.  They  are  of  a  red  colour  when 
filled  with  blood-vessels,  but  are  nat- 
urally white,  and  consist  of  fibrine, 
surrounded  by  cellular  tissue,  and 
supplied  with  nerves,  &c. 

The  lean  of  meats  consists  of  mus- 
cular fibre  mostly ;  it  contains  about  23 
per  cent,  solid  matter,  the  rest  being 
water.  The  solid  consists  of  51  8 
carbon,  If)  hydrogen,  150  nitrogen, 
21-3  oxygen,  with  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus, and  2  3  ashes  per  cent.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  nutritious  aliments. 
MUSCOVADO.  The  brown  moist 
sugar  as  separated  from  the  mo- 
lasses. 

MUSHROOM.  A  term  commonly 
used  to  designate  the  tribe  of  fungi, 
toadstools.  More  correctly,  the  Agar- 
icus  cainpestris,  a  mushroom  w'iih  a 
white  smooth  cap,  with  flesh-colour- 
ed gills,  a  pleasant  odour,  growing  in 
fertile  meadows  during  the  autumnal 
months,  and  collected  as  a  delicacy, 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  catsup. 
Mushrooms  are  propagated  from 
spawn,  which  is  kept  by  the  seeds- 
men, or  it  may  be  collected  in  the 
fall  in  those  places  where  the  plants 
abound ;  it  resembles  pieces  of  thread, 
and  is  imbedded  in  earth  or  dung. 
When  kept  quite  dry,  the  spawn  will 
retain  its  germinating  power  for  three 
or  four  years.  The  following  is  chief- 
ly from  Loudon  and  Bridgeman  : 

"  A  mushroom  bed  is  simply  a  heap 
of  animal  dung  and  earth,  so  tern- 


MUSHROOM. 


pered  as  to  be  capable  of  producing 
and  preserving  spawn  ;  but,  in  order 
to  have  fruitful  spawn  at  all  times,  it 
should  be  so  formed  as  to  be  always 
at  command.  To  this  end,  a  quan- 
tity of  fresh  horse  droppings,  mixed 
with  short  litter,  should  be  collected  ; 
add  to  this  one  third  of  cow  dung, 
and  a  small  portion  of  good  earth,  to 
cement  it  together ;  mash  the  whole 
into  a  thin  compost,  Hke  grafting 
clay ;  then  form  it  in  the  shape  of 
bricks,  which  being  done,  set  them  on 
edge,  and  frequently  turn  them  until 
half  dry  ;  then,  with  a  dibble,  make 
one  or  two  holes  in  each  brick,  and 
insert  in  each  hole  a  piece  of  spawn 
the  size  of  an  egg  :  the  bricks  should 
then  be  laid  where  they  can  dry  grad- 
ually. When  dry,  lay  dry  horse 
dung  on  a  level  floor,  six  or  eight 
inches  thick  ;  on  this  pile  the  bricks, 
the  spawn  side  uppermost.  When 
the  pile  is  snugly  formed,  cover  it 
with  a  small  portion  of  fresh  warm 
horse  dung,  sufficient  in  quantity  to 
produce  a  gentle  glow  through  the 
whole,  \^'hen  the  spawn  has  spread 
itself  through  every  part  of  the  bricks 
the  process  is  ended,  and  they  may 
be  laid  up  in  any  dry  place  for  use. 
Mushroom  spawn,  made  according  to 
this  receipt,  will  preserve  its  vegeta- 
ting powers  for  many  years,  if  well 
dried  before  it  is  laid  up  ;  if  moist,  it 
will  grow,  and  soon  exhaust  itself. 

"  Mushroom  beds  are  often  formed 
in  ridges  in  the  open  air,  and  covered 
with  litter  and  mats,  so  as  to  prevent 
heavy  rains  exciting  fermentation ; 
and  sometimes  in  ridges  of  the  same 
sort  undercover,  as  in  the  open  sheds 
of  hot-houses.  They  are  also  made  in 
close  sheds  behind  hot-houses,  or  in 
houses  built  on  purpose,  called  mush- 
room-houses. A  moderately  warm, 
light  cellar  is  peculiarly  suited  for  the 
purpose  in  the  winter  season,  as  no 
fire  is  necessary,  and  but  little  water, 
the  application  of  which  frequently 
proves  injurious,  when  not  judicious- 
ly managed.  Mushrooms  may  also  be 
raised  in  pots,  boxes,  hampers,  &c., 
placed  in  warm  situations,  in  old  beds, 
in  pits  with  glazed  frames,  and  in 
dark  frames  or  pits. 


"  The  general  way  of  making  mush- 
room beds  is  to  prepare  a  body  of 
stable  dung,  moderately  fermented, 
about  a  yard  in  thickness,  more  or 
less,  according  to  the  size  and  situa- 
tion in  which  the  bed  is  to  be  formed  ; 
when  the  strotig  heat  has  subsided, 
an  inch  of  good  mould  may  be  laid 
over  it,  and  the  spawn  planted  there- 
in in  rows  five  or  six  inches  apart ; 
after  this  is  done,  another  layer  of 
mould,  an  inch  thick,  may  be  added, 
and  then  a  coat  of  straw.  Beds  well 
constructed  will  produce  mushrooms 
in  five  or  six  weeks,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  produce  for  several  months, 
if  care  be  taken  in  gathering  not  to 
destroy  the  young  ones.  As  mush- 
rooms are  gathered,  from  time  to 
time,  the  straw  should  be  spread 
carefully  over  the  bed. 

"  Beds  made  in  a  convenient  place, 
where  there  is  space  all  around,  may 
be  formed  so  as  to  make  four  sloping 
surfaces,  similar  to  the  roof  of  a 
house  ;  this,  by  being  spawned  on 
the  four  sides,  will  yield  abundantly. 
The  celebrated  Mr.  Nichol  makes  his 
beds  without  spawn. 

"  After  having  laid  a  floor  of  ashes, 
stones,  chips,  gravel,  or  brickbats,  so 
as  to  keep  the  bed  quite  dry  and  free 
from  under  damp,  lay  a  course  of 
horse  droppings,  six  inches  thick. 
These  should  be  new  from  the  sta- 
bles, and  must  not  be  broken,  and  the 
drier  the  better.  They  may  be  col- 
lected every  day  until  the  whole  floor 
or  sole  be  covered  to  the  above  thick- 
ness ;  but  they  must  not  be  allowed 
to  ferment  or  heat.  In  the  whole 
process  of  making  up,  the  bed  should 
be  as  much  exposed  to  the  air  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  it  should  be  carefully  de- 
fended from  wet  if  out  of  doors. 
A\'hen  this  course  is  quite  dry,  and 
judged  to  be  past  a  state  of  ferment- 
ation, cover  it  to  the  thickness  of 
two  inches  with  light,  dry  eartii ;  if 
sandy,  so  much  the  better.  It  is  im- 
material whether  it  be  rich  or  not, 
the  only  use  of  earth  here  being  for 
spawn  to  run  and  mass  in.  Now  lay 
another  course  of  droppings,  and 
earth  them  over  as  above,  when  past 
a  state  of  fermentation  :  then  a  third 
511 


MUS 


MI'S 


I'ourse,  which,  in  likft  manner,  cartli 
ail  over.  Tiiis  finishes  the  bed, 
which  will  be  a  very  strong  and  pro- 
ductive one  if  properly  managed  af- 
terward. 

"  Observe  that,  in  forming  the  bed, 
it  should  be  a  little  rounded,  in  order 
that  the  centre  may  not  be  more  wet 
or  moist  than  the  sides.  This  may 
be  done  in  forming  the  sole  or  floor 
at  first,  and  the  bed  would  then  be  of 
equal  strength  in  all  parts.  If  it  be 
made  up  against  a  wall  in  a  cellar, 
stable,  or  shed,  it  may  have  a  slope 
of  a  few  inches  from  the  back  to  the 
front,  less  or  more,  according  to  its 
breadth.  I  have  sometimes  been  con- 
tented with  two  courses,  as  above,  in- 
stead of  three;  and  often,  when  ma- 
terials were  scarce,  have  made  them 
up  slighter,  thus  :  three  four-inch 
courses  of  droppings,  with  one  inch 
of  earth  between  each,  and  a  two- 
inch  covering  at  top.  Such  a  bed  as 
this  I  have  had  produce  for  ten  or 
twelve  months  together  ;  but  very 
much  depends  on  the  state  of  the  ma- 
terials, on  the  care  taken  in  making 
it  up,  and  also  on  the  after  manage- 
ment. 

"  The  droppings  of  hard-fed  horses 
only  are  useful.  Those  of  horses 
kept  on  green  food  will,  of  them- 
selves, produce  few  or  no  mush- 
rooms. I  have  made  up  beds  from 
farm  horses,  fed  partly  on  hard  and 
partly  on  green  food,  and  from  car- 
riage or  saddle  horses,  fed  entirely 
on  corn  and  hay  ;  treated  them  in  the 
same  way  in  every  respect,  and  have 
found,  not  once,  but  always,  those 
made  from  the  latter  most  produc- 
tive. Droppings  from  hard-fed  horses 
may  be  procured  at  the  public  stables 
in  towns,  or  at  inns  in  the  country, 
any  time  of  the  year  ;  and  if  the  sup- 
ply be  plentiful,  a  bed  of  considerable 
dimensions  may  be  made  and  finish- 
ed within  five  or  six  weeks.  In  as 
many  more  weeks,  if  in  a  stable  or 
dry  cellar,  or  a  flued  shed,  it  vvdl  be- 
gin to  produce,  and  often  sooner  ;  but 
if  the  situation  of  the  bed  be  cold,  it 
will  sometimes  be  two  or  three 
months  in  producing  mushrooms. 

"  It  may  be  necessary  to  state,  far- 
512 


thnr,  that  e.vtremes  of  heat,  cold, 
drought,  and  moisture  should  be 
avoided  iii  the  cultivation  of  mush- 
rooms. If  the  temperature  keeps  up 
to  50^  in  the  winter,  the  beds  will  be 
safe,  and  the  heat  in  the  beds  may 
rise  to  GO^,  or  even  70°,  without  inju- 
ry. Air,  also,  must  be  admitted  in 
proportion  to  the  heat,  and  GO'  should 
be  aimed  at  as  a  medium  tempera- 
ture. Water,  when  given  a  little  at 
a  time,  is  better  than  too  much  at 
once,  after  the  spawn  has  begun  to 
spread,  and  the  water  for  this  pur- 
pose should  always  be  made  blood- 
warm.  A  light  covering  of  straw 
may  be  used  to  preserve  moisture  on 
the  surface  ;  and  if  the  beds  are  made 
in  open  frames,  or  otherwise  subject 
to  exposure,  the  straw  may  be  laid 
thicker  than  on  beds  made  in  a  cellar. 

"  Should  beds  fail  in  producing 
mushrooms  after  having  been  kept 
over  hot  or  wet,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  spawn  is  injured  or  destroy- 
ed ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  a  bed 
that  has  been  kept  moderately  warm 
and  dry  should  happen  to  be  unpro- 
ductive, such  bed  may  be  well  replen- 
ished with  warm  water,  and  a  coat 
of  warm  dung  may  be  laid  over  the 
whole.  If  this  does  not  enliven  the 
bed  after  having  lain  a  month,  take 
off  the  earth,  and  if,  on  examination, 
there  is  no  appearance  of  spawn,  the 
whole  may  be  destroyed  ;  but  if,  on 
the  contrary,  the  bed  should  contain 
spawn,  it  may  be  renovated  by  cov- 
ering it  again,  especially  if  any  small 
tubercles  be  discernible  ;  if  the  heat 
should  have  declined,  the  spawn  may 
be  taken  out  and  used  in  a  fresh  bed. 
If  beds  be  formed  in  hot-bed  frames 
under  glass,  some  mats  or  straw  must 
be  laid  over  the  glass  to  break  off  the 
intense  heat  of  the  sun." 

If  any  accidents  arise  from  eating 
improper  mushrooms,  vomiting,  by 
means  of  a  mixture  of  salt  and  wa- 
ter, should  be  encouraged. 

M  U  S  K  M  E  L  O  N.  The  common 
yellow  melons,  of  little  flavour,  and 
unworthy  of  cultivation.     See  Melon. 

M  U  S  Q  U I T  O,  MOSQUITO.  In- 
sects  of  the  genus  Culex,  armed  with  a 
sharp  proboscis,  by  which  they  pierce 


MIS 


MIT 


the  skin.  They  abound  in  damp  pla- 
ces. 

MUST.  The  fresh  juice  of  the 
grape  before  fermentation.  Other 
juices  capable  of  fermentation. 

-MUSTARD.    Two  species  are  cul- 


tivated, both  annuals ;  the  Sinapis 
alba  (a),  for  salad,  oil,  as  an  jngredi- 
ent  in  pickles  and  medicine  ;  and  S. 
nigra  (b),  or  black  mustard,  for  the 
condiment  known  by  that  name.  For 
salad,  the  seeds  are  sown  very  thick 
in  rows  of  two  or  three  inches  wide, 
and  the  crop  cut  while  in  the  second 
leaf  It  grows  up  in  a  few  days,  and 
may  be  sown  any  time  during  the 
season,  if  well  watered  and  sheltered 
from  the  hot  sun. 

For  a  lield  crop  the  soil  should  be 
fine,  rich,  and  loamy,  deeply  plough- 
ed, rather  moist  and  light  than  oth- 
erwise. The  seed  is  sown  thinly, 
broadcast,  in  April  or  May  :  two  to 
three  gallons  are  used  per  acre.  The 
plants  are  hoed  in  the  fourth  leaf, 
and,  to  keep  down  weeds,  thinned  to 
eight  or  twelve  inches  apart,  and  col- 
lected as  soon  as  the  pods  have 
changed  from  green.  It  may  be  sown 
jn  drills  two  feet  apart,  and  twelve 
inches  in  the  row.  It  must  be  well 
dried  before  thrashing,  which  is  done 
b}'  a  flail.  It  ought  not  to  be  exposed 
to  rains.  A  good  crop  is  twenty-four 
to  thirty-two  bushels  per  acre,  which 
will  bring  from  S70  to  SIOO,  at  eight 
cents  the   pound  for  seed.     In   the 


■  manufacture  of  mustard  the  white 
and  black  seeds  are  combined,  al- 
though tiie  black  is  best ;  they  are 
pressed  between  rollers,  and  ground 
in  a  mill  set  apart  for  the  purpose, 
and  sifted  and  screened  as  fine  flour. 
:  The  pungency  of  mustard,  by  which 
it  raises  blisters  on  the  skin,  is  due 
j  to  a  volatile  oil  containing  sulphur, 
I  which  is  not  originally  present  in  the 
:  flour,  but  results  from  the  action  of 
i  the  moistened  emulsin  {myrosyne) 
of  the  seeds  upon  a  peculiar  acid 
present,  to  which  the  name  of  my- 
ronic  acid  has  been  given.  The  se- 
cret of  making  good  flour,  therefore, 
consists  of  keeping  the  whole  perfect- 
ly dry  from  the  seeds  to  the  lime  of 
sale,  otherwise  the  changes  which 
produce  the  active  principle  will  have 
taken  place  before  it  is  wanted.  Vin- 
egar diminishes  this  change,  and 
should  not  be  used  with  mustard  :  te- 
pid water  is  the  proper  fluid  to  mix 
up  the  condiment,  or  make  the  irrita- 
ting poultice.  The  seeds  of  many 
cruciferous  plants  are  occasionally 
substituted  for  the  true  mustard. 

The  white  mustard  yields  a  bland 
oil  in  large  quantity,  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty  per  cent,  by  expression.  The 
cake  is  employed  as  a  good  manure. 
The  black  species  is  also  sown  in 
borders  around  seed  beds,  to  protect 
them  from  the  black  flies  (haltka). 

MUSTELLA.  The  genus  contain- 
ing the  weasel  and  other  vermin 
quadrupeds. 

MUTAGE.  A  process  to  stop  the 
fermentation  of  must.  It  is  practised 
either  by  diffusing  sulphurous  acid  in 
the  cask  into  which  the  liquor  is  rack- 
ed by  burning  sulphur  matches,  or  by 
adding  a  little  sulphite  of  lime  to  the 
must  :  the  latter  is  the  best. 

M U  T I C  U  S.  Beardless,  without 
awns,  or  arista. 

MUTTON.  The  flesh  of  the  sheep. 
The  best  meat  is  that  from  wethers 
three  to  five  years  old,  of  the  South 
Down  or  improved  Leicester  breed. 
The  spayed  ewe  five  years  old  is  also 
said  to  make  equally  good  m.eat.  The 
offal  of  a  well-made  animal  with  fine 
bone  should  not  exceed  one  third  of 
the  live  weight. 

513 


nm;v 


NAP 


MUZZLE.  The  nose  of  an  animal. 
A  kind  of  halter  fastened  over  the 
nose  to  prevent  an  animal  from  biting. 
Muzzle  of  a  plough  is  the  end  of  the 
beam  to  which  the  clevis  is  attached. 

MYCELLA.  The  young,  floccu- 
lent  filaments  of  fungi. 

MYOLOGY  (from  fzvuv,  a  muscle, 
and  ?Myor,  a  discnvrse).  An  account 
of  the  muscles  of  the  body. 

MYOPS.     Shortsightedness. 

MYRIAMETER.  Ten  thousand 
metres,  equal  to  two  leagues. 

MYRICIN.  That  portion  of  wax 
which  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 

MYRISTICACE.i:.  A  family  of 
tropical  trees,  exogens,  containing  the 
nutmeg.  They  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
laurels. 

MYRONIC  ACID,  MYRON- 
ATES.  An  acid  existing  in  crucif- 
erous seeds,  and  containing  sulphur. 

MYROBALANS.  A  bitter,  aus- 
tere fruit,  used  in  India  in  calico  dye- 
ing and  medicine. 

MYROSYNE.  A  substance  re- 
sembling emulsin,  or  caseum,  in  mus- 
tard seeds. 

MYRRH.  An  odoriferous  gum 
resin  imported  from  the  East,  and 
supposed  to  be  the  product  of  a  spe- 
cies of  Amyris.  Sweet  cicely  is  some- 
times called  by  this  name. 

MYRTACE.E.  A  family  of  small 
trees  and  shrubs,  particularly  devel- 
oped in  tropical  climates,  and  yield- 
ing the  pimento,  cloves,  guava,  caje- 
put,  and  other  aromatic  products. 

MYRTLE.  Myrtus  communis.  An 
evergreen,  fragrant  bush  with  white 
flowers.  It  is  a  Southern  plant,  and 
requires  protection  from  frosts. 

MYRTLE  BILBERRY.  The 
whortleberry. 

MYRTLE,  DUTCH,  or  SWEET 
GALE.  Myricagale.  A  sweet-scent- 
ed, swamp  shrub,  three  or  four  feet 
high,  bearing  waxy  berries. 

N. 

NACREOUS.  Reflecting  irides- 
cent light,  like  pearl. 

NACRITE.  A  pearly  mineral. 
Silicate  of  alumina  and  potash 

N  ^E  V  U  S.     A  natural   mark   or 
blotch  on  the  skin. 
614 


\AG.     a  small  horse. 

NAILS.  The  horny  extremities 
of  tlie  skin,  modified  into  claws,  tal- 
ons, hoofs,  &ic.  They  are  of  the  same 
composition  as  hair,  and  yield  an 
equally  valuable  manure.  100  lbs., 
during  decomposition,  yield  20  lbs. 
of  ammonia.  Tliey  are  best  in  com- 
posts, at  the  rate  of  300  to  400  lbs. 
to  the  acre,  and  show  their  efl^ects 
for  several  years.  The  composition 
of  horn  gives  that  of  nails,  hoofs, 
&c.,  52  carbon,  6-7  hydrogen,  173 
nitrogen,  24  oxygen  and  sulphur,  with 
less  than  one  per  cent,  ashes,  in  100 
parts.  All  these  textures  are  used 
m  the  manufacture  of  glue. 

NAKED.  In  botany,  without  the 
customary  covermg,  as  a  stem  with- 
out leaves,  corolla  without  calyx,  &c. 

NAKED  DISEASE,  PELT  ROT, 
HUNGER  ROT.  A  disease  of  sheep 
poorly  kept,  in  which  the  wool,  and 
sometimes  the  horns  and  hoofs,  drop 
off.  It  is  to  be  remedied,  if  taken  m 
time,  by  shelter  and  good  food  in  suf- 
ficient quantity. 

NAKED  FLOORING.  The  tim- 
ber-work of  the  floor. 

NANKIN,  NANKEEN.  A  buff 
colour.  Calico  may  be  dyed  of  this 
colour  by  the  followmg  means :  Take 
300  lbs.  of  yarn,  scour  and  boil  in  pure 
water,  wince  the  hanks  in  an  alum 
bath  containing  2  lbs.  of  alum  to  96 
gallons  of  water  at  165^  Fahr. ;  drain, 
expose  to  the  air,  rinse  in  pure  wa- 
ter, and  wring.  Boil  40  lbs.  of  oak 
bark,  contained  in  a  canvass  bag,  for 
two  hours,  in  100  gallons  of  water; 
wince  the  cotton  through  the  boiling 
bath  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ;  while  it  is 
draining  above  the  bath,  add  28  ounces 
of  alum  ;  and,  when  it  is  dissolved, 
wince  through  again  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  ;  drain,  wring,  and  expose  to 
the  air.  It  is  now  of  a  yellowish  col- 
our. Make  a  clear  liniewater  bath 
of  about  150  gallons,  or  a  weak  soda 
lye  ;  dip  the  hanks,  without  washing, 
into  it  rapidly  three  times  ;  then 
move  each  hank  separately  in  the 
bath  until  it  is  of  the  proper  colour ; 
squeeze,  rinse,  and  air  them,  and, 
finally,  brighten  by  passing  them 
through  a  weak  solution  of  tin. 


NAT 


NEA 


NAPHTHA.  A  highly-inflammalile 
fluid,  of  a  peculiar  odour,  sp.  gr.  0  75, 
which  exudes  from  tlie  earth  in  some 
places.  A  similar  fluid  is  distilled 
from  wood  tar,  and  called  wood  naph- 
tl  a.  It  is  used  as  a  solvent  of  India 
rubber. 

NAPHTHALINE.  A  white,  crys- 
talline, volatile  product  of  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  pit  coal. 
Naphthalic  acid,  naphthalamide,  &c., 
are  derivatives. 
NAPIFORM.  Turnip-shaped. 
NARCEIA.  A  vegetable  alkaloid 
from  opium,  producing  salts  of  a  blue 
colour.  Little  is  known  concerning 
its  effects. 

NARCISSUS.  Ornamental  bul- 
bous flowers. 

NARCOTICS.  Anodynes.  Drugs 
which  produce  sleep,  drowsiness,  and 
allay  pain.  Opium,  henbane,  tobac- 
co, camphor,  stramonium,  &.C.,  are 
of  this  kind. 

NARCOTINE.  A  vegetable  alka- 
loid existing  in  opium,  to  which  its 
stimulating  effects  is  due. 
NARES.  The  nostrils. 
NASCENT.  In  the  act  of  being 
produced  or  evolved.  A  chemical 
phrase  given  to  the  evolution  of  gas- 
es from  fluids,  at  which  time  they 
are  more  fitted  to  unite  with  other 
bodies.  Hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oth- 
er gases,  in  the  aeriform  state,  com- 
bine only  slowly  with  substances, 
but  when  nascent  enter  readily  into 
union. 

NASTURTIUM.     Cress,  Indian. 
NASTJTA  (from  nasus,  the  nose). 
A  prolongation  of  the  muzzle  into  the 
form  of  a  nose. 

NATANS,  NATANT,  NAYANT. 
Floating  or  swimming. 

NATATORY.  In  zoology,  when 
the  feet  or  tail  are  provided  with  a 
membrane  or  hairs  to  repel  or  dis- 
place water,  and  buoy  up  the  insect 
or  animal. 

NATRIUM.     Sodium.     See  Soda. 
NATROLITE.     A  fibrous,  yellow- 
ish mineral.     Silicate  of  alumina  and 
soda. 

NATRON.  Soda.  Impure,  native 
sesquicarbonate  of  soda,  found  in 
Egypt,  Fezzan,  Tartary,  Hindostan, 


in  Mexico  near  Zacatecas,  and  in  Co- 

lunihia  forty-eijrht  miles  from  Merida. 
That  of  Fezzan  is  called  Trona,  and 
the  Columbian  Urao.  All  these  lo- 
calities are  cither  in  lakes  or  on  the 
sites  of  ancient  lakes.  Egyptian  na- 
tron consists  of  22  44  carbonate  of 
soda,  18  35  sulphate  of  soda,  38.64 
common  salt,  6  0  insoluble  matter, 
and  14  0  water  :  trona,  of  65  75  car- 
bonate, 7  65  sulphate,  2  63  salt,  24 
water,  1  insoluble  matter. 

NATURAL  HISTORY.  A  de- 
scription of  natural  objects,  as  ani- 
mals, plants,  insects,  fishes,  miner- 
als, fossils. 

NATURAL  ORDERS  OF 
PLANTS.  Natural  system  of  Jussieu. 
Groups  of  plants  having  a  close  sim- 
ilarity in  internal  organization,  and 
frequently  in  external  characters  and 
properties. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 
Physics,  mechanical  philosophy.  The 
science  which  investigates  the  me- 
chanical laws  of  nature ;  and  the  rela- 
tions of  weight,  movement,  pressure, 
or  of  mechanical  forces  in  masses. 

NAUCA.  A  seed  in  which  the 
scar  of  the  hilum  occupies  a  third  of 
the  surface. 

NAUSEA.  A  feeling  similar  to 
that  preceding  the  act  of  vomiting. 

NAVE  OF  A  WHEEL.  The  hub, 
the  block  in  the  centre  of  the  spokes, 
which  receives  them.  It  is  bound  by 
two  nave-bands  of  iron  on  the  outside, 
and  contains  in  the  inside  an  iron  box 
or  washer,  to  save  the  friction  of  the 
axle. 

NAVEL  ILL      See  Calf. 
NAVEL-WORT.     The  American 
plant  is  Hydrocotyle  umbellala,  and  a 
water  weed. 

NAVE  W.  Brassica  campestris. 
The  wild  plant  is  a  native  of  Eng- 
land :  in  the  cultivated  form  it  is 
known  as  colza  and  rape. 

NAVICULAR  (from  navis,  aship). 
Having  the  figure  of  a  ship's  body.  It 
is  applied  to  the  nut  bone  of  the  foot, 
as  well  as  to  the  form  of  seeds,  &,c. 
NEAT  CATTLE.  Horned  cattle, 
oxen. 

NEAT'S-FOOT  OIL.     The  fat  ob 
taiaed  by  boiling  calve's  feet. 

615 


NEIl 


NUT 


NEBULA.  A  cluster  of  small  stars 
appearing  like  a  minute  cloud. 

NECK,  COLLL.M.  In  [.lants.  the 
space  between  the  stem  and  roots, 
often  swollen  in  size.  'I'lie  neck  of  a 
capital  is  the  sj)ace  ahove  the  shaft 
between  the  ring  {annulet)  above,  and 
the  astragal  at  the  top  of  the  shaft. 

N  E  C  K  O  P  H  A  G  A  N  S,  NECRO- 
PHAG A  (from  vei<poc,  dead,  and  <payu, 
I  cat).  A  family  of  clavicorn  beetles, 
some  of  which  live  on  decomposing 
animal  matters. 

NECROSIS  (from  vsKpoeiv,  to  de- 
stroy). A  disease,  resembling  morti- 
fication, of  the  bony  structures.  In 
plants,  the  term  means  the  rotting  of 
the  part. 

NECTARY,  NECTARIUM.  The 
part  of  a  flower  which  secretes  hon- 
ey. It  is  usually  an  appendage  of 
the  petals  or  disk. 

NECTARINE.  The  smooth  peach. 
See  Peach. 

NEGATIVE  SIGN.  Minus,  or 
— .  It  is  employed  to  denote  quan- 
tities or  measures  below  a  standard. 

NELUMBIUM.  A  marsh  plant  of 
China,  the  seeds  of  which,  of  the  size 
of  an  acorn,  are  eaten  green,  or  pre- 
served as  sweatmeats,  and  have  a 
nutty  flavour.  The  succulent  roots 
are  also  eaten  raw  as  a  fruit,  or  boil- 
ed as  a  vegetable. 

NEMOCERA.  A  family  of  dipte- 
ra,  with  filiform  antennae. 

NEMOGLOSSATA.  The  bee 
tribe,  and  those  hymenoptera  which 
have  a  long,  thread-like  tongue. 

NEMOROSE,  NETilOROSA.  Be- 
longing to  the  woods. 

NEP.     Catmint. 

NEPHRITE.  A  tough,  greenish 
mineral,  used  to  manufacture  orna- 
ments. A  silicate  of  alumina  and 
magnesia  with  iron. 

NEPHRITES  (from  ve(f>poc).  In- 
flammation of  the  kidney.  Bleeding, 
warm  baths,  purges,  diluents  are 
used. 

NEPTUANIAN  THEORY.  The 
theory  of  Werner,  that  geological  for- 
mations were  due  to  aqueous  causes. 

NERIUM.     A  genus  of  important 

Eastern  plants.     N.  ayUidyscntericum 

affords  the  codaga  bark  ;  N.  tinctori- 

616 


urn,  a  beautiful  evergreen  of  India, 
affords  some  indigo  from  its  leaves. 

NEROLI,  OIL  OF.  The  distilled 
essential  oils  of  orange  flowers. 

NERVES.  The  white,  thread- 
like fibres  which,  proceeding  from 
the  brain  or  spinal  marrow,  ramify 
throughout  every  part  of  the  bodies 
of  the  higlier  animals.  They  convey 
impressions  from  and  to  the  brain, 
preside  over  the  functions  of  the  dif- 
ferent organs,  and  regulate  motion 
and  the  senses.  Nerves  can  hardly 
be  said  to  be  absent  in  any  animals, 
although  they  become  extremely  ru- 
dimentary in  many.  Chemically,  ner- 
vous matter  consists  of  seven  parts 
albumen,  five  fatty  matter,  and  eighty 
water.  The  fat  is  peculiar,  contain- 
ing phosphorus. 

Most  diseases  affecting  the  whole 
body  are  accompanied,  or  commence 
in  an  impaired  state  of  the  nervous 
system,  which  presides  over  health. 
Nerves  are  said  to  be  cerebral  when 
they  proceed  directly  from  the  brain  : 
there  are  nine  pairs  of  these,  and 
they  preside  over  the  senses.  The 
nerves  arising  from  the  spinal  mar- 
row are  termed  spinal  nerves,  and  di- 
vided into  cervical,  dorsal,  lumbar, 
and  sacral.  They  preside  over  mo- 
tion and  ordinary  sensation,  as  well 
as  the  functions  of  the  lungs,  stom- 
ach, liver,  and  other  viscera.  The 
great  sympathetic  nerve  is  a  series  of 
junctions  between  the  spinal  nerves, 
and  is  connected  with  the  brain  ;  in 
its  course,  small  masses  of  a  reddish 
colour  occur,  called  ganglions  :  it 
renders  the  functions  of  the  different 
organs  uniform.  A  plexus  of  nerves 
is  a  net-work  formed  by  the  union  of 
various  filaments. 

NERVES,  or  NERVURES.  In 
plants,  the  raiuifications  of  woody 
tissue  and  vessels  seen  upon  leaves, 
flowers,  &c.  They  support  the  cel- 
lular tissue  of  the  leaves. 

NETHERLANDS,  HUSBANDRY 
OF.     See  Flanders. 

NETTED.  Reticulated,  marked 
like  the  meshes  of  a  net. 

NETTLE.  The  genus  Urtica, 
herbaceous  and  shrubby  plants,  often 
furnished  with  stinging  hairs  :  their 


NEW 


MD 


burning  is  lessened  by  vinegar  and ;  NEW  HUSBANDRY.  The  drill 
oil.  A  rennet  is  made  bv  adding  salt ,  and  iiorse-hoe  husbandry, 
to  a  strong  decoction  of  liettles.  Ass- j  NEW  RED  SANDSTONE.  The 
cs  eat  the  common  nettle,  and  some-  series  of  strata  lying  immediately 
times  the  boiled  sprouts  are  used  as  i  above  the  coal  formation.  It  con- 
vegetables.  The  commonest  sting-  sists  of  conglomerates,  and  contains 
ing  species  are  U.  dioica,  urcns.  Can-  \  marl,  gypsum,  and  large  quantities 
adcnsis,  and  proccra.     The  common  |  of  rock  salt.     It  is  found  abundantly 


nettle  (dwica)  is  a  troublesome  peren- 
nial weed  in  cultivated  lands,  and  re- 
quires to  be  ploughed  out  by  tillage. 
The  U.  nivca  and  ainnabina  yield  fine 
hemp.      The  U.  Canadensis,  Canada 


in  New-York,  the  Valley  of  Virginia, 
and  of  the  Connecticut. 

NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX.  Plwr- 
mium  lenax.  Iris-leaved  flax  lily.  It 
grows  with  broad,  stiff  leaves,  like 


or  Albany  nettle,  grows  six  feet  high,  1  those  of  lilies,  the  fibres  of  which  are 
is  indigenous,  perennial,  and  has  been  ;  readily  obtained  by  rotting.      They 


recommended  as  a  hemp  plant.  It  is, 
however,  covered  with  stings. 

NETTLE-TREE.  The  genus  Cf^ 
tis,  amentaceous  trees.  The  princi- 
pal American  species  is  the  C.  occi- 
dcnlalts,  the  sugar  or  pompion  berry. 
It  is  seldom  twenty  feet  in  the  Mid- 
dle .States,  but  becomes  seventy  on 
the  Savannah.  It  is  ornamental,  with 
small,  white  flowers,  and  sweet,  red- 
dish fruit. 

NETS.  They  are  useful  in  the  or- 
chard and  garden  to  protect  seed  and 
fruit  from  buds. 

NEURALGIA.  Painof  the  nerves. 

NEURILEMA.  The  covering  of 
the  nerves. 

NEUROPTERA.  Insectswith 
four  netted  winss.     See  Insects. 


are  of  extraordinary  strength,  and 
used  for  fishing-lines,  cordage,  and 
coarse  cloth.  It  requires  a  warm 
climate  for  successful  cultivation. 

NICARAGUA  WOOD.  The  dye- 
wood  of  the  Ccesalpina  eckinata,  a  tree 
of  South  America.  The  red  colour 
is  fugitive  with  solution  of  tin. 

NICHE.  A  recess  in  a  wall  for  a 
statue. 

NICKEL.  A  rare  white  metal, 
like  iron.  Its  salts  are  green  for  the 
most  part.  It  exists  in  meteoric 
stones. 

NICKING  AND  DOCKING. 
Pricking.  Cutting  off'part  of  a  horse's 
tail,  and  making  nicks  on  the  under 
side,  to  divide  the  two  cords  which 
draw  down  the  tail  ;  this  causes  the 
NEUTERS.     Infertile  animals  or  j  stump  to  stand  out  in  what  a  stable- 


plants,  having  neither  stamens  nor 
pistils. 

NEUTRAL,  NEUTRAL  I- 
ZATION,  NEUTRALIZED.  The 
combination  of  an  acid  with  an  alka- 


boy  supposes  a  graceful  fashion.     It 
is  nearlv  obsolete. 

NICOTIN,  NTCOTINA.  An  ac- 
rid, soluble,  volatile  alkaloid  found 
in  tobacco.  It  combines  with  acids, 
11,  or  of  two  active  bodies  together,  '■  and  forms  salts.  It  is  very  poisonous, 
by  which  the  properties  of  either  are  i  NICOTIANIN.  A  fatty,  volatile, 
perfectly  destroyed.  The  addition  azotized  body,  insoluble  in  water, 
mast  be  made  in  the  proportion  of  \  lormed  during  the  fermentation  of 
their  equivalents  to  produce  neutral  tobacco  in  preparing  for  the  market, 
compounds.  and  to  which  its  odour  is  due.     It  is 

NEUTRAL  SALTS.    Salts  which   poisonous,  especially  to  insects  and 


betray  neither  an  acid  nor  alkaline  re 
action. 

NEWEL.  In  building,  the  space 
around  which  a  flight  of  steps  is 
turned. 

NEW-JERSEY  TEA.     Ceanothus 
Americana.     A  common  marsh  shrub 
with  fragrant  bunches  of  flowers.     It 
was  used  in  the  Revolution  for  tea. 
X  X 


reptiles. 

NICTITATION.  Winking.  The 
movement  of  the  membrane  covering 
the  eyes  of  birds  and  some  animals, 
called  the  membrana  niclilans. 

NIDUS.  A  nest.  A  suitable  po- 
sition or  matrix  for  development. 
Niduliis  and  nidulale  are  deriva- 
tives. 

517 


NIG 


M(J 


^'ul^J!'^!'^:'^'"!'  ^™"-  I     The  salts  had  the  fbll 


ing  black.  AVr/r««.v,  blackish.  s()(,fv 
NIGHTSHADES.  The  gonus  *V 
lajaun.  They  are  iiiostlv  pcrennia]  or 
shrubby,  of  th(3  faiiiilv  fio/anaccie,  the 
fruit  and  leaves  being  often  poison- 
ous, especially  in  the  S.  niirrum  and 
dulciimiira,  or  bittersweet.  They  are 
common  weeds  in  moist,  cultivated 
grounds.  'l"he  deadly  nightshade  is 
the  Atropa  belladonna.  The  potato 
egg  fruit,  and  tomato  are  of  this  ffcnus'  I 

NIGHT  SOIL.  The  contents  of 
privies.  It  IS  a  very  valuable  manur 
/or  all  crops.  In  the  fresh  state  it  is 
applied  at  the  rate  of  six  to  twelve 
cart  loads  the  acre;  but  this  is  an 
unpleasant  and  wasteful  application 
It  may  be  dried,  and  rendered  ino- 
dorous by  union  with  charcoal,  char- 


owing  com- 


position : 

('.irhunate  of  soda      ...  90 /i 

I  Chloride  of  sodium 9,  * 

Sulphate  of  soda  . j?.? 

Ammoiiiaco-magnesian  phosphate   !     '     'll-fi 
Phosphate  of  lime      .......     .235 

JOiFo 

Human  urine  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  all  manures.  Left  to  it- 
self, u  speedily  undergoes  putrefac- 
tion, and  evolves  an  abundance  of  am- 
moniacal  salts.     Its  composition  is : 

Urea , 

IJricacid ..:;■■  Oil 

Iiidetermjnate  animal  matter  )' 

LactsR  acid,  and  lactate  of  ammonia        •  .1  "1 

AIucus  of  the  bladder  .     .  nno 

Sulphate  of  potash  ...          •     •     •     ■  ""^ 

Sulphate  of  soda      .     .                •     •     •     •  "J/ 

Phosphate  of  soda    ....';;'■  (J.gg 


rpri    nf>Tt    ni-   hvr.I.„„    „      1  ",''  ^''"'"  ( ''hloride  of  sodium       .     . 

nr   /no  L      ,  1        ^   ^''^^'  ^"''^   ^^'^^S    Phosphate  of  ammonia     .     .     .  ^     '    In 

or  tine  mould,  and  drying  by  e.xno   r^'''"^"Mraie  of  ammonia  .        '    '    "    n-i^ 


sure  to  the  air.     This  fonus  one  kind 
of  poudrette.     It  is  best  treated  with 
charcoal   powder,  gvpsum,  or  very 
small  quantities  of  gVeen  vitriol   the 
sulphuric  acid  of  which  fixes  the  vol- 
atile ammonia.     Quicklime  and  un- 
leached  ashes  are  objectionable  addi- 
tions, as  they  liberate  the  ammonia 
and  cause  loss.     The  most  econom- 
ical method,  so  far  as  the  soil  of  the 
Jarni  's  concerned,  is  to  keep  pound- 
ed charcoal  and  a  little  gypsum  in  the 
cess  pool,  so  as  to  have  it  ready  for 
use  as   soon  as   removed.     Dryint^ 
night  soil  in  tlie  air,  without  any  ad"^ 
dition,  is  wasteful  ;  for  fermentation 
comes  on  rapidly,  and  great  loss  of 
ammoniacal  matters  arises.     For  the 
Flemish  method  of  using  night  soil, 
seeF/andcrs  Husbandry. 

Night  soil  is  a  mixture  of  urine  and 
faces,  and,  as  such,  must  vary  in 
composition,  and  has  never  been  ex- 
amined. The  fffices  and  urine  sep- 
arately were  analyzed  by  Berzelius 


Phosphate  of  lime  and  of  magnesia 

•Silica 

Waler 


010 

traces 

fl3-30 

lOOOO 

The  phosphates  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia which  it  contains  are  extreme- 
ly insoluble  salts,  and  have  been  sup- 
posed to  be  held  in  solution  by  phos- 
phoric acid,  lactic  acid,  and  very  re- 
'  cently,  by  Professor  Liebig,  by  hip- 
puric  acid,  which  he  now  states  to 
be  a  regular  constituent  of  healthy 
human  urine. 

From  the  interesting  inquiries 
upon  urine  made  by  M.  Lecanu,  it 
appears  that  a  man  passes  nearly 
half  an  ounce  of  azote  with  his  urine 
in  the  course  of  24  hours.  A  quan- 
tity of  urine  taken  from  a  public  urine 
pail  of  Paris  yielded  7  per  1000  of 
azote.  The  dry  extract  of  the  same 
urine  yielded  nearly  17  per  cent. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  an  estimate 
of  the  comparative  value  of  nitrht 
soil,  for  the  urine  present  is  nearly 


faces  to  be  as  follows  : 

Remains  of  food 
Bile  .... 
Albumen 


Who   found  the  composition  of  the    ^''""'^t'''"''  ^^e  valuable  part,  and  the 
""         ■    ■  -  *=' amount  varies.     It  is,  however,  more 

active  (hotter)  and  valuable  than  the 
best  horse  dung,  being  estimated  at 
14,  and  horse  dung  at  10.  A  Young 
increased  his  crop  of  wheat,  on  I 
poor  gravel,  from  12  to  31  bushels 
by  160  bushels,  upward  of  six  bush- 

els  more  than  he  obtained  by  60  cu- 

1000 1  bic  yards  of  farm-yard  manure.     Ac- 


A  peculiar  extractive  matter  .     .'     '     "     '     2-7 
Indeterminate  animal  matter,  viscous  niat- 
ter,  resin,  and  an  insoluble  residuum   .  140 

*8ltS 

W'''"     .     .     .     -  • 73  3 


518 


NIT 

cording  to  Boussingault,  when  dri- 
ed in  the  air  it  is  10  tiiiirs  as  fertili- 
zing as  good  farm-yard  manure.  It 
may  be  composted  \\  ith  any  of  tiie 
ordinary  manures,  and  should  be 
plou<fhed  under  shallow,  and  near  to 
seed  time.  As  a  poudrctte,  it  is  used 
to  the  hill,  or  as  a  top-dressinjj.  It 
is  best  applied  to  quick-gro\vinj;f,  rank 
plants,  as  turnips,  and  cruciferous 
plants  generally,  Indian  corn,  pota- 
toes, &c. 

NIjMBUS.  The  rain  cloud.  It  is 
black,  and  near  the  earth. 

NIPPERS.  The  four  front  teeth 
of  the  horse.  They  are  put  forth  be- 
tween the  second  and  third  years. 
Pincers,  forceps. 

NIPPLE.  A  conical  elevation. 
The  extremities  of  the  udder.    Teats. 

NITIDUS.  Shining,  polished, 
smooth. 

NITRATE  OF  AMMONIA.  This 
has  been  used  as  a  steep,  in  the  same 
way  as  nitre,  but  is,  perhaps,  too  ex- 
pensive, except  for  garden  crops. 
Nitrate  of  lime,  for  leguminous  crops, 
and  perhaps  all  others,  would  prob- 
ably be  as  serviceable,  and  much 
cheaper. 

NITRATE  OF  SILVER.  In  the 
fused  state,  called  lunar  caustic,  and 
much  used  as  a  caustic.  It  consists 
of  one  equivalent  of  nitric  acid  united 
with  one  of  oxide  of  silver.  A  solu- 
tion is  used  in  the  laboratory  to  de- 
tect the  presence  of  muriatic  acid  and 
chlorine  in  solutions,  with  both  which 
it  forms  a  wliite,  curdy  precipitate. 
It  is  also  a  test  for  organized  matter, 
becoming  black  in  its  presence. 

NITRATES.  Sails  containing  ni- 
tric acid  combined  with  a  base,  as  ni- 
trate of  potash,  soda,  lime,  ammonia. 

NITRE.  Saltpetre,  nitrate  of 
potash.  A  compound  of  54  parts  (1 
eiiuivalent)  of  nitric  acid  with  one 
equivalent,  or  48  parts  potash.  It 
crystallizes  in  six-sided  prisms,  with 
two  faces  at  the  summits  ;  is  soluble 
in  seven  parts  cold,  and  less  than  its 
weight  of  hot  water.  It  is  for  the 
most  part  derived  from  the  soil  of 
India.  Egypt,  and  Spain,  and  exists 
in  most  limestone  caverns  and  about 
dunghUls.     The  crude  nitre  contains 


NIT 

nitrate  of  lime  ciiiefly,  but  by  adding 
fresh  ashes,  boiling,  andcry.stallizing, 
nitrate  of  potash  is  obtained.  It  is 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder,  preserving  meats,  and 
as  a  chemical  and  medical  compound. 
The  coarser  kinds  have  also  been 
used,  to  a  great  extent,  in  agricul- 
ture, principally  as  a  steep  for  corn, 
wheat,  and  grain  generally.  For  this 
purpose,  one  pound,  dissolved  in  one 
gallon  and  a  half  of  water,  answers 
for  a  bushel  of  grain.  This  is  the 
strength  used  by  Mr.  Campbell,  but 
ordinarily  five  or  more  gallons  of  wa- 
ter are  employed.  The  grains  re- 
main for  60  hours.  This  steep  not 
only  forwards  their  germination  and 
start,  but  is  one  of  the  best  preserva- 
tives against  rust,  smut,  and  insects. 
The  ix)unded  nitre  has  been  used  at 
the  rate  of  from  50  to  100  lbs.  to  the 
acre  as  a  top-dressing  to  grass,  wheat, 
barley,  and  other  crops.  It  frequent- 
ly does  great  good,  especially  on  poor, 
sandy  soils,  but 'is  not  so  apparent  on 
very  rich  lands,  and  sometimes  fails 
altogether.  The  high  price  of  $7  to 
$9  the  cwt.  forbids  its  use  except  as 
a  steep  ;  which  seems,  also,  to  be  the 
most  effective  application.  Nitre  and 
nitrates  are  by  no  means  uncommon 
in  plants.  It  has  been  found  in  the 
sunflower,  borage,  barley,  tobacco, 
Indian  corn,  beet  root,  and  probably 

I  exists   in  all  grain  plants.     It  does 

;  not  seem  to  have  any  remarkable  ad- 
vantage over  the  nitrate  of  soda,  or 

I  cubic  nitre  of  Peru,  which  is  one  half 

!  the  price. 

j  NITRE,  CUBIC.  Nitrate  of  soda. 
It  consists  of  one  equivalent  nitric 
acid  and  one  soda  ;  is  crystallized  in 

'  rhomboids  ;  is  very  soluble  and  de- 
liquescent, requiring  but  three  parts 

I  water,  at  60^  Fahr.,  for  solution.  It 
has  been  used  to  land  jjrecisely  as  ni- 

I  tre,  with  similar  eflccts.     The  great 

]  part  of  the  salt  in  commerce  is  deri- 
ved from  Peru,  where  inmiense  de- 
posites  of  it  occur  in  Taracapa  and 
Atacama. 

NITRIC  ACID.    Aquafortis.    The 

pure  acid   is   unknown,  that  of  the 

shops  iieing  a  solution  in  water ;  the 

strongest  specimens  have  a  sp.  gr.  of 

519 


NIT 


NIT 


1-5,  and  contain  one  atom  of  acid  (54), 
with  two  of  water ;  it  is  of  a  yellow- 
ish tinge,  smokes,  and  is  extremely 
caustic,  dissolving  most  metals.  The 
pure  acid  consists  of  one  atom  of  ni- 
trogen with  five  of  oxygen  (formula, 
N  Or,).  The  commercial  specimens 
are  adulterated  with  oil  of  vitriol  and 
muriatic  acid,  which  are  detected  by 
the  occurrence  of  a  precipitate  when 
nitrate  of  silver  or  limewater  is 
added  :  this  does  not  occur  in  pure 
acid.  Nitric  acid  is  extensively  em- 
ployed in  the  laboratory  as  a  solvent, 
and,  from  its  active  action  on  many 
compounds,  it  readily  parts  with  a 
portion  of  its  oxygen,  oxydizing  or- 
ganic and  other  bodies  presented  to 
it.  Its  salts  are  soluble  in  water, 
and  decrepitate  on  a  hot  coal. 

NITRIC  OXIDE,  NITROUS  G-\S. 
Binoxide  of  nitrogen.  This  gas  is 
given  off  when  dilute  nitric  acid  acts 
on  a  metal ;  it  turns  red  in  the  air, 
being  changed  into  nitrous  acid. 

NITRIFICATION,  NITRE 
BEDS.  Nitrates  of  lime  or  magne- 
sia are  often  artificially  formed,  and 
the  compound  subsequently  convert- 
ed into  nitre  by  boiling  with  wood  ash- 
es, &c.  The  production  of  nitrate  of 
lime  in  agriculture,  to  be  applied  to 
the  field  and  form  steeps,  is  worthy  of 
attention  ;  this  is  readily  effected  by 
mixing  animal  and  vegetable  rubbish 
with  air-slacked  hme  in  loose  heaps 
of  any  desired  length,  and  six  feet 
wide  by  three  feet  high  ;  these  should 
be  arranged  under  a  shed,  to  protect 
them  from  rain  and  heat,  and  kept 
moist  with  urine,  blood,  ditch  water, 
and  animal  or  putrescent  fluids  ;  the 
heaps  should  be  built  on  tempered, 
dry  ground  that  will  not  absorb  fluid, 
and  occasionally  spaded  over.  In 
from  four  months  to  one  year,  ac- 
cording to  ttie  heat  and  abundance  of 
animal  matter,  the  heaps  will  be  rich 
enough  for  use  as  a  top-dressing,  or 
may  be  washed,  to  separate  the  ni- 
trate :  as  much  of  the  nitre-bed  sub- 
stance as  contains  100  pounds  of  ni- 
trate may  be  used  as  a  top-dressing 
to  the  crop,  or  put  into  compost  with 
other  fertilizers.  As  soon  as  one  bed 
is  removed  another  should  be  erect- 
520 


ed,  and  thus  a  succession  formed,  in 
which  every  kind  of  offensive  garbage, 
night  soil,  and  every  kind  of  animal 
texture  will  be  consumed  with  profit  to 
the  farmer,  and  one  of  the  most  active 
manures  for  poor  soils  created.  Peat, 
fine  mould,  river  mud,  and  such  sub- 
stances may  be  used  to  mix  with  the 
nitre  bed  when  a  basis  is  wanted. 

The  rich  mould  of  the  forest,  old 
manure  heaps,  damp  calcareous  tracts 
of  land  are  all  natural  nitre  beds, 
which  may  be  put  up  without  any  or- 
ganic matter,  but  in  which,  the  more 
we  add,  the.  more  rapidly  nitrates  are 
formed. 

NITRITES.  Salts  of  nitrous  acid. 
They  are  not  of  agricultural  impor- 
tance. 

NITROGEN.  Azote.  An  ele- 
mentary gas,  colourless,  inodorous, 
inactive,  of  nearly  the  same  weight 
as  air,  incapable  of  sustaining  life  or 
flame,  forming  8-lOths  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  existing  in  nitric  acid, 
ammonia,  cyanogen,  and  numerous 
compounds.  It  is  abundantly  present 
in  animal  textures,  and  forms  a  mi- 
nute part  of  all  plants,  rarely  attain- 
ing 5  per  cent.  Its  equivalent  is  14-2, 
symbol  N.  Its  compounds  with  oxy- 
gen are  numerous  ;  of  these,  nitric 
acid  is  the  most  important  ;  nitric 
oxide,  or  the  binoxide,  seems  to  be  a 
compound  radical.  With  hydrogen 
it  forms  ammonia,  a  substance  of 
great  importance,  of  which  w^e  shall 
treat  here. 

Ammonia  {volatile  alkali),  in  the 
pure  state,  is  a  very  pungent,  inflam- 
mable gas,  consisting  of  one  equiva- 
lent of  nitrogen  (14-2)  and  three  of 
hydrogen  (3),  and  having  a  combi- 
ning number  of  173  :  symbol  N  H3. 
Water  dissolves  700  to  800  times  its 
volume  of  the  gas  ;  the  solution,  or 
liq.  ammonia,  of  sp.  gr.  87,  contains 
32  per  cent,  ammonia :  it  becomes 
caustic,  pungent,  and  alkaline.  It  is 
the  usual  form  in  which  this  body  is 
known.  It  readily  unites  with  acids, 
forming  salts  of  ammonia,  of  which 
the  sesquicarbonate,  or  sal  volatile, 
preserves  the  odour. 

Ammonia  is  one  of  the  products  of 
fermenting  animal  matter,  and   its 


-MT 


NOS 


smell  may  be  detected  in  cess-pools 
and  dunghills ;  the  carbonate  and 
muriate  usually  formed  are  volatile, 
and  escape  into  the  air ;  hence  it  is 
recommended  that  charcoal  be  used 
to  absorb  these  substances,  or  that 
sulphuric  acid,  gypsum,  or  green  vit- 
riol (sulphate  of  iron)  be  employed  to 
convert  them  into  sulphates,  which 
are  not  volatile  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures. Liebig  asserts  that  an  appre- 
ciable amount  of  ammonia  exists  in 
the  air  and  rain  storms,  derived  from 
decompositions  occurring  on  the 
earth.  Much  of  the  fertility  of  de- 
caying putrescent  matters  is  said  to 
depend  on  the  evolution  of  ammonia- 
cal  compounds,  or  the  nitrates  which 
they  originate  by  farther  decay. 

In  the  compounds  of  ammonia  with 
bases,  it  becomes  converted — accord- 
ing to  modern  authorities — into  an 
oxide  of  ammonium,  or  N  H^  0,  or 
an  hydrate  of  ammonia  ;  hence,  a  ni- 
trate of  ammonia  is,  according  to  this 
nomenclature,  a  nitrate  of  the  oxide 
of  anmionium,  N  H4  O  +  N  0,-,.  The 
nitrate,  sulphate,  muriate,  and  nu- 
merous organic  salts  of  ammonia, 
have  been  found  in  plants.  The  sul- 
phate, carbonate,  muriate,  and  ni- 
trate have  been  used  as  steeps  in  the 
same  way  and  dose  as  nitre,  but  are 
too  expensive  in  the  commercial 
form  ;  most  of  these  are  found  in  sta- 
ble manure  and  putrescent  composts. 
The  amount  of  ammonia  taken  by  a 
crop  from  an  acre  rarely  exceeds  30 
pounds,  except  in  such  crops  as  tur- 
nips, cabbages,  and  cruciferous  plants, 
which  often  carry  off  upward  of  100 
pounds.  Some  plants  evolve  ammo- 
nia from  their  leaves,  and  all  throw 
off  nitrogen,  which  is  most  probably 
derived  from  ammonia  taken  from 
the  soil.  The  common  salts  of  this 
alkali  are  all  soluble,  and  decomposed 
or  volatilized  at  a  red  heat. 

NITRO.  A  prefix  to  the  name  of 
bodies  containing  nitric  acid  or  nitro- 
gen. 

NITRO-MURIATIC  ACID.  Aqna 
rcgia.  A  mixture  of  strong  nitric 
and  muriatic  acid,  whereby  chlorine 
is  evolved,  which  dissolves  gold,  pla- 
tinum, and  other  metals. 
X  x2 


NITROUS  ACID.  A  pungent,  or- 
ange-coloured,  volatile  acid,  consist- 
ing of  one  equivalent  nitrogen  and 
four  oxygen. 

NITROUS  OXIDE.  Protoxide  of 
nitrogen,  laughing  gas. 

N  6  C  T  i:  R  N  A  L.  Of  the  night. 
Many  birds  and  insects  prey  only  at 
night. 

NODE.  A  knot  or  lump.  A  bony 
tumour.  The  swelling  on  the  stems 
of  plants  where  leaves  start ;  also 
called  nodi.  A  7wdal  point,  in  physics, 
is  a  place  of  rest,  where  several  for- 
ces counterbalance  one  another. 

NODOSUS.     Knotty. 

NODULE.  Rounded,  irregular 
lumps  or  masses. 

NOGGIN  G.  In  building,  brick- 
work carried  up  between  uprights  of 
timber  scantling. 

NOMENCLATURE.  The  lan- 
guage employed  in  scientific  descrip- 
tions. 

NON-CONDUCTOR.  A  substance 
incapable  of  conducting  heat  or  elec- 
tricity. 

NONESUCH.  The  black  medic 
( M.  lupuUna ),  common  in  upland 
meadows. 

NOOTH'S  APPARATUS.  A  se- 
ries of  three  glass  vessels,  placed  ver- 
tically, for  the  purpose  of  impregna- 
ting water  -with  carbonic  acid  gas. 
The  lower  vessel  contains  the  mar- 
ble and  muriatic  acid  for  the  evolution 
of  the  gas  ;  the  central  vessel  holds 
the  water,  through  which  it  is  made 
to  pass,  under  the  pressure  of  the  col- 
umn of  water  in  the  third  or  upper  ves- 
sel, which  is  closed  by  a  conical  stop- 
per, which  serves  as  a  safety-valve. 

NOPAL.  The  Opunlia  cochinillif- 
era,  a  cactus  on  which  the  cochineal 
insect  lives :  native  of  the  sandy 
tracts  of  Mexico. 

NORDHAUSEN  SULPHURIC 
ACID.     Fuming  strong  acid  obtain- 
ed by  the  distillation  of  green  vitriol. 
NORMAL.      Regular,    straight, 
usual. 

NOSE-BAG.  A  bag  containing 
corn  or  oats  to  be  tied  to  the  horse's 
nose. 

NOSE-BAND.     That  part  of  the 
headstall  of  a  bridle  which  comes 
521 


MR 


XI I R 


over  a  horse's  nose.     It  is  sometimes 
termed  maserole. 

NOSOLOGY.  A  classification  or 
dissertation  on  diseases. 

NOTCHED.     Crenate. 

NOTCH-BOARD.  In  building,  the 
board  which  receives  the  ends  of  the 
steps  of  a  staircase. 

NOTHUS.     Spurious. 

NOVACULITE.     Hone  stone. 

NOVE.MBER.  In  this  month  the 
later  or  fall  crops,  as  carrots,  turnips, 
cabbages,  &c.,  are  collected,  and  sto 
red  up  from  frost ;  preparation  is  to  be 
made  for  securing  the  fodder  in  a 
suitable  place  for  stock ;  the  farm- 
stead is  to  be  set  right  for  wintering. 
All  stiff  lands  are  now  ploughed  for 
spring  crops.  The  latter  steps  of 
curing  tobacco,  the  preparation  for 
rotting  hemp,  and  securing  cotton  for 
market,  are  now  made.  In  the  gar- 
den, early  vegetables  are  to  be  look- 
ed after,  and  frames  got  ready  to  pro- 
tect them  from  winter.  The  land 
may  be  trenched  for  spring  crops  ; 
transplanting  can  take  place  until  the 
ground  begins  to  freeze  too  deep. 

NUCLEUS.  The  point  around 
which  crystals  or  organized  struc- 
tures are  developed  :  the  origin.  In 
botany,  the  upper,  pulpy  mass  of  an 
ovule  ;  the  interior  of  a  seed.  The 
shield  of  lichens. 

NUCULA.  A  fruit  like  the  acorn, 
or  a  one-seeded,  hard  seed-vessel. 

NUDUS.     Naked. 

NURSERY.  "  In  gardening,  a  plot 
of  ground,  or  an  entire  garden,  set 
apart  for  the  propagation  of  plants, 
more  particularly  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  situation  ought  to  be  open  and 
airy,  and  the  soil  of  an  average  qual- 
ity, neither  too  heavy  nor  too  light, 
so  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  majority  of 
plants ;  but  in  a  complete  nursery 
there  ought  also  to  be  shady  borders 
for  plants  requiring  shade,  and  beds 
or  compartments  of  peat  soil,  or  oth- 
er peculiar  soils,  for  such  plants  as 
are  not  readily  propagated  and  grown 
in  ordinary  soils.  Where  tender 
plants  are  propagated,  or  where  hardy 
plants  are  to  be  raised  from  seeds, 
or  struck  from  cuttings  which  are  not 
easily  germinated  or  rooted  in  the 
522 


open  ground  and  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner, hot-beds,  frames,  and  hand-glass- 
es are  also  requisite.  Every  private 
garden  of  any  extent  requires  a  nur- 
sery' to  raise  and  bring  forward  young 
plants  as  a  reserve  for  supplying  fail- 
ures by  disease  or  accident  in  the 
general  garden. 

"The  seeds  of  the  trees  to  be  cul- 
tivated are  first  sown  in  what  are 
termed  the  seed  beds.  The  pits  of 
peaches  and  stone  fruits  may  be  ei- 
ther broken,  or  placed  in  wet  sand  in 
the  fall,  so  as  to  open  in  the  spring  of 
themselves.  The  beds  may  be  made 
about  four  feet  wide,  with  little  paths 
for  passages  between. 

"  The  ground  of  these  beds  being 
carefully  digged,  and  rendered  smooth 
by  the  rake,  and  a  little  of  the  sur- 
face soil  being  laid  aside  for  the  pur- 
pose of  covering  the  seeds,  these  are 
to  be  scattered  evenly  over  the  sur- 
face, and  a  light  wooden  roller  then 
passing  over  it,  the  earth  which  had 
been  laid  aside  is  to  be  spread  care- 
fully and  equally  over  the  seeds. 

"  The  seeds  of  resinous  trees  must 
be  lightly  covered,  and  so  also  must 
some  of  the  hard-wood  kinds.  Those 
of  the  larch  and  the  spruce  should  be 
covered  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
and  sown  in  the  month  of  April,  while 
those  of  the  oak,  the  ash,  the  chest- 
nut, the  sycamore,  and  others,  may 
be  more  deeply  covered,  and  sown 
at  an  earlier  season.  But  some  of 
the  hard-wood  kinds  require  to  be 
sown  at  a  later  period,  on  account 
of  their  being  subject  to  injury  from 
frost ;  and  some  may  be  sown  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn. 

"  The  young  plants  remain  in  the 
seed  beds  for  one  or  two  years,  du- 
ring which  period  they  are  termed 
seedlings.  Some  of  the  hardier  spe- 
cies, as  the  larch  and  pine,  may  be 
transplanted  at  once  from  the  seed 
beds  to  the  place  which  they  are  to 
occupy  in  the  forest,  while  others,  in- 
cluding several  of  the  resinous,  and 
all  the  hard-wood  kinds,  are  first 
transplanted  into  lines  in  another  part 
of  the  nursery,  where  they  remain  for 
one  or  more  years,  and  then  are  trans- 
planted to  their  place  in  the  forest. 


NUR 


NUT 


The  most  of  the  resinous  trees,  when 
they  are  to  be  transplanted  into  the 
nursery  hnes,  may  he  one  year's  seed- 
lings ;  others  of  the  resinous,  and  all 
the  hard- wood  kinds,  should  not  gen- 
erally be  less  than  two  years'  seed- 
lings before  being  transplanted  to  the 
lines.  Those  that  require  grafting 
are  worked  either  in  the  first  or  sec- 
ond year,  and  removed  the  next  sea- 
son. The  transplantation  from  the 
seed  beds  to  the  nursery  lines  may 
take  place  in  autumn,  after  the  de- 
scent of  the  sap,  or  in  spring,  before 
vegetation  has  commenced.  The 
operation  may  be  performed  by  the 
spade,  but  is  often  performed  by  the 
dibble.  The  plants  are  set  at  such 
distances  in  the  rows  that  the  hori- 
zontal branches  of  the  young  trees 
shall  not  interfere  with  one  another. 
In  transplanting,  no  part  of  the  root 
should  be  lopped  or  shortened  by  the 
knife,  nor  the  roots  doubled  in  put- 
ting them  into  the  ground  ;  and  care 
should  be  taken  in  planting,  where 
the  dibble  is  used,  that  the  root  shall 
be  fixed  firmly,  without  being  com- 
pressed at  the  neck. 

"  Certain  kinds  of  tree  plants,  in- 
stead of  being  propagated  by  seeds, 
are  propagated  by  cuttings,  consist- 
ing of  a  portion  of  the  shoot  of  the 
previous  year's  growth,  twelve  or 
fifteen  inches  long.  These  cuttings 
are  planted  by  thrusting  one  end  a 
few  inches  into  the  ground.  This 
is  the  manner  in  which  willows  and 
certain  poplars  are  raised. 

"  Certain  kinds,  again,  are  best  prop- 
agated by  layers.  This  practice  con- 
sists in  bending  down  the  branches 
of  a  growing  tree,  fixing  them  in  the 
ground  by  means  of  crooked  pins  of 
wood,  and  covering  them  partly  with 
earth.  In  this  state  the  covered  part 
quickly  shoots  forth  roots,  and  the 
branch,  being  then  separated  from  the 
parent  tree,  becomes  a  distinct  plant. 

'■  But,  in  the  case  of  the  greater 
number  of  species,  the  practice  is  to 
sow  the  seeds  in  the  seed  beds  in  the 
manner  described.  The  hardier  are 
often  planted  at  once,  but  most  of 
the  hard-wood  are  not  planted  in  the 
forest  until  they  have  been  one  or 


more  years  in  the  nursery  lines, 
where  they  extend  their  roots,  and 
acquire  strength  and  size. 

"  During  the  period  in  which  the 
plants  remain  in  these  lines  they  are 
to  be  kept  free  from  weeds.  They 
require  no  pruning  at  this  early  stage 
farther  than  to  the  extent  of  causing 
the  leading  or  principal  ascending 
shoot  to  preserve  its  ascendency  over 
the  lateral  and  more  horizontal  ones, 
so  that  the  plant  shall  not  become 
what  is  termed  forked.  This  may  be 
simply  efTected  by  shortening  one  of 
the  branches,  or  by  simply  nipping  off 
the  terminal  bud  of  the  branch,  by 
which  means  its  vertical  growth  will 
be  interrupted,  and  the  mam  stem  per- 
mitted to  preserve  its  ascendency." 
NURSES  IN  PLANTATIONS. 
Shrubs  or  trees  which  grow  rapidly 
and  protect  the  young  plants.  Thus 
the  vine  is  used  as  a  nurse  to  the 
cork-oak  in  Spain.  By  this  means  a 
profit  is  obtained  from  the  soil.  They 
must  not  shade  the  trees  too  much. 

NUT,  NUX.  A  fruit  with  a  hard 
covering,  indehiscent,  with  one  seed 
(nucida). 

NUTANT,  NUTANS.  Nodding, 
inclined  forward,  or  to  the  ground. 

NUT  OF  A  SCREW.  The  head, 
or  piece  of  wood  or  metal  turned 
down  upon  the  screw. 

NUTMEGS.  "The  fruit  of  the 
Mynsiica  moschata,  a  beautiful  tree  of 
the  family  of  the  Laurinea:  of  Jussieu, 
which  grows  in  the  Molucca  Islands. 
All  the  parts  of  this  tree  are  very  ar- 
omatic, but  only  those  portions  of 
the  fruit  called  mace  and  nutmeg  are 
sent  into  the  market.  The  entire 
fruit  is  a  species  of  drupa,  of  an  ovoid 
form,  of  the  size  of  a  peach,  and  fur- 
rowed longitudinally.  The  nutmeg 
is  the  innermost  kernel  or  seed,  con- 
tained in  a  thin  shell,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  mace  ;  and  this,  again, 
is  enclosed  in  a  tough,  fleshy  skin, 
which,  opening  at  the  tip,  separates 
into  two  valves.  The  nutmeg-tree 
yields  three  crops  annually :  one  in 
April,  which  is  the  best,  one  in  Au- 
gust, and  one  in  December. 

"  Good  nutmegs  should  be  dense, 
and  feel  heavy  in  the  hand.     M'heu 
5'.i3 


OAK 

they  liave  been  perforated  by  worms 
they  feel  light ;  and  thou.,'h  the  holes 
Have  been  fraudulently  stopped,  the 
unsound  ones  may  be  easily  detected 
by  this  criterion. 
"Nutmegs  afford  two  oily  products : 
-  1.  Butter  of  nutmeg,  vulgarly  cahed 
oil  of  mace,  is  obtained  in'the  Moluc- 
cas, by  expression,  from  the  fresh 
nutmegs,  to  the  amount  of  fifty  per 
cent,  of  their  weight.     It  is  a  reddish- 
yellow,  butter-like  substance,  inter- 
spersed with  light  and  dark  streaks 
and  possesses  the   agreeable   smell 
and  taste  of  the  nutmeg,  from  the 
presence  of  a  volatile  oil.     It  consists 
ot  two  fats  :  one  reddish  and  soft, 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol ;  another  white 
and  solid,  soluble  in  hot  alcohol      2 
1  he  volatile  oil  is  solid,  or  stercoptcne  I 
and  has  been  styled  myristicine."         I 
_    The  nutmegs  are  exclusively  trop-  ' 
ical,  and  found  in  America  as  well  as  i 
India.     The  Santa  Fe  nutmeg  is  the 
Myristica  oloba.  I 

A-  U  T  R I T 1 0  N.     The  manner  in  I 
Which  a  living  animal  or  plant,  or  i 
any  part  of  their  structure,  is  sustain-  ' 
ed,  and  the  organs  preserved  from 
Waste  and  decay 

NUX  VOMICA.    The  seeds  of  the 
^trychnos  7iux  vomica,  a  tree  of  India 
Ihey  are  very  poisonous,  and  con- 
tain strychnia  and  brucia. 
N^  MPH.     A  pupa,  or  grub. 


OAK 


O. 

OAK.    Trees  of  the  genus  Quercus, 
remarkable    for   the   durability   and 
toughness  of  their  timber,  their  size 
and   handsome   appearance.      Their 
acorns  are  also  of  considerable  value 
as  food  for  pigs,  and  in  Europe  are 
often  collected  and  sold  as  produce 
The  oaks  require,  for  the  most  part 
a  rich,  clayey  soil,  rather  moist  and 
deep;    hence   many  oak  lands  form 
good  wheat  soils.     The  followin<r  is 
iMichaux's  classification  of  American  I 
oaks,  including  three  exotics  only  : 

First  Division.  | 

Fruclification  annual. 
First  Skctio-^.— Leaves  lobcd. 
1.  White  0!^k {Quercus  alba),  seventy 
to  eiglity  feet  higb.  I 

524 


2.  Common  European  oak  {Quercus 
robur),  sixty  to  eighty  feet  high 

3.  European  white  oak  {Quercus  ro- 
bur pcdunculata),  sixty  to  eijjhtv 
feet  high.  "^'S^iy 

4.  Mossy-cup  oak  {Qiiercus  oHvcfor- 
viis),  seventy  to  eighty  feet  high 

5.  Over-cup  white  oak  {Quercus  mac- 
rocarpa),  seventy  to  eighty  feet 
high. 

6.  Post  oak  {Quercus  obtusiloha),  thir- 
ty to  fifty  feet  high. 

7.  Over- cup  oak  {Quercus  lyrata), 
sixty  to  seventy  feet  high. 

Second  Section.— Leaves  toothed 

8.  Swamp  white  oak  {Quercus  bi- 
I         color),  sixty  to  seventy  feet  high 

9.  Chestnut  white  oak  {Quercus  pri. 
I  nos)  seventy  to  eighty  feet  high. 
j  10.  Rock  chestnut  oak  {Quercus  mon- 

, ,    '?»«).  thirty  to  forty  feet  high. 
11.  lellow  oak  {Quercus  acuminata) 

sixty  to  seventy  feet  high 
I  12.  Small  chestnut  oak{Quercus  chin- 

quapin),  a  shrub  of  three  to  four 

teet  high. 

Second  Division. 

Fructification  biennial;   leaves  mucro- 

nated  (except  in  the  13th  species). 

First  Section.— Leat-e^  obtuse  or  en- 

tire. 

13.  Live  oak  {Quercus  virens),  ever- 
,  .    g;''een,  forty  to  sixty  feet  high. 

14.  Cork  oak{Qucrcus suber),  Spanish 
tree. 

15.  V^'iUow  oak  {Quercus phellos),  thir- 
ty to  sixty  feet  hi</h 

I  IG.  Laurel  oak  {Quercus  imbricario), 
I  shingle  oak,  forty  to  fifty  feet  high 
,  17.  Lpland  willow  oak  {Quercus  cin- 
erea),  evergreen  Southern,  twen- 
j         ty  feet  high. 

,  18.  Running   oak   {Quercus   puniila) 
I        two  feet  high. 

Second  Section.— Zearfs  lobcd. 

19.  Bartram  oak  {Quercus  hcterophyl. 
la),  said  to  be  found  only  on  one 
plantation. 

20.  Water  oak  {Quercus  aquatica), 
thirty  to  forty  feet  high. 

21.  Black  Jack  oak  {Quercus  ferru^i. 
nca),  small,  barren  oak. 

22.  Bear  oak  {Quercus  banisteri,  v. 
iljci/olia),  two  to  nine  feet  high. 


OAK 


OAK 


Third  Section. — Leaves  niuUIJld,  or 
many-cJcft. 

23.  Barren  serul)  oi\\i  {Qucreus  Cates- 
b(ei),  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  high. 

21.  Spanish  oiik ^Qiicreusfalcata), sev- 
enty to  eighty  feet  high. 

25.  Black  oak  (Qucreus  tinctoria),  six- 
ty to  seventy  feet  high. 

26.  Scarlet  oak  {Quercus  coceinea), 
eighty  feet  high  :  produces  brown- 
ish ink  galls. 

27.  Gray  oak  (Quercus  ambi^ua),  a 
hybrid,  seventy  to  eighty  feet  high. 

28.  Pin  oak  (Qucreus  jmlustris),  forty 
to  sixty  feet  high. 

29.  Red  oak  (Quercus  rubra),  seventy 
to  eighty  feet  high." 

To  this  list  a  few  others  have  been 
added,  and  some  of  the  names  of 
Michaux  changed.  Of  the  additions, 
the  Southern  (Q.  Michauxii),  flft}'  to 
sixty  feet  high,  is  the  most  important. 
The  list  is,  indeed,  extended  now  to 
some  forty-five  trees  and  shrubs,  but 
many  of  these  are  unquestionably  hy- 
brids, or  varieties,  in  which  list  Q. 
ambigua,  kemispherica,humiilis,  obtusa, 
mollis,  and  others  are  to  be  reckoned. 

The  most  important  of  this  noble 
class  of  trees  is  the  white  oak  (Q. 
alba),  which  is  especially  developed 
on  tiie  clay  and  calcareous  soils  of 
the  Middle  States  :  it  is  a  close-grain- 
ed, tough,  and  durable  wood,  exten- 
sively employed  in  building,  naval 
structures,  and  almost  every  purpose. 
The  black  oak  (Q.  /incloria)  yields  a 
good  timber,-  but  it  is  porous,  and  in- 
ferior to  the  preceding;  the  bark  is, 
however,  much  employed  for  tanning, 
and  the  inner  bark  yields  the  quer- 
citron bark,  extensively  exported  as 
a  yellow  dye-stuff.  The  bark  of  Q. 
acuminata  vcl  caslanca,  a  northern 
tree,  is  also  used  for  a  yellow  dye. 
The  bark  of  the  Spanish  oak  is  pre- 
ferred for  tanning,  but  the  wood  is 
liable  to  worms.  The  Q.  virciis,  Flor- 
ida, or  live  oak,  produces  a  timber  of 
remarkable  toughness  and  durabili- 
ty, said  to  be  superior  to  all  other 
kinds  for  naval  purposes.  It  is  not 
extensively  developed,  and  grows  in 
swampy  situations. 

The  proper  time  for  felling  timber 
is  a  question  much  agitated  ;  from 


October  to  March  is  adopted  by  the 
French  ;  mid-winter  by  the  English. 
Duhamel  examined  this  subject  thor- 
oughly, and  concluded  that  the  time 
was  by  no  means  important,  for  that 
timber  felled  in  summer,  and  care- 
fully seasoned,  was  as  tough  and  du- 
rable as  winter-felled.  Barking  is 
practised  in  June  and  July,  and  it  is 
an  advantage  to  allow  the  tree  to 
stand  until  the  fall,  and  then  fell  for 
timber  ;  indeed,  Duhamel  recom- 
mends that  it  be  allowed  to  stand 
two  years  after,  and  this  is  practised 
by  the  Dutch,  and  in  some  measure 
by  the  English.  It  is  not,  however, 
to  be  recommended  for  more  than 
one  season,  since  the  moisture  of  a 
swamp  and  other  causes  may  bring 
on  the  growth  of  fungi. 

OAK  APPLE.  A  spongy  excres- 
cence growing  on  the  young  stems 
of  various  oaks,  especially  the  red 
oak  ;  it  is  produced  by  an  insect,  the 
Ci/nips  conjlucntus.  On  the  white  oak, 
excrescences,  very  nearly  resembling 
small  gall-nuts,  are  produced  by  the 
C.  oneratus.  Other  species  of  cy- 
nips  sting  the  various  oaks,  forming 
excrescences  more  or  less  large  ;  of 
these,  the  gall-nuts  of  the  white  and 
scarlet  oak  are  most  used  for  making 
ink,  and  the  former  closely  resemble 
the  commercial  galls. 

OAK  BARK.  The  innermost  lay- 
er of  the  black  and  Spanish  bark  are 
of  the  greatest  service  in  tanning ; 
the  tan  often  amounts  to  77  parts  in 
the  100  in  this  bark  during  the  spring, 
but  is  very  much  less  in  autumn  and 
winter:  the  difference,  as  ascertain- 
ed by  Mr.  Higgins,  is  upward  of  two 
thirds.  The  bark,  when  split  off, 
should  be  set  up  in  loose  piles  to  dry, 
the  pieces  being  so  placed  as  to  throw 
off  water,  which  injures  its  quality. 
As  soon  as  dry  it  ought  to  be  kept 
under  a  shed,  and  not  ground  till 
wanted.  The  exhausted  bark  of  the 
tanner  is  much  used  by  gardeners  for 
various  purposes,  and  when  rotted, 
forms  a  good  humus  manure.  See 
Bark  and  Tan. 

OAK  PRUNER.  Oaks  are  infest- 
ed  by  numerous  insects,  the  most  cu- 
rious of  which  is  the  pruner  (Stcnoco- 


OAT 


OAT 


rus  putator),  which  severs  the  young 
branches  ;  these  contain  the  insect, 
and  if  collected  in  the  autumn,  when 
just  fallen,  and  burned,  will  serve  as 
a  means  of  destroying  them. 

0  A  K  U  M.  The  yarns  of  hemp, 
which  are  spun  into  ropes. 

OASIS.  A  green  spot  in  a  desert ; 
usually  a  valley. 

OAST,  OAST-HOUSE.  A  drying- 
house,  heated  by  hot  air  circulating 
in  pipes  or  flues.  It  differs  in  this 
respect  from  a  kiln,  in  which  the 
smoke  and  heat  pass  into  the  grain. 
It  is  used  in  drving  hops  and  malt. 

OAT-FIELD  LAND.  Open  or  un- 
enclosed arable  land. 

OAT  GRASS.  The  Avcna  genus. 
See  Grasses. 

OAT  MEAL.  The  flour  of  oats,  es- 
pecially the  Scotch  oat ;  it  is  exten- 
sively employed  for  cakes,  like  bat- 
ter cakes,  and  for  porridge  or  brose. 
Oat  meal  is  very  nutritious,  and  fre- 
quently much  more  so  than  wheat  or 
corn,  this  point  depending  upon  the 
proportion  of  gluten  or  albumen  they 
contain.  The  oat  meal  cakes  are  al- 
lowed to  ferment  slightly,  so  as  to 
become  acid  (lactic  acid)  before  being 
used.  For  the  production  of  meal,  the 
oats  are  first  kiln-dried,  then  passed 
through  a  coarse-set  mill  to  separate 
the  hull  or  shellings  ;  this  forms 
groats  or  gnts,  and  they  are  then 
ground  in  a  mill  into  a  coarse  meal. 

OATS.  Avcna  saliva.  A  cultiva- 
ted annual  of  the  gramineous  family. 
Other  varieties  of  the  avena  are  also 
cultivated,  as  the  A.  oncntalis,  Tar- 
tarian oat,  with  a  one-sided  head  ; 
the  A.  slrigosa,  or  bristle-pointed  oat. 
The  varieties  of  the  common  oat  are 
classified  into  the  black,  gray,  and 
white ;  of  these,  the  black  kinds  are 
smallest  and  lightest,  but  most  hardy ; 
and  the  white  kinds  best,  especially 
the  imperial,  potato,  Georgian,  and 
the  Dutch  or  Friesland  oat.  Tlie 
Polish  oat  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the 
black  kind,  but  requires  careful  till- 
age, and  scatters.  It  is  urged  as  an 
objection  to  the  potato  oat  that  the 
skin  is  too  hard,  so  that  they  are  oft- 
en voided  by  horses  unbroken ;  it,  how- 
ever, yields  the  most  meal,  and  rises 
536 


to  46  pounds  the  bushel.  The  com- 
mon black  and  gray  varieties  are 
often  less  than  25  pounds  the  bushel, 
and  seldom  reach  30  ;  but  the  Polish 
is  said  to  reach  50  pounds. 

Oats  do  better  north  of  Philadel- 
phia than  south,  although  they  can 
be  cultivated  to  the  Gulf  of  iMexico  ; 
their  habitat  is,  however,  northern. 
This  plant  grows  so  rapidly  in  a  good 
soil  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  ob- 
tain two  crops  in  a  year,  especially 
if  they  be  cut  for  fodder  while  the 
grain  is  in  the  dough.  A  good  yield 
is  50  bushels,  but  90  bushels  have 
been  taken  from  well-prepared  soils. 
The  straw  varies  from  H  to  3  tons 
the  acre.  As  food  for  horses,  no- 
thing except  beans  can  be  compared 
with  oats  ;  Indian  corn  is  much  too 
oily  :  while  oats  contain  about  four 
per  cent,  of  oil,  Indian  corn  rises 
above  10  per  cent.  In  point  of  nu- 
tritiousness  they  are  also  superior  to 
corn,  and  are  equal  to  double  their 
weight  of  fine  hay  :  the  straw  of  a 
greenish  tinge  is  the  best  kind  of  ce- 
real straw  for  fodder,  and  about  a 
quarter  the  value  of  prime  hay.  A 
draught  horse  should  receive  from 
seven  to  nine  pounds  of  oats  daily, 
with  as  much  prime  hay  and  straw  : 
this  is  the  ration  for  the  heavy  French 
cavalry.  The  following  is  by  the 
Rev.  W.  L.  Rham  : 

"  The  great  use  of  oats,  and  the 
ease  with  which  they  are  raised  on 
almost  every  kind  of  soil,  from  the 
heaviest  loam  to  the  lightest  sand, 
have  made  them  occupy  a  place  in 
almost  every  rotation  of  crops.  Of 
all  the  plants  commonly  cultivated  in 
the  field,  oats  seem  to  have  the  great- 
est power  of  drawing  nourishment 
from  the  soil,  and  hence  are  justly 
considered  as  greatly  exhausting  the 
land.  With  proper  management,  a 
crop  of  oats  may  give  as  great  a  prof- 
it on  the  best  land  as  any  other  crop, 
when  it  is  considered  that  it  requires 
less  manure  and  produces  an  abun- 
dance of  straw,  which  is  very  fit  for 
the  winter  food  of  horses  and  cattle, 
especially  when  aided  by  roots  or  oth- 
er succulent  food. 

"  To  make  a  crop  of  oats  profitable 


OATS. 


some  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  and  to  free  it 
from  weeds  ;  for  to  sow  oats  on  a  foul 
wheat  or  barley  stubble  slightly  turned 
in  by  the  plough,  as  is  sometimes  done, 
is  the  reverse  of  good  husbandry. 

"  The  best  oats  are  raised  in  Scot- 
land and  ui  Friesland,  and  in  both 
countries  the  land  is  carefully  culti- 
vated. In  Scotland,  oats  are  gener- 
ally sown  on  a  grass  layer  which  has 
been  in  that  state  for  some  years,  and 
sometimes  on  old  pastures  which  are 
broken  up  for  the  purpose.  The  crops 
exceed  in  bulk  and  weight  of  grain 
all  that  the  most  sanguine  person,  un- 
acquainted with  the  system,  would 
expect,  and  in  many  seasons,  not  fa- 
vourable for  the  wheat  crop,  oats  are 
much  more  profitable.  Wherever 
the  land  is  not  of  a  good  quality,  and 
wheat  is  apt  to  fail,  oats  are  a  much 
safer  crop,  especially  in  retentive 
soils,  as  rye  is  on  poor  sands.  I 

"  When  oats  are  sown  after  tur- 
nips, cabbages,  or  any  other  green  , 
crop,  the  land  should  be  well  plough- 
ed, if  the  green  crop  was  not  con- 
sumed on  the  spot,  and  a  moderate 
supply  of  manure  will  be  well  repaid 
by  the  increased  produce.  A  heavy 
loam  is  best  suited  for  oats  :  they  re- 
quire a  certain  degree  of  moisture, 
and  a  deep  soil  is  very  favourable  to 
their  growth.  On  land  which  has 
been  trenched,  or  where  the  subsoil 
plough  has  been  used,  after  careful 
draining,  if  required,  oats  will  thrive 
wonderfully  without  requiring  so  rich 
a  soil  as  barley  or  wheat.  The  roots 
are  hardier,  and  have  a  stronger  ve- 
getative power.  When  once  they 
have  struck  deep  into  the  soil,  a  good 
crop,  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
land,  may  be  relied  on. 

"  When  oats  are  sown  after  artifi- 
cial grasses,  the  land  is  seldom 
ploughed  more  than  once,  and  the 
seed  is  sown  on  the  fresh  mould 
which  has  been  turned  up ;  but,  un- 
less the  land  be  very  free  from  weeds, 
it  would  be  better  to  plough  the  sward 
with  a  shallow  furrow  early  in  au- 
tumn. Before  winter  the  scarifier 
would  break  the  rotten  sward,  which 
might  then  be  buried  deep  by  another 


ploughing.  The  land  would  be  ready 
for  sowing  early  in  spring,  which  is 
a  great  advantage,  both  as  to  the 
quality  of  the  oat  crop  and  the  earli- 
er harvest,  especially  in  those  dis- 
tricts where  the  latter  part  of  the  au- 
tumn is  apt  to  be  stormy  and  rainy. 
The  land  thus  treated  would  be  clean, 
and  the  fallow,  which  is  often  resorted 
to  of  necessity  after  a  crop  of  oats, 
might  be  dispensed  with,  as  the 
weeds  have  been  destroyed  and  bu- 
ried deep. 

"  \\'hen  oats  are  sown  on  light  land 
after  turnips,  it  may  be  ploughed  with 
as  shallow  a  furrow  as  will  turn  in 
the  surface  :  the  preparation  for  tur- 
nips will  have  sufliciently  moved  the 
soil.  On  poor,  moist  land,  oats  are 
more  profital)le  than  barley.  Clover 
and  grass  seeds  may  be  sown  among 
them  with  equal  advantage,  as  they 
will  seldom  grow  so  high  as  to  be  laid 
and  smother  the  young  clover  ;  and 
barley  is  very  apt  to  fail  on  land  sub- 
ject to  retain  the  water. 

"  In  sowing  oats,  more  seed  is  oft- 
en used  than  of  any  other  grain,  be- 
cause, although  the  plants  tiller  where 
they  have  room,  the  straw  of  the  sec- 
ond shoots  is  weaker,  and  the  grain 
is  not  ripe  so  soon  as  that   of  the 
principal  stem  ;  but  when  the  plants 
rise  close  and  thick,  there  are  no  til- 
lers, the  main  stem  is  stronger,  and 
the  corn  is  more  plump  and  equal. 
Six  l)ushels  of  oats  are  often  sown  on 
an  acre  ;  but  if  they  are  drilled,  four 
bushels  are  sufficient ;  and  when  dib- 
bled, which  is  sometimes  the  case  in 
Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  much  less  seed 
is  used.     A  good  preparation  of  the 
land  is  of  more  consequence  than  a 
superabundance  of  seed. 
I      "  In  a  field  where  oats  are  sown 
I  broad-cast,  and  covered  by  the  har- 
rows, many  seeds  remain    exposed 
to  the  depredation  of  birds,  which 
j  soon  find  them  out  at  a  time  of  the 
i  year  when  food  is  scarce.    When  the 
]  seed  is  sown  and   ploughed   in,  the 
1  same  object  is  attained  ;  but  as  the 
1  furrow  must  be  shallow,  in  order  that 
I  the  seed  may  not  be  buried  too  deep, 
I  the  land  must  have  been  ploughed 
i  before  to  a  considerable  depth  :  in  cl- 
537 


OATS, 


ther  case,  Tour  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre  are  an  aniplr  allowance.  Tliey 
are  sown  as  soon  as  frost  is  out  of 
the  ground,  but  not  in  land  too  wet, 
lest  they  rot  in  the  soil.  A  second 
crop  is  often  ploughed  in  to  enrich  the 
soil,  but  tliey  arc  inferior  to  clover. 

"  M'hcn  the  ground  has  been  well 
prepared,  there  is  no  necessity  for 
weeding  or  hoeing  the  crop  as  it  ad- 
vances ;  but  if  large  weeds  appear, 
such  as  charlock,  May-weed,  docks, 
or  thistles,  they  must  be  carefully 
weeded  out,  or  else  the  ground  will 
be  so  infested  with  their  seeds  or 
roots,  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  erad- 
icate them  afterward.  Oats,  when 
fully  ripe,  are  very  apt  to  shed,  and 
many  are  lost  for  want  of  attention. 
As  soon  as  the  straw  turns  yellow 
under  the  heads,  the  oats  should  be 
reaped,  however  green  the  lower  part 
of  the  straw  may  be  :  the  straw  will 
be  better  fodder  for  cattle,  and  all  the 
corn  will  be  saved.  Oats  are  gener- 
ally mown  with  a  scythe,  and-  raked 
into  heaps  to  dry  like  bay ;  but  this 
is  a  wasteful  and  slovenly  practice. 
A  good  crop  of  oats  should  be  reaped, 
like  wheat,  close  to  the  ground,  and 
tied  in  sheaves.  A  cradle  scythe,  or 
a  short  Hainault  scythe,  does  the 
work  well  in  the  hands  of  an  expert 
mower,  who  should  be  followed  by 
binders,  who  gather  the  straw  with 
their  hands,  and  lay  it  regularly  on 
the  ground,  if  it  be  not  fit  to  tie  up 
immediately  :  the  straw  should  after- 
ward be  tied  up  into  sheaves,  and  set, 
with  the  corn  uppermost,  in  shocks 
of  ten  or  twelve  sheaves,  leaning 
against  each  other,  and  open  at  bot- 
tom, in  order  to  allow  the  air  to  pass 
through.  Thus,  in  a  short  time  the 
oats  become  sufficiently  dry  to  be 
stacked,  or  carried  immediately  into 
the  barn. 

"  Oats,  ground  into  a  coarse  meal, 
form  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
food  of  labourers,  and  many  men  in 
the  middle  ranks  of  fife  in  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  the  north  of  England. 
The  meal  is  simply  stirred  into  boil- 
ing water  with  a  little  salt,  until  it 
becomes  of  the  consistence  of  a  has- 
ty pudding  ;  it  is  then  called  porridge, 
528 


or  stirabout  ;  and,  when  eaten  with 
milk  or  treacle,  makes  a  wholesome 
and  palatable  food.  It  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  the  thin  liquor  of  boiled 
meat,  or  the  water  in  which  cabbages 
or  kale  have  been  boiled,  and  ac- 
quires the  denomination  of  beef- 
brose  or  kale-brose.  When  made 
into  a  dough  with  water,  and  baked 
on  an  iron  plate  in  thin  cakes,  it 
makes  a  bread  which  is  very  palata- 
ble to  those  who  are  accustomed  to 
it,  and  who  often  prefer  it  to  wheat- 
en  bread.  In  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land the  coarsely-bruised  oatmeal  is 
put  into  an  oven  till  it  becomes  of  a 
brown  colour  ;  it  is  then  called  haber- 
meel,  and  is  used  in  broths  and  pot- 
tages, as  the  semolina,  made  from 
wheat,  is  used  in  France  and  Italy. 
The  coarsely-broken  grains,  after  the 
husk  has  been  removed,  form  grits, 
which  are  extensively  used  to  make 
gruel  for  children  and  invalids.  The 
chaff  of  oats,  put  into  a  canvass  bag, 
forms  a  good  substitute  for  feather 
beds. 

"In  some  countries  the  oats  are 
given  to  horses  in  the  straw,  without 
thrashing  thern  ;  and,  where  the  quan- 
tity can  be  regulated,  the  practice  is 
good.  The  horses  masticate  the  corn 
better  in  the  chaff,  and  the  straw  is 
wholesome  ;  but  where  horses  do 
hard  work  they  would  be  too  long  in 
eating  a  sufficient  quantity,  and  it  is 
better  to  give  them  oats  thrashed  and 
cleaned,  with  clover  hay  cut  into 
chaff.  When  hay  is  dear,  it  is  often 
cheaper  to  increase  the  quantity  of 
oats,  and  to  give  it  with  wheat  straw 
cut  fine.  In  this  way  very  little  hay 
is  required.  The  calculation  is  easi- 
ly made,  when  we  consider  that  a 
pound  of  good  oats  gives  as  much 
nourishment  to  a  horse  as  two  pounds 
of  the  best  clover  or  sainfoin  hay.  A 
truss  of  hay  of  6G  pounds  is  therefore 
equal  to  28  pounds  of  oats,  or  a  bush- 
el of  the  best  oats  will  go  as  far  as 
one  truss  and  a  half  of  hay. 

"  Farmers  who  have  hay-ricks, 
from  which  they  often  allov/  their 
men  to  take  as  much  as  they  please 
for  their  horses,  will  carefully  meas- 
ure out  the  oats,  which  probably  are 


OB 


OCT 


much  cheaper.  Some  men,  who 
keep  many  horses,  cut  all  the  hay 
into  chaff  by  a  machine,  and,  mixing 
this  with  a  proper  proportion  of  oats, 
feed  all  their  horses  in  mangers  with 
a  certain  allowance  of  the  mixture, 
a  practice  much  more  economical 
than  that  usually  adopted.  In  France 
and  Germany  the  practice  of  baking 
oats,  as  well  as  rye,  into  loaves  for 
horse  food,  is  gaining  ground,  and  is 
said  to  be  attended  with  an  evident 
saving  of  food."     ^ 

The  oat  is  a  pretty  sure  crop ;  the 
smut  and  chinch-bug  sometimes  re- 
duce the  yield,  and  rust  impoverishes 
the  straw  ;  but  as  these  enemies 
come  late,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  crop 
as  early  as  they  appear :  the  wire- 
worm  sometimes  destroys  a  portion. 

OATS,  COMPOSITION  OF.  The 
general  composition  of  the  oat  is  sim- 
ilar to  the  other  cerealia,  and  the  spe- 
cial compost  given  for  wheat  will 
serve  for  this  crop  and  for  barley. 
By  Boussingault,  the  yield  of  an  acre 
perfectly  dry  in  graiu  is  975  pounds  ; 
straw,  1176  in  the  dried  state  (small 
crop) ;  the  ashes,  4  0  per  cent,  grain, 
5  1  straw,  or,  per  acre,  39  pounds 
for  the  grain,  and  60  pounds  for  the 
straw.  The  composition  of  the  ash, 
per  cent.,  was, 

Grain 

Potash 12-9 

Soda 0  0 

Lime 3-7 

Magnesia 7-7 

Phosphoric  acid 14'9 

Sulphuric  acid TO 

Silica 53-3 

Chlorine 0-5 

Irou,  carbonic  acid,  and  loss  .      6-0 
1000 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  bone 
earth,  common  salt,  gypsum,  and, 
where  the  composition  can  be  formed 
at  little  expense,  silicate  of  potash, 
would  be  excellent  manures,  and 
might  be  combined  in  compost  with 
nitrate  of  soda. 

The  ultimate  composition  of  the 
grain  gives  2-24  per  cent,  nitrogen  ; 
the  straw,  0  38 ;  and,  according  to  the 
Scotch,  14  pounds  of  oats  yield  eight 
of  meal. 

OB.  A  very  common  affix  to  de- 
scriptive words   in  botany,  &c.,  as 

y  T 


i  obcordate,  ohrotund,  &c.,  signifying 
nearly  or  somewhat  heart-shaped, 
round,  &c. 

OBESITY.  Extreme  or  morbid 
fatness. 

OBJECT  GLASS.  The  glass,  or 
lens,  of  the  telescope  nearest  the  ob- 
ject. 

OBJECT  STAFF.  The  survey- 
or's staff.     See  Letelling  Staff. 

OBLATE.  Somewhat  spherical, 
but  flattened  in  the  perpendicular  ax- 
is, as  an  orange,  the  world. 

OBSIDIAN.  A  black,  glassy,  com- 
pact lava,  consisting  of  potash  and 
soda,  7  to  10  per  cent.  ;  silica,  7750  ; 
alumina,  1175  ;  iron,  125. 

OBTUNDENTS.  Mucilaginous, 
oily,  or  bland  substances,  which  re- 
duce the  acrimony  of  other  medi- 
cines. 

OCCIPITAL  BONE.  The  bone 
which  forms  the  back  portion  of  the 
skull,  to  which  the  spinal  column  is 
attached. 

OCHRE.     Peroxide  of  iron  mixed 

with  clay  :  the  colour  is  very  durable. 

OCHREA.     The  leaf-stems  which 

clasp  or  surround  the  stem,  as  in  the 

case  of  some  grasses. 

OCTAGON.  A  superficial  figure, 
with  eight  sides  or  angles. 

OCTAHEDRON.  A  solid,  with 
eight  regular  sides ;  it  is  one  of  the 
most  common  figures  of  crystals,  and 
may  be  a  derivative  from  the  cube  or 
tetrahedron. 

OCTANDRIA  (from  oktu,  eight, 
and  avTip,  male).  The  Linna;an  class, 
in  which  the  flowers  contain  eight 
stamens. 

OCTOBER.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  important  months.  Whenever 
frost  begins  to  occur,  all  tender  roots 
and  potatoes  should  be  stored.  Ap- 
ples, pumpkins,  and  other  fruits  are 
also  to  be  stored.  Turnips,  parsnips, 
and  carrots  may  remain  in  the  ground. 
Hemp,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  cotton 
are  either  quite  or  nearly  collected. 
This  month  is  also  preferred  for  tim- 
ber cutting.  Wheat  sowing,  as  well 
as  winter  grains,  should  be  draw- 
ing to  a  close,  as  the  season  is  late 
except  for  the  South.  In  the  garden 
and  orchard,  transplanting  and  prop- 
529 


OFF 


OIL 


agation  by  cuttings,  &c.,  may  com- 
mence as  soon  as  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  or  in  evergreens ;  arrange- 
ments should  be  made  for  early  vege- 
tables, and  the  frames  looked  to.  As 
soon  as  frost  comes  on,  collect  straw 
and  leaves  to  cover  the  vegetables 
remainmg  in  the  soil,  spinach,  turnip 
tops,  &.C.,  and  secure  the  roots  and 
stems  of  tender  fruit  or  shrubbery 
plants  ;  prepare  for  laying  vmes,  &c. 
Ewes  put  to  the  ram  this  month  bring 
lamb  in  March,  which  is  seasonable 
in  the  South,  but  too  early  for  the 
North. 

ODERITE.  A  species  of  black 
mica. 

ODOMETER  (from  66oc,  a  road, 
and  jicTpov,  a  measure).  A  wheel, 
the  axis  of  which  turns  a  graduated 
scale,  so  that  the  distance  over  which 
it  passes  on  a  road  is  recorded  in  feet 
and  miles.  It  may  be  attached  to  a 
carriage  wheel,  or  rolled  along  by  the 
hand 

ODONTOLOGY  (from  o6ovg,  a 
too/h,  and  Zoyof).  A  treatise  on  the 
teeth. 

0  D  0  R I  N.  A  very  concentrated 
empyreumatic  oil,  obtained  by  recti- 
fying oil  of  bones. 

CEDEMA.  Puffiness  of  a  part  of 
the  body,  produced  by  a  dropsical  ef- 
fusion or  collection  of  watery  fluid. 

CENANTHIC  ETHER.  A  vola- 
tile oily  body,  to  which  the  peculiar 
vinous  flavour  of  wine  is  owing  ;  by 
boiling  with  potash  it  becomes  con- 
verted into  cEnanthic  acid  and  alco- 
hol. Liehig  traces  its  existence  to 
the  free  tartaric  and  racemic  acids  of 
certain  grapes,  which  yield  the  oil 
by  their  transformation. 

CESOPHAGUS.  The  gullet  or 
swallow. 

CESTRUS.  The  genus  of  Gad 
Flies,  which  see  ;   as  also  Insects. 

OFFSET.  In  building,  the  supe- 
rior surface  left  uncovered  by  the 
continuation  upward  of  a  wall  where 
the  thickness  diminishes,  forming  a 
ledge. 

OFFSETS.     In    surveying,   short 
distances  from  the  chain-line,  usually 
measured  with  a  rod,  called  an  offset- 
staff,  the  most  convenient  length  for 
5:J0 


which  is  6  feet  72  inches,  being 
equal  to  10  links  of  the  surveying 
chain. 

OFFSETS.  In  gardening,  young 
radical  bulbs,  when  separated  or  ta- 
ken off  from  the  parent  roots,  are  so 
called.  One  of  the  chief  methods  of 
propagating  plants  is  by  offsets. 

OGEE.  In  moulding,  is  a  line  re- 
sembling the  italic/. 

OGIVE.     The  pointed  arch. 

01L-(3AKE.  The  remainsof  seeds, 
especially  linseed,  after  expression 
for  oil.  Linseed  and  several  other 
cakes  are  used  for  fattening,  two  to 
four  pounds  being  broken  up  into  the 
daily  food  ;  it  is  remarkably  rich  in 
oil,  containing  often  15  per  cent.,  and 
ranks  high  as  nutriment.  See  Fodders. 
Animals  do  not  always  take  to  it 
readily,  and  are  therefore  to  be  grad- 
ually fed.  Rape,  mustard,  hemp, 
castor  oil,  and  other  cakes  are  admi- 
rable manures  ;  half  a  ton  of  rape 
cake,  well  broken  and  sown  broad- 
cast, is  a  well-established  manure  in 
England.  The  Flemish  mix  them 
with  their  fluid  manure.  See  Flan- 
ders Husbandry.  The  cake  of  any 
particular  seed  is  the  best  manure  for 
the  same  crop.  They  are  suitable 
for  the  drill. 

OIL  OF  BRANDY.  OIL  OF  PO- 
TATOES, OIL  OF  GRAIN  SPIRIT, 
FOUSEL  OIL.  This  volatile  aro- 
matic oil  is  formed  in  the  fermenta- 
tion of  potatoes  or  grains  where  hops 
are  not  employed,  and  which  yield  an 
alkaline  mash  ;  it  comes  over  in  the 
last  portion  of  the  distillation  for  the 
alcohol  ;  when  concentrated,  it  is 
oily  and  very  nauseous.  It  is  also 
called  amylic  alcohol,  and  hihydrate 
of  amylene  :  formula  (Cm  Hu),  0  HO, 
the  flrst  term  being  the  compound 
radical  Amyl  of  Dumas. 

OIL  OF  VITRIOL.  Sulphuric  acid. 

OIL  OF  WINE.  Two  liquid  oily 
bodies,  as  well  as  the  oenanthic  ether, 
are  known  by  this  name  ;  the  former 
arise  from  distilling  ether  off  caustic 
lime,  and  are  sulphates  of  the  oxide 
of  ethyl. 

OILS.  Compounds  consisting  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen  for  the  most 
part,  but  occasionally  containing  oxy- 


OILS. 


gen,  and  having  an  affinity  for  that 
element,  whereby  tliey  beconae  rancid 
or  are  converted  into  resins.  They 
are  compounds  of  the  margaric,  oleic, 
or  stearic  acids,  with  glycerine,  and 
owe  their  value  not  only  to  their  pe- 
culiar properties,  but  to  the  soaps 
and  liniments  they  form  with  alkaline 
substances.  They  are  in  all  respects 
fluid  fats  of  vegetable  and  animal  ori- 
gin, agreeing  very  closely  in  struc- 
ture.    Thus  per  cent., 

Carbon.     Hydrogen.    Oxygen. 
Olive  oil  consists  of  77-2  133  9'5 

Spermaceti        "       780  ITS        10-2 

Oils  are  divided  into  expressed  or 
fixed  oils,  which  are  also  subdivided 
into  drying  oils  and  common  oils,  and 
into  distilled  or  essential  oils.  The 
common  fat  oils  are  like  almond  and 
olive,  bland,  preserving  their  flavour 
for  a  long  time,  but  becoming  ran- 
cid ;  palm  oil  is  solid.  The  drying 
oils  are  like  linseed,  hemp  seed,  nut 
oil ;  they  attract  oxygen  readily  from 
the  air,  evolving  heat,  and  become 
solid.  The  essential  oils  impart  to 
flowers  and  aromatic  bodies  their 
odour ;  they  are  very  volatile,  and  are 
obtained  by  distilling  the  leaves  or 
flowers  with  water.  All  vegetables 
contain  a  proportion  of  oil  of  some  of 
these  varieties,  which  may  be  obtain- 
ed by  digesting  them  in  ether  and  al- 
cohol ;  it  is,  however,  frequently  be- 
low one  per  cent.,  while  in  other 
cases,  as  the  nut,  it  is  more  than  sixty 
per  cent.  In  provender,  the  fattening 
quality  is  closely  related  to  the  per 
centage  of  common  oil.  The  follow- 
ing table  contains  the  best  informa- 
tion on  this  topic : 

.  8  to  12  per  ceut. 
0-8 


Common  maize 

Rice     .     .     .  . 

Oats     .     .     .  . 

Ditto   .     .     .  . 

Rye      .     ,    .  . 

Rye  flour       .  . 

Hard  wheat  •  . 
Wlieat  flour 

Ditto    .     .     .  . 

Fine  bran      .  . 

Coarse  bran  .  . 

Dry  clover    .  . 

Dry  lucern    .  . 
Meadow  hay 

Oat  straw      .  . 

Bean  uieal     ,  . 

Beans  .     .     ,  . 

Haricot*    .     .  . 


Peas 20  per  cent. 

Lentils 2-5 

Potatoes 008       " 

Mangel-wurzel.     ...  01         " 

Carrots 017       " 

Oil-cake 90  to  15      " 

M.  Payen  found  that  the  oil  was 
everywhere  present  in  the  seeds  of 
gramineous  plants.  The  embryo 
contains  much,  the  husk  less,  the 
farinaceous  portion  still  less  ;  but 
maize  and  oil-cake  contain  about  9 
per  cent.,  whence  the  universally  ad- 
mitted superior  fattening  power  of 
these  two  articles. 

The  crops  enumerated  in  the  fol- 
lowing tal)le  are  those  principally 
raised  for  oil  (the  bene  might  be  add- 
ed) :  it  is  from  Boussingault ; 


>.  ^  c 

u 

3  c«:  c 

"S 

Crop. 

Seed  produced 

0^a 

•5   , 

per  acre  m 

Cwts.  qrs.  lbs. 

5 

■a 

Cnlewort  .     .     . 

ly    0     15 

875-4 

40 

64 

Rocket      .     .     . 

15     1      3 

320-8 

18 

73 

R.ipe    .... 

16     2     18 

641-6 

33 

&t 

.'iwpdipli  turnip 

15     1     25 

6*5-8 

33 

62 

Curled  colewort 

16    2     13 

641-6 

33 

m 

Turnip  cabbage 

13     3     19 

565-4 

33 

61 

Gold  of  pleasure 

17     1     16 

545-8 

27 

Tt 

Sunflower     .    . 

15    3     14 

275-0 

IS 

80 

F\^x      .... 

15     1     25 

3850 

22 

69 

White  poppy    . 

10     1     18 

.ShO-8 

46 

bi 

Hemp  .... 

7     3     21 

22y-0 

25 

70 

Summer  rape    . 

11     3     17 

412-5 

30 

65 

55 
3.3 
1-8 
35 
2-6 
2-1 
14 
4-8 
5-2 
40 
3-5 
3-8 
51 
21 
2-0 
30 


A  few  oils,  as  the  castor  and  caje- 
put,  are  eminently  medicinal,  al- 
though expressed  ;  this  arises  from 
the  presence  of  peculiar  principles  in 
them.  Camphor  is  by  some  writers 
regarded  as  a  concrete  volatile  oil. 

The  process  for  procuring  express- 
ed oils  is  either  conducted  with  or 
without  heat ;  where  no  heat  is  era- 
ployed,  less,  but  a  superior  kind  is  ob- 
tained, which  resists  the  action  of  air 
longer,  and  is  of  a  more  delicate  fla- 
vour. For  virgin  oils  the  seeds  are 
first  crushed,  either  between  iron  rol- 
lers, in  mortars,  or  in  an  edge  mill,  re- 
sembling the  bark  mill  (see  Oil  Mill) ; 
the  crushed  mass  is  then  enclosed  in 
strong  hempen  or  woollen  bags,  and 
this  often  in  another  of  horse  hair, 
and  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a 
screw,  placed  in  a  hydraulic  oil  mill, 
or  merely  into  press  boxes  of  stout 
materials,  and  pressed  by  driving 
wedges  perpendicularly  between  the 
sides  of  the  box  and  bags.  The  hy- 
531 


OILS. 


draulic  arrangement  is  most  effective . 
(See  Press,  Hydraulic)  Tlie  oil  is 
collected  as  it  flows  into  appropriate 
casks  or  vessels.  The  cake  is  now 
boiled,  heated  by  hot  water,  or  press- 
ed between  hot  plates  in  the  hydrau- 
lic press  ;  by  this  means  more  oil  is 
obtained,  which,  if  water  be  used, 
rises,  after  a  time,  to  the  surface,  and 
may  be  skimmed  off.  Coarse  oils,  as 
castor,  hemp,  cotton,  &c.,  can  be 
heated  in  an  oven,  or  over  flues,  or 
parboiled  in  the  first  case ;  but  olive, 
almond,  and  table  oils  should  not  be 
heated,  the  second  drawing  being  fit 
only  for  machinery.  The  cake  or 
marc  is  always  serviceable  as  food 
or  manure.  Sometimes  oils  are  ob- 
tained by  merely  bruising,  and  then 
boiling  in  a  great  deal  of  water,  the 
floating  produce  being  taken  off  by 
skimming;  but  this  is  a  very  objec- 
tionable method  for  table  oils.  For 
farther  particulars,  see  the  oil  plants. 


OILS  AS  MANURE.  Train  oil 
and  blubber  have  been  recommended, 
and  much  used  in  composts  as  ma- 
nures ;  and,  from  some  of  the  re- 
sults, many  farmers  have  taken  up 
an  idea  that  oils  are  great  fertilizers. 
Train  oil  and  other  animal  oils  con- 
tain impurities  rich  in  nitrogen,  and 
their  decay  produces  a  fertilizing  ac- 
tion, but  otherwise  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  that  oils  should  be,  to  any 
extent,  manures.  The  idea  is  prob- 
ably erroneous,  although  of  very  an- 
cient date  ;  but  the  old  writers  were 
altogether  in  the  wrong  in  calling 
night  soil  and  such  bodies  oily 
compounds  ;  they  do  not,  therefore, 
speak  of  real  oils  in  many  of  their 
observations. 

OIL  MILL.  This  is  made  in  sev- 
eral ways,  but  the  most  common  is 
that  called  the  edge  mill,  the  stones 
of  which  are  large  and  heavy.  See 
Figure. 


532 


OLF 

OINTMENT.  A  medical  prepara- 
tion containing  lard,  suet,  or  fat  as 
a  basis. 

OKRA.  Hibiscus  cscidejitus.  An 
annual  of  the  family  Mahaccct, 
abounding  in  a  ropy  mucus.  It  is 
readily  cultivated,  and  much  valued 
for  soups  and  as  a  vegetable,  served 
with  butter.  It  is  said  that  the  ripe 
seeds,  which  are  as  large  as  a  small 
pea,  when  roasted  and  prepared  like 
cofTee,  are  a  perfect  substitute  for 
that  product.  They  are  sowed  in 
settled  weather  (May),  in  rich  lands, 
in  drills  three  feet  apart  each  way, 
and  improved  by  manure  and  tillage. 
The  plants  grow  three  or  four  feet 
high,  and  bear  numerous  pods,  which 
are  cut  green,  and  while  sufficiently 
tender  to  break  across.  In  good  sit- 
uations they  grow  six  to  ten  inches 
long.  They  are  boiled,  and  served 
with  butter,  or  sliced,  and  introduced 
into  soup,  with  tomatoes,  &c.  The 
green  pods  also  make  a  good  pickle. 
They  are  regularly  brought  to  the 
Southern  markets. 

OLD  RED  SANDSTONE.  The 
formation  of  red  sandstones  and  con- 
glomerates next  below  the  coal. 

OLEACE-E.  The  family  of  trees 
and  shrubs  containing  the  olive,  ash, 
and  privet. 

OLEANDER.  Nerium  oleander. 
A  beautiful  evergreen,  with  large,  ro- 
saceous flowers.  It  requires,  shel- 
ter in  the  green-house,  and  is  prop- 
agated with  ease  by  cuttings  kept 
moist. 

OLECRANON.  The  bone  of  the 
elbow.     A  process  of  the  ulna. 

OLEFIANT  GAS.  An  inflamma- 
ble gas,  condensing  spontaneously 
into  a  fluid  oil,  with  an  aromatic 
odour.  It  consists  of  two  atoms 
carbon  and  two  hydrogen.  It  is  re- 
garded as  a  hvdrate  of  acetyl  (C4 
H3-fH). 

OLEIC  ACID.  The  acid  of  olein 
(elain),  or  the  fluid  portions  of  fats,  sep- 
arated by  alkalies  from  the  glycerine. 

OLERACEOL'S.  Of  the  nature 
of  culinarv  vegetables  or  pot  herbs. 

0LFAC;T0RY    nerves.      The 
first  pair  proceeding  from  the  brain, 
and  distributed  in  the  nose. 
Y  V  'i 


OME 

OLIBANUM.    a  fragrant  Eastiern 
gum  resin.     Frankincense. 

OLIVE.     Oka  Europea  {Fig.).     A 


small  evergreen  tree,  requiring  a 
mild  climate,  similar  to  that  of  South 
Georgia,  and  a  dry,  granitic  soil.  It 
is  propagated  from  slips  or  seeds. 
The  trees  bear  well  at  ten  years,  and 
live  for  centuries,  when  undisturbed 
by  frosts.  They  are  more  hardy  than 
the  orange.  The  unripe  fruit,  pre- 
served in  salts  and  water,  form  an  es- 
teemed culinary  and  desert  article. 
The  variety  of  tree  with  long  leaves 
(longifoJia)  yields  the  best  table  oil. 
It  is  cultivated  in  Fiance.  The  oil  is 
procured  from  fruit  fully  ripe,  which 
is  allowed  to  sweat  in  heaps  for  a 
few  days,  and  then  crushed  in  an 
edge  mill,  and  pressed  without  heat. 
The  oil  becomes  tine  by  standing  for 
a  time. 

OLIVE,  AMERICAN.  Olea  Amer- 
icana. Devil  wood.  A  large  ever- 
green shrub  of  the  South,  growing 
near  the  seashore,  with  aromatic 
flowers  and  a  small  fruit.  The  wood 
is  very  hard,  but  is  '-tile  used. 

OLIVILE.  An  amylaceous  body 
obtained  from  the  gum  of  the  olive- 
tree. 

OLIVINE.  A  grosn,  volcanic  min- 
eral.   A  silicate  of  magnesia  and  iron. 

0  M  B  R  O  .\t  E 1"  E  R  (Irom  nu6poc, 
rain,  and  fierpov).     A  rain  gauge. 

OMEXTL'.M.  Tiic  membrane  or 
caul  that  lies  over  the  intestines,  and 
becomes  loaded  with  fat. 

6^ 


0\I 


ONI 


OMNIVORES,  OMNIVOROUS. 
Eating  animal  and  vegotahle  food. 

OMPIIALODIUM.  Tiic  point  in 
tlie  hihim  or  scar  of  a  seed  tlirough 
which  the  nutritions  vessels  pass. 

ONION.  Allnim  ccpa.  The  fol- 
lowing article  is  chiefly  from  Mr. 
Bridgeman  :  "  Varieties. — New-Eng- 
land white,  large  red,  yellow  or  sil- 
ver-skinned, yellow  Dutch,  Stras- 
burgh  or  Flanders,  Madeira. 

"  Of  the  several  varieties  of  on- 
ions, the  yellow  or  silver-skinned  and 
large  red  are  the  best  for  a  general 
crop.  The  bulbs  are  handsome,  of 
firm  growth,  and  keep  well  through 
the  winter.  The  New-England  white 
are  handsome  for  the  table,  and  very 
suitable  for  pickling,  as  well  as  to  pull 
while  young,  and  generally  prove  a 
very  profitable  crop. 

"Previous  to  sowing  onion  seed 
for  a  general  crop,  the  ground  should 
be  well  prepared  by  digging  in  some 
of  the  oldest  and  strongest  manure 
that  can  be  got.  The  earlier  this  be 
done  in  the  spring,  the  belter ;  and 
the  planting  should  not  be  delayed 
longer  than  the  middle  of  April.  The 
seed  may  be  sowed  moderately  thick, 
ia  drills  one  inch  deep  and  twelve 
inches  apart,  in  April  or  May. 

"  Those  who  cultivate  onions  for 
the  sake  of  their  bulbs  may  use  at 
the  rate  of  four  or  five  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre. 

"  As  market  gardeners,  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  large  cities,  find  it  most 
profitable  to  pull  a  great  proportion 
of  their  onions  while  young,  they  gen- 
erally require  at  the  rate  of  from  eight 
to  ten  pounds  of  seed  to  an  acre  of 
land. 

"  When  the  plants  are  up  strong, 
they  should  be  hoed.  Those  beds 
that  are  to  stand  for  ripening  should 
be  thinned  out  while  young,  to  the 
distance  of  two  or  three  inches  from 
each  other.  If  a  few  should  be  re- 
quired for  use  after  this,  those  can 
be  taken  which  incline  more  to  tops 
than  roots ;  and  if  the  beds  be  fre- 
quently looked  over,  and  the  small 
and  stalky  plants  taken  away  where 
they  stand  thickest,  the  remaining 
bulbs  will  grow  to  a  larger  size. 
534 


:  The  plants  should  be  hoed  at  least 
three  times  in  the  early  part  of  their 
growth ;  but  if  the  season  prove 
I  damp,  and  weeds  vegetate  luxuri- 
antly, they  must  be  removed  by  the 
hand  ;  because,  after  the  onions  have 
begun  to  bulb,  it  would  injure  them 
to  stir  them  with  a  hoe. 

"  When  the  greenness  is  gone  out 
of  the  tops  of  onions  it  is  time  to 
take  them  up,  for  from  this  time  the 
fibrous  roots  decay.  After  they  are 
pulled  they  should  be  laid  out  to  dry, 
and  when  dry,  removed  to  a  place  of 
shelter." 

The  crop  is  put  up  into  ropes  of 
three  and  a  half  pounds,  and  a  fair 
crop  is  from  6000  to  8000  such  ropes. 

"  The  small  onions  may  be  planted 
in  the  following  spring.  Even  an 
onion  which  is  partly  rotten  will  pro- 
duce good  bulbs,  if  the  seed  stems  be 
taken  off  as  soon  as  they  appear." 

The  admirable  Portuguese  onions 
are  only  raised  in  perfection  near  the 
seashore,  in  places  moistened  by  the 
tide  ;  hence  moisture  and  a  little  salt 
should  be  secured  to  the  growing 
plants. 

"  The  Allium  fistulo sum,  Welsh  on- 
ion, or  Ciboule,  is  cultivated  for 
spring  salad  ;  it  forms  no  bulbs,  but 
is  very  hardy.  If  the  seed  be  sowed 
early  in  September,  in  rich  ground, 
although  the  tops  may  die  down  in 
the  winter,  yet  the  roots  will  continue 
sound,  and  put  up  new  leaves  early 
in  the  spring. 

"  The  Allium  cepa,  or  common 
white  and  red  onions,  are  most  gen- 
erally cultivated  by  market  garden- 
ers, as  a  substitute  for  the  Allium 
fistulosum.  They  sow  the  seed  in 
the  spring  and  autumn  months  ;  the 
product  of  which  is  pulled  and  sent 
to  the  market  while  young,  and  gen- 
erally meets  with  a  ready  sale. 

"  The  Allium  proliferum,  or  tree 
onion,  is  propagated  by  planting  the 
bulbs  in  spring  or  autumn — either  the 
root  bulbs  or  those  produced  on  the 
top  of  the  stalks  ;  the  latter,  if  plant- 
ed in  the  spring,  will  produce  fine 
onions.  These  may  be  planted  in 
rows  with  a  dibble,  the  same  aa 
shallots. 


OPI 


ORA 


"  The  potato  onion  {Allium  tubero- 
sum) does  not  produce  seed  as  other 
onions,  hut  it  increases  by  the  root. 
One  single  onion,  slightly  covered, 
will  produce  six  or  seven  in  a  clump, 
partly  under  ground. 

"  The  bulhs  are  generally  planted 
in  the  spring,  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  apart ;  but  they  will  yield  bet- 
ter whcti  planted  in  autumn,  as  they 
will  survive  the  u  inter  if  slightly  cov- 
ered with  dung,  litter,  or  leaves  of 
trees,  &,c." 

ONION,  WILD.  A  troublesome 
weed  in  meadows  and  open  grounds. 
It  is  to  be  removed  by  a  few  hoed 
crops  and  heavy  liming. 

O  N  I  S  C  I  D  ^.  Insects  like  the 
wood  louse  {Oniscus). 

OOLITE.  Roe  stone.  A  lime- 
stone of  the  secondary  epoch,  the 
parts  of  which  are  rounded  so  as  to 
resemble  a  fish  roe.  It  is  unknown 
as  a  formation  in  the  United  States, 
at  least  on  the  seaboard.  Oolitic  is 
a  derivative. 

OP.\L.  An  iridescent,  silicious 
mineral. 

OPEN  CUTS.  Ditches  not  cov- 
ered. 

OPERCULUM.  A  lid  or  covering. 
The  coverings  of  the  theca  of  moss- 
es. In  zoology  this  term  is  applied 
to  the  apparatus  supported  by  four 
bones,  which  protects  the  gills  of 
fishes  ;  also  to  the  horny  or  calcare- 
ous plate  which  closes  the  aperture 
of  univalve  shells  ;  and  to  the  four 
calcareous  pieces  which  defend  the 
entrance  to  the  tube  of  Balanites,  or 
bell  barnacles. 

OPHIDIANS,  OPHIDIA  (from 
oi>L^,  a  snake).  The  order  of  reptiles 
resembling  snakes. 

OPHTHAL.MIA  (from  o<j>6alfioc, 
an  eye.).  Inilammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  eye. 

OPIU.M.  The  concrete  juice  of 
the  poppy,  obtained  by  woundmg  the 
unripe  seed  capsules  of  the  Papaver 
soinni/erum,  collecting  the  milky  juice 
%vhich  exudes  and  driers  in  the  sun, 
and  kneading  it  into  cakes.  The 
cakes  of  the  best  opium  are  covered 
externally  with  pieces  of  dried  leaves 
aud  the  seed  capsules  of  some  spe- 


1  cics  of  Runiex.  It  should  be  of  a  rich 
;  brown  colour,  tough  consistency,  and 
I  smooth,  uniform  te.\ture  ;  its  pecu- 
liar narcotic  smell  should  be  strong 
and  fresh ;  its  taste  bitter,  warm,  and 
somewhat  acrid.  The  chemical  anal- 
ysis of  opium  has  rendered  it  proba- 
ble that  its  activity  as  a  medicine  de- 
pends upon  the  presence  of  a  peculiar 
alkaline  base,  called  morpUia,  in  com- 
bination with  an  acid  which  has  been 
termed  meconic  acid.  Opium  also  con- 
tains narcoline.  narccitie,  codcin,  gum 
resin,  extractive  matter,  and  small 
portions  of  other  proximate  princi- 
ples. 

The  chief  countries  in  which  opi- 
um is  prepared  are  India.  Egypt,  Tur- 
key, and  other  parts  of  Asia  ;  it  is 
even  cultivated  in  Italy,  France,  and 
England  ;  but  the  climate  of  Europe 
seems  to  be  too  uncertain  to  allow 
of  its  regular  production. 

There  is  no  substitute  for  this  in- 
valuable drug  in  allaying  pain.  See 
Poppy. 

OPOBALS.\M.  Balm  of  Gilead. 
A  fragrant  gum  resin,  from  a  species 
of  Amyris. 

OPODELDOC.  A  liniment  of 
soap  with  camphor. 

OPOPONAX.  A  gum  resin  of  a 
bad  odour,  from  the  Pastinica  opo- 
ponax. 

OPOSSU^^  The  genus  Didelphis 
of  marsupials,  peculiar  to  the  Amer- 
ican continent. 

OPTIC  NERVES.  The  second 
pair  from  the  brain.  They  enter  the 
back  of  the  eyes,  and  form  the  re- 
tina. 

OPTICS.  The  science  which  in- 
vestigates the  property  of  light,  and 
all  that  relates  to  vision. 

ORACHE.  The  genus  ^?rz>/ex,  of 
the  family  Chenopodmcecz,  which  con- 
tains the  beet  and  spinach  ;  most  of 
the  species  are  weeds  in  rich  soils, 
but  A.  hortensis  is  cultivated  and 
used  like  spmach  in  some  parts  of 
Europe. 

ORANGE.  Citrus  auranlium. 
This  tree  and  the  genus  are  cultiva- 
ted only  in  situations  tree  from  frost, 
and  suffer  even  in  Florida  ;  with  suf- 
ficient shelter  to  protect  them  from 
535 


ORA 


ORG 


frost,  they  are  readily  raised  in  or- 
angeries kept  above  32="  Fahrenheit. 
They  are  evergreens  :  the  flowers 
are  large,  white,  and  odoriferous,  ex- 
isting at  the  same  time  as  the  fruit, 
which  is  too  well  known  to  require 
description.  Orange-trees  thrive  best 
in  a  good  loamy  soil,  mixed  with  a 
quantity  of  rotten  dung.  The  differ- 
ent kinds  are  procured  by  budding  or 
grafting  on  common  stocks.  Stocks 
for  working  upon  are  raised  from  any 
oranges,  lemons,  &c.  They  are  some- 
times raised  from  cuttings,  in  which 
case  they  produce  fruit  when  very 
small  plants.  The  flowers  of  the  or- 
ange-tree yield,  by  distillation,  a  fra- 
grant volatile  oil,  known  by  the  name 
of  oil  of  Neroli.  The  fruit  of  the 
bignaroll,  or  bitter  orange,  makes  one 
of  the  best  preserves  that  can  be  eat- 
en, namely,  Scotch  mai-malade.  The 
unripe  fruit  is  used  for  flavouring  the 
liquor  called  Curagoa.  The  ripe  fruit 
is  wholesome,  and  a  useful  refriger- 
ant in  fevers." 

ORANGE  DYE.  A  mixture  of 
red  and  yellow  dyes. 

ORANGE,  OSAGE.  Maclaura  au- 
rantica.  A  small,  handsome,  decidu- 
ous tree  or  shrub  of  15  feet,  bearing 
a  large  fruit  somewhat  like  an  orange 
in  appearance.  It  is  a  native  of  Ar- 
kansas, but  grows  in  New- York.  Be- 
ing a  branching,  thorny,  and  quick- 
growing  shrub,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended for  hedges  ;  it  is  readily  prop- 
agated from  seeds,  and  grows  suffi- 
ciently in  three  years  to  form  a  fence  : 
the  seeds  germinate  in  a  few  weeks, 
and  one  fruit  yields  some  two  hun- 
dred ;  three  may  be  set  in  holes  five 
feet  apart,  and  thinned  to  one  after 
the  first  year. 

OR.^NGERY.  "A  kind  of  gallery 
in  a  garden,  or  parterre,  to  preserve 
orange-trees  in  during  the  winter  sea- 
son. For  trees  in  large  boxes  a  pro- 
portionably  large  and  lofty  house  is 
requisite  ;  it  may  be  opaque  on  the 
north  side,  with  a  glass  roof,  front, 
and  ends,  of  any  convenient  or  de- 
sired length,  width,  and  height.  For 
one  of  moderate  size,  the  height  at 
the  back  wall  may  be  fifteen  feet,  at 
front  ten  feet,  and  the  width  of  the 
636 


house  fifteen  feet.  The  floor  may  be 
either  perfectly  level,  and  the  boxes 
placed  on  it,  the  largest  behind,  so  as 
their  tops  may  form  a  slope  to  the 
front  glass  ;  or  if  the  trees  are  young, 
a  stage  may  be  erected  for  a  few 
years,  in  order  to  raise  the  plants  to 
the  light ;  but  if  the  trees  are  of  a 
considerable  size,  the  best  way  is  to 
have  square  pits  in  the  floor  at  regu- 
lar distances,  somewhat  larger  than 
each  box,  and  in  these  to  sink  the 
boxes,  covering  them  with  mould, 
sand,  or  moss,  nearly  to  the  level  of 
the  pavement,  so  that  each  tree  so 
placed  and  dressed  will  appear  as  if 
placed  in  a  small  compartment  of 
earth." 

ORANGE,  WILD.  Prunus  Caro- 
liniana.  A  kind  of  cherry  evergreen, 
and  growing  to  the  size  of  a  small 
tree  ;  the  fruit  is  not  edible,  but  the 
tree  is  much  esteemed  on  the  South- 
ern seaboard  as  an  ornamental  plant. 
It  is  a  native  of  Florida. 

ORBIT.  In  birds,  the  skin  which 
surrounds  the  eye :  the  bony  cavity 
in  which  the  eye  is  set. 

ORCHARD.  A  collection  of  fruit- 
trees.  The  operations  of  the  orchard 
are  to  be  found  under  their  respective 
heads.  The  best  soil  is  somewhat 
calcareous  or  marly  for  the  Potnacecs, 
or  apples,  pears,  peaches,  cherries, 
plums,  and  apricots  ;  but  the  "  hard 
gravelly  soil  of  the  Eastern  States, 
the  sandy  soil  of  New  Jersey,  the  clay 
soil  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  rich  al- 
luvial bottoms  of  the  West,  all  pro- 
duce an  abundance  of  the  different 
varieties  of  fruit,  when  proper  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  trees.  Mr.  Phin- 
ney,  of  Lexington,  Massachusetts, 
has  ditched  and  drained  one  of  his 
swamps,  and  has  now  on  it  a  luxu- 
riant orchard  of  apple-trees.  The 
great  point  is  to  have  a  dry  soil.  If  it 
is  not  sufficiently  rich,  make  it  so ; 
no  man  should  expect  to  have  fine 
crops  of  anything  unless  his  soil  is 
rich. 

"  Setting  out  Trees  {Mr.  Pell's  plan). 
— If  by  exposure  the  roots  have  be- 
come dry,  immerse  them  in  water 
for  20  or  30  hours  previous  to  setting 
them  out.    Prepare  a  compost  as  fol- 


ORG 


ORG 


lows  :  Take  3  bushels  of  rich  soil,  or 
3  bushels  of  swamp  nuick  would  be 
better,  1  bushel  night  soil,  1  bushel 
fine  charcoal  (if  charcoal  is  plenty,  3 
to  4  bushels  are  to  he  preferred),  1 
bushel  air-slacked  lime,  1  bushel  of 
leached  wood  ashes,  and  1  peck  of 
salt.     Mix  the  above  well  together. 

"  Dig  the  holes  3  feet  wide,  2  feet 
deep,  keeping  the  top  soil  by  itself; 
fill  in  a  portion  of  the  bottom  soil  un- 
til nearly  ready  for  the  tree,  then  fill 
in  half  a  bushel  of  the  compost  and 
set  in  the  tree,  spreading  out  the  roots 
to  their  natural  position,  and  fill  in 
the  top  soil,  gently  shaking  the  tree 
two  or  three  times  to  settle  the  soil 
around  the  roots.  The  tree  should 
be  set  the  same  depth  in  the  orchard 
that  it  stood  in  the  nursery.  Leave 
the  soil  a  little  hollowing  about  the 
tree,  to  catch  and  retain  the  rain-wa- 
ter. Put  around  each  tree  half  a  peck 
of  fine  charcoal  and  half  a  peck  of 
slacked  lime.  Witli  these  precautions 
neither  peach  nor  any  other  fruit 
trees  will  be  infested  with  worms  at 
the  roots,  provided  they  have  suitable 
after-culture. 

^' CuUiirc  of  Orchnrds. — The  soil 
around  the  trees  should  be  kept  loose, 
either  by  spading,  digging  with  a  mat- 
tock, or  by  ploughing.  If  a  crop  is  put 
in  the  orchard,  nothing  should  be 
planted  or  sowed  within  five  feet  of 
the  trees,  as  the  nourishment  taken 
up  by  the  crop  is  so  much  taken  from 
the  growth  of  the  trees.  After  the 
lime  and  charcoal  has  laid  around  the 
trees  one  year,  spread  it  around  the 
trees  in  a  circle  of  ten  feet  in  diam- 
eter. This  should  be  done  in  the 
spring,  when  the  soil  is  cultivated, 
and  a  fresh  supply  of  lime  and  char- 
coal applied. 

"  When  the  trees  have  been  set  out 
three  or  four  years,  the  soil  should 
be  enriched  with  a  compost  of  ma- 
nure, swamp  muck,  and  ashes.  Early 
every  spring  the  trunlcs  of  the  trees 
should  be  washed  with  strong  lye, 
strong  soapsuds,  or  thin  soft  soap. 
Apply  either  of  these  with  a  white- 
wash brush  as  high  as  a  man  can 
reach.  When  the  trees  grow  rapid- 
ly, their  girth  will  be  increased  by 


'  slitting   the    outer   bark  the  whole 
Irngtb,  from   the  ground  up  to  the 
limbs.     This  gives  the  trees  room  to 
expand. 
I       '■^To  render  Old  and  Barren  Orchards 
Thrifty  and  Productive. — Early  in  the 
spring  plough  the  entire  orchard,  and 
enrich  with  a  compost  of  manure, 
swamp  muck,  lime,  and  chip  manure. 
Scrape  offall  the  old  bark  with  a  deck 
\  scraper,  or  a  hoe  ground  sharp.    Ap- 
ply half  a  bushel  slacked  lime,  and  the 
same  of  fine  charcoal,  around  each 
I  tree.    Apply  then  soft  soap  or  strong 
^  soapsuds  on  the  trunks  and  limbs  as 
higii  as  a  man  can  reach.    ^V'hile  the 
I  trees  are  in  full  bloom,  throw  over 
I  them  a  good  supply  of  fine  slacked 
j  lime. 

I       ^^  To  dcstroxj  Caterpillars. — As  soon 
as  the  nests  can  be  seen,  procure 
some  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  tie  a  small 
'  piece  of  sponge  to  a  pole  that  is  long 
i  enough  to  reach  the  highest  nests,  fill 
\  the  sponge,  and  once  filling  will  be 
sufficient  to  rub  off  and  destroy  sev- 
eral nests." 
I      ORCHARD  GRASS,   ^ee  Grasses. 
ORCHIDACE.E.    Herbaceous  en- 
j  dogens  with  remarkably  irregular  and 
I  beautiful  flowers  ;  they  are  propaga- 
j  ted  by  seeds,  and  bear  bulbs  contain- 
ing an  agreeable  farina  (salcp),  for 
which  the  Orchis  masnila  is  partially 
cultivated.     They  are  natives  of  cal- 
careous soils.    In  the  tropics  the  spe- 
cies and  genera  often  become  splen- 
did parasites. 

ORCHIL,  or  ARCHIL.  The  Ro- 
cella  tinctoria.  A  lichen  indigenous 
to  the  Canaries,  and  yielding  a  pur- 
ple dye. 

ORCINE.  The  colouring  matter  of 
the  Violaria  orcina,  or  lichen  dealbatus. 
ORDER.     A  style  of  architecture, 
or  column. 

OREGON  ALDER.  Alnus  Orego- 
na.     An  alder  of  25  to  30  feet. 

ORES.  Minerals  containing  a 
large  amount  of  some  metal. 

ORGAN.  In  anatomy,  a  viscus, 
or  structure  of  the  body. 

ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY.      The 

chemistry  of  organic  matters,  or  such 

as  are  directly  or  indirectly  derived 

from  plants  or  animak.     The  invea- 

<3^ 


0R.\ 


ORN 


tigation  or  analysis  of  such  hodies  arc 
proximate  or  ultimate  ;  the  former 
when  the  parts  are  merely  separated 
by  solvents,  as  water,  alcohol,  eiher, 
and  acids;  the  latter  when  the  ele- 
mentary composition  is  ascertained. 
Carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitro- 
gen, combined  in  binary,  ternary,  or 
quarternary  compounds,  with  a  small 
amount  of  saline  matters,  form  the 
majority  of  organic  bodies  ;  sulphur 
and  phosphorus  are  present  in  a  few 
only.  The  modern  process  of  organic 
analysis  is  briefly  described  in  Kane's 
and  in  Graham's  Chemistry.  These 
manipulations  require  great  experi- 
ence and  skill.  Vegetable  tissues  are 
distinguished  from  animal  by  the 
great  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  latter. 

ORGANIC  DISE.\SE.  Disease 
attended  with  an  alteration  of  tbe 
structure  of  a  viscus  or  organ. 

ORGANIC   REMAINS.     Fossils. 

ORGANIZATION.  The  process- 
es by  which  an  organized  body  is 
formed  ;  also  the  totality  of  the  parts 
which  constitute,  and  of  the  laws 
which  regulate,  an  organized  body. 

ORGANOGRAPHY.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  structure  of  plants. 

ORLO.  The  plinth  to  the  base  of 
a  column  or  pedestal. 

ORNITHICNITES  (from  opvic,  a 
bird,  and  ixvo^,  a  trace).  Certain 
marks  in  the  new  red  sandstone,  sup- 
posed to  be  bird  tracks. 

ORNITHOLOGY  (from  opvLc,  a 
bird,  and  ?.o}0(,  a  description).  The 
science  which  teaches  the  natural 
history  and  arrangement  of  birds. 

"  The  subdivision  of  the  class  of 
birds  is  by  no  means  so  clearly  indi- 
cated by  either  external  or  anatomi- 
cal characters  as  that  of  mammals, 
and  the  systems  of  ornithology  pre- 
sent, in  consequence,  greater  dis- 
crepancy. 

"  In  the  quinary  arrangement  of 
birds,  proposed  by  Mr.  Vigors,  there 
may  be  traced  a  similar  principle  to 
that  which  guided  Nitzsch  in  his  ter- 
nary classification.  Thus,  the  first 
order  {Raptores,  Virg  )  includes  the 
birds  which  soar  in  the  upper  regions 
of  the  air,  which  build  their  nests  and 
rear  their  young  on  the  highest  rocks 
639 


and  loftiest  trees.  The  second  ordei 
(Inccssorcs)  includes  the  birds  which 
affect  tiie  lower  regions  of  the  air,  and 
wbicli  are  peculiarly  arboreal  in  their 
habits  ;  whence  the  name  of  perch- 
ers.  The  third  order  corresponds 
with  Nitzsch's  Aves  terrcstres,  and  is 
termed  Rasorcs.  If  the  aquatic  birds 
of  Nitzsch  be  divided  into  those 
which  frequent  the  fresh  waters,  and 
are  restricted  to  wading  into  rivers, 
lakes,  &c.,  in  search  of  their  food, 
and  those  which  have  the  power  of 
swimming  or  diving,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  frequent  the  ocean,  we 
shall  then  have  the  two  remaining 
orders  of  the  quinary  arrangement, 
viz.,  Grallalores  and  Natatores.  The 
chief  merit  of  this  arrangement  is  its 
aim  to  express  the  natural  affinities, 
and  their  circular  progression  in  the 
whole  and  in  the  several  parts. 

"  Linnaeus  and  Cuvier  have  six  or- 
ders of  birds,  which  are  character- 
ized as  follows  by  the  latter  nat- 
uralist : 

"  Of  all  classes  of  animals,  that  of 
birds  is  the  most  strongly  character-  I 
ized ;  that  in  which  the  species  bear  \ 
the  greatest  mutual  resemblance,  and 
which  is  separated  from  all  others  by 
the  widest  interval.  Their  system- 
atic arrangement  is  based,  as  in  the 
mammalia,  on  the  organs  of  mandu- 
cation,  or  the  beak,  and  in  those  of 
prehension,  which  are  again  the  beak, 
and,  more  particularly,  the  feet. 

"  One  is  first  struck  by  the  charac- 
ter of  webbed  feet,  or  those  wherein 
the  toes  are  connected  by  membranes 
that  distinguish  all  swimming  birds. 
The  backward  position  of  their  feet, 
the  elongation  of  the  sternum,  the 
neck,  often  longer  than  the  legs,  to 
enable  them  to  reach  below  them,  the 
close,  glossy  plumage,  impervious  to 
water,  altogether  concur  with  the 
feet  to  make  good  navigators  of  the 
Palmipedes. 

"In  other  birds,  which  have  also 
most  frequently  some  small  web  to 
their  feet,  at  least  between  the  two 
external  toes,  we  observe  elevated 
tarsi ;  legs  denuded  of  feathers  above 
the  heel  joint ;  a  slender  shape  ;  in 
fine,  all  the  requisites  for  wading  in 


ORN 


OSI 


shallow  waters  in  search  of  nounsli- 
ment.  Such,  in  fact,  is  the  source  of 
food  of  the  greater  number  ;  and  al- 
though some  of  them  resort  exclu- 
sively to  dry  places,  they  are,  never- 
theless, termed  •  shore  birds,'  or  'wa- 
ders' {Gi-allcc). 

"  Among  the  true  land  birds,  the 
Gallinacccc  have,  like  our  domestic 
cock,  a  heavy  carriage,  a  short  flight, 
the  beak  moderate,  its  upper  mandi- 
ble vaulted,  the  nostrils  partly  cover- 
ed by  a  soft  and  tumid  scale,  and  al- 
ways the  edges  of  tlie  toes  indented, 
with  short  membranes  between  the 
bases  of  those  in  front.  They  sub- 
sist chiefly  on  grain. 

"  Birds  of  prey  (Accipitres)  have  a 
crooked  beak,  with  its  point  sharp 
and  curving  downward,  and  the  nos- 
trils pierced  in  a  membrane  that  in- 
vests its  base  :  their  feet  are  armed 
with  strong  talons.  They  live  on 
flesh,  and  pursue  other  birds  ;  their 
flight,  accordingly,  is  mostly  power- 
ful. The  greater  number  still  retain 
a  slight  web  between  their  external 
toes. 

"The  passerine  birds  (Passcres) 
comprise  many  more  species  than  all 
the  other  families  ;  but  their  organi- 
zation presents  so  many  analogies 
that  they  cannot  be  separated,  al- 
though they  vary  much  in  size  and 
strength. 

"  Finally,  the  name  of  climbers 
(^Scansorcs)  is  applied  to  those  birds 
in  which  the  external  toe  is  directed 
backward  like  the  thumb,  because  the 
greater  number  of  them  avail  them- 
selves of  a  conformation  so  favoura- 
ble for  a  vertical  position  to  climb  the 
trunks  of  trees. 

"  The  primary  division  of  the  class 
of  birds  adopted  by  the  author  of  the 
article  '  Aves,'  in  the  Cyclopccdm  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,  includes 
seven  orders  ;  the  struthious  birds, 
by  virtue  of  tlieir  remarkable  ana- 
tomical peculiarities,  being  separated 
from  tlie  GrallcB  of  Linnaius  and  Cu- 
vier.     The  following  are  the  orders  ; 

1.  Raptorks,  AcapUres,  Linn.,  Cuv. 
Birds  of  prey. 

2.  Incessokes,  f  asserts,  Cuv.  Perch- 
ers. 


3.  ScANsoREs,  Cuv.     Climbers. 

4.  Rasores.    Gallina:.      Linn.,    Cuv. 
Scratchers. 

5.  CuRsoREs,  Illig.     Coursers. 

6.  Grall.atores,  Gra/te,  Linn.    Wa- 
ders. 

7.  N.'iT.ATORES,  Palmipedes,  Cuv. ;  An- 
sercs,  Linn.     Swimmers." 
ORPIMENT.      Yellow   sulphuret 

of  arsenic  :  it  is  poisonous  ;  the  so- 
lution in  li(iuor  ammonia  has  been 
used  as  a  yellow  dye. 

ORPI\E.  Scduin  tclephium.  An 
exotic  perennial  succulent  plant,  of 
the  family  Crassulacccz. 

ORRIS.  Ins  Florenlina.  The  root 
of  this  flag  is  remarkably  fragrant, 
and  used  in  powder  as  a  dentifrice. 
It  is  readily  cultivated  in  moist,  light 
soils,  and  grows  rapidly  from  offsets. 

ORTHOPNGEA.  Difficulty  of 
breathing,  especially  when  lying 
down. 

ORTHOPTER.ANS.     See  bisects. 

ORTHOTROPOUS  (from  opOot;, 
straight,  and  Tperrcj,  I  turn).  Seeds  in 
whicli  the  hilum  and  foramen  are  op- 
posite. 

ORTOLAN.  A  bird  of  passage  of 
the  family  Fringillidce.  They  migrate 
from  Africa  to  Southern  Europe,  and 
are  fattened  for  the  tables  of  the  lux- 
urious. 

ORYZ.\  (from  Aruz,  Arabian).  The 
genus  of  the  rices. 

OSCILLATION.  Movement  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  pendulum. 

OSCILLATORIA.  Plants  of  the 
lowest  organization,  living  in  wet  or 
damp  places,  and  consisting  of 
threads,  which  have  sometimes  an 
apparent  movement. 

OSIER.  Salix  viminalis.  Com- 
mon osier  ;  there  are,  however,  other 
useful  species,  but  this  only  is  accli- 
mated in  the  United  States  ;  the  S. 
Forbiana  is  cultivated  in  England  for 
fine  baskets,  and  also  the  6'.  rubra. 
They  are  botanically  willows,  but  are 
remarkable  for  their  slender  and 
tough  twigs,  which  answer  admirably 
lor  baskets  and  hoops  ;  for  the  first, 
they  are  cut  annually  ;  for  the  second, 
every  two  years.  They  require  a 
marshy,  rich  soil. 

"  In  the  fens  of  the  east  of  Eng- 
539 


OUT 


OVI 


land,  many  holts  (as  they  are  provin- 
cially  called)  or  plantations  of  osiers 
are  raised,  which  beautify  the  coun- 
try, keep  the  stock  warm  in  the  win- 
ter, and  provide  much  useful  wood 
for  baskets  and  all  kinds  of  wicker- 
work.  The  mode  of  planting  is  very 
simple  :  it  is,  first,  to  dig  the  land 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  deep,  and 
then  to  prick  down  cuttings  of  four 
years'  growth,  and  eighteen  inches 
long,  about  three  feet  apart.  The 
soil  may  be  moor  or  clay,  or  any  that 
is  low  and  wet." 

OSMAZOME.  The  brown,  fra- 
grant extractive  matter  of  roasted 
meats. 

OSMIUM.  A  rare  metal,  associa- 
ted with  platina  in  ores. 

OSSEOUS  BRECCIA.  Fragments 
of  bones  and  mineral  matters  found 
cemented  together  in  some  caverns 
and  fissures  of  rocks. 

OSSIFICATION.  The  process  of 
the  deposition  of  bone. 

OSTEOLOGY.  A  dissertation  on 
bones. 

OTITIS  (from  ovc  the  ear).  In- 
flammation of  the  internal  parts  of 
the  ear. 

OTTO,  or  ATTAR.  A  perfume, 
the  essential  oil  of  roses.  The  fresh 
flowers  are  distilled  with  water  by  a 
gentle  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
essences. 

O  U  N  C  E.  In  troy  weight,  480 
grains,  -j^  of  a  pound ;  in  avoirdu- 
pois, jg  of  a  pound  ;  it  contains  only 
437i  troy  grains. 

OCRARI.     A  virulent  poison  from 
the  Strychnos  toxifera,  of  Guiana.     It  j 
produces  convulsions  and  suspended 
respiration. 

OUTCROP.  In  geology,  the  ex- 
posure of  rocks  or  strata  above  the 
earth. 

OUTFALL.  The  lower  end  of  a 
water-course. 

OUTFIELD.  Unenclosed  lands, 
distant  from  the  farm-stead. 

OUTLIER.  A  detached  portion 
of  rock,  distant  from  the  mass. 

OUTRE.  Unusual,  unnatural, 
without  taste 

OUZE.     The  muddy  deposites  of 
the  3ea,  or  waters. 
S40 


OVARIA.  The  oval  bodies  which 
contain  the  eggs,  or  germs,  in  female 
animals. 

OVARIUM.  "  In  plants,  a  hollow 
case,  enclosingovulesor  young  seeds, 
containing  one  or  more  cells,  and  ul- 
timately becoming  the  fruit ;  it  is  al- 
ways situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
flower,  and,  together  with  the  style 
and  stigma,  constitute  the  female 
system  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
When  it  is  united  to  the  calyx,  it  is 
called  inferior  ;  when  separate  from 
it,  it  is  termed  superior." 

OVEN.  A  domestic  furnace  used 
for  baking  bread,  pies,  tarts,  &c. 
Ovens  are  generally  constructed  of 
brick-work,  with  a  semicircular  and 
very  low  roof;  the  bottom  is  laid 
with  stone,  and  in  the  front  is  a  small 
aperture  and  door,  by  the  shutting  of 
which  the  heat  is  confined  while  the 
bread  is  baking.  They  are  usually 
heated  by  means  of  dry  fagots,  wood, 
dec,  introduced  into  the  cavity,  and 
are  without  any  grate  below.  As 
these  ovens,  however,  are  not  calcu- 
lated for  small  families,  on  account 
of  the  quantity  of  fuel  they  consume, 
others  have  been  contrived,  on  a 
more  diminutive  scale ;  these  are 
usually  formed  of  cast  iron,  and  may 
be  heated  by  the  same  fire  which 
serves  for  the  cooking  of  other  pro- 
visions, the  hot  ashes  being  applied 
upon  the  lid,  as  well  as  helow  the 
oven  ;  but  for  baking  bread  they  are 
inferior  to  the  brick  (or  Dutch)  oven. 

OVERLAND  FARM.  Without 
buildings. 

OVERSHOT  WHEEL.  That  form 
in  which  the  water  falls  from  above 
the  wheel  upon  the  upper  parts.  It 
is  the  common  kind. 

OVIDUCT.  Fallopian  tube,  a 
membranous  tube  which  conveys  the 
germs,  or  eggs,  from  the  ovarium  into 
the  womb,  or  out  of  the  bodv, 

OVIPAROUS.  Producing  eggs. 
Birds,  serpents,  insects,  and  fishes 
are  usually  oviparous. 

OVIPOSITOR.  A  pointed  tuDe 
whereby  many  insects  deposite  their 
eggs  in  holes  or  chinks  ;  they  are 
sometimes  boring  or  stinging  organs 
{^aculeus). 


\ 


ox 


ox 


OVIS.  The  generic  name  of  the 
sheep.  The  Mouflons  are  supposed 
to  be  the  original  of  our  domestic 
animal,  but  this  is  questionable. 

OVIVIPAKOWS.  Producing  liv- 
ing young,  enclosed  within  an  egg- 
like membrane  ;  the  marsupials,  the 
viper,  flesh  fly,  and  several  mollusks, 
are  instances. 

O  V  U  L  U  M.  In  botany,  the  rudi- 
mentary seed  before  impregnation. 

OWL.  Raptorial  or  preying  and 
nocturnal  birds  of  the  genus  .S7r(.r ; 
they  prey  on  mice  and  small  birds, 
and  are  useful  to  the  farmer. 

OX.     For  the  varieties,  see  Cattle. 

"  The  ox  or  steer  is  the  castrated 
male  of  neat  cattle.  He  is  called  an 
oxcalf,  or  hull  calf,  until  he  is  a  twelve- 
month old,  a  steer  until  he  is  four 
years  old,  and  after  that  an  ox,  or  bul- 
lock. A  sufficient  number  of  the 
most  likely  of  the  male  calves  being 
selected  for  the  future  propagation  of 
the  breed,  the  others  are  castrated 
between  the  lirst  and  third  months. 

"  The  advantages  derived  from  the 
performance  of  this  operation  are 
very  great.  The  nutriment,  which  is 
no  longer  directed  to  the  sexual  or- 
gans, goes  to  the  general  enlarge- 
ment of  the  frame  ;  the  propensity  to 
fatten  is  abundantly  increased,  and 
the  animal  becomes  far  more  docile 
and  tractable.  The  use  of  the  ox  in 
agricultural  and  other  labours  may  be 
traced  in  almost  every  country,  and 
to  periods  of  the  remotest  antiquity. 

"  The  education  of  the  steer  should 
commence  between  the  second  and 
third  year.  At  an  earlier  period  he 
has  scarcely  sufficient  strength,  and 
at  a  later  one  he  may  have  become 
obstinate  and  self-willed.  His  edu- 
cation should  be  founded  on  patience 
and  kindness,  and  then  the  term  of 
it  will  be  far  shorter  than  is  generally 
imagined,  and  the  result  will  be  per- 
manent. 

"  There  has  been  much  dispute 
with  regard  to  the  comparative  ad- 
vantage of  the  employment  of  cattle 
and  horses  in  agricultural  labours. 
The  former  are  said  to  cost  less,  and 
to  be  supported  at  less  expense.  For 
the  latter  it  is  pleaded  that  a  smaller 
Z  z 


number  are  needed,  that  the  work  ia, 
on  pressing  occasions,  far  more  quick- 
ly i)erformed,  and  that  it  is  always 
abundantly  greater.  The  plain  mat- 
ter of  fact,  however,  is,  that,  although 
the  ox  is  still  used  for  slow  and  heavy 
work  on  many  farms,  he  is  not  so 
generally  employed  as  he  used  to  be, 
even  by  his  warmest  advocates,  and 
the  use  of  him  has  been  completely 
abandoned  by  a  very  considerable 
number  of  agriculturists. 

"  In  the  native  counties  of  the  best 
breeds,  he  is  still  admired  and  valued 
as  a  beast  of  draught,  but  by  the  ma- 
jority of  farmers  his  value  is  now 
chiefly  or  solely  estimated  by  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  meat  that 
he  will  yield,  according  to  the  care 
that  is  bestowed  upon  him,  and  the 
expense  that  is  incurred.  He  is  in 
the  fullest  perfection  at  four  years 
old,  and  he  will  then  prove  more 
profitable  to  the  farmer  than  if  he 
were  worked  four  or  five  years  lon- 
ger, when  the  quality  of  his  flesh 
will  be  deteriorated,  and  his  disposi- 
tion to  fatten  considerably  impaired. 

"  The  diseases  of  cattle  may  be 
conveniently  made  the  subject  of 
consideration  in  the  present  article. 
They  are  not  so  numerous  as  those 
of  the  horse,  but  there  is  often  con- 
siderable difficulty  attending  the 
treatment  of  them.  From  the  pecu- 
liar temperament  of  cattle,  ami  the 
comparatively  great  quantity  of  blood 
which  flows  in  their  veins,  prompt- 
ness in  the  recognition  and  the  treat- 
ment of  disease  is  of  far  greater  con- 
sequence than  in  the  horse,  rapid  as 
is  often  the  progress  of  his  maladies. 
Few  of  the  diseases  of  the  horse  de- 
stroy him  at  once  ;  but  there  are 
many  maladies  of  the  ox  which  must 
be  met  at  the  instant,  or  they  will  be 
uselessly  struggled  with  afterward. 
Let  the  owner  and  the  veterinary 
surgeon  take  good  heed  of  this. 

"  The  diseases  of  calves  should  be 
first  considered.  They  are  as  numer- 
ous as  those  of  the  colt,  and  more 
fatal.  At  the  head  of  them  stands 
diarrluca.  This  sometimes  occurs 
when  the  calf  is  suflercd  to  continue 
by  the  side  of  its  own  dam.  Both 
Ml 


ox. 


etavvalion  and  excess  of  food  in  the 
niotlier  will  produce  it ;  more  partic- 
ularly will  tliis  be  the  case  when  a 
foster-mother  is   employed.     If  she 
has  calved  but  a  very  few  weeks  be- 
fore the  newly-dropped  young  one  is 
put  to   her,  the  bowels  of  the  calf  j 
will  almost   certainly  be   disturbed,  j 
Where  it  can  conveniently  be  accom- 
plished, every  calf  should  be  reared 
by  its  own  dam.     A  state  of  consid- 
erable purging  should  never  be  neg- 
lected many  days,  and  more  especial-  j 
ly  if  the  animal  loses  its  gayety  or  is 
in  evident  pain,  or  the  dung  is  una-  ; 
sualiy  offensive  or  tinged  with  blood. 
The  grand  cause  of  this  is  acidity  in 
the  stomach  or  intestines,  wiiich  grad- 
ually causes  inflammation  of  the  inner 
coat  of  these  vessels.     The  irritation 
here  set  up  is  communicated  to  the 
constitution  generally,  and  exhaus-  { 
tion  and  death  ensue.    Then  recourse 
must   be  had  to  a  compound  medi-  | 
cine,  the  value  of  which  cannot  be  | 
too  highly  estimated,  and  the  farmer  [ 
should  never  be  without  it.     There  \ 
should  be  a  base,  chalk,  to  neutral-  i 
ize  the  acid  ;  an  astringent,  catechu,  | 
to  arrest  the  discharge  ;  a  sedative,  ! 
opium,  to  allay  the  irritation  ;  and  a  \ 
carminative,  ginger,  to  support  the 
strength  of  the  patient.  These  should 
be  mingled  in  the  proportions  of  eight 
parts  of  the  first,  four  of  the  second,  j 
one  of  the  third,  and  two  of  the  fourth. 
A  large  tea-spoonful  of  this  powder 
should  be  given  twice  or  thrice  in  the 
day,  according  to  circumstances. 

'•  Costivcntss  is  a  contrary  disease 
to  this  ;  it  should  never  be  suffered 
to  continue  long,  for  it  is  fraught 
with  danger.  The  best  aperient  for 
calves  and  cattle  is  Epsom  salts,  in 
doses  of  from  one  to  two  ounces, 
with  a  scruple  or  half  a  drachm  of 
ginger. 

"  Cough  should  be  promptly  at- 
tended to  the  moment  that  it  is  heard. 
A  dose  of  physic,  small  doses  of  pow- 
dered foxglove,  with  nitre,  or,  in  bad 
cases,  a  slight  bleeding,  will  usually 
remove  it. 

"  In  proceeding  to  the  diseases  of 
adult  cattle,  we  are  struck  wiih  the 
numerous  diseases  of  the  eye.    Ulcera- 
542 


tion  of  eke  lids  will  generally  yield  to 
the  nitrated  ointment  of  mercury,  lo- 
cally applied,  and  a  course  of  altera- 
tive medicine.  Warts  should  be  ex- 
cised by  means  of  a  pair  of  scissors, 
and  the  root  touched  with  nitrate  of 
silver. 

"  For  inflammation  of  the  hau%  or 
membrane  at  the  corner  of  the  eye, 
a  weak  Goulard  lotion,  or  the  tincture 
of  opium,  lowered  with  ten  times  its 
quantity  of  water,  will  be  useful  ;  but 
if  there  is  any  fungous  growth  on  the 
haw,  extirpation  will  afford  the  only 
cure.  h)Jiammalion  of  the  eyelids  will 
generally  yield  to  fomentations  of 
warm  water.  For  inflammation  of  the 
eye,  warm  or  cold  fomentations,  the 
former  at  the  first,  and  the  latter  a 
day  or  two  afterward,  with  the  opiate 
lotion  at  the  commencement,  and  a 
very  diluted  one  of  white  vitriol — two 
grains  to  the  ounce — when  the  in-  I' 
flammation  is  subdued,  with  a  mod-  I 
erate  bleeding  or  a  dose  of  physic,  ■ 
will  constitute  the  most  successful 
means  of  cure.  Ulceration  of  the  eye 
will  be  best  treated  with  the  opiate  i 
lotion,  but  cataract  and  gutta  serena  1 
do  not  admit  of  cure. 

'•  In  fracture  of  the  horn,  if  the  bones 
are  not  quite  separated,  they  may  be 
bound  together  by  tarred  cords  or 
splints.  If  there  is  a  perfect  fracture 
of  the  bone,  it  should  be  sawn  off  as 
closely  as  possible  to  the  head,  and  a 
hot  iron  passed  over  the  suriace. 

"  Water  in  the  head  in  calves,  known 
by  the  enlargement  of  the  head  and 
the  stupidity  of  the  animal,  admits 
not  of  any  cure.  The  giddiness  which 
is  sometimes  observed  in  them,  and 
even  in  the  adult  beasts  —  turning 
round  and  round  —  is  usually  hope- 
less. 

"  Apoplexy,  or  sudden  determina- 
tion of  the  blood  to  the  head,  produ- 
ced by  the  forcing  system  being  car- 
ried too  far  and  the  process  of  fatten- 
ing hurried  too  rapidly  on,  can  be 
cured  only  by  the  most  decisive  meas- 
ures. The  animal  that  is  Wms  struck 
must  be  bled  until  he  faints,  and 
powerful  purgatives  administered  and 
continued. 

"  Phrensy  is  produced  by  the  same 


ox 


cause,  and  can  only  be  cured  by  the 
same  treatment.  In  these  cases,  15 
or  '20  drops  of  the  crotoii  oil  should 
be  added  to  the  aperient. 

"  Locked  jaw  too  frequently  bids  de- 
fiance to  medical  treatment ;  the  only 
hope  of  cure  consists  in  active  bleed- 
ing and  the  continued  use  of  Epsom 
salts  and  croloii  oil,  until  the  bowels 
are  opened.  Immediately  after  the 
bleeding,  the  jaws  wdl  usually  be 
found  sufficiently  relaxed  to  admit  of 
the  administration  of  medicine.  This 
golden  opportunity  should  never  be 
lost.  As  an  adjuvant,  a  seton  of 
black  hellebore  in  the  dewlap  may  be 
tried. 

"  Young  cattle  are  occasionally 
subject  to  Jils.  Almost  without  warn- 
ing the  beast  staggers,  fails,  bellows, 
and  is  convulsed  in  every  limb  :  this 
is  the  consequence  of  over-heating 
or  over-driving,  or  both.  The  physic 
and  the  fleam  must  be  here  put  into 
active  use.  Perhaps  it  would  be  pru- 
dent to  send  such  a  patient  to  the 
butcher  with  very  little  delay. 

"  Rheumatism. — There  are  few  dis- 
eases of  more  frequent  occurrence 
among  cattle  than  this.  It  is  not  long 
absent  in  a  low  marshy  situation,  and 
it  is  the  constant  attendant  on  care- 
less or  cruel  exposure  to  cold  and 
wet.  It  is  recognised  by  the  difficul- 
ty of  motion  and  the  occasional  ex- 
pression of  pain.  The  cure  is  com- 
prehended ill  one  word,  'comfort.'  A 
little  mild  physic,  with  warm,  com- 
fortable drinks  and  gently  stimulating 
applications,  will  hasten  and  confirm 
the  cure. 

"  Connected  with,  or  a  consequence 
of  rheumatism,  is  swelled  joints,  yield- 
ing sometimes  to  stimulating  embro- 
cations and  comfortable  lodging. 
There  are,  however,  otiier  tumours 
unconnected  with  the  influence  of 
cold  ;  such  are  fluctuating  tumours, 
usually  about  the  knees,  which  re- 
quire stimulating  embrocations,  and 
the  occasional  use  of  the  budding- 
iron,  followed  by  the  a|)plication  of  a 
blister  when  the  fluid  lias  escaped 
Oilier  tumours,  also  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  joints,  are  of  a  hard  charac- 
ter; they  will  generally  yield  to  fric- 


tions with  an  ointment  of  the  hydrio- 
date  of  potash,  this  drug  being  also 
administered  internally  in  doses  of 
six  or  eight  grains  daily.  The  too 
frequent  consequence  of  these  affec- 
tions is  palsi/,  at  first  confined  to  cer- 
tain limbs,  but  gradually  spreading 
over  the  frame,  being,  however,  most 
visible  in  the  hind  extremities.  Here, 
again,  the  whole  treatment  may  be 
included  in  the  comprehensive  word 
'  comfort.'  Small  doses  of  physic, 
the  administration  of  the  white  anli- 
monial  powder,  the  use  of  stimula- 
ting embrocations,  with  warm  lodg- 
ing and  good  food,  especially  mashes, 
will  be  useful  adjuvants. 

"  As  for  that  species  of  nervous 
affection  rabies  or  madness,  it  admits 
not  of  cure  ;  and  it  lias  but  one  cause, 
namely,  the  bite  of  a  rabid  or  mad 
dog.  If  a  farmer  knows  that  certain 
beasts  have  been  bitten,  or  has  strong 
reason  to  suspect  it,  he  will  act  wise- 
ly in  sending  them  to  the  butcher,  for 
after  the  disease  has  once  appeared 
there  is  no  cure,  and  the  meat  is 
spoiled. 

"  It  is  time  to  recur  to  the  diseases 
of  other  systems  and  parts.  Too  fre- 
quent and  destructive  is  that  inflam- 
mation of  the  tongue  and  mouth  rec- 
ognised by  the  name  of  blain  ;  it  con- 
sists of  vesicles  and  tumours  occu- 
pying the  side  of  the  tongue  and  the 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  speedily  ul- 
cerating, becoming  gangrenous,  pro- 
ducing much  swelling  of  the  face  and 
head,  and  rapidly  destroying  the  ani- 
mal. It  often  appears  under  the  form 
of  an  epidemic,  and  it  is  frequently 
contagious.  The  mouth  should  be 
well  cleansed  with  a  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  lime.  Blood  should  be 
abstracted  in  an  early  period  of  the 
disease,  and  mild  purgatives  admin- 
istered ;  but  if  the  complaint  has  at- 
tained its  height  before  any  treat- 
ment is  adopted,  the  chloride  of  lime 
should  still  be  used,  and  also  the 
physic,  but  it  should  be  accompanied 
by  some  stimulating  ingredients,  as 
gentian  or  ginger,  or  boih. 

"All  cattle  are  subject  to  fever; 
the  dry  muzzle,  and  the  heat  at  the 
root  of  the  horn,  and  the  heaving  at 
543 


ox. 


the  flanks,  are  sufficient  proofs  of  it. 
If  this  is  early  observed,  a  dose  of 
physic  and  one  or  two  mashes  will 
usually  set  all  right.  At  times,  how- 
ever, the  attack  is  sudden  and  more 
violent,  and  danger  is  evident  from 
the  very  commencement.  The  farm- 
er recognises  this  affection  by  the 
terms  black-quarter,  quarler-iU,  blood- 
striking,  &c.  ;  the  beast  is  seen  with 
his  head  protruded,  his  nostrils  ex- 
panded, and  his  flank  heaving,  the 
breath  and  horn  hot,  and  the  eyes 
bloodshot ;  there  is  a  peculiar  crack- 
ling sound  if  the  loins  are  pressed 
upon,  and  the  slightest  pressure  gives 
extreme  pain  ;  ulcers  appear  on  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body,  and  every  part 
seems  tending  to  corruption.  This 
disease  is  sometimes  epidemic,  but  it 
is  quite  as  often  the  consequence  of 
the  fattening  process  being  hurried 
on  too  rapidly.  In  the  early  stage  of 
such  a  complaint  the  treatment  will 
consist  of  copious  bleeding  and  brisk 
purging ;  these  should  be  continued 
until  tliey  produce  their  effect,  and 
then  some  sedative  medicine,  as  fox- 
glove, or  emetic  tartar,  administered 
and  persisted  in  until  the  disease  is 
evidently  yielding.  After  this,  some 
mild  stomachics,  as  gentian  and  gin- 
ger, should  be  administered. 

"  Too  frequently,  however,  the 
treatment  has  not  been  sufficiently 
active,  or  was  not  commenced  early 
enough,  and  a  peculiar  low  fever  be- 
gins to  be  apparent.  There  is  dys- 
entery, which  no  astringent  will  ar- 
rest ;  ulcers,  which  defy  the  power 
of  every  disinfectant ;  and  the  ani- 
mal dies  one  mass  of  putridity.  In 
this  stage  of  the  disease,  and  also  in 
many  of  the  complaints  that  have 
been  described,  the  assistance  of  an 
educated  veterinary  surgeon  should 
be  requested,  for  the  treatment  is 
complicated  and  difEcuH  to  a  great 
degree. 

"  The  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
system  require  particular  notice : 
most  frequent  among  them  is  cough. 
It  is  too  little  regarded  by  the  owner, 
but  it  is  often  the  unsuspected  mes- 
senger of  consumption  and  death. 
There  is  no  rule  of  more  universal 
£44 


application  in  cattle  practice  than 
that  a  chronic  cough  is  the  forerun- 
ner of  everything  that  is  bad.  While 
the  beast  feeds  well,  and  the  muzzle 
is  cool  and  moist,  and  the  flanks  are 
quiet,  the  dairyman  feels  no  alarm, 
although  he  hears  the  cough  almost 
every  time  that  he  enters  the  cow- 
house. By-and-by,  however,  he  finds 
that  the  cow  is  losing  condition, 
and  her  quantity  of  milk  is  evidently 
diminishing,  and  he  begins  to  think 
that  there  is  some  necessity  for  at- 
tending to  the  case.  It  is  then  too 
late  ;  the  seeds  of  consumption  are 
sown,  and  he  must  part  with  her  im- 
mediately, or  she  will  pine  away  and 
die.  In  every  case  of  severe  cough, 
moderate  bleeding  and  purgation 
should  be  had  recourse  to,  with  warm 
mashes  and  a  comfortable  cow-house. 
The  same  treatment  will  apply  to  the 
epidemic  catarrh,  which  is  sometimes 
so  prevalent.  When  this  catarrh  as- 
sumes a  malignant  form,  as  in  mur- 
rain, the  treatment  will  be  little  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  black-quarter.  ■ 
Sore  throat,  or  inflammation  of  the  ' 
upper  part  of  the  throat  and  the  back 
of  the  mouth,  should  be  treated  as 
cough,  except  that  a  blister  or  some 
stimulating  application  should  be  had 
recourse  to.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  bronchitis,  but  there  is  a  peculiar 
form  of  It  to  which  young  cattle  are 
subject,  and  which  bids  defiance  to 
all  medical  treatment,  namely,  the 
choking  of  the  windpipe  and  passa- 
ges of  the  lungs  by  an  innumerable 
host  of  minute  worms.  No  medicine 
will  be  of  avail  here. 

"  Cattle  are  comparatively  seldom 
attacked  by  pure  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  ;  this  disease  principally  occurs 
when  the  beasts  have  been  compelled 
to  travel  too  far  or  too  fast,  and  when 
they  are  exposed  to  sudden  varia- 
tions of  temperature.  It  may  be 
known  by  the  drooping  head,  the 
heaving  flank,  the  frequent  painful 
cough,  the  obstinate  standing,  the 
hot  mouth,  and  the  cold  feet.  The 
animal  should  immediately  be  bled 
until  the  pulse  falters.  In  all  cases 
of  inflammation  and  danger,  this  is 
the  guide.  No  specific  quantity  should 


ox. 


be  ordered  or  taken.  The  faltering 
of  the  pulse  is  the  unerring  indica- 
tion of  the  abstraction  of  the  proper 
quantity.  If  the  pulse  again  throbs 
hardly,  the  bleeding  should  be  repeat- 
ed. The  bowels  should  be  opened 
by  means  of  Epsom  salts.  Setons  in 
the  dewlap  should  not  be  forgotten, 
and  blisters  should  be  rubbed  on  the 
sides  with  right  good  earnest.  The 
diet  should  consist  of  thin  gruel  and 
mashes.  Pleurisy  may  often  be  dis- 
tinguished by  a  peculiar  symptom, 
twitchings  and  shiverings  about  the 
chest  and  shoulders,  these  being  the 
parts  external  to  the  seat  of  pain. 
Little  waves  appear  to  be  stealing 
over  the  skin,  and  the  animal  shrinks 
when  the  sides  are  pressed  upon. 
The  treatment  is  the  same  as  in  in- 
flammation of  the  lungs.  Consump- 
tion is  the  most  frequent  and  fatal  of 
all  the  diseases  of  the  chest  in  cattle  ; 
it  is  the  consequence  or  the  winding 
up  of  every  other  pulmonary  com- 
plaint. It  is  distinguished  by  a  feeble 
and  hoarse  cough,  evidently  accom- 
panied by  pain,  and  interrupted  be- 


fore it  is  perfectly  completed  ;  for 
a  while  the  beast  may  continue  to 
thrive ;  she — for  it  is  oftenest  a  dis- 
ease of  the  female — may  increase  in 
condition  ;  but  she  will  presently  be- 
gin to  waste  rapidly  away.  Medi- 
cine is  powerless  in  this  disease. 
The  animal  must  be  disposed  of  or 
destroyed. 

"First  among  the  diseases  ofthedi- 
gestive  system  is  choking,  or  the  stop- 
ping of  a  piece  of  carrot  or  turnip,  or 
other  hard  substance,  in  its  passage 
down  the  gullet.  The  cart-rope  or  the 
cart-whip  is  resorted  to  in  order  to 
force  it  along  the  canal,  and  much  mis- 
chief has  ensued  from  the  violence 
that  has  been  resorted  to  on  these 
occasions.  Probangs  are  now  con- 
structed at  trifling  expense,  and  may 
be  had  from  most  surgical-instrument 
makers  in  town  and  country,  by  means 
of  which  the  purpose  may  be  readily 
effected,  and  without  danger.  See 
Probang. 

"  From  the  gullet  the  food  passes 
into  the  stomachs  of  the  animal,  of 
which  there  are  four  (see  Fig.).   The 


the  gullet. 


J,  tlie  paunch,     c,  the  honeycomb,     d,  tlie   maiiy;ilies.     e,  the   reed.    /,  the 
commencement  of  the  duodenum. 


first  is  the  rumen,  or  paunch,  into  i  will  reveal  the  real  state  of  the  case, 
which  the  imperfectly- masticated  The  stomach-pump  will  be  of  admi- 
food,  as  it  is  hastily  gathered,  de-  I  rable  use  here.  Any  quantity  of  fluid 
scends  ;  it  is  there  macerated  and  I  can  be  injected  into  the  stomach, 
prepared  to  be  returned  for  a  second  j  and  the  hardened  mass  may  be  ren- 
or  more  complete  grinding.     Some-    dered  more   fluid,  and  removed  by 


times  this  stomach  becomes  over- 
loaded with  food  :  this  is  the  grain 
side  of  the  dairy.  The  animal  refu- 
ses to  eat,  he  becomes  uneasy,  moans, 
swells  at  the  flank,  and  a  kind  of  un- 
consciousness gradually  steals  upon 
him.  The  symptoms  are  often  treach- 
erous, and  would  deceive  him  who 
was  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with 


means  of  the  pump  ;  or,  if  the  stom- 
ach is  too  full  to  admit  the  probang, 
and  to  be  thus  evacuated,  an  incision 
may  be  made  in  the  flank,  and  the 
accumulated  mass  withdrawn  by  the 
hand. 

"  At  other  times  an  unnatural  fer- 
mentation commences,  and  the  stom- 
ach is  inflated  with  gas.     One  look 


the  diseases  of  cattle  ;  but  the  intro-    at  the  sides  will  sufficiently  indicate 

duction  of  the  probang,  if  necessary,  ,  the  inflation  of  the  paunch ;  this  is 

Z  z  2  545 


ox 


termed  Jwovc.  The  first  indication  of 
cure  is  to  get  rid  of  the  gas ;  this 
may  be  accomplished  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  substances  that  will  chemi- 
cally combine  with  it :  the  chloride 
of  lime  will  effect  this.  The  princi- 
pal gas  in  the  inflated  stomach  is  a 
compound  of  hydrogen.  The  chlo- 
rine leaves  the  lime  and  combines 
with  the  hydrogen,  and  the  compound 
does  not  occupy  a  thousandth  part  of 
the  space  previously  occupied  by  the 
hydrogen.  Two  drachms  of  the  chlo- 
ride of  lime  will  form  a  cheap  and  a 
very  efficient  agent ;  but  if  this  is 
not  at  hand,  then  a  puncture  may  be 
made  into  the  left  flank  with  perfect 
safety.  If  this  is  done  with  a  trocar, 
the  canula  may  remain  in  the  wound, 
and  the  gas  will  continue  to  be  ex- 
tricated while  any  considerable  por- 
tion of  it  remains.  In  default  of  a 
trocar,  a  penknife  may  be  used  ;  but 
as  the  upper  portion  of  the  stomach 
sinks  with  the  disengagement  of  the 
gas,  the  aperture  through  the  skin 
and  that  into  the  rumen  will  cease  to 
be  accurately  opposed  to  each  other, 
and  some  of  the  gas  and  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  will  enter  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen,  and  will  be  the  cause 
of  future  illness,  or,  perchance,  of 
death. 

"  The  gas  having  escaped,  a  pur- 
gative should  be  administered,  with 
a  double  dose  of  the  aromatic,  in  or- 
der to  excite  the  stomach  to  resume 
its  duty.  Hoove,  or  hoven,  is  to  be 
avoided  by  not  letting  cattle  get  at 
too  much  green  food  in  spring. 

"The  loss  of  cud,  or  the  cessation 
of  rumination,  is  only  the  indication 
or  the  consequence  of  other  disease, 
and  will  cease  with  it.  If  the  nature 
of  that  disease  is  not  clear,  a  dose  of 
physic,  with  the  usual  or  more  than 
the  usual  quantity  of  the  carminative, 
may  be  given. 

"  The  diseases  of  the  second  stom- 
ach, the  reticulum,  or  honeycomb,  are 
few,  and  not  easily  distinguished  : 
the  simple  function  of  that  stomach 
is  to  prepare  the  pellet  of  food  for  re- 
mastication. 

"  The  third  stomach,  the  manyplies, 
has  more  to  do.  The  food  which  has 
546 


not  undergone  sufficient  comminu- 
tion in  the  second  mastication  is 
seized  by  the  rough  and  powerful 
leaves  of  this  stomach,  and  is  ground 
down,  as  it  were,  in  a  living  mill. 
Sometimes,  however,  there  is  a  de- 
ficiency of  moisture  in  this  stomach, 
or  the  muscular  apparatus  of  the 
leaves  does  not  act  with  sufficient 
energy ;  and  at  length  the  manyplie 
becomes  perfectly  paralyzed  by  the 
distention  caused  in  consequence  of 
the  undue  quantity  of  food  which  is 
accumulated  in  it :  this  is  known  by 
the  name  of  fardel-bound.  The  symp- 
toms are  not  always  evident.  Dul- 
ness,  want  of  appetite,  disinclination 
to  move,  and  costiveness,  are  among  ' 
the  usual  indications.  The  treatment 
is  simple,  but  too  often  ineffectual. 
It  consists  in  the  frequent  adminis- 
tration of  small  doses  of  purgative 
medicine,  with  more  than  the  usual 
quantity  of  carminatives ;  at  the  same 
time,  a  small  stream  of  warm  water 
is,  by  means  of  a  horn  or  the  stom- 
ach-pump, made  to  flow  down  the  _ 
gullet  and  pass  through  the  canal  at  I 
the  base  of  this  stomach,  thus  grad-  ' 
ually  dislodging  and  washing  away  a 
portion  of  the  accumulated  and  hard- 
ened contents. 

"  The  principal  disease  of  the  abo- 
masum,  or  fourth  stomach,  is  inflam- 
mation, designated  by  evident  unea- 
siness, the  resting  of  the  muzzle  on 
the  situation  of  this  stomach,  or  a 
peculiar  stretching  out  of  the  fore 
legs.  Venesection  and  purgatives 
should  be  used  in  this  case.  Of  the 
indications  of  disease  in  the  spleen, 
little  is  known  ;  inflammation  is  oft- 
en found  in  it,  with  enlargement,  in- 
duration, or  softening  of  its  sub- 
stance. These  circumstances,  how- 
ever, are  rarely  suspected  during  life. 

"  To  diseases  of  the  liver  these  ani- 
mals appear  to  be  peculiarly  prone. 
A  yellowness  of  the  skin  betrays  the 
existence  of  biliary  affections  in  a 
great  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of 
every  dairy.  When  acute  inflamma- 
tion of  the  liver  exists  to  any  con- 
siderable extent,  not  only  this  yellow 
tint  of  the  integument  will  be  found, 
but  tenderness  on  the  right  side,  ful- 


ox. 


ness  there,  and  the  direction  of  the  |  cus  actually  discharged,  or,  in  other 
muzzle  to  it.  The  proper  remedies  words,  of  the  danger  of  the  case. 
are  those  used  in  intlammation  of  The  progress  of  the  disease  is  rapid 
other  viscera,  with  the  addition  of  blis-  or  slow,  according  to  circumstances 
ters  over  the  diseased  part.  Chronic  which  it  is  difficult  to  appreciate; 
inflammation  is  far  more  prevalent  but,  in  the  usual  course  of  things, 
than  that  which  is  acute.  The  indi-  the  animal  wastes  away  almost  to  a 
cations  are,  want  of  condition,  the  skeleton,  and  then  dies. 
same  tint  of  the  skin,  and  obstinate  '•  Notwithstanding  the  purging,  the 
cough.  The  remedies  are  gentle  pur-  first  indication  of  cure  is  to  bleed.  It 
gatives,  and  succulent  food.  When  is  an  inflammatory  disease,  and  that 
obstruction  of  the  biliaiy  ducts  takes  ;  mflammation  must  be  subdued.  To 
place,  there  is  a  still  deeper  yellow,  the  abstraction  of  blood  should  sue- 
invariably  accompanied  by  loss  of  ceed  the  administration  of  an  aperi- 
condiiion.  The  animal  then  has  jaun-  ent ;  and  castor  oil,  as  being  the  least 
dice,  or  the  yelloics.  If  much  fever  irritative,  will  be  the  best.  Injections 
accompanies  it,  recourse  must  be  had  of  gruel  should  follow  ;  and  when  the 
to  bleeding  and  to  physic.  Cattle  in  dung  has  somewhat  resumed  its  nat- 
swampy  places  nearly  always  have  ,  ural  character,  astringents  may  be 
disease  of  the  liver,  and  even  die  ofi  administered,  at  the  very  head  of 
bilious  fevers.  which,  in  this  case,  stands  opium  : 

"  Among  the  various  intestinal  dis- [  a  little  calomel  should,  perhaps,  be 
eases  of  the  ox  stands  enteritis,  or  in-  mingled  with  if,  as  an  alterative  ; 
flammation  involving  all  the  coats  of  and  after  that  the  vegetable  tonics 
the  intestines.  Young  and  fattening  \  must  perfect  the  cure.  Cattle  are 
cattle  are  most  subject  to  it.  It  is  s\i\i]ftc\.io  flatulent  anA  spasmodic  colic, 
not,  however,  of  very  frequent  occur-  for  both  of  which  the  vegetable  tonics 
rence,  except  as  an  epidemic,  and  will  be  the  best  cure,  with  a  little  of 
then  it  is  very  destructive.  Wood-  the  chloride  of  lime  to  absorb  the  gas, 
evil  and  moor-ill  are  varieties  of  the  i  and  the  abstraction  of  blood  if  there 
same  disease.  They  must  be  treat-  is  any  inflammatory  action.  Walk- 
ed by  bleeding,  demulcents,  blisters  '  ing  exercise  and  friction  of  the  belly 
on  the  belly,  mashes,  and  gruel.  should  not  be  omitted.     For  strangu- 

"  Diarrhaa,  or  purging  without  the  lation  of  the  intestines  there  is  sel- 
discharge  of  mucus  mingling  with  dom  any  cure  but  by  means  of  an 
the   faeces,   is    produced   by  various   operation,  which  a  skilful  veterinary 


causes,  and  particularly  by  a  change 
or  excess  of  food.  It  is  often  epi- 
demic in  the  autumn.  A  mild  pur- 
gative should  first  be  given,  and  then 
the  mingled,  but  very  efficacious  med- 


surgeon  alone  can  perform.  In  ca- 
ses of  constipation,  the  aperients  must 
sometimes  be  long  administered  be- 
fore the  bowels  will  be  opened.  There 
will  be  no  danger  in  this,  provided  the 


icine  already  recommended  for  a  sim-  Epsom  salts,  alone  or  with  a  small 
ilar  disease  in  calves.  portion  of  aromatic  powder,  are  ad- 

"  Dysentery,  in  the  adult  as  well  as  |  ministered.  Dropsy  in  cattle  seldom 
in  the  young  animal,  is,  indeed,  a  admits  of  cure.  Although  an  opera- 
fearful  disease.  Its  causes  are  often  tion  may  be  resorted  to,  the  belly  fills 
obscure,  and  the  means  of  success-  -again,  nor  will  any  physic  or  diuretic 
fully  arresting  its  progress  are  a  de-  \  arrest  the  evil. 

sideratum.  Its  principal  character- !  "  Among  the  supposed  diseases  of 
istic  is  the  discharge  of  mucus  with  the  urinary  organs,  but  much  oftener 
the  faeces,  recognised  by  the  appear-  [of  the  digestive  ones,  stands  red-ica- 
ance  of  bubbles  standing  for  a  while  |  tcr,  so  called  from  the  colour  of  the 
on  the  fa;ces.  The  length  of  time  fluid  which  is  evacuated.  It  is  ma- 
which  they  continue  there  unbroken  torially  connected  with  the  pasture, 
may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  ad-  \  but  sometimes  it  has  an  epidemic 
measurement  of  the  quantity  of  mu- J  character.     In  the  acute  form  of 

547 


ox 


OXE 


the  disease  the  water  is  red.  This 
must  be  combated  by  bleeding  and 
purging  until  the  bowels  respoiul.  In 
chronic  red-water,  the  urine  has  a 
brown  tinge  at  first,  but  a  red  hue 
gradually  mingles  with  it.  This  is 
difficult  to  treat.  The  principal 
hope  of  cure  consists  in  the;  exhibi- 
tion of  Epsom  salts  until  thorough 
purging  is  produced.  Some  mild  car- 
minative may  then  be  given.  Black- 
water  is  only  a  variety,  or  the  conclu- 
ding stage  of  red-water. 

"  Puerperal  fever,  or  dropping  after 
calving,  is  a  disease  that  has  been 
very  much  misunderstood.  A  few 
days  after  calving,  the  cow  suddenly 
loses  all  power  over  her  hind  limbs. 
She  falls,  and  continues  down  three, 
four,  or  more  days,  until  the  power 
of  voluntary  motion  returns,  or  she 
dies  It  is  inflammation  of  the  womb 
or  of  the  spinal  cord,  which  extends 
to  the  organs  of  motion  in  the  hind 
extremities.  She  must  generally  be 
bled,  and  always  purged.  No  half 
measures  will  do  here  ;  the  bowels 
being  once  opened,  the  cow  will  fre- 
quently get  up,  and  there  will  be  an 
end  of  the  matter.  Injections  will  ma- 
terially assist  the  action  of  the  phys- 
ic. Whatever  apparent  weakness 
there  may  be,  no  tonic  must  be  giv- 
en until  the  bowels  have  been  well 
opened. 

"  Garget  is  inflammation  or  ulcera- 
tion of  the  udder.  The  milk  coagu- 
lates in  the  bag,  and  produces  inflam- 
mation there.  In  an  early  stage,  the 
sucking  of  the  calf  will  afford  the 
greatest  relief.  If  this  does  not  suc- 
ceed, fomentation  must  be  had  re- 
course to,  and  friction  with  an  ungu- 
ent composed  of  elder  ointment,  with 
an  eighth  part  of  camphor,  and  mer- 
curial ointment.  To  this,  if  necessa- 
ry, iodine  may  succeed  ;  but  it  must 
be  a  last  resource,  on  account  of  its 
absorbent  power. 

"The  treatment  of  cowpox  will 
consist  in  fomenting  the  teats,  apply- 
ing an  emollient  ointment,  and  giving 
a  little  physic. 

"  The  diseases  of  the  feet  must  not 
be  forgotten.     Foul  in  the  foot  con- 
sists in  ulceration  about  the  coronet 
648 


or  between  the  claws,  which  produ- 
ces great  lameness,  and  occasionally 
loss  of  the  hoof  It  is  very  conta- 
gious. The  treatment  is  simple  :  ev- 
ery pustule  or  collection  of  purulent 
matter  must  be  opened  ;  the  horn 
which  is  separated  from  the  parts  be- 
neath must  be  carefully  and  wholly  re- 
moved ;  a  linseed-meal  poultice  appli- 
ed foraday  ortwo,  andthen  the  sores 
touched  with  the  hiiller  of  antimony. 

"  Mange  is  a  too  frequent  and  very 
troublesome  disease  among  cattle. 
An  ointment,  however,  the  basis  of 
which  is  sulphur,  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  mercurial  ointment,  daily  and 
well  rubbed  on  every  affected  part, 
will  usually  remove  the  complaint. 
Sulphur  given  internally  will  be  a 
useful  adjunct." — {Youatt.) 

For  the  medicines  and  their  do- 
ses, see  the  article  Pharmacopoeia. 
OXALATES.  Salts  of  oxalic  acid. 
OXALIC  ACID.  See  Acids. 
O  X  A  L I  S.  The  genus  of  wood 
sorrels.  "The  0.  crenata  is  a  peren- 
nial, ornamental  plant,  native  of  Chili. 
The  flowers  are  beautiful,  of  a  yel- 
low colour,  and  in  umbels  ;  the  stalks 
and  leaves  are  succulent,  of  an  acid 
taste,  and  useful  as  salads  ;  the  roots 
or  tubes  are  produced  in  clusters ; 
their  taste,  when  boiled,  somewhat 
resembles  a  chestnut.  They  are  rais- 
ed from  the  tubers,  are  very  produc- 
tive, as  easily  cultivated  as  the  pota- 
to, and  decidedly  superior  in  flavour. 
They  require  a  rich  soil,  and,  like  the 
potato,  are  stored  during  winter  in 
cellars." — {Keyinck.) 

OXAMIDE.  A  white,  insoluble 
sublimate,  rising  in  a  dense  vapour 
when  oxalate  of  ammonia  is  decom- 
posed by  heat  ;  formula,  N  Hj  d 
O2.  It  is  a  test  of  the  goodness  of 
African  guano. 
OX  BOOSE.  A  stall  for  oxen. 
OXEN  IN  THE  WEST.  The 
abundance  of  cattle  sustained  by  the 
prairies,  and  their  cheapness,  has  led 
to  the  introduction  of  various  plans 
for  disposing  of  the  carcasses.  See 
Ellnvorth's  Report,  1844. 

The  hide  is  salted  for  the  English 
market,  and  netts  four  to  five  cents 
the  pound.     The  hoofs  and  horns  are 


oxr 


OXY 


eimilarly  disposed  of.  From  the  thigh 
and  shoulder.  75  to  100  lbs.  of  lean, 
fit  for  drying  into  jugged  beef,  are  ob-  , 
tained  ;  100  lbs.  of  the  best  pieces 
are  also  salted  for  shipping.  The 
liver  is  rubbed  with  nitre,  and  salted 
for  home  consumption.  | 

But  the  great  object  is  to  obtain  the  ' 
tallow.  For  this,  the  rest  of  the  car- 
cass is  cut  up,  and  placed  in  an  iron 
cylinder  holding  10,000  to  15,000  lbs. 
The  top  is  made  fast,  and  steam  let 
in  at  70  lbs.  pressure,  equal  to  306- 
Fahr.  In  12  to  14  hours  the  grease 
will  be  free,  and  may  be  drawn  off 
into  barrels.  The  soup  formed  un- 
der the  tallow  is  used,  with  meal, 
<S:c..  to  fatten  hogs.  40  oxen  per  day 
will  feed  600  to  1000  hogs.  The  pigs,  ' 
in  time,  are  steamed  into  lard.  J 

An  ox  of  700  lbs.  yields  25  lbs.  suet 
from  kidneys,  50  lbs.  from  intestines, 
100  lbs.  hide,  100  lean  meat,  and  the 
rest  yields  10  to  20  per  cent,  tallow, 
from  a  fat  animal. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  fat  is 
not  equal  to  that  taken  without  steam- 
ing. The  bones,  burned  into  bone- 
black,  form  a  rich  manure  and  excel- 
lent purifying  substance  for  sugar  re- 
finers. They  are  also  assorted  for 
buttons,  knife  handles,  &c.,  and  the 
rest  exported  for  manure. 

OX  EYE.  The  genus  Chnjsarithe- 
mum.  "Weeds  growing  among  wheat 
and  small  grain,  with  large  white  and 
yellow  composite  flowers. 

OX  FEET.  When  the  horse's 
hoof  splits  before,  so  as  to  become 
apparently  divided  into  two  parts. 

OX  GALL,  or  BILE.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent substance  to  refresh  the  col- 
our of  old,  greasy  carpets.  For  this 
purpose,  a  small  quantity  is  mixed 
with  water,  and  the  carpet  or  cloth 
well  brushed  with  it.  The  dry  gall 
is  very  purgative. 

OX  GANG.  An  old,  uncertain 
measure  of  land,  varying  from  6  to 
40  acres. 

OX  HARROW.  A  large,  heavy 
harrow. 

OXICHLORIDES.  Compounds  of 
chlorine  with  metallic  oxides,  as 
bleaching  salt. 

OXIDATION,  OXIDIZING.    The 


act  of  combining  with  oxygen,  usu- 
ally that  of  the  air. 

OXIDE.  A  compound  of  oxygon, 
with  an  element  or  other  compound. 
Numerous  oxides  arc,  however,  call- 
ed acids,  when  they  become  sour,  or 
are  capable  of  neutralizing  alkalies. 
The  most  powerful  oxides  are  pro- 
toxides ;  and  these  are  bases.  A 
protoxide  contains  one  equivalent  of 
oxygen  ;  a  binoxide  or  deutoxide,  tw^o 
equivalents  ;  a  sesquioxide,  three, 
with  two  equivalents  of  the  base  ;  a 
tritoxidc  or  teroxide,  three  equiva- 
lents of  oxygen  ;  a  quadroxide,  four 
equivalents ;  and  a  peroxide  repre- 
sents the  highest  state  of  oxidation, 
which  varies  much  with  different 
bodies.  A  dioxide  is  a  compound  of 
one  equivalent  oxygen  with  two  of 

OXYGEN,  VITAL  AIR  (from 
ofi'f,  and  yevvaeiv,  to  generate).  This 
important  element  was  discovered  in 
1774  by  Dr.  Priestley.  There  are  sev- 
eral compounds  of  oxygen  which, 
when  exposed  to  heat,  are  decompo- 
sed, and  yield  the  gas  in  a  state  of 
purity.  Of  these,  the  best  is  chlorate 
of  potash  ;  but  as  that  salt  is  expen- 
sive, we  generally  resort  to  black  ox- 
ide of  manganese,  which,  at  a  dull-red 
heat,  gives  out  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  tolerably  pure  oxygen  gas. 

Oxygen  gas  is  colourless,  taste- 
less, and  inodorous ;  it  is  electro- 
negative, and  therefore,  when  com- 
pounds containing  it  are  electrically 
decomposed,  it  always  appears  at  the 
positive  surface.  It  is  a  little  heavi- 
er than  atmospheric  air,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  11  to  10  ;  100  cubic  inch- 
es weighing  34  18  grains.  Its  equiv- 
alent is  8  on  the  hydrogen  scale,  but 
it  is  often  made  the  100th  of  what  is 
called  the  oxygen  scale,  symbol  0.  It 
is  absorbed  by  water  to  the  extent  of 
less  than  one  per  cent.,  and  is  neither 
acid  nor  alkaline.  It  has  a  powerful 
attraction  for  most  of  the  simple  sub- 
stances, especially  for  the  electro- 
positive bodies.  The  act  of  combi- 
ning with  it  is  called  oxidation.  The 
compounds  thus  formed  are  divided 
into  acids  and  oxides  ;  among  the 
latter  are  the  alkalies,  and  almost  all 
549 


OXY 

salifiable  bases.  Oxidation  is  often 
attended  wjtli  the  evolution  of  heat 
and  light,  as  in  all  processes  of  com- 
bustion in  atmospheric  air  ;  some- 
times it  is  slow,  and  unattended  with 
such  phenomena,  as  in  the  gradual 
rusting  of  metals.  Oxygen  is  a  most 
powerful  supporter  of  combustion  ; 
it  constitutes  one  fifth  of  the  bulk  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  is  the  principle 
which  enables  combustible  bodies  to 
burn  in  it.  The  product  of  combus- 
tion, that  is,  the  oxide  or  acid,  is 
sometimes  itself  gaseous,  as  when 
charcoal,  by  burning,  is  converted 
into  carbonic  acid  ;  or  it  is  liquid,  as 
hydrogen,  by  combustion,  produces 
water ;  or  it  is  solid,  as  when  iron, 
by  burning,  produces  oxide  of  iron. 
Oxygen  gas  is  also  essential  to  res- 
piration ;  that  is,  to  the  evolution  of 
carbonic  acid  from  the  blood  ;  but 
requires  to  be  diluted  with  nitrogen, 
as  in  the  air,  otherwise  it  destroys 
life  by  producing  over-activity.  Seeds 
cannot  germinate  without  oxygen, 
and  are,  therefore,  not  to  be  buried 
too  deep  in  a  compact  soil.  The 
leaves  of  trees,  also,  cannot  perform 
their  functions  without  its  presence, 
although  they  are  always  exhaling  a 
large  quantity  of  this  gas.  Oxygen 
is  very  extensively  ditTused  in  na- 
ture ;  in  the  compound  state  it  forms 
eight  ninths  of  all  waters,  and  at 
least  one  half  of  all  structures,  wheth- 
er mineral  or  organic,  except  a  few 
oils  and  resins. 

OXYGENATION,  AERATION. 
The  introduction  of  atmospheric  air 
into  the  blood  through  respiration. 

OXYHYDROGEN  BLOWPIPE. 
A  contrivance  for  burning  hydrogen 
gas  in  an  atmosphere  of  pure  oxygen, 
whereby  the  most  intense  heat  is  ob- 
tained. Dr.  Hare's  apparatus  is  con- 
sidered equal,  if  not  superior,  to  most 
others. 

OXYMEL.  A  mixture  of  honey 
and  vinegar,  for  coughs. 

OXYMURIATES,  OXYCHLO- 
RIDES.  An  erroneous  name  for 
salts  of  chlorine,  formerly  called  ox- 
ymuriatic  acid. 

O  X  -  Y  O  K  E.     The  timber  placed 
above  the  heads  of  oxen,  and  fasten- 
550 


OYS 

ed  by  a  throat-latch  or  piece,  to  yoke 
them.  The  French  fasten  a  flat 
board  to  the  foreheads  ;  and  it  is 
found  best  to  have  one  for  each  ox, 
as  shown  in  the  Figure.     Harness- 


ing oxen  in  the  same  way  as  horses, 
if  they  be  well  broken,  is  a  very  su- 
perior method,  and  highly  recom- 
mended in  hilly  countries,  where  it 
has  been  practised  from  time  un- 
known, as  in  ^Vales,  Cornwall,  and 
Devonshire  in  England. 

OXY- SALTS.  Chemical  com- 
pounds containing  an  acid  and  alkali, 
which  are  both  oxides.  This  class 
of  salts  comprehends  the  greater  part 
of  those  used  in  the  arts. 

OXYURES.  A  family  of  hyme- 
nopterous  insects  with  an  external 
ovipositor  resembling  a  tail.  They 
are  pupivorous,  and  prey  on  other  in- 
sects. A  genus  of  intestinal  worms, 
also. 

OYSTERS.  Ostracca.  A  family 
of  inequivalve  bivalves,  of  which  the 
Ostrca.  edulis,  or  common  oyster,  is  an 
esteemed  luxury.  Those  from  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  are  best.  They  are 
frequently  transplanted  and  set  in 
beds  in  the  North  and  East  Rivers, 
and  elsewhere,  divided  by  stakes,  in 
shallow  water,  within  reach  of  the 
tide  ;  water  which  is  only  partially 
salt  is  best.  They  grow  sufficiently 
for  use  in  two  or  three  years.  They 
should  not  be  disturbed  in  May,  which 
is  the  spawning  season,  but  are  fit  to 
eat  in  August. 

OYSTER  SHELLS.     They  con- 


PAL 

sist,  according  to  Brandes,  of  one  half 
percent,  matter  resembling  glue,  983 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  l  2  per  cent, 
of  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  lime. 
They  are,  therefore,  a  manure  re- 
sembling chalk,  when  ground  into 
powder,  and  have  been  used  with 
good  effects  on  wheat  and  legumin- 
ous crops.  They  can  be  crushed  with 
a  common  bark  mill.  When  burned 
in  an  open  kiln,  the  animal  matter  is  1 
driven  off,  and  the  best  description  of 
lime  is  formed.  These  remarks  apply 
to  all  shells  which  are  not  porcelanous. 
OZOENA  (from  ofw,  I  smell).  A 
putrid  discharge  from  the  nose. 

P. 

PACAXE-NUT,  The  Louisiana 
hickory.  The  nut  is  the  best  of  the 
hickory  kind. 

PACE.  A  distance  of  from  four  to 
five  feet. 

PACHYDERMATA  (from  naxvc, 
thick,  and  depfxa,  skin).  l"he  order  of 
quadrupeds  with  thick  hides,  as  the 
horse,  elephant,  oxen,  pig,  &c. 

PACING,  AMBLING.  A  natural 
pace  of  the  horse,  in  which  both  legs 
of  one  side  are  raised. 

PADDLE  STAFF.  A  staff  or  im- 
plement used  to  free  the  ploughshare 
from  earth,  &c. 

PADDOCK.  A  small  enclosure  at 
pasture. 

PAG  IN  A.  The  flat  surface  of  the 
leaf. 

PAGODITE.     A  kind  of  steatite. 

PALATE.  The  roof  of  the  mouth. 
It  is  divided  into  hard  or  bony  palate, 
and  soft  palate,  the  latter  being  the 
membrane  at  the  innermost  portion. 
The  shape  and  markings  of  the  pal- 
ate are  adduced  by  zoologists  in  their 
descriptions.  The  elevated  portion 
of  the  lower  lip  of  a  personate  flower. 

PALE.E,  CHAFF.  A  name  giv- 
en to  the  bracts  that  are  stationed 
upon  the  receptacle  of  compositae  be- 
tween the  florets,  and  having  gener- 
ally a  membranous  texture  and  no 
colour ;  also  the  interior  bracts  of  the 
flowers  of  grasses. 

PALINGS.  Light  fences  made  by 
driving  posts  at  distances  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet   into   the  soil,  crossing 


PAL 

them  above  and  below  by  stout  tim- 
bers, and  nailing  slabs  or  laths  of 
wood  to  these  in  an  upright  direction, 
and  at  intervals  of  three  or  four 
inches. 

PALLADIUM.  A  rare  metal,  re- 
sembling platinum  :  sp.  gr.,  11-8. 

PAL.MA  CHRISTI.  The  castor 
oil  plant,  which  see. 

PALMATE.  Resembling  the  hand, 
five-lobed  or  toothed. 

PALMETTO.  Chamoerops  palmet- 
to. A  cabbage-tree  palm,  growing  as 
far  north  as  34°  N.  lat.  It  some- 
times rises  ninety  feet  ;  the  stem  is 
nearly  cylindrical,  capped  by  a  splen- 
did frond,  the  centre  of  which,  an 
immense  bud,  is  tender,  and  can  be 
eaten  as  a  vegetable,  but  its  removal 
destroys  the  tree.  Like  other  palms, 
the  outside  of  the  trunks  is  very  hard 
and  durable,  and  the  interior  spongy. 
The  hollowed  stems  make  good  tul)es 
to  convey  water,  or,  being  split  in 
halves,  they  serve  for  piles,  and  last 
a  long  time  in  water.  The  fully- 
expanded  leaf  is  very  large  ;  fans, 
hats,  and  a  good  thatch  may  be  made 
from  it.  The  fruit  is  like  a  date, 
not  very  palatable.  The  genus  Cha- 
mcerops  contains  also  the  indigenous 
species  scrrulata  and  hystnx,  with 
creeping  stems,  and  which,  when 
burned,  are  said  to  yield  a  large 
amount  of  potashes. 

PALMIPEDES.  The  anseres,  or 
swimming  birds  of  Linnaeus. 

P.\LM  OIL.  The  solid,  fragrant 
oil  oiihe  Avoiraelais,dLn  African  palm- 
tree 

PALMS,  PALMACEJE.  A  natu- 
ral order  of  arborescent  endogens, 
like  the  palmetto,  chiefly  inhabiting 
the  tropics,  distinguished  by  their 
fleshy,  colourless,  six-parted  flowers, 
enclosed  within  spathes,  and  rigid 
plaited  or  pinnate  inarticulated  leaves, 
sometimes  called  fronds.  They  yield 
bread,  oil,  wine,  cordage,  fuel,  and  all 
necessaries  to  the  savages  of  the 
tropics. 

PALP,  PALPUS.  The  jointed  or- 
gans attached  to  the  labium  and  max- 
illa of  insects  :  the  feelers. 

PALPATORS.  Those  clavicora 
beetles  w^ith  long  palpi. 

SSI 


TAP 


PAR 


PALSY.  Loss  of  nervous  power, 
in  horses,  usually  in  the  hind  legs. 
See  the  Horse,  Ox.  Sheep. 

PALUSTRINE,  PALUSTRIS. 
Marshy,  belonging  to  a  marsh. 

P  A  M  B  I  N  A.  A  species  of  high 
cranberry,  found  near  the  Columbia 
River. 

PAMPAS.  The  South  American 
prairies. 

PAN.  A  term  applied  to  the  bed 
or  flooring  upon  which  the  cultivated 
soil  lies  or  is  placed.  It  is  sometime 
extremely  hard.     See  Moor. 

PANACEA.  A  universal  and  fab- 
ulous remedy. 

PANCREAS,  The  sweet  bread. 
It  is  composed  of  innumerable  small 
glands,  the  excretory  ducts  of  which 
unite  and  form  one  duct,  called  the 
pancreatic  duct,  that  conveys  a  fluid 
very  similar  to  saliva  into  the  intes- 
tines, called  the  pancreatic  juice, 
which  mixes  with  the  chyle  in  the 
duodenum. 

PANE  OF  GROUND.  A  small, 
four-sided  piece  of  ground  capable  of 
irrigation. 

PANDURIFORM.  Shaped  like  a 
fiddle  or  guitar. 

PAN-FEEDERS.  In  horticulture, 
the  shallow  vessels  in  which  pots 
are  set. 

PANIC  GRASS.  The  genus  Pcm- 
icum.  Coarse  annuals,  of  little  value 
for  grass.  P.  miliaceum  is  one  vari- 
ety of  millet,  which  see. 

PANICLE.  A  kind  of  inflores- 
cence, in  which  the  central  stalk 
throws  out  lateral  stems,  and  these 
bear  the  petioled  flowers,  as  in  oats. 

PANNAGE.  The  food  consumed 
by  hogs  in  woods. 

PANSY.     Heart's  ease.     Violets. 

PAPAVERACE^.  Plants  allied 
to  the  poppies  ;  they  are  for  the  most 
part  narcotics. 

PAPAW.  Carica  papaya,  Assimi- 
nier.  A  Southwestern  tree,  attain- 
ing sometimes  twenty-five  feet  ;  the 
fruit  is  three  inches  long,  soft  and 
insipid  ;  a  spirituous  liquor  may  be 
made  from  it :  the  wood  is  useless. 

PAPILIONACE^,  PAPILIONA- 
CEOUS   PLANTS.      The   Legutni- 
noscB. 
552 


PAPILIONACEOUS  FLOWERS. 
A  name  given  to  the  corolla  of  legu- 
minous plants,  as  that  of  the  garden 
pea  and  bean  ;  it  consists  of  a  large 
upper  petal,  standard,  or  vexillum ; 
two  lateral  petals,  called  ala,  wings  ; 
and  two  intermediate  petals,  forming 
the  keel,  or  carina. 

PAPILIONID.E.  Lepidopterous 
insects,  properly  called  butterflies : 
they  feed  by  day. 

PAPILLA,  PAPILL.-E.  Small 
delicate  eminences,  as  on  the  tongue. 

PAPPUS.  The  hairy  down  of 
thistles  and  other  compositse.  Pap- 
pose is  a  derivative. 

PAPYRUS.  A  large  sedge  (Cy- 
perus  papyrus),  a  native  of  the  Nile 
and  Southern  Asia,  from  which  the 
ancients  made  their  paper,  or  papyrus. 

PARACENTESIS.  Tapping, 
opening  the  covering  of  the  abdomen, 
&c.,  to  let  out  water :  it  is  done  with 
a  trocar. 

PARACYANOGEN.  A  brown 
solid,  with  the  composition  of  cyan- 
ogen. 

PARADOX.  An  apparent  absurd- 
ity, but  really  a  fact. 

'PARAFINE.  A  tasteless,  inodor- 
ous, fatty  matter,  obtained,  among 
the  products  of  distillation,  from 
wood  tar. 

PARAGUAY  TEA.  Ilex  Para- 
guayensis.  An  evergreen  holly,  the 
leaves  of  which  contain  theine,  and 
are  used  as  tea  in  South  America.  It 
grows  well  in  Georgia. 

PARALYSIS.  Palsy.  Paralytic 
is  a  derivative. 

PARAPLEGIA.  Paralysis  of  the 
upper  or  lower  part  of  the  body  only. 

PARASITE,  PARASITIC 
PLANTS.  Plants  which  strike  their 
roots  into  the  textures  of  others,  as 
the  misletoe  :  mildew,  smut,  rust,  &c., 
are  also  parasites.  Many  insects  are 
parasitical  on  animals. 

PAR  A  ST  ATE.  Square  pillars 
standing  from  the  wall. 

PARCHMENT.  Refuse  or  clip- 
pings make  glue,  or  sizing,  when 
boiled  ;  they  constitute  an  excellent 
manure  of  the  same  kind  as  woollen 


rags. 

PAREGORIC. 


Tincture  of  opium 


PAR 


TAR 


and  camphor  with  oil  of  anise  seed  ; 
an  anodyne  to  allay  pain. 

PARELLA.  Lfcanora  parclla.  A 
lichen  of  Europe,  used  as  a  dye,  ahd 
similar  to  archil. 

PARENCHYMA.  The  cellular 
substance  of  vegetables  or  animals. 

PARGASITE.  A  kind  of  horn- 
blend  (aclinolyte). 

PARGET.  The  plaster  of  lime, 
hair,  cow  dung,  and  water  used  in 
coating  the  flue  of  a  chimnev. 

PARHELION.  The  appearance 
of  two  or  more  suns  from  the  misty 
state  of  the  air.  Faraselcnd  are  sev- 
eral moons  seen  from  the  same  cause. 

PARIETAL.  In  botany,  any  or- 
gan which  grows  from  the  sides  of 
another  is  said  to  be  parietal.  The 
parietal  hones,  in  zoolog.v,  are  those  at 
the  sides  of  the  skull,  which  together 
form  the  arch. 

PARING  AND  BURNING.  "  This 
operation  consists  in  cutting  a  thin 
slice  from  the  surface  of  land  which 
is  overgrown  with  grass,  heath,  fern, 
or  any  other  plants  which  form  a 
sward  by  the  matting  together  of 
their  roots.  The  sods  arc  allowed  to 
dry  in  the  sun  to  a  certain  degree, 
after  which  they  are  arranged  in 
heaps,  and  burned  slowly,  without 
flame  or  violent  heat.  The  result  is 
a  mi.\ture  of  burned  earth,  charred 
vegetable  fibre,  and  the  ashes  of  that 
part  which  is  entirely  consumed. 

"The  object  uf  th  is  operation  is  two- 
fold :  first,  to  kill  insects  and  destroy 
useless  or  no.\ious  weeds  completely ; 
and,  secondly,  to  obtain  a  powerful 
manure,  impregnated  with  alkalme 
salts  and  carbonaceous  matter,  which 
experience  has  shown  to  be  a  very 
powerful  promoter  of  vegetation. 

"  The  instruments  by  which  this 
is  eflTected  are  either  a  common 
plough  with  a  very  flat  share,  which 
may  be  used  when  the  surface  is  very 
level  without  being  encumbered  with 
stone  or  large  roots,  as  in  low  moist 
meadows,  or,  in  most  other  cases,  a 
paring-iron,  which  is  used  by  hand. 
The  cross-bar  of  this  instrument  is 
held  with  both  hands,  and  the  upper 
parts  of  the  thighs,  being  protected 
by  two  small  slips  of  board,  push  the 

A  K  A 


instrument  into  the  ground,  so  as  to 
cut  a  slice  of  the  required  thickness, 
which  is  then  turned  over  by  moving 
the  cross-handle.  The  labour  is  se- 
vere, and  a  good  workman  can 
scarcely  pare  more  than  one  sixth  of 
an  acre  in  a  day. 

"  Paring  and  burning  the  surface 
is  an  almost  invariable  preliminary 
in  the  converting  of  waste  lands  to 
tillage  ;  and  where  these  lands  are  in 
a  state  of  nature,  overrun  with  wild 
plants  which  cannot  be  easily  brought 
to  decay  by  simply  burying  them  in 
the  ground,  burning  is  the  readiest 
and  most  efTeclual  mode  of  destroy- 
ing them.  In  this  case  the  practice 
is  universally  recommended  and  ap- 
proved of. 

"  But  it  is  not  only  in  the  reclaim- 
ing of  waste  lands,  and  bringing  them 
into  cultivation,  that  paring  and  burn- 
ing the  surface  is  practised.  The 
fertility  produced  by  the  ashes,  which 
is  proved  by  the  luxuriance  of  the  ve- 
getation in  the  first  crop,  has  induced 
many  to  repeat  this  process  so  often 
as  materially  to  exhaust  the  soil,  and 
induce  partial  sterility.  Hence  the 
practice  has  been  recommended  on 
the  one  hand  and  strongly  reprobated 
on  the  other. 

"  A\'hen  we  come  to  apply  to  the 
subject  the  test  of  experience,  and 
reason  correctly  on  the  facts  which 
are  presented  to  us  by  the  abettors 
of  the  practice  and  its  adversaries, 
we  shall  find  that  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  arise  chiefly  from  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  oper- 
ation is  carried  on.  But  it  may  be 
necessary  to  an  impartial  examina- 
tion of  the  subject,  to  inquire  into  the 
changes  produced  on  the  substances 
subjected  to  the  process  of  burning, 
when  it  is  done  with  due  precautions. 

"  In  burning  vegetable  matter  in  an 
open  fire,  the  whole  of  the  carbon  is 
converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  flies 
off,  leaving  only  some  light  ashes, 
containing  the  earthy  matter  and  the 
salts  which  the  fire  could  not  dissi- 
pate. These  are,  no  doubt,  very  pow- 
erful agents  in  promoting  vegetation, 
when  they  are  added  to  any  soil ;  but 
they  are  obtained  at  a  very  great  ex- 
5.-.S 


PARING  AND  BURNING. 


pense  of  vegptable  matter,  which,  by 
its  decomposition  in  liie  earth,  might 
also  have  afforded  food  for  vegeta- 
tion. If  the  earth  which  is  burned 
with  the  sods  is  of  a  cold,  clayey  na- 
ture, the  fire  will  change  it  into  a 
kind  of  sand,  or  hrickdust,  which  is 
insoluble  in  water,  and  corrects  the 
too  great  tenacity  of  clays,  by  con- 
verting them  more  or  less  into  loams. 
This  is  so  well  known,  that  clay 
is  often  dug  out  of  the  subsoil  to  be 
partially  burned.  On  stiff  clay  soils, 
therefore,  there  is  a  double  advan- 
tage in  paring  and  burning,  that  of  the 
vegetable  ashes  and  of  the  burned 
clay.  When  the  fire  is  so  managed 
that  the  vegetable  matter  is  only  par- 
tially burned,  the  oily  and  inflamma- 
ble portions  being  converted  into  va- 
pour by  the  fire  without  being  de- 
stroyed, and  absorbed  by  the  earth, 
the  effect  produced  is  only  to  impreg- 
nate the  earth  with  minute  particles 
of  matter,  readily  converted  into  tl>e 
constituent  parts  of  vegetables.  The 
earth  is  the  mere  recipient  of  these 
particles,  which  are  held  in  its  pores, 
as  water  is  in  a  sponge,  ready  to  be 
let  loose  to  any  substance  which  has 
the  power  of  attracting  them.  The 
Dioisture,  which  the  dry  earth  will 
also  absorb  from  the  atmosphere  if 
no  rain  should  fall,  is  retained  and 
inci'eased  by  the  effect  of  the  salts 
with  which  it  is  impregnated. 

'•  The  principal  objection  to  burn- 
ing is,  that  it  destroys  a  great  portion 
of  vegetable  matter.  But  this  is  a 
fact  to  be  proved,  and  is,  perhaps, 
rashly  taken  for  granted.  It  appears 
that  a  clay  soil  may  be  pared  and 
burned  without  its  real  substance  be- 
ing diminished  ;  and  if  its  texture  is 
improved,  it  becomes  more  fertile  by 
the  operation. 

"  Many  experienced  farmers  pare 
and  burn  the  soil  on  the  edges  of  their 
ditches  and  on  the  banks  on  which 
the  hedges  grow,  because  they  there- 
by exterminate  many  rank  weeds  ; 
and  the  burned  earth  mixed  with 
farm-yard  dung  makes  an  admirable 
compost.  Here  the  burned  earth  acts 
as  an  absorbent,  and  no  doubt  attracts 
many  of  the  volatile  parts  of  the  ma- 

00 1 


nure,  which  are  produced  by  the  de- 
composition of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  in  it.  Paring  and  burning, 
therefore,  should  be  joined  to  ma- 
nuring, if  a  powerful  and  immediate 
effect  is  desired  without  exhausting 
the  soil ;  and,  in  tliis  case,  we  do  not 
hesitate  to  recommend  it  on  all  cold 
clay  soils,  where  rank  weeds  are  apt 
to  spring  up,  and  coarse  grasses  take 
the  place  of  the  better  sorts  which 
have  l)een  sown.  The  proper  time 
to  pare  and  burn  is  evidently  after 
the  land  has  lain  in  grass  for  several 
years,  and  is  broken  up  for  tillage. 
The  surface  should  be  pared  thin  ; 
about  two  inches  is  the  extreme 
thickness  allowable  for  the  sod  if  the 
soil  is  very  stiff  and  poor,  and  as  thin 
as  possible  in  a  better  soil.  The  sods 
should  be  moderately  dried,  and  then 
arranged  into  small  heaps  with  a  hol- 
low in  the  middle  to  hold  heath  or 
bushes  to  kindle  the  fire.  When  it 
has  fairly  established  itself,  all  the 
apertures  should  be  carefully  closed. 
Wherever  any  smoke  breaks  out,  a 
fresh  sod  should  be  immediately  put 
over  it ;  a  heap  containing  a  small 
cart-load  of  sods  should  be  smoulder- 
ing for  several  days  without  going 
out,  even  if  it  rains  hard.  If  the  fire 
is  too  brisk,  the  earth  will  form  hard 
lumps,  and  even  vitrify ;  but  other- 
wise it  comes  out  in  the  form  of  a 
fine  powder,  in  which  evident  marks 
of  charcoal  appear.  If  this  is  of  a 
fine  red  colour,  it  is  a  good  sign  ;  for 
the  iron  in  the  earth  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  peroxide,  which  is  per- 
fectly innocent  in  its  effects  on  ve- 
getation, whereas  all  the  saline  im- 
pregnations of  iron  are  more  or  less 
hurtful.  It  is  better  to  burn  the  sods 
in  large  than  in  small  heaps  ;  for  the 
more  the  fire  is  smothered  the  better 
the  ashes. 

"  So  great  a  quantity  of  ashes  is 
sometimes  produced  as  to  admit  of  a 
portion  being  carried  off  on  grass 
land,  or  used  to  manure  another  field. 
As  this  is  evidently  robbing  the  field 
where  the  operation  has  been  carried 
on,  an  equivalent  quantity  of  manure 
should  be  brought  in  exchange.  Per- 
haps the  most  advantageous  mode  of 


PARING  AXD  BURNING. 


using  the  ashes  is  to  spread  them  in  ! 
the  drills  where  the  seed  is  to  he  ' 
sown,  after  a  portion  of  dung  has 
been    buried   under   them.      In    this 
manner  the  ashes  from  one  acre  of  j 
land  pared  and  burned,  together  with  I 
ten  or  twelve  cart-loads  of  good  yard  j 
dung,  will  manure  two  acres.     But  I 
experience  proves  that  the  earth  and  , 
ashes  almost  ensure  a  good  crop  of 
turnips  in  many  poor,  stiff  soils,  in  ; 
which  they  would  probably  not  have 
succeeded  if  sown  in  the  cominon 
course  of  cultivation  without  bones 
or  ashes. 

"When  a  considerable  erxtent  of 
poor  land  is  brought  into  cultivation, 
and  there  is  no  sufficient  supply  of 
manure  at  hand,  paring  and  burning 
a  portion  of  the  land  every  year,  by 
wiiich  a  crop  is  obtained,  is  a  most 
effectual  means  of  improvement. 
I.ime  may  be  used  at  the  same  time 
with  the  ashes,  and  will  increase 
their  effect.  It  would  be  a  great 
waste  to  burn  the  surface  of  a  rich 
piece  of  grass  land,  where  the  plants 
growing  m  it  are  tender  and  succu- 
lent, and  would  readily  rot  on  being 
ploughed  under  ;  in  such  case  a  mod- 
erate application  of  lime  would  have 
a  much  better  effect.  This  kind  of 
land  will  produce  good  crops  without 
any  manure,  and  continue  fertile  for 
many  years  if  judiciously  cultiva- 
ted. To  pare  and  burn  rich  land  is 
wasteful,  and  can  never  be  recom- 
mended. It  is  only  on  poor  land 
which  has  not  strength  to  produce  a 
crop,  and  of  which  the  texture  re- 
quires to  be  improved  and  its  powers 
stimulated,  that  paring  and  burnintr  is 
advantageous  ;  on  poor,  thin,  chalky 
soils,  which  have  been  laid  down  with 
sainfoin,  of  which  the  roots  and  stems 
are  grown  coarse  and  hard,  so  as  not 
readily  to  rot  in  the  ground,  the  op- 
eration is  proper  and  advantageous. 

"Many  tracts  of  waste  land  might 
be  brought  into  cultivation  by  means 
of  paring  and  burning,  which  without 
it  would  never  repay  the  labour  re- 
quired. Where  the  soil  is  inclined 
to  peat,  this  operation  and  abundant 
liming  are  the  indispensable  prelimi- 
naries of  cultivation.     The  ashes  and 


the  lime  will  produce  vegetation  and 
food  for  animals.  These  will  produce 
dung  to  supply  what  the  vegetation 
abstracts,  and  to  assist,  also,  in  the 
farther  decomposition  of  the  peaty 
matter,  converting  it  into  vegetable 
mould. 

"  The  first  crop  after  paring  and 
burning  should,  if  possible,  be  tur- 
nips, and  these  should  be  consumed 
on  the  spot  ;  but  there  are  exceptions 
to  the  rule.  The  soil  may  be  a  stiff 
clay  of  a  considerable  degree  of  nat- 
ural fertility,  only  encumbered  with 
rank  weeds  and  grasses.  In  this 
case  the  surface  is  burned  to  destroy 
these,  and  a  crop  of  corn  may  safely 
be  taken  after  the  paring  and  burning, 
the  land  coming  into  a  regular  alter- 
nate rotation  alter  it.  For  example, 
the  next  crop  may  be  beans ;  or  clo- 
ver may  be  sown  with  the  first  crop, 
if  the  ground  appears  fit  for  it.  The 
effect  of  the  ashes  will  be  readily  per- 
ceived in  the  luxuriance  of  the  clo- 
ver. Such  land  may  be  afterward 
cultivated,  according  to  its  nature 
and  quality,  with  the  rest  of  the  farm, 
or  laid  down  to  grass  after  a  course 
of  cleansing  and  ameliorating  crops. 
Thus  old  wet  meadows,  after  having 
been  well  underdrained,  may  be  great- 
ly improved,  and  either  converted 
into  arable  fields,  or  laid  down  again 
with  choice  grasses. 

"  Old  rough  pastures  may  often  be 
greatly  improved  by  a  very  thin  pa- 
ring and  burning,  so  as  not  to  destroy 
all  the  roots  of  the  grass.  When 
the  ashes  are  spread  over  the  pared 
surface,  some  good  grass  seeds  are 
sown  with  them.  The  whole  is  well 
harrowed  or  scarified  and  rolled,  and 
the  grass  which  will  spring  up  after 
this  will  be  greatly  improved,  and 
will  fully  repay  the  expense  of  this 
simple  mode  of  renovating  it.  This 
is  the  cheapest  mode  of  improving 
coarse  pastures  that  we  know,  with- 
out breaking  them  up. 

"  The  partial  paring  and  burning  of 
the  headlands  of  fields,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  mixing  the  ashes  and  burned 
earth  with  dung  in  a  compost,  is  a 
most  excellent  practice,  and  often 
superior  to  that  of  using  the  sods 


PAR 


PAR 


only,  without  burning  tlicin.  Tliese 
sods  contain  iiinuiuerable  seeds  of 
weeds,  and  egi^s  or  magsols  of  in- 
sects, which  are  not  destroyed  by  tlic 
fermentation  of  the  heap,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  are  hrouglit  to  hfe.  The 
loss  of  "a  portion  of  vegetable  matter 
in  the  burning  is  amply  compensated 
by  the  destruction  of  these  enemies 
of  the  future  crops. 

"  It  now  only  remains  to  take  no- 
lice  of  the  soils  and  situations  where 
paring  and  burning  cannot  be  recom- 
mended. \\lierever  the  soil  is  very 
loose  from  a  great  proportion  of  sili- 
cious  sand  in  its  composition,  and  is 
held  together  chiefly  by  the  slender 
roots  which  run  through  it,  the  burn- 
ing would  destroy  the  whole  of  the 
vegetable  matter  ;  for  none  of  the 
volatile  parts  which  the  tire  dissi- 
pates or  generates  would  be  retained 
or  absorbed,  but  would  pass  through 
the  loose  sand  in  the  same  way  that 
water  would.  Here,  then,  would  be 
actual  destruction  ;  and  the  residue 
would  be  a  mere  barren  silicious 
sand,  much  worse  and  more  porous 
than  it  was  when  held  together  by 
the  roots.  The  only  way  to  bring 
such  soils  into  cultivation  is  to  put 
clay,  marl,  or  vegetable  matter  on 
them,  and  to  force  vegetation  by 
means  of  liquid  manures,  chiefly  the 
urine  of  animals,  consolidating  them 
by  every  means  applicable,  so  that 
they  may  retain  moisture,  and  that 
the  manure  may  not  be  washed 
through  by  the  rains.  Such  soils  may 
be  improved,  but  they  are  the  most 
ungrateful  of  any  ;  and  it  is  only  ne- 
cessity and  indefatigable  industry 
which  can  make  them  produce  any 
crops. 

"  It  is  very  easy  to  ascertain  wheth- 
er any  soil  will  be  improved  or  not 
by  paring  and  burning.  A  few  sods 
may  be  taken  and  exposed  to  heat  in 
an  iron  pot  closely  covered  over,  or 
in  a  large  crucible  ;  the  heat  should 
not  be  so  great  as  to  produce  light, 
but  should  be  kept  up  for  a  consider- 
able time,  till  the  sods  are  consumed. 
If  the  ashes  are  red,  and  the  whole 
is  a  fine  powder,  with  particles  of 
charcoal  in  it,  the  soil  from  which  it 
556 


was  taken  may  be  safely  pared  and 
burned,  especially  if  it  forms  a  mud 
with  water,  and  the  earth  is  not  read- 
ily deposited.  But  if  it  feels  gritty, 
lets  the  water  readily  through,  and  is 
soon  deposited  when  mixed  with  it, 
burning  will  not  be  advantageous. 
This  is  the  evident  result  of  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  before. 

"  On  the  whole,  the  operation  of 
paring  and  burning,  when  judiciously 
applied  and  properly  performed,  is  a 
most  excellent  and  cheap  improve- 
ment of  certain  soils,  and  it  will  never 
diminish  their  fertility,  if  they  are 
properly  cultivated  and  manured,  and 
a  judicious  succession  of  crops  is 
adopted  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  will 
improve  their  quality  and  texture, 
and  make  them  more  productive." — 
(Rham.) 

P  A  R  K.  An  enclosed  woodland 
pasture. 

PAROTID  GLAND.  A  large  sal- 
ivary gland,  situated  at  the  angle  of 
the  jaws. 

PAROXYSM.  A  sharp  attack,  an 
increase  of  sickness. 

P.\RSLEY.  Aptum  petroselinum. 
A  biennial,  umbelliferous  plant,  the 
aromatic  leaves  of  which  are  much 
used  in  cookery.  It  is  propagated 
readily  by  seed  in  a  dr>',  fair  soil. 
The  curled  variety  is  the  prettiest. 
A  bed  once  formed  will  perpetuate 
itself,  if  suffered  to  bear  a  few  seeds 
annually.  It  may  be  covered  by  straw 
in  the  fall  to  protect  it  from  winter. 

PARSLEY,  THE  HAMBURGH. 
Apitim  lattfolium.  This  plant  is  cul- 
tivated for  its  root,  which  resembles 
a  middling-sized  parsnip  ;  it  is  man- 
aged and  used  in  the  same  way,  and 
is  a  good  vegetable. 

PARSLEY,  WILD.  Wild  celery. 
This  and  similar  umbelliferous  plants, 
growing  in  wet  places,  are  acrid,  and 
should  be  carefully  weeded  out  from 
pastures. 

PARSNIP.  Pastinaca  saliva.  Va- 
rieties :  Jersey  long,  and  large  Dutch, 
a  well-known  umbelliferous  plant, 
cultivated  for  its  roots.  It  grows 
well  in  deep,  rich,  loamy  clay,  or 
sandy  soils,  and  is  cultivated  exactly 
like  the  carrot.    Sow  in  April  or  May, 


PAS 

in  drills  18  inches  apart,  so  as  to  ad- 
mit the  horse  hoe.  5  pounds  of  fresh 
seed  per  acre  ;  prick  out  to  12  inch- 
es, and  hoe  well :  produce  in  October 
9  to  11  tons  ;  take  up  with  the  plough 
or  a  fork  :  they  keep  well  in  sand. 
All  stock  like  them,  especially  if 
steamed.  The  leaves  are  often  given 
to  cows,  &c.  Its  value  as  fodder  will 
be  seen  under  Fodder. 

PARSNIP.  COW;  MASTER 
"WORT.  Heraclcum  lunatnm.  A 
large  perennial,  umbelliferous  plant, 
growing  in  wet  places,  and  very  poi- 
sonous. Use  the  stomach  pump  and 
warm  water  in  poisoning  by  it. 

PARTERRE.  In  gardening,  a 
system  of  beds  of  different  shapes  and 
s^zes,  in  wiiich  flowers  are  cultivated, 
with  intervening  spaces,  either  paved, 
of  gravel,  or  turf,  for  walking  on. 

PARTURITION.  The  act  of 
bringing  forth  voung. 

PASSERINES,  PASSERES. 
"Birds  similar  to  the  sparrow,  inclu- 
ding those  which  neither  manifest  the 
violence  ofbirdsof  prey,  nor  have  the 
fixed  regimen  of  the  terrestrial  birds, 
but  which  feed  on  insects,  fruit,  or 
grain,  according  to  the  slenderness  or 
strength  of  their  beak  ;  some,  with 
sharp  and  toothed  mandibles,  pursue 
and  feed  on  small  birds.  All  the  pas- 
serines have  short  and  slender  legs, 
with  three  toes  before  and  one  be- 
hind, the  two  external  toes  being 
united  by  a  very  short  n>enibrane. 
They  form  the  mo.st  extensive  and 
varied  order  of  birds,  and  are  the  least 
readily  recognisable  by  distinctive 
characters  common  to  the  whole 
group. 

"  The  passerines,  in  general,  have 
the  females  smaller  and  less  brilliant 
in  their  plumage  than  the  males  ; 
they  always  live  in  pairs,  build  in 
trees,  and  display  the  greatest  art  in 
the  construction  of  their  nests.  The 
young  are  excluded  in  a  blind  and 
naked  state,  and  wholly  depend  for 
subsistence,  during  a  certain  period, 
on  parental  care  The  brain  arrives 
in  this  order  at  its  greatest  propor- 
tional size  ;  the  organ  of  voice  here 
attains  its  utmost  complexity  ;  and 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  bird,  as 

A  A  A  2 


PAS 

power  of  flight,  melody  of  voice,  and 
beauty  of  plumage,  are  enjoyed  in 
the  highest  perfection  by  one  or  other 
of  the  groups  of  this  extensive  and 
varied  order. 

"  The  beak  of  the  passerines  varies 
in  form  according  to  the  nature  of 
their  food,  which  may  be  small  or 
young  birds,  carrion,  insects,  fruit, 
seeds,  vegetable  juices,  or  of  a  mixed 
kind.  The  modifications  of  the  ros- 
trum have,  therefore,  afforded  con- 
venient characters  for  the  tribes  or 
subdivisions  of  the  order  :  these  are 
termed,  1.  Dentirosters ;  2.  Coniros- 
ters;  3.  Tcnuirosters ;  4.  Fissirosters.' 
See  those  words. 

PASSIONFLOWER.  Thegenns 
Pdsssijlora,  bearing  beautiful  flowers, 
and,  in  the  tropics,  tolerable  fruit, 
and  a  good  wood  resembling  ebony. 

PASTEL.  A  dye  stuff,  resembling 
indigo,  woad. 

PASTERN  OF  A  HORSE.  The 
distance  that  intervenes  between  the 
joint  of  that  name  and  the  coronet  of 
the  hoof 

PASTURE  LANDS.  "  Consider- 
able improvements  have  been  made 
in  natural  pastures,  not  only  by  the 
raising  of  banks  and  stone  walls  as 
shelter  against  the  winter's  storms, 
but  also  by  extensive  draining  and 
clearing  the  surface  of  wild  plants 
and  shrubs,  which  prevent  the  her- 
bage from  springing  up,  and  greatly 
diminish  the  feed.  On  the  sides  of 
steep  hills,  where  springs  are  apt  to 
break  out  and  produce  swamps  and 
bogs,  drains  judiciously  made  have 
carried  off  the  water,  and  laid  dry 
the  pastures  below  them  ;  while  res- 
ervoirs have  been  constructed  in 
many  places  to  receive  the  water  and 
to  supply  the  stock  in  dry  w^eather. 
On  peaty  moors  the  application  of 
lime  to  the  surface  has  often  pro- 
duced wonderful  effects,  and  made 
various  kinds  of  clover  and  grasses 
spring  up,  which  wore  never  seen  on 
the  sjMit  before. 

"  Those  who  are  possessed  of  ex- 
tensive pastures  often  look  upon 
them  as  of  too  little  value  to  lay  out 
any  money  in  their  improvement; 
and  unless  when  an  attempt  is  made 
557 


PASTURE  LANDS. 


to  bring  them  into  regular  cultiva- 
tion, which  often  fails  after  a  great 
outlay  of  money,  they  are  not  tliought 
worth  attention.  Yet  many  rough, 
hilly  pastures  mi^lil  be  doubled  and 
tripled  in  value,  merely  by  clearing 
the  surface,  burning  coarse  grasses, 
rushes,  ferns,  and  furze,  and  .sowing  ; 
a  few  seeds  where  the  ashes  have 
been  spread.  The  additional  number 
of  cattle  or  sheep  which  can  be  main- 
tained by  this  means  would  surprise 
any  one  who  had  not  had  experience 
of  such  improvements.  The  forming 
of  convenient  channels  for  the  water 
to  run  off  is  another  important  ob- 
ject, which  can  often  be  effected  at  a 
trifling  expense  ;  and  a  loo.se  surface 
laid  dry  by  this  means  may  be  much 
improved  by  merely  burning  the  heath 
which  grows  upon  it.  After  the  fire 
has  scorched  the  ground,  grasses  will  ; 
spring  up  spontaneously  ;  and,  at  a 
very  small  expense,  a  considerable  ' 
tract  of  mountain  pasture  may  be  con- 
verted from  the  state  of  a  brown 
heath,  or  moor,  to  that  of  a  fine  green  | 
sward.  | 

"  Wherever  there  are  large  pas- 
tures, proper  and  suitable  buildings, 
made  of  substantial  materials,  should 
be  erected.     The  cattle  should  have 
numerous   sheds   for  refuge  in  bad 
weather,  and  sheep  especially  should  [ 
have  protection  and  shelter.    Warmth  1 
is  in  some  cases  of  more  importance 
than  food  :   and  an  animal  exposed 
to  all  the  severities  of  a  northern  cli-  ' 
mate  requires  more  food  to  keep  him 
alive  than  when  he  is  kept  warm  and 
protected  from  the  immediate  influ-  j 
ence  of  cutting  winds.  ] 

"  To  those  who  have  extensive 
pastures,  as  on  the  prairies,  it  is  of 
great  importance  to  ascertain  wheth- 
er oxen,  heifers,  cows,  or  sheep  are 
the  most  profitable,  and  of  these, 
what  breeds  suit  the  situations  ;  and, 
when  this  has  been  determined  by 
experience,  to  know  what  quantity 
may  safely  be  kept,  without  suffering 
for  want  of  sufficient  food,  or  allow- 
ing any  portion  of  the  pasture  to 
wither  or  become  coarse  from  not 
being  duly  fed  ofl^.  Whatever  be  the 
stock  depastured,  the  greatest  atten- 
558 


lion  should  be  paid  to  them  by  a 
herdsman  or  shepherd  of  experience, 
who  should  have  a  certain  number 
only  under  his  care.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  give  him  some  share  or  inter- 
est in  the  produce  as  part  of  his  wa- 
ges. When  any  part  of  the  stock  is 
sold  off  to  drovers  or  butchers,  he 
should  have  a  per  centage  on  the  sale. 
This  will  give  him  the  activity  of  an 
owner,  and  he  is  not  so  likely  to  be 
negligent  and  allow  the  stock  to  suf- 
fer from  a  want  of  sufficient  food,  or 
from  accidents  which  can  be  prevent- 
ed by  proper  attention. 

"When  the  soil  is  naturally  deep 
and  of  a  good  quality,  but  the  situa- 
tion renders  it  not  advisable  to  con- 
vert the  pastures  into  permanent 
arable  land,  and  the  herbage  has  been 
deteriorated  and  overrun  with  moss 
or  weeds,  it  is  a  very  effective  mode 
of  improving  the  pasture  to  plough 
up  the  sward  as  thin  as  possible,  and 
then,  having  removed  the  sods  into 
heaps  or  rows,  to  plough  and  scarify 
the  bared  surface  to  the  depth  of  four 
or  five  inches,  so  as  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  a  fallow  field  When 
it  is  well  pulverized  and  harrowed 
level,  the  sod,  which  had  been  taken 
off,  is  chopped  into  small  pieces  by 
the  spade,  and  scattered  over  it ;  and 
after  a  shower  has  somewhat  moist- 
ened the  surface,  it  is  well  rolled  with 
a  heavy  roller.  Thus  the  moss  is 
effectually  destroyed ;  the  root  weeds 
have  been  eradicated,  and  the  fine 
grasses,  the  roots  of  which  are  short 
and  fibrous,  are  preserved.  They 
will  soon  strike  into  the  loosened 
soil,  and  a  fine  close  sward  will  be 
the  result.  The  improvement  is  still 
greater  if  lime  is  put  on  the  land  be- 
fore the  spreading  of  the  sods,  and  if, 
at  the  same  time,  some  of  the  best 
grass  seeds  are  sown  over  it.  The 
proper  season  for  this  operation  is 
after  harvest,  and  no  cattle  should  be 
admitted  till  the  next  spring. 

"  In  the  richest  pastures,  an  acre 
will  maintain  and  fatten  an  ox  of 
eighty  or  ninety  stone,  and  some- 
times keep  several  sheep  in  store  or- 
der besides.  There  is  a  marked  dif- 
ference between  land  that  will  fat- 


PAV 

ten  an  ox,  and  that  which  will  only  ; 
rear  him.  This  can  scarcely  be  dis-  } 
coveretl  by  simple  examination  of  the  , 
land,  but  is  found  by  experience.  The  ; 
same  appearance  of  grass  has  more 
proof,  as  it  is  called,  in  one  place  than  ; 
another.  The  bite  may  be  very  short 
and  tlie  pasture  appear  bare,  and  yet 
the  value  of  it  may  be  seen  on  the 
ribs  of  the  cattle.  Much  of  the  skill 
of  a  grazier  consists  in  stockmg  his 
pastures  to  advantage.  He  should 
know  the  power  of  every  portion  of 
it,  and  stock  it  so  that  the  grass  may 
not  grow  faster  than  it  can  be  crop- 
ped by  the  cattle  or  sheep,  and  that 
the  animals  may  always  have  the 
full  quantity  required.  Every  animal 
wants  a  certam  quantity  of  food  to 
repair  the  daily  waste  occasioned  by 
the  animal  functions.  If  he  has  no 
more  he  makes  no  progress :  the 
more  he  can  convert  into  flesh  and 
fat  beyond  this  quantity  in  a  given 
time,  the  more  profitable  he  will  be. 
Hence  the  superior  qualities  of  some 
animals  with  respect  to  this  point  in- 
dicate the  superiority  of  their  breed, 
and  afford  the  greatest  nett  profit  to 
the  grazier.  In  the  same  pasture,  one 
beast  or  sheep  will  give  a  reasonable 
profit,  while  another  may  occasion  an 
actual  loss.  The  adaptation  of  the 
stock  to  the  nature  of  the  pasture  is 
consequently  an  object  of  the  great- 
est importance,  and  requires  much 
judgment  and  experience.'' — {W.  L. 
Rham.) 

PATELLA.     The  knee  pan. 
PATENS,  PATENT.     Spreading. 
PATHOGNO.MIC  (from  Trado^,  a 
disease,  and  yvufiri,  opinion).     Symp- 
toms  which  are  characteristic  of  a 
disease. 

PATHOLOGY.  A  dissertation  on 
the  effects  of  disease  on  the  body. 

PAVILION.  "  In  architecture,  a 
projecting  apartment  on  the  flank  of 
a  building,  usually  higher  than  the 
rest  of  it.  Summer-houses  in  gar- 
dens are  sometimes  called  by  this 
name,  but  improperly.  The  term  pa- 
vilion is  also  used  to  signify  a  milita- 
ry tent." — (Branile). 

PAVING  ORCHARDS.  Some- 
times practised  about  plum-trees  to 


PEA 

cut  off  the  escape  of  the  curculio.  If 
it  is  temporary,  there  can  be  no  ob- 
jection, but  otherwise  we  are  unable 
to  apply  composts  to  the  roots.  It 
is  very  effective  against  the  curculio. 
PEA.  Pisnm  sativum.  An  annu- 
al of  the  leguminous  family.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  gray  pea  is  the  P. 
arvcnse.     Varieties ; 

Early  Cedo  NuUi,  or  Race  Horse,  3  feet 
Early  Frame,  2  to  3  feet. 
Early  Warwick,  3  feet. 
Early  Washington,  3  feet. 
Early  Charlton,  3  feet. 
Double  Blossom  Frame,  3  feet. 
Bishop's  Early  Dwarf,  2  feet. 
Dwarf  Prolific,  or  Strawberry,  2  feet, 
Dwarf  Spanish,  or  Fan,  1  to  2  feet. 
Early  Nimble  Dick,  S  feet. 
Dwarf  Blue  Imperial,  2  to  3  feet. 
Waterloo  Blue,  4  feet. 
Groom's  Dwarf  Blue  Prolific,  4  feet. 
Dwarf  Blue,  Prussian,  2  to  3  feet. 
Dwarf  .Marrowfat,  3  to  4  feet. 
Lady's  Finser  Marrows,  4  feet. 
Matchless  Marrowfat,  6  feet. 
Knight's  Tall  Marrow,  6  feet. 
Knight's  Dwarf  .Marrow,  3  feet. 
Woodford's  Green  Prolific,  6  feet. 
Large  Gray  Rouncival,  4  feet. 
Dwarf  Sugar  (eatable  pods),  3  feet. 
Tall  Crooked  Pod  Sugar,  6  feet. 
French  Bouquet,  or  Sugar,  3  to  4  feet. 
Albany  Field,  several  varieties. 

The  time  of  sowing  is  early  spring, 
in  drills  four  to  six  feet  apart ;  they 
should  be  protected  by  straw,  pine 
brush,  or  similar  substances.  A  sow- 
ing may  be  made  every  two  weeks 
until  the  end  of  May ;  a  bushel  will 
plant  an  acre,  and  yield  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  bushels  of  green  peas. 
The  best  soil  is  a  deep,  moderately 
rich,  clayey  soil,  containing  some 
amount  of  lime,  or  having  been  well 
manured  with  it.  They  are  usually 
supported  by  sticks,  but  in  field  cul- 
ture are  allowed  to  grow  on  the 
ground.  They  should  be  hoed  sev- 
eral times,  and  earthed  up.  A  fall 
crop  can  be  obtained  in  the  Middle 
States  by  sowing  in  a  shady  place 
after  the  heat  of  summer  is  passing 
away. 

Tlie  field  is  sown  broad-cast  at  two 

and  a  half  bushels  the  acre  ;  the  crop 

is  readily  collected  by  a  short  scythe 

'  and  horse-rake.     It  should  be  done 

I  while   the  haulm  is  of  a  yellowish 

I  green,   or   the    peas    scatter.      The 

'.  haulm  in  this  state  is  a  very  valua- 

659 


I'KA 

ble  rough  fodder,  if  carefully  housed. 
The  grain  is  tlirastied  out,  and  forms 
one  of  the  best  kinds  of  provender 
for  all  stock  and  poultry.  'I'lie  yield 
per  acre  is  Irom  twenty-five  to  forty 
bushels. 

Tlie  pea  can  be  readily  forced  in 
the  hot-house,  and  may  be  much  ad- 
vanced by  glass.  The  diseases  of 
the  pea  are  few-,  mildew  and  plant 
lice  sometimes  destroy  late  crops. 

Manures.  —  Like  all  leguminous 
plants,  pease  require  lime  and  gyp- 
sum, but  as  they  yield  much  seed, 
bone  earth  is  also  essential.  They 
are  an  exhausting  crop.  The  com- 
position of  the  pea  is  given  by  Spren- 
gel :  1000  parts  in  the  ordinary  dry 
state  yield 

Seed.  Straw. 

Potash  and  soda  ....  15-50  235 

Lime  and  magnesia .     .     .     r95  30-70 

Phosphoric  acid  ....     1-9U  2-40 

Sulphuric  acid     ....     0-52  335 

Chlorine 038  000 

Silica,  iron,  &c 4-40  10-85 

24-65  49^ 

PEA  BUG.  Bruchus  fist.  A  well- 
known  coleopterous  insect  which  lays 
its  egg  in  the  young  pea,  and  comes 
out  in  May.  Sowing  pease  two  years 
old,  taking  care  invariably  to  destroy 
the  insects  that  are  hatched,  is  a  cer- 
tain preventive. 

PEA,  COW.  Yeatman's  pea.  A 
very  productive  yellow  Southern  pea, 
much  used  for  green  fallows  in  the 
same  way  as  clover. 

PEANUT.     See  Pindars. 

PEA  PATTRIDGE.  Cassia  cha- 
mcBcrista.  Wild  sensitive  plant.  It 
is  a  beautiful  ornamental  plant. 

PEACH.  Amygdalus  Pcrsica,  of 
the  natural  family  Pomacea.  The  fol- 
lowing account  is  partly  from  Mr. 
Thomas  : 

"  The  peach  is  usually  cultivated 
by  planting  the  stone  in  autumn,  at  a 
depth  of  about  two  inches ;  a  small 
part  of  them  grow  the  succeeding 
spring,  and  the  remainder  the  year 
following.  Cracking  the  stones  be- 
fore planting  ensures  their  growth  the 
first  season,  but  it  is  best  in  thi«  case 
to  expose  the  stones  to  the  action  of 
frost  during  winter,  mixed  with  sand 
or  earth,  and  to  defer  the  planting  till 
560 


PEA 

spring.  If  the  soil  be  fertile,  so  that 
their  growth  is  vigorous,  they  may 
be  budded  the  same  season  ;  but  if 
not,  the  operation  must  be  deferred 
till  the  second.  One  and  two  years' 
growth  of  the  bud  will  render' them 
large  enough  to  transplant  into  the 
orchard. 

"  The  most  suitable  soil  for  the 
peach  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam  ;  a  light 
soil  is  generally  preferred,  but  this  is 
not  indispensable,  if  tlie  ground  be 
well  prepared.  Peach-trees,  when 
transplanted,  should  not  be  large. 

"  To  obtain  good  varieties  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  budding  must  be 
resorted  to.  Grafting  rarely  suc- 
ceeds, and  never  unless  perfonned 
with  unusual  care  on  such  kinds  as 
have  the  firmest  wood.  It  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  bud  on  almond  or  plum 
stocks. 

"  When  the  great  difference  be- 
tween good  and  bad  varieties  is  re- 
membered, the  importance  of  obtain- 
ing the  best  must  be  obvious.  The 
reputation  of  some  which  are  excel- 
lent has  been  greatly  injured  by  the 
numerous  errors  in  names  which  have 
been  introduced. 

"  This  misapplication  of  names  has 
induced  the  attempt  to  arrange  the 
varieties  and  distinctive  characters, 
so  that  this  inconvenience  may  be  re- 
moved. The  peach  presents  facili- 
ties for  this  purpose  not  existing  in 
other  fruits.  The  following,  which  is 
generally  adopted  as  the  best,  is  from 
Lindley.  Peaches  and  nectarines 
(which  may  he  considered  as  one  and 
the  same  fruit,  the  latter  having 
smooth  skins)  are  separated  into 
three  general  classes,  each  of  which 
has  three  divisions ;  these  are  each 
separated  into  two  suhdnusions,  and 
every  subdivision  into  two  sections  : 
consisting,  in  all,  of  thirty-six  sec- 
tions. Only  a  part  of  these  sections 
contain  varieties  with  which  we  are 
acquainted,  and  are  only  to  be  filled 
up  as  new  ones  are  discovered  with 
characters  adapted  to  them. 

"  Class  I.  comprehends  those  the 
leaves  of  which  are  deeply  and  doubly 
serrated,  and  having  no  glands  on  the 
serratures  {Fig.  1). 


I'KACII. 


"  Class  II.  contains  those  whose 
h);ives  are  creiiate,  and  have  glohose 
f^lands  (Fig.  2). 

"  Class  III.  inchules  all  those 
■whose  leaves  are  crenate  or  serru- 
late, and  have  kidney-shaped  glands 
{F,g.  3). 


Fig.  3.  Fig.%  Fig.  I. 
•'  It  will,  however,  sometimes  hap- 
pen that  irlands  are  not  discernible 
on  some  of  the  leaves,  especially  on 
those  produced  on  weak  branches  ; 
in  this  case  other  branches  must  be 
sought  for  which  do  produce  them. 
They  are  represented  as  rather  lar- 
ger and  more  distinct,  in  the  accom- 
panying figures,  than  usually  occur 
in  a  state  of  nature. 

"These  classes,  thus  formed,  are 
each  divided  into  three  divisions. 

"  Div.  I.  embraces  those  which 
produce  large  flowers. 

"  Dh\  II.  includes  those  which  pro- 
duce flowers  of  medium  size. 

"  Div.  III.  contains  those  which 
produce  small  flowers. 

"  These  divisions  are  not  so  dis- 
tinctly marked  as  the  classes,  the 
middle  and  small  flowers  only  difTer- 
iiig  by  the  former  being  larger  in  all 
their  parts. 

The  subdivisions,  two  in  number, 
are  determined  by  the  fruit.  The 
first  comprehends  true  peaches,  or 
those  which  have  a  downy  skin  ;  the 
second  includes  nectarines,  or  those 
which  have  a  smooth  skin,  similar  to 
that  of  the  plum. 

"  Each  of  these  subdivisions  is 
again  divided  into  two  sections  ;  the 
former  including  the  pacics,  or  cling- 
stones ;  the  latter  the  mclters,  or  free- 
stones. 

"  The  same  arrangement  may  be 
adopted  with  the  other  classes. 

"  The  following  list  contains  some 
of  the  best  varieties,  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  preceding  method  : 


SERRATED,  GLANDLESS  LEAVES.  LARGE 
FLOWER. 

Peaches — I'avies. 
Old  Newington. 

Early  Newington,  or  Smith's  New- 
ington. 

Peaches — Melters. 
Early  Anne.     Tillotson. 
Malta. 
Noblesse. 
Early  While  Nutmeg. 

Nectarines — Pavies. 
Scarlet  Newington. 
Tawny  Newington. 

SERRATED,  GLANDLESS  LEAVES.   SMALL 
FLOWER. 

Peaches — Mclters. 
Royal  George. 
Befle  de  Vitry. 

CRENATED   LEAVES,   WITH   GLOBOSE 
GLANDS.   LARGE  FLOWER. 

Peaches — Melters. 
Grosse  Mignonne. 

CRENATED   LEAVES,   WITH   GLOBOSE 
GLANDS.   SMALL  FLOWER. 

Peaches — Melters. 
Bellegard. 
Teton  de  Venus. 
George  the  Fourth. 
President. 

CRENATED     LEAVES,     WITH      RENIFORM 
GLANDS.       LARGE  FLOWER. 

Nectarines — Melters. 
Fairchild's. 

CRENATED      LEAVES,     WITH     RENIFOKM 
GLANDS.       SMALL  FLOWER. 

Peaches — Pavies. 
Incomparable. 
Catharine. 

Peaches — Melters. 
Chancellor. 
Late  Purple. 

Nectarines — Melters. 
Common  Elruge. 
Violet  Hative. 
Aromatic. 

"  The  following  list  of  peaches  will 
give  a  constant  succession  from  a 
period  immediately  after  wheat  har- 
I  vest  until  autumnal  frosts  : 

561 


PEACH. 


V:,ri.M.i,-H. 

S,7V. 

Kip«. 

Remarks. 

r  Knrly  White  Nut nirj,'    .     . 

small 

July 

slender  growth. 

Early  Aiiiip J 

Early  TiUutsnn     .     .     .     .  j 

middling 

August 

slender  growth. 

Early  Red  Rareripe       .     . 

large 

August 

very  productive,  excellent. 

i:^ 

Early  York 

similar 

—  1 

Grosse  Mipnonne      .     .     . 

largo 

August 

very  productive,  excellent. 

s 

White  Im|i(,rial    .... 

larffo 

August 

very  productive,  excellent. 

Red-cheek  Malacatou   .     . 

large 

late,  August 

very  imiductive,  excellent. 

Malta 

largo 

August 

very  productive,  splendid. 

Columbia 

large 

September 

very  productive,  good. 

President 

large 

September 

very  productive,  good. 

'Early  Ncwington      .     .     . 
Oldniixon 

middling 

August 

very  productive,  good. 

ii 

large 

September 

very  productive,  excellent. 

Old  Newington     .... 

large 

September 

very  productive,  excellent. 

Lemon  Clnif;slone,  Pineap- 

£ 

ple,  or  Kennedy's       .     . 

large 

September 

very  productive,  excellent. 

Heath 

large 

late,  Sejitember 

very  productive,  excellent. 

"  The  early  white  nutmeg  is  a 
peach  of  very  small  size,  and  a  very 
poor  bearer  ;  and  a  cultivator  may 
count  himself  fortunate  if  he  gets  a 
quart  of  peaches  from  a  full-grown 
tree.  It  ripens  a  week  or  more  after 
our  wheat  harvests,  and  is  valuable 
only  for  its  early  maturity.  The 
early  Anne  is  later,  but  much  larger 
and  a  much  belter  bearer  ;  and  were 
it  not  for  its  very  slow  growth,  would 
be  valuable. 

"  The  peach  appears  to  vary  more 
in  quality  from  the  effect  of  climate 
than  other  fruits.  Culture  greatly 
affects  the  quality  ;  thus,  the  Heath 
clingstone,  under  favourable  circum- 
stances, is  an  excellent  fruit ;  but  if 
the  branches  are  permitted  to  bear 
full,  the  fruit  is  small  and  of  little 
value. 

"  Peach  and  nectarine  trees  are 
liable  to  destruction  from  two  causes, 
the  icorm,  and  Ihe  yelloics.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  worm  is  readily  detected 
by  the  gum,  mixed  with  excremcnti- 
tious  matter,  oozing  from  the  trunk, 
at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
best,  and  probably  the  only  effectual 
remedy  is,  to  scrape  the  earth  from 
about  the  tree,  and  then,  with  a  knife, 
to  follow  the  holes  made  by  the  worm 
to  their  termination,  and  destroy  it. 
As  this  insect  merely  confines  itself 
to  the  bark,  its  destruction  is  very 
easy.  It  rarely  occurs  that  trees  are 
completely  destroyed  by  this  insect, 
except  they  be  small :  death  can  only 
take  place  when  the  bark  is  eaten 
round  the  tree.  Timely  care  will 
prevent  this  ;  the  evil,  in  fact,  is  only 
662 


to  be  dreaded  by  negligent  cultiva- 
tors." 

For  an  account  of  the  yelloics,  see 
Yellows. 

"I'lie  shortness  of  life  in  the  peach- 
tree,  and  the  consequent  difficulty  of 
its  culture  in  some  places,  appear  to 
be  chiefly  owing  to  this  disease.  In 
Western  New- York  it  is  comparative- 
ly unknown,  and  great  care  should  be 
used  by  cultivators  that  it  be  not  in- 
troduced by  importations. 

"  The  peach-tree,  though  generally 
supposed  to  be  very  short-lived,  when 
not  destroyed  by  unnatural  causes, 
will  continue  to  flourish  and  bear  for 
many  years.  Trees  twenty  years  old 
and  upward  are  frequently  seen. 

"  The  curled  leaf,  which  frequently 
appears  on  peach-trees  early  in  sum- 
mer, is  occasioned  by  frost  or  chilly 
weather.  These  leaves  soon  drop,  and 
the  tree  assumes  a  healthy  appear- 
ance. This  would  not  be  worth  no- 
ticing, except  that  it  sometimes  oc- 
casions unnecessary  alarm. 

"  The  growth  of  some  varieties  is 
retarded  by  mildew  on  the  young 
shoots.  It  appears  to  be  exclusively 
confined  to  those  having  serrated, 
glandless  leaves,  as  the  early  white 
nutmeg,  early  Ann,  and  some  of  the 
earlier  varieties  of  the  red  rareripe. 
It  is  not  a  very  serious  evil ;  and  the 
best  remedy  appears  to  be  good  soil 
and  good  culture  to  stimulate  the 
growth.  All  yellow-fleshed  varieties 
appear  to  be  entirely  free  from  it." 

For  the  curculio,  see  Plum. 

PE  A  C  H  B  ORE  R.     See  Borers. 

PEACOCK.     Pavo  cristatus.     The 


PEAR. 


young  birds  are  good  eating,  but  the 
full-grown  cocks  are  extremely  troub- 
lesome ill  ttie  poultry-yard,  from  their 
voracity  and  tyrannical  habits  to- 
wards chickens. 

PEAR.  Pijrus  communis.  The 
varieties  are  very  numerous  :  they 
may  be  classified  into  summer,  au- 
tumn, winter,  and  perry  kinds. 

The  following  is  from  several  lists  : 

SUMMER  KINDS. 

"  Ah  !  Mo\  DiEu. — Size  medium  ; 
form  handsome  ;  colour  rich  yellow, 
with  bright  red  cheek  ;  flesh  juicy  ; 
flavour  sweet  and  perfumed.  Tree 
vigorous  and  productive,  the  fruit 
growing  in  clusters  of  four  or  five 
together. 

"  Beurre  d'Am.inlis. — A  fine  early 
pear.  Size  large  ;  form  obovate  ; 
colour  green,  changing  to  yellow,  with 
a  fine  blush  when  fully  ripe,  and  rus- 
set spots ;  flesh  melting,  sweet,  and 
excellent  :  ripe  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember. Tree  vigorous  and  produc- 
tive. 

"Dearborn's  Seedling. — The  tree 
is  of  vigorous  growth  ;  fruit  of  me- 
dium size,  rounded  at  the  crown,  and 
regularly  diminishes  to  the  stalk  ;  the 
skin  is  smooth,  thin,  green,  with  rus- 
set spots  ;  at  maturity  it  turns  to  a 
delicate  yellow  ;  flesh  very  melting, 
and  of  the  finest  flavour  ;  ripe  in  Au- 
gust. 

"Honey  Ve.kr,  American  Honey. — 
This  pear  in  size  and  shape  resem- 
bles the  Seckle  ;  the  skin  is  yellow, 
with  a  large  portion  of  dull  red ;  the 
flesh  sweet,  juicy,  and  good. 

"  Jargonelle.  Epargne,  Beau  Pres- 
ent, Saint  Sainsoi,  Grosse  Cuisse  Ma- 
dame, Saint  Lambert,  Poire  des  Ta- 
bles dcs  Princes. — Fruit  rather  large, 
oblong,  of  a  pale  green  colour,  a  little 
marked  with  red  ;  flesh  melting,  juicy, 
with  a  slightly  acid,  rich,  and  agreea- 
ble flavour.  It  ripens  early  in  August, 
is  one  of  the  most  productive  of  all 
pear.s,  and  the  very  best  in  its  season. 

"  M-vdeleine,  yiagdalenc,  Citron  des 
Carmes,  Early  Chaumontcllc. —  This 
pear  is  of  medium  size,  pale  yellow, 
with  an  occasional  blush  next  the 
sun  J  flesh  white,  melting,  perfumed. 


"  RoUSSELET    DE    RhEIMS,    Musk  OT 

Spice  Pear. — Fruit  small,  pyramidal, 
greenish  yellow  at  maturity,  but 
brown  red  next  the  sun,  with  rus- 
sety  spots  ;  flesh  half  beurre,  juicy, 
very  perfumed. 

"  Stevens's  Genesee  Pear. — A 
beautiful  pear,  of  medium  size,  and 
of  rather  an  oblong  form ;  its  col- 
our is  mellow  green,  with  russet 
blotches  ;  its  flesh  is  represented  as 
white,  juicy,  and  melting  ;  flavour 
sprightly,  rich,  and  very  delicious  : 
ripens  towards  the  end  of  August. 

"  Su.M.MER  Francreal,  Francreal 
d'Ete,  Fondante,  France  Cannel,  Gros 
Micet  d'Ete,  Milan  Blanc,  Prcbles  Beur- 
re.— Fruit  above  medium  size  ;  shape 
oblong  ;  thickest  about  one  third  from 
the  eye  ;  skin  yellowish  green  ;  flesh 
melting,  rich,  and  excellent :  ripe  ear- 
ly in  September. 

"  SuM.MER  .Melting,  Summer  Beur- 
re, Fondant  d'Ete — An  excellent  sum- 
mer pear,  of  pyriform  shape  ;  colour 
yellow,  tinged  with  brownish  red  ; 
flesh  soft,  melting,  and  sweet.  The 
tree  bears  young,  and  ripens  its  fruit 
in  .August. 

"\\'lLLlAMs'sBoNCHRETIEN,  Bavtlet, 

William's  Early,  Autumn  Superb  of 
Prince. — The  fruit  is  large,  oblong  ; 
the  stalk  thick  and  fleshy,  an  inch 
long  ;  the  colour  at  maturity  yellow, 
tinged  with  red;  flesh  whitish,  very 
melting, and  delicate;  juice  perfumed, 
sweet,  and  abundant.  Tree  very  pro- 
ductive, and  fruit  ripe  early  in  Sep- 
tember. 

AUTUMN  KINDS. 

"  Belle  et  Bonne,  Belledc Flanders, 
Gracieu.'ie. — Fruit  very  large,  globu- 
lar, depressed  ;  the  stalk  long ;  skin 
greenish  yellow,  but  next  the  sun  yel- 
low, with  spots  of  russet ;  flesh  white, 
sweet,  exceeding  rich,  and  agreeably 
perfumed.  The  tree  is  very  produc- 
tive, and  the  fruit  ripens  in  September. 
"  Belle  Lucrative. — A  beautiful 
Flemish  pear  ;  middle  sized,  rounds 
ish,  tapering  at  the  stalk  ;  skin  yel- 
low, slightly  russeted,  and  tinged 
with  pale  red  ;  flesh  melting,  sweet, 
and  juicy,  with  a  slight  musky  per- 
fume :  ripe  early  in  October, 

563 


I'FAH. 


"  Beurrk  Bosc. — Fruit  large  and 
very  long  ;  terminated  with  a  crown 
near  three  inclus  in  diameter  ;  some- 
what calabash  -  formed  ;  skin  gray 
lawn  colour,  but  russety  yellow  at 
maturity  ;  flesh  white,  melting,  high- 
ly flavoured,  and  delicious  :  it  ripens 
in  October. 

"Bi.ekker's  Meadow. — A  native 
fruit  of  medium  size,  roundish  form, 
and  of  a  yellow  colour,  tinged  with 
dull  red  ;  the  flesh  melting,  juicy, 
sweet,  musky,  and  of  delicious  fla- 
vour :  ripe  in  October.  A  prolific 
bearer. 

"  Capiamont,  Beurr'e  de  Capiaumont. 
— Fruit  of  medium  size  ;  skin  yellow, 
tinged  with  fine  red  or  cinnamon  ; 
flesh  yellowish,  melting,  very  rich, 
and  high  flavoured :  ripe  in  September 
and  October. 

"  Gushing. — Medium  size  and  ob- 
long shape  ;  skin,  when  ripe,  smooth, 
of  a  light  yellow,  mottled  with  dull 
red  on  one  side  ;  flesh  white,  melting, 
sprightly,  and  good.  Mr.  Manning 
says  it  comes  early  into  bearing,  and 
produces  plenty  of  fruit  m  September 
and  October. 

"  Delicks  d'Ardenpont,  Dcliccs 
d'Hardenpont. — Fruit  above  medium 
size  ;  oblong,  pyramidal ;  skin  yellow 
at  maturity,  and  partially  covered 
with  a  thin  cinnamon-coloured  russet ; 
flesh  yellowish  white,  nearly  melting ; 
juice  pleasant,  sweet,  and  abundant : 
ripe  in  October  and  November.  The 
tree  is  a  good  bearer. 

"  Dix. — A  native  variety  ;  originated 
in  the  garden  of  Mr.  Dix,  in  Boston  ; 
fruit  large,  oblong;  skin,  when  ripe, 
yellow,  with  a  blush  of  red  ;  flesh 
melting,  juicy,  and  rich  :  ripe  in  Oc- 
tober and  November. 

"  Duchess  of  Angouleme,  Duch- 
esse  d'  Angouleme . — A  pear  of  first-rate 
excellence.  Form  roundish,  oblong, 
tapering  towards  the  stalk  ;  skin  dull 
yellow,  with  broad  russet  patches  ; 
flesh  white,  rich,  melting,  very  juicy, 
and  high  flavoured,  with  a  most  agree- 
able perfume.  Specimens  of  this  fruit 
have  been  shown  weighing  twenty- 
two  ounces  :  at  perfection  in  October 
and  November. 

"  Flemish    Beauty,   La   Belle   de 
564 


Flanders. — A  fine  Flemish  pear  in 
great  repute.  It  is  of  large  size,  ob- 
ovate,  obtuse  at  the  stalk  ;  greenish 
yellow  russet,  tinged  with  crimson  ; 
flesh  rather  firm,  yellowish  white, 
sweet,  rich,  and  excellent :  it  ripens 
in  October. 

"  Frederic  of  "VVurtembero,  Koi 
de  Wurlemberg,  Capiaumont  of  some 
collections. — A  large  and  splendid 
pear,  of  pyramidal  form  and  fine  yel- 
low colour,  covered  with  beautiful 
crimson  on  one  side ;  flesh  melting, 
and  of  delicious  flavour.  The  tree 
bears  while  young,  and  very  abun- 
dantly. 

"  FuLTox. — A  finp  pear  of  medium 
size  ;  shape  roundish,  turbinate  ;  skia 
dark  yellow,  russeted  ;  flesh  melting, 
juicy,  and  of  delicious  flavour:  ripe 
in  September,  and  lasts  a  month. 
The  tree  is  a  great  and  constant  bear- 
er, and  highly  deserving  of  cultivation. 

"  Gansel's  Bergamot,  Broca's  Ber- 
gamot,  Ives's  Bergamo/,  Bonne  Kovge. 
— Fruit  varying  from  middle  size  to 
large  ;  ovate,  flattened  ;  colour  dull 
green,  slightly  red  next  the  sun  ;  flesh 
white,  melting,  sweet,  rich,  and  high- 
flavoured.  A  delicious  pear  :  ripe  in 
October,  and  good  till  Ghristmas. 

"Golden  Beurre  of  Bilboa. — 
Fruit  of  medium  size,  oblong  ;  colour 
a  bright  golden  yellow,  with  patches 
of  russet  ;  perfectly  melting,  and  of 
fine  flavour.  A  beautiful  pear-tree,  a 
great  bearer,  and  worthy  of  cultiva- 
tion :  ripe  in  October. 

"  Hacon"s  In-comparable,  Norfolk 
Seedling. — Fruit  middle  sized,  of  pale 
yellow  colour,  mixed  with  green,  par- 
tially covered  with  orange  russet ; 
flesh  yellowish  white,  slightly  gritty, 
but  very  tender,juicy,  sweet,  and  rich, 
and  possessing  a  high  musky  and  per- 
fumed flavour.  The  tree  is  a  great 
bearer,  and  the  fruit  excellent :  ripe 
in  November  and  December. 

"  Henry  the  Fourth,  Henri  Qua- 
tre. — Fruit  of  medium  size,  oblong ; 
skin  a  dull  yellow,  mixed  with  brown 
and  green  ;  flesh  yellow,  rather  grit- 
ty, juicy,  and  melting,  with  a  peculiar 
rich  flavour  :  ripe  in  September  and 
October.  Mr.  Manning  says  the  tree 
bears  while  young,  and  abundantly. 


PEAR 


"Marie  Louise,  Marie  Chr'elicnnr.. 
— Fruit  oblong,  tapering  towards  both 
ends  ;  size  varying  from  medium  to 
large  ;  skin  nearly  smooth,  yellowish 
green,  and  cinnamon-coloured  russet ; 
flesh  white,  melting,  juicy,  and  rich. 
It  ripens  in  October  and  November, 
and  is  an  excellent  fruit  in  its  season. 

"  N.^POLEON,  Roi  dc  Rome.  —  Fruit 
large,  form  of  the  Colmar  ;  skin 
smooth  ;  colour  bright  green,  but  at 
maturity  pale  green  ;  flesh  very  melt- 
ing, with  an  unusual  abundance  of 
rich,  agreeable  juice  :  in  perfection  in 
October  and  November. 

"  Seckle,  New-  York  Red  Check, 
Red  Cheek  Seckle,  Sycle. — An  excel-  I 
lent  native  fruit,  in  size  rather  small ; 
colour  varying  from  yellowish  to 
brownish  russet,  but  bright  red  next 
the  sun  ;  flesh  melting,  spicy,  and  of 
a  most  extraordinary  rich  flavour. 
This  fruit  grows  in  clusters  in  great 
abundance,  and  is  in  perfection  in 
September  and  October. 

"Swan's  Egg. — Fruit  small,  of  an 
oval  figure  ;  colour  yellowish  green, 
and  dull,  russety  brown  ;  flesh  ten- 
der and  melting,  with  a  rich,  saccha- 
rine, musky  flavour.  An  excellent 
fruit  :  ripe  in  October.  The  tree  is 
large,  vigorous,  and  productive. 

"  Urbamste,  Beurri  dti  Roy. — The 
fruit  is  of  medium  size,  pyramidally 
ovate  ;  skin  pale  green,  inclining  to 
yellow,  with  green  streaks  ;  flesh 
white,  but  reddish-yellow  next  the 
core ;  it  is  quite  melting,  juicy,  and 
very  sweet,  with  a  little  perfume  :  it 
ripens  from  the  middle  of  September 
to  November. 

"  White  Doyexxe,  Doyenne  Blanc, 
Saint  Michael. — Fruit  pretty  large, 
roundish,  ol)long ;  skin  pale  citron  yel- 
low, with  cinnamon  russet,  speck- 
led ;  flesh  white,  juicy,  very  buttery, 
and  delicious  :  rijie  in  September  and 
October.  An  old  and  once-celebra 
ted  variety,  still  admired  by  many,  al- 
though excluded  from  some  nurser- 
ies, or  cultivated  under  new  names. 
"  \ViLKi\so\. — A  native  pear  from 
Cumberland,  Rhode  Island  Tiie  tree 
bears  young,  and  i.s  very  fniilfiil ;  size 
above  medium  ;  Ibnu  oblong  ;  skin 
yellow,  with  a  brownish  blush  near 
13  B  a 


the  sun  ;  flesh  white,  juicy,  and  melt- 
ing :  in  perfection  in  October  and  No- 
vember. 

winter  kinds. 

"Beurre  n'ARKMBERG. — The  tree 
is  a  great  bearer,  comes  early  into 
cultivation,  and  the  fruit  will  keep 
till  March.  Fruit  large,  skin  of  a  del- 
icate pale  green,  dotted  with  russet, 
which  becomes  of  a  deeper  yellow  at 
maturity  ;  flesh  whitish,  fine,  very 
juicy,  perfectly  melting,  and  very  e.x- 
traordinarily  rich,  sweet,  high  fla- 
voured, and  excellent. 

"  Beurre  Diel,  Beurre  Incompa- 
rable of  some. — This  ranks  among  the 
best  of  pears.  The  tree  is  of  vigor- 
ous growth  ;  fruit,  when  in  perfec- 
tion, four  inches  long,  and  three  inch- 
es broad  ;  the  skin  at  maturity  is 
bright  orange,  with  reddish  russet ; 
flesh  clear,  white,  melting,  juicy,  and 
of  a  delicious  aromatic  flavour  :  from 
November  to  January. 

"  Beukre  Range,  Beurre  Epine. 
Hardcnpont  dc  Printemps. — This  is  a 
first-rate  pear.  The  tree  is  vigorous, 
and  a  good  bearer  ;  fruit  middle  si- 
zed, oblong ;  skin  deep  green,  with 
russety  specks  ;  flesh  green,  melt- 
ing, having  a  rich,  delicious  flavour, 
with  very  little  acid.  It  shrivels  in 
ripening,  but  will  keep  till  April. 

"  Catillac. — Fruit  very  large,  rath- 
er turbinate ;  pale  yellow,  stained 
with  red ;  flesh  firm  and  breaking ; 
its  flavour  astringent ;  an  excellent 
baking  pear :  from  November  to  April. 
Specimens  of  this  variety  have  been 
known  to  weigh  upward  of  two 
pounds. 

"  Colmar,  Colmar  Souvcrain,  Poire 
Manne,  Bergamotle  Tardive,  Incompa- 
rable.— This  fruit  is  rather  large  ;  skin 
smooth,  of  a  green  colour,  changing 
to  a  yellow  at  nuiturity  ;  form  pyram- 
idal ;  flesh  melting,  juicy,  saccha- 
rine, and  of  excellent  flavour.  The 
fruit  is  in  perfection  from  November 
to  February. 

"Columbia,  Columbian  Virgalicu. — 
A  large  native  pear  of  oblong  or  py- 
ramidal form,  and  fine  yellow  colour, 
t.iiged  with  red  ;  flesh  rich,  firm,  jui- 
cy, and  excellent  :  from  November 
565 


PEAR. 


to  January.  Tree  productive  and  of 
very  haiulsonie  form. 

"  Eastf.u  Bkukrk,  Bcurri  d'Hiver, 
Doyenne  tVH>vcr. — Of  all  the  late-keep- 
ing pears,  this  is  considered  the  best. 
Fruit  large,  roundisli,  oblong  ;  colour 
green,  but  yellow  at  maturity,  with 
specks  of  russet  iirown  ;  ilcsh  yellow- 
ish white,  perfectly  buttery  and  melt- 
ing, also  e.\treniely  high  flavoured. 
It  is  eatable  in  November,  and  will 
keep  till  May  :  it  is  a  most  profuse 
bearer  on  a  quince  stock. 

"Glout  Morce.\u,  Bcurre  (TArem- 
herg. — A  very  large  Belgic  variety, 
of  great  excellence  ;  fruit  of  ovalish 
form,  pale  green  colour,  inclining 
to  yellow,  with  russety  specks  and 
blotches  ;  flesh  whitish,  firm,  very 
juicy,  ai||i  excellent :  in  perfection 
from  November  to  March. 

"  Lewis. — The  size  medium  ;  form 
somewhat  globular  ;  skin,  when  ripe, 
a  greenish  yellow  ;  the  flesh  is  white, 
very  melting,  juicy,  and  excellent  : 
from  November  to  March.  The  tree 
grows  quick,  and  bears  abundance  of 
fruit. 

"  Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey,  Louise 
Bonne  d'Avranchcs.  —  A  large  pear  ; 
oblong  ;  a  good  substitute  for  the  old 
St.  Germain;  skin  yellowish  green, 
sometimes  tinged  with  red  ;  flesh  ex- 
tremely tender,  and  full  of  an  excel- 
lent saccharine,  well-flavoured  juice. 
A  first-rate  fruit ;  from  October  till 
after  Christmas. 

"  P.issE  CoLM.^R. — A  most  valua- 
ble pear,  of  medium  size,  conical,  flat- 
tened next  the  eye  ;  skin  at  maturi- 
ty yellowish,  sprinkled  with  russet ; 
a  tinge  of  red  next  the  sun  ;  flesh 
yellowish,  melting,  rich,  and  excel- 
lent. The  tree  is  a  good  bearer,  and 
the  fruit  is  in  perfection  from  Novem- 
ber to  February. 

"  Pound  Pe.^r. — Fruit  very  large, 
of  a  roundish,  turbinate  figure  ;  skin 
rough,  covered  with  dull  russet ;  flesh 
hard  and  coarse,  but  excellent  when 
baked  or  stewed  in  winter.  Grafted 
on  a  pear  stock,  the  tree  bears  so 
abundantly  as  to  bend  like  a  weeping- 
willow.  A  specimen  of  this  variety 
weighed  thirty-three  ounces. 

"  Prince's  St.  Germ.^in. —  Fruit 
566 


about  medium  size  ;  form  obovafe ; 
skin  russety  yellow,  with  dull  red 
cheek;  flesh  melting  and  good.  Mr. 
.Manning  says  that  its  abundant  bear- 
ing, and  its  ripening  gradually  in  the 
house  during  winter,  renders  it  a  very 
valuable  market  fruit :  good  till  after 
Christmas. 

"  Si'Rp.\ssE  Marie  Louise,  PitCs 
Prolific  Marie,  Pitt's  Marie  Louise. — 
A  large  pear ;  oblong  or  calabash 
formed  ;  green,  covered  with  brown 
yellow  russet ;  flesh  melting  and  rich- 
flavoured  :  ripe  in  October  and  No- 
vember.    It  is  a  very  prolific  bearer. 

"  Surpasse  Vergout.euse. —  Fruit 
large,  oblong,  some  specimens  near- 
ly round  ;  the  skin  smooth,  its  colour 
yellow,  with  a  light-red  cheek  ;  flesh 
rich,  juicy,  and  delicious  eating  :  in 
October  and  November.  The  tree 
bears  young,  yields  large  crops,  and 
is  worthy  of  extensive  cultivation. 

"  Winter  Nelis,  Nelis  d'Hivcr. — 
All  accounts  agree  that  this  is  a  most 
excellent  winter  pear.  Its  size  is 
above  medium,  somewhat  oval  ;  its 
skin  green  and  russety,  full  of  gray 
dots  ;  flesh  yellowish  white,  melting, 
high-flavoured,  with  a  musky  per- 
fume :  in  perfection  in  December  and 
January." 

They  prefer  a  deep,  well-drained, 
and  tolerably  rich  soil ;  are  planted 
for  standards  at  twenty  feet,  but  if 
grafted  on  quince  stocks  for  dwarfs, 
may  be  set  at  six  to  ten  feet,  and 
trained  en  quenouille,  or  distatT  fash- 
ion ;  they  also  make  good  espaliers. 
Worked  on  pear  stocks,  they  grow  to 
a  great  size,  and  last  for  centuries ; 
but  the  quince  stock,  unless  reduced 
down  to  the  roots,  is  liable  to  attacks 
from  worms.  It  requires  usually 
more  than  seven  years  to  obtain  fruit 
from  a  pear  standard,  but  by  grafting 
or  budding  on  the  quince,  and  train; 
ing  distaff  fashion,  fruit  may  be  ob- 
tained in  four  years. 

Diseases  of  the  Pear-tree. — The  most 
formidable  is  the  blight,  which  some- 
times occurs  in  summer,  the  leaves 
of  the  upper  branches  withering  and 
turning  brown  in  a  few  hours.  It  is 
the  effect  of  insects,  according  to 
Peck,  of  the  Hcolytus  pyri,  and  the 


PEA 

only  and  best  remedy  is  to  saw  off 
the  blighted  limbs  at  once  and  burn 
lliem. 

Harris  also  mentions  the  existence 
of  a  borer  of  the  same  genus  as  that 
of  the  peach  {^Egeria  pyri) ;  it  is, 
however,  scarcely  known. 

The   buds   are  subject  to  a  cur- 
culio  (C.  pyn,  Fig.),  of  the  size  of 
the  line,  which  de- 
posites  her  egg  in 
the  young  flower- 
bud,  and  retires  to 
— ^\  ^-^^^V^  the   earth    in    the 
'  '  ^^^       fall ;  it  is,  howcv- 

t.  er,  so  seldom  mul- 
Naturaisae.  tiplicd  to  a  great 

extent,  that  its  effects  are  more  ben- 
eficial than  otherwise,  by  hindering 
too  much  fruit  from  being  formed, 
and  thus  improving  what  remains. 

Drying  Fears. — The  following  ex- 
cellent method  is  from  Kenrick,  and 
is  applicable  to  apples  also  :  '■  When 
dried  in  ovens  the  fruit  will  keep  for 
years.  This  mode  of  preserving  is 
common  in  France.  Bosc  has  de- 
scribed two  modes  of  drying  pears, 
and  adds,  that,  in  some  of  the  can- 
tons of  that  country,  the  cultivators 
annually  preserve,  by  these  means, 
supplies  of  subsistence  extremely 
agreeable  and  wholesome  during  win- 
ter and  spring.  He  invites  cultiva- 
tors not  to  neglect  this  resource.  In 
this  mode  of  drying,  those  varieties 
of  middle  size,  melting  and  sweet, 
are  preferred.  After  the  bread  is 
drawn  from  the  oven,  they  are  placed 
on  the  swept  hearth,  or  on  hurdles 
or  boards.  This  operation  is  repeat- 
ed a  second,  a  third,  and  even  a  Iburth 
time,  according  to  their  size  and  the 
degree  of  heat.  The  heat  must  not 
be  so  great  as  to  scorch,  and  the  fruit 
must  not  be  dried  to  hardness.  Last- 
ly, they  are  placed  in  bags,  and  pre- 
served in  a  dry  place.  The  second 
mode  of  preserving  is  practised  chief- 
ly on  the  Rousselets  and  finest  fla- 
voured varieties.  Bosc  states  that 
he  has  tried  them  after  three  years' 
preservation,  and  found  them  still 
good  ;  but  they  are  better  during  tlie 
fust  year.  They  are  gathered  a  lit- 
tle before  their  maturity,  and  after 


PEA 

being  half  boiled  in  a  small  quantity 
of  water,  they  are  peeled  and  drain- 
ed. Tlipy  are  next  carried  on  hur- 
dles to  the  oven,  after  the  bread  is 
drawn,  or  the  oven  is  heated  to  a 
suitable  degree  ;  here  they  remain 
twelve  hours,  after  which  they  are, 
steeped  in  the  sirup,  to  which  have 
been  added  sugar,  cinnamon,  cloves, 
and  brandy.  They  are  again  return- 
ed to  the  oven,  which  is  now  heated 
to  a  less  degree  than  at  first.  This 
operation  is  thrice  repeated,  until 
they  are  sufficiently  dried,  or  of  a 
clear  brown  colour,  and  firm,  trans- 
parent flesh  ;  and.  finally,  they  are 
packed  in  boxes  lined  with  paper." 

PEARL  ASHES.     See  Potashes. 

PEAT.  "  This  is  a  substance  of 
vegetable  origin,  found  wherever  the 
soil  has  been  long  soaked  with  water 
which  has  no  outlet,  and  does  not 
completely  evaporate  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun. 

'•  When  dried  peat  is  examined,  it 
is  found  to  consist  of  roots  and  fibres 
in  every  stage  of  decomposition,  from 
the  natural  wood  to  the  complete- 
ly black  vegetable  mould.  I.arge 
branches  and  trunks  of  trees  are  found 
imbedded  in  peat,  which  have  no 
mark  of  decomposition,  except  what 
may  have  taken  place  before  the  wood 
was  completely  immersed  in  the  peat. 
Peat  contains  the  elements  of  ma- 
nure, and  may  by  an  easy  process  be 
converted  into  humus  :  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  agency  of  alkalies  is  the 
most  effectual.  When  peat  is  newly 
dug  up,  if  caustic  lime  be  added  to  it 
before  it  is  dry,  the  moisture  of  the 
peat  slacks  the  lime,  which  acts  on 
the  peat  and  neutralizes  it.  If  this 
mixture  be  then  excited  to  fermenta- 
tion by  the  addition  of  animal  matter, 
such  as  urine  or  dung,  oxygen  is  ab- 
sorbed and  carbonic  acid  evolved, 
and  the  residue  is  converted  into  an 
excellent  manure,  containing  much 
humus.  The  same  may  be  effected 
more  slowly  by  mixing  peat  with  clay 
or  marl,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to 
remain  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
for  a  considerable  time,  frequently 
turning  it ;  but  nothing  accelerates 
this  process  like  the  addition  of  pu- 
567 


PEAT. 


trescent  animal  matter,  which  acts 
as  a  ferment  and  greatly  hastens  the 
decomposition. 

"  The  soils  for  which  peat  forms 
the  best  manure  are  the  clialky  and 
clayey.  Sand  has  too  little  tenacity  ; 
it  lets  the  gases  produced  by  the  de- 
composition escape,  instead  of  at- 
tracting them,  as  clay  does,  and  pre- 
venting their  escape. 

"  The  burning  of  peat  destroys  the 
vegetable  matter,  and  leaves  the 
earths  and  salts  behind.  They  are 
accordingly  very  strong  stimulants  to 
vegetation,  especially  that  of  clovers 
and  herbaceous  plants,  of  which  the 
leaves  and  stems  are  the  most  valu- 
able parts.  If  the  soil  is  well  fur- 
nished with  vegetable  matter,  and 
capable  of  bringmg  an  abundance  of 
seed  to  perfection,  it  may  be  very 
useful  to  apply  peat  ashes  to  increase 
the  verdure  ;  but  on  poor  soils  des- 
titute of  humus,  the  mcrease  of  the 
stems  and  leaves  does  not  ensure  a 
like  increase  of  seed.  Hence  it  is 
often  remarked  that  soot,  potash, 
saltpetre,  and  similar  substances  pro- 
duce a  deceitful  growth,  giving  a  rank 
green  leaf,  which  is  not  succeeded  by 
a  heavy  ear ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
the  produce  in  seed  is  rather  dimin- 
ished than  increased  by  the  use  of 
the  manure.  Whenever  a  stimula- 
ting manure  is  used,  the  soil  should 
be  naturally  rich,  or  enrichmg  ma- 
nure should  be  applied  at  the  same 
time. 

"  The  following  particulars  of  the 
conversion  of  peat  into  a  rich  com- 
post were  given  by  Lord  .Meadow- 
bank  about  forty  years  ago,  and  show 
that  the  principles  which  we  have 
here  laid  down  were  known  to  him. 

"  He  recommends  taking  the  peat 
out  of  the  moss  some  time  before  it 
is  used,  that  it  may  lose  a  portion  of 
its  moisture,  and  be  lighter  to  carry 
It  is  then  to  be  carted  to  a  dry  spot, 
where  the  compost  heap  is  to  be 
formed.  A  bottom  of  peat  is  to  be 
laid  six  inches  deep  and  fifteen  feet 
wide  ;  on  this  are  to  be  put  ten  inch- 
es of  good  yard  dung,  then  six  inches 
more  peat,  and  over  this  four  inches 
of  dung,  and  so  alternately  to  the 
568 


heigiit  of  four  or  five  feet.  The  w  hole 
should  then  be  enclosed  all  round 
with  a  wall  of  peat,  and  covered  with 
the  same  material.  The  proportion 
of  fresh  dung  is  about  seven  cart- 
loads to  twenty-one  of  peat,  if  the 
weather  is  mild  ;  but  more  dung  is 
required  if  the  weather  is  cold  :  over 
this  heap  ashes  or  lime  may  now  be 
spread,  in  the  proportion  of  a  cart- 
load to  twenty-eight  of  the  compost. 
The  dung  should  not  have  fermented 
much  before  it  is  used,  and  if  it  is 
watered  with  urine  or  the  drainings 
of  a  dunghill,  the  effect  will  be  more 
rapid.  Animal  matter,  such  as  fish, 
refuse  of  slaughter-houses,  and  every 
substance  which  will  readily  undergo 
the  putrefactive  fermentation,  will  ac- 
celerate the  process,  and  save  dung 
in  the  compost.  Where  pigeons'  or 
fowls'  dung  can  be  procured,  a  much 
smaller  quantity  will  produce  the  de- 
sired effect.  The  heap  should  not  be 
pressed  down,  but  left  to  settle  by  its 
own  weight.  If  the  heat  produced 
by  the  fermentation  is  very  great,  the 
whole  heap  may  be  turned  over  and 
more  peat  added  to  it.  This  will 
keep  up  the  heat  till  the  whole  is  re- 
duced to  a  uniform  mass  of  black 
mould.  It  may  then  be  put  on  the 
land  in  the  same  quantity  that  farm- 
yard dung  would  have  been,  and,  con- 
sequently, by  a  little  labour,  four  times 
the  quantity  of  manure  is  produced 
by  the  mixture  of  the  peat  with  the 
dung.  It  is  found  that  lime  is  not 
essential  to  the  formation  of  this  com- 
post. The  fermentation  excited  is 
sufficient  to  decompose  the  tannin 
and  convert  it  into  a  soluble  extract. 
The  fibres,  partially  decomposed,  are 
reduced  into  vegetable  mould,  and  the 
whole  assumes  a  uniform  and  rich 
appearance.  A  complete  chemical 
change  has  taken  place,  and  the  peat, 
from  being  very  inflammable,  is  now 
scarcely  capable  of  combustion,  and 
that  only  in  a  very  great  heat.  There 
is  no  better  or  more  economical  mode 
of  converting  peat  into  a  rich  manure. 
In  summer  the  whole  process  may 
be  completed  in  eight  or  ten  weeks  ; 
in  winter  it  takes  a  longer  time  ;  and 
it  may  be  useful  to  give  the  heap  an 


PEA 


PEG 


occasional  lining  of  fresh  dung,  as  is 
<Jone  with  hot-beds  in  gardens,  to  re- 
new the  heat."  The  peat  is  carted 
out  during  winter,  while  the  ponds 
are  frozen  ;  it  becomes  much  broken 
during  the  season,  and  may  be  pre- 
pared as  recommended,  or  composted 
with  lime  or  ashes  only,  one  bushel 
to  the  single  load  of  peat. 

"  Where   a  great  extent  of  peat 
land  renders  the  improvement  of  it 
desirable,  there  are  various  ways  in 
which  it  may  be  reclaimed.    In  some 
places  the  i)eat  has  been  removed, 
and  the  loam  which  lay  below  it  was 
found  of  a  very  fertile  nature.     This 
could  only  be  done  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  into  which  the  peat  was  float- 
ed  by  means   of  small   canals   dug 
through  it,  and  communicating  with 
the   river.     In    ail   other   cases    the 
mode  adopted  has  been  that  of  drain- 
ing and  consolidating.     In  draining  a 
peat  moss  the  water  must  not  be  let 
oft'  too  rapidly,  for  in  that  case  the 
surface  may  become  so  loose  and  dry 
that  no  vegetation  can  take  place  in 
it.     If  the  water  is  drained  off  so  as 
to  leave  two  feet  of  peat  dry  above 
its  level,  this  is  all  that  is  required 
for  a  beginning.     The  best  improve- 
ment, and  the  most  rapid,  is  produced 
by  bringing  sand  or  gravel  in  suffi- 1 
cjent  quantity  to  cover  the  surface  ' 
with  two  or  three  inches  of  it.    This  I 
will  make  a  beginning  of  a  soil,  in 
which  potatoes  may  be  planted.     At 
first  the  surface  will  not  bear  the 
wheels  of  a  cart  nor  the  tread  of  a 
horse  ;  but  in  a  short  time  a  solid 
crust  will  be  formed,  which  will  in- 
crease in  strength  and  thickness  as  ■ 
cultivation    advances.       There    are ! 
many  fine  pastures  in  Scotland  which  ' 
once  were  brown  peat  mosses,  on  i 
which  it  would  have  been  dangerous  j 
for  a  man  to  walk,  but  which  now  | 
bear  heavy  oxen,  and  seem  as  solid 
as  any  pasture  on  a  clay  subsoil.   Ma- ' 
nuring  and  liming  are  the  most  ef- ; 
fective  operations  in  bringing  about 
this   great    improvement.     Potatoes  i 
and  oats  are  usually  the  first  crops  I 
on  reclaimed  peat  mosses.    It  is  long  ' 
before  they  become  capable  of  bear-  ] 
ing  wheat ;  nor  is  this  crop  to  be  rec- 1 

B  B  B  3 


ommended  at  any  time  unless  there 
be  a  good  depth  of  soil  formed  over 
the  peat.  Laying  down  to  grass  as 
soon  as  a  certain  degree  of  improve- 
ment has  been  made,  and  depasturing 
with  sheep  at  first  and  cattle  after- 
ward, tend  more  than  any  other 
means  to  consolidate  the  surface  and 
deepen  the  mould,  which  gradually 
increases  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
tannin  in  the  peat 

I  "A  patent  has  been  lately  obtained 
by  Mr.  Williams,  managing  director 
of  the  Dublin  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany, for  compressing  peat  into  a 
dense  mass,  so  as  to  resemble  coal. 
It  is  said  to  be  superior  to  coal  in  its 
properties  of  producing  heat  by  com- 
bustion, forming  an  excellent  char- 
coal, or  coke.  It  is  asserted  that  this 
charcoal  is  much  more  combustible 
than  that  of  wood,  and  very  useful  in 
the  manufacture  of  fireworks.  Mr. 
W'illiams  has  found  that  with  10  cwts. 
of  pit  coal  and  2^  cwts.  of  this  facti- 
tious coal,  the  same  quantity  of  steam 
can  be  generated  as  with  17i  cwts. 
of  pit  coal  alone. 

"  The  process  is  as  follows :  Im- 
mediately after  being  dug  it  is  tritu- 
rated under  revolving  edge-wheels 
faced  with  iron  plates  perforated  all 
over  the  surface,  and  is  forced  by  the 
pressure  through  these  apertures,  till 
it  becomes  a  species  of  pap,  which  is 
freed  from  the  greater  part  of  its 
moisture  by  a  hydraulic  press.  It  is 
then  dried,  and  converted  into  coke 
in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  with 
l)it  coal.  The  factitious  coal  of  Mr. 
Williams  is  made  by  incorporating 
pitch  or  rosin  melted  in  a  caldron 
with  as  much  of  the  peat  charcoal 
ground  to  powder  as  will  form  a  tough 
doughy  mass,  which  is  then  moulded 
into  bricks." — [W.  L.  Kham.) 

The  ashes  of  prat  are  often  termed 
Dutch  ashes  :  they  vary  mucii  in  com- 
position, as  tiiey  are  taken  from  a 
calcareous  or  clayey  soil,  but  are 
usually  deficient  in  potash  and  soda, 
except  in  salt  marshes. 

PECK.     A   dry  measure   of  two 
gallons  ;  a  quarter  of  a  bushel. 
PECOll.A.     The  Rummanlm. 
PECTIN,  The  jelly  of  fruits,  roots, 
5G9 


PEN 


PEP 


and  plants  :  it  is  soluble,  transparent, 
insipid,  and  nnicli  like  gum  ;  formula, 
Ci-  Hi7  On  -{-  H  O.  Pectic  acid  is 
very  similar,  isomeric,  and  bibasic  ; 
the  salts  are  called  pectates. 

PECTLXATE.  Divided  so  as  to 
resemble  the  teeth  of  a  comb. 

PECTOR.\L{frompeclus,  the  chest). 
Relating  to  tiie  chest. 

PEDATE.  Resembling  the  foot  of 
a  bird. 

PEDICEL.  The  foot  stalk  of  the 
flower,  and  not  of  the  bunch  of  flow- 
ers, which  is  the  peduncle. 

PEDIMENT.  The  triangular  or- 
nament over  a  building,  door,  win- 
dow, &,c. ;  it  is  often  sculptured,  and 
seldom  exceeds  in  height  two  ninths 
of  its  width. 

PEDIPALPS.  Spiders  and  other 
arachnidans,  with  the  feelers  in  the 
shape  of  claws. 

The  water  chestnut. 
The  main  flower 


A  delicate  covering, 


PEE-TSEE 

PEDUNCLE 
stem. 

PELLICLE, 
film,  or  membrane 

PELLITORY  OF  SPAIN.  Ayithe- 
mis  pyrclhrum.  A  perennial  herba- 
ceous composite,  the  root  of  which  is 
very  pungent,  and  is  chewed  for  tooth- 
ache. It  is  very  similar  to  chamomile. 

PELTA.  Ashield  ;  the  seed  shield 
of  some  lichens.  A  peltate  leaf  is 
shield-shaped. 

PELT  ROT.     Hujigcr  rot. 

PELTRY,  PELTS.  The  dry,  un- 
prepared skins  of  animals. 

PELVIS.  The  bony  cavity  situa- 
ted at  the  lower  part  of  the  belly, 
formed  by  the  sacrum  and  innomina- 
ta  bones. 

PENCIL  OF  LIGHT.  A  diver- 
gent beam  of  small  size. 

PENDANT.  "In  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, an  ornamented  polygonal 
piece  of  stone  or  timber  hanging 
down  from  the  vault  or  roof  of  a 
building.  In  ancient  writers  the 
springers  of  arches,  which  rest  on 
shafts  or  corbels,  are  called  pendants." 

PENDENTIVE.  "  In  architecture, 
the  portion  of  a  vault 
between  the  arches 
I  under  a  dome,  call- 
ed by  the  French 
570 


fuiirchc,  or  panache,  lettered  a  in  tlie 
diagram,  by  wiiich  it  will  be  seen 
that  It  falls  at  its  superior  part  into 
a  circle  inscribed  in  the  square  form- 
ed on  the  plan  of  the  four  arches. 
Hence  it  is  obvious  that  a  dome  may 
be  formed  by  means  of  pendentives 
over  any  regular  polygon." — {Brande.) 

PENDULOUS.  Hanging,  branch- 
ing over. 

PENDULUM.  Any  weight  sus- 
pended by  an  inflexible  rod,  and  mo- 
ving freely  about  a  point.  Its  oscilla- 
tions, whether  wide  or  limited,  are 
always  performed  in  the  same  period 
of  time  ;  but  the  period  is  directly  as 
the  square  root  of  the  length  of  the 
rod.  The  seconds  pendulum  in  New- 
York  is  39- 10 12  inches  from  the  point 
of  suspension  to  the  weight,  or  bob. 

PENNICILLATE.  Furnished 
with  small  bunches  of  hairs. 

PENNYROYAL.  Mentha  pulegi- 
um.  A  kind  of  mint  cultivated  for  its 
essential  oil  ;  used  in  medicine.  See 
Mitit.  The  American  plant  is  Hcdeo- 
ma  pulegioides ;  its  odour  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  European  plant ;  many 
insects,  especially  ticks,  are  remark- 
ably annoyed  by  its  presence. 

PENNYWEIGHT.  Twenty- 
four  grains,  or  ^'^  of  an  ounce  troy. 

PENTAMERANS.  Coleopterous 
insects,  with  five  joints  on  the  tarsus 
of  each  leg. 

PENTANDRIA,  PENTAGYNIA. 
See  Botany. 

PEN  UM  BRA.  The  partially  dark 
outer  shadow. 

PEPO.  The  form  of  fruit  similar 
to  the  melon  and  other  cucurbitaceae. 

PEPPER  BRAND.  See  Burned 
Ear. 

PEPPER  GRASS,  PEPPER- 
WORT.  Garden  cress  {Lepidium  sa- 
tivum), cultivated  for  small  salad  :  it 
grows  with  great  rapidity.  See  Cress. 

PEPPERiDGE.  The  barberry: 
sometimes  the  black  gum. 

PEPPERMINT.  iMe?itha  piperita. 
See  Mint.  It  is  of  great  use  as  an 
adjunct  with  cathartics,  to  hinder 
griping. 

PEPPERS.  This  term  is  usually 
applied,  in  agriculture,  to  the  species 
of  Capsicum.     The  most  common  is 


1 


PER 


PER 


the  C.  haccahun.     The  following  va-  | 
rieties  are  cultivated  :  Bell,  long  red,  ' 
cherry,  tomato  -  shaped,   and    sweet  : 
Spanish.     The   latter  is  used  as   a  I 
salad,  and  the  hell  is  perennial.     Sow  | 
early  in  May  in  a  warm  bed  and  fine 
soil  ;    transplant   when    two    inches 
high,  and  set  at  two  feet  apart.     The  \ 
soil  should  be  dry  and  light,  but  rich, 
and   the   plants    hoed   and   weeded. 
For  pickles,  they  should  be  collected  i 
before    ripening  :    for   curing   meat,  I 
when  beginning  to  dry ;  hang  them 
in  the  air  until  quite  dry.     The  pow- 
der rubbed  upon  hams  and  salt  meats  [ 
preserves   them,  in  some  measure, 
from  insects ;  and  the  smoke,  which 
is  peculiarly  pungent,  is  very  distress- 
ing to  them.     Cayenne  pepper  is  the 
powder  of  the  C.  baccatum. 

PEPPERS,  INDIAN.  Pij>er  ni- 
grum {Fig:  a).  An  endogenous  climb- 
ing shrub  of  Sumatra,  the  fruit  of 
which  appears  on  spikes  at  three 
years,  and  forms  the  black  pepper  of 


commerce.  The  same,  hulled  by  rub- 
bing, constitutes  white  pepper.  The 
celebrated  betel,  or  intoxicating  pep- 
per, chewed  by  the  natives  of  India 
with  lime  {chuvam),  is  the  fruit  of  the 
P;;>fr  hrtlc  {Fig.  h). 

PEPSIN.  Albuminous  matter  of 
the  stomach  and  gastric  juice  in  a 
state  of  change.  It  forms  the  active 
agent  of  rennet,  and,  with  a  little  mu- 
riatic acid,  has  been  made  to  produce 
artificial  digestion. 

PER.     A  chemical  prefi.x  to  those 


compounds  which  contain  the  liighest 
proportion  of  the  element  against 
which  it  is  placed  ;  as  peroxide,  per- 
chloride,  &c. 

PERCH.  The  ,\jth  of  a  rood,  30i 
square  yards ;  in  long  measure,  5J. 
yards. 

PERCHERS.  The  Inressores, 
birds  which  perch  on  trees,  including 
the  Scansorcs  and  Passcres. 

PERCHLORIC  ACID.  An  acid 
consisting  of  1  eq.  chlorine  with  7  ox- 
ygen, which  forms  a  sparingly  solu- 
ble compound  with  potash,  the  per- 
chloraie,  and  has  hence  been  used  as 
a  test  for  that  alkali. 

PERCOLATION.  The  slow  ooz- 
ing of  water  through  rocks,  earths,  or 
other  slightly  porous  structures. 

P  E  R  E  N  N I A  L  S.  Plants  whose 
roots  live  several  years,  but  the  tops 
die  annually. 

PERFOLIATE.  Leaves  through 
which  the  stem  pass. 

PERGAMENOUS.  Parchment- 
like. 

PERL  A  common  affix  of  de- 
scriptive terms,  meaning  about,  or 
around. 

PERIANTH,  PERIANTHUM.  A 
flower  which  has  no  distinct  calyx. 

PERICARDIUM.  The  membrane 
surrounding  the  heart :  its  inflamma- 
tion is  called  pericarditis. 

PERICARP.  The  outer  portion 
of  the  fruit  surrounding  the  carpels. 

PERICRANIU.M.  The  membrane 
which  is  attached  to  the  bones  of  the 
skull. 

PERIGYNIUM.  The  case  formed 
in  Car  tecs  by  the  union  of  two  bracts. 
The  disk. 

PERIGYNOUS.  Stamens  which 
are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  calyx. 

PERIOSTEUM  (from  nefji,  about, 
and  oareov,  a  bone).  The  fibrous 
membrane  attached  to  the  surface  of 
all  the  bones. 

PERIPHERY.  The  circumfer- 
cncG. 

PERIPNEUMONY.     Pneumonia. 

PERiSPERM.  The  testa  or  cov- 
ering of  a  seed. 

PERISTALTIC.  A  worm  -  like 
motion  of  the  intestines,  produced  by 
a  contraction  and  dilatation  of  their 
571 


pi:t 


PHA 


circular  fibres,  whereby  their  contents 
are  pushed  forward  into  the  colon  and 
ruotum. 

PERISTOMIUM.  The  fringed 
membrane  surrounding  the  capsule 
of  mosses. 

PERITONEUM  (from  nepireivu,  I 
extend  around).  The  membrane  which 
envelops  the  organs  of  the  abdomen ; 
it  is  serous  :  its  inflammation  is  call- 
ed pcntonitis. 

PERMEABLE.  Permitting  the 
passage  of  fluids  or  gases. 

PERRY.  The  cider  of  pears.  See 
Pear,  for  the  best  fruit,  and  Cider,  for 
the  method  of  making  it. 

PERSIAN  BERRIES.  French 
berries. 

P  E  R  S I M  M  0  N.  Plaqueminier. 
Diospyros  Virgimana.  A  small  tree 
growing  in  open  places  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  sections.  The  fruit, 
when  frosted,  is  sweet,  and  is  o(\en 
mashed  and  fermented  into  a  beer. 
The  tree  is  dioecious,  and  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  ebony  :  the  wood  is 
very  hard.  The  green  fruit  is  ex- 
tremely astringent,  and  used  in  med- 
icine. 

PERSONATE  FLOWERS.  Ir- 
regular, monopetalous  flowers  like  the 
snapdragon  {Antirrhinum),  with  an 
upper  and  lower  lobe,  but  with  the 
faux  or  throat  closed  :  in  this  respect 
it  diflTsrs  from  the  labiate  corolla. 

PERSPIRATION.  The  function 
of  the  skin  whereby  a  saline  fluid 
with  a  little  gaseous  matter  is  thrown 
out  of  the  body.  It  is  increased  by 
taking  much  fluid  in  summer ;  and 
the  state  of  this  excretion  is  closely 
connected  with  health. 

PERUVIAN  BARK.  The  bark 
of  several  varieties  of  Cinchona  trees 
of  Central  and  South  America  :  they 
furnish  the  invaluable  alkaloid  qui- 
nine. 

PETALS.  The  divisions  of  the 
flower  :  the  leaves  of  the  flower,  usu- 
ally of  bright  colours.  Petaloid  is  a 
derivative. 

PETIOLE.     The  leaf  stalk. 

PETROLEUM.  Barhadoes  tar. 
Natural  bitumen. 

PETROSILEX.     Hornstone, 
sometimes  compact  feldspar. 
572 


PLTUNTZE.  Porcelain  clay,  de- 
cayed feldspar. 

PHAGEDENIC.  Corrodingulcers. 

PHALANGES.  Tlie  small,  long 
bones  of  the  fingers  and  toes. 

PHANEROGA.MIA,  PHANERO- 
GAMOUS.    Plants  hearing  flowers. 

PHAR.MACOP.EIA.  An  account 
of  the  preparation  of  medicines. 

The  following  formulae  for  veteri- 
nary practice  have  been  compiled  by 
Loudon  from  the  works  of  the  most 
eminent  veterinary  writers  of  the 
present  day  ;  and  he  confidently  rec- 
ommends the  selection  to  the  notice 
of  agriculturists,  and  the  owners  of 
horses  in  general.  It  would  be  pru- 
dent for  such  as  have  loany  horses, 
and  particularly  for  such  as  live  at  a 
distance  from  the  assistance  of  an  able 
veterinarian,  to  keep  the  more  neces- 
sary articles  by  them  in  case  of  emer- 
gency :  some  venders  of  horse  drugs 
keep  veterinary  medicine  chests;  and 
where  the  compositions  can  be  de- 
pended on,  and  the  uncompounded 
drugs  are  genuine  and  good,  one  of 
these  is  a  most  convenient  appendage 
to  every  stable. 

■'  The  veterinary  pharmacopajia  for 
oxen,  calves,  and  sheep  has  been  in- 
cluded in  the  arrangement.  When 
any  speciality  occurs,  or  where  dis- 
tinct recipes  are  requisite,  they  have 
been  carefully  noticed  ;  it  will,  there- 
fore, only  be  necessary  to  be  kept  in 
mind,  that  with  the  exception  of  acrid 
substances,  as  mineral  acids,  &e., 
which  no  cattle  bear  with  equal  im- 
punity with  the  horse,  the  remedies 
prescribed  require  about  the  follow- 
ing proportions  :  A  large  ox  will  bear 
the  proportions  of  a  moderate-sized 
horse  ;  a  moderate-sized  cow  some- 
thing less ;  a  calf  about  a  third  of 
the  quantity ;  and  a  sheep  about  a 
quarter,  or,  at  most,  a  third  of  the  pro- 
portions directed  for  the  cow.  It  is 
also  to  be  remarked,  that  the  degrees 
in  strength  in  the  difTerent  recipes 
are  usually  regulated  by  their  num- 
bers, the  mildest  standing  first. 

Alteratives. 
1. 
Levigated  antimony,  2  drachms. 
Cream  of  tartar. 
Flower  of  sulphur,  each  half  an  ounce. 


miAK.MACUr.EIA. 


2. 


Cream  of  tartar, 
Nitre,  of  each  half  an  ounce. 
3. 

^thiops  mineral. 

Levigated  antimonr. 

Powdered  resin,  each  3  drachms. 

"  Give  in  a  mash,  or  in  corn  and  bran  a  little 
wetted,  every  lughl,  or  make  into  a  ball  with 
honey. 

Tonic  Alteratives. 
1. 

Gentian, 

Aloes, 

Blue  vitriol,  in  powder,  of  each  1  drachm.      | 
Oak  bark,  in  powder,  6  drachms.  I 

2. 
Winter's  bark,  in  powder,  3  drachms. 
Green  vitnol,  do.,  one  and  a  half  drachms. 
Gentian,  do.,  3  drachms. 
'•  .Make  either  of  these  into  a  ball  with  honey, 
and  give  every  morning. 

3. 
White  vitriol,  1  drachm 
Ginger  or  pimento,  ^ound,  2  drachms. 
Po\vdered  quassia,  half  an  ounce. 
Ale,  8  ounces.— Mix,  and  give  as  a  drink. 

Astringent  Mixtures  for  Diarrhaa,  Lax,  or 
Scouring. 
1. 
Powdered  opium,  20  grains. 
Prepared  chalk,  2  ounces. 
Boiled  starch,  1  pint. 
2. 
Suet,  4  ounces  ;  boiled  in 
Milk,  8  ounces. 
Boiled  starch,  6  ounces. 
Powdered  alum,  1  drachm. 

3. 
"  The  following  has  been  very  strongly  rec- 
ommended, in  some  cases,  for  the  lax  of  horses 
and  cattle,  when  it  arises  from  taking  food  that 
disagrees  ; 

Glauber's  salts,  2  ounces. 
Epsom  do.,  1  ounce. 
Green  vitriol,  4  grains. 
Gruel,  half  a  pint. 

4. 
"  When  the  lax  or  scouring  at  all  approaches 
to  dvsentery  or  molten  grease,  the  following 
drink  shoald  be  first  given: 
Castor  oil,  4  ounces. 
Glauber's  salts  (dissolved).  2  ounces. 
Powdered  rhubarb,  half  a  drachm. 
Powdered  opium,  4  grains. 
Gruel,  1  pint. 
Astringent  Balls  for  Diabetes,  or  Pissing  Evil. 
Catechu  (Japan  earth*,  half  an  ounce. 
Alum,  powdered,  half  a  drachm. 
Sugar  of  lead,  10  grains. 
Conserve  of  roses  to  make  a  ball. 

Astnngent  Paste  for  Thrush,  Foot-rot,  Foul  in 
the  Foot,  4-c. 
Prepared  calamine. 
Verdigris,  of  each  half  an  ounce. 
White  vitriol, 

Alum,  of  each  Ualf  a  drachm. 
Tar,  3  ounces  ;  mix. 


Astringent  Washes  for  Cracks  in  the  HetU, 
Wounds,  Sprains,  ifC. 
1. 
Sugar  of  lead,  2  drachms. 
White  vitriol,  1  drachm. 
Strong  infusion  of  oak  or  elm  bark,  1  pint: 
mix  : 

2. 
Green  vitriol,  1  drachm. 
Infusion  of  galls,  half  a  pint. 
"  Mix,  and  wash  the  parts  three  times  a  day. 
Powder  for  Cracks,  4-c. 
3. 
Prepared  calamine,  1  ounce. 
Fullers  earth,  powdered. 
Pipe  clay,  do.,  of  each  2  ounces. 
"  .Mix,  and  put  within  gauze,  and  dab  the 
moist  surfaces  of  the  sores  frequently. 
Astringent  Paste  for  Grease. 

Prepared  calamine. 

Charcoal,  powdered,  of  each  2  ounces. 

Yeast  enough  to  make  a  paste. 

2. 
"  To  the  above,  if  more  strength  be  required, 
add  of  alum  and  verdigris  each  a  drachm. 
Astringent  Wash  for  Grease. 
3. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  2  drachms. 
Spirit  of  wine  or  brandy,  1  ounce. 
Soft  water,  10  ounces. 

"Rub  the  sublimate  in  a  mortar  with  the 
spirit  till  dissolved,  then  add  the  water.     This 
is  a  strong  preparation,  and  has  often  proved 
successful  in  very  bad  cases  of  grease,  which 
have  resisted  all  the  usual  remedies. 
Blisters. 
1.  A  general  one. 
Cantharides,  powdered,  2  ounces. 
Venice  turpentine,  do. 
Resin,  do. 

Palm  oil  or  lard,  2  lbs. 

"  Melt  the  three  latter  articles  together,  and 
when  not  too  hot  stir  in  the  Spanish  liics. 

2. 
A  strong,  cheap  Blister,  but  not  proper  to  he 
used  in  Fevers  or  Inflammations,  as  of  the 
Lungs,  Bowels,  SfC. 
Euphorbium,  powdered,  1  ounce. 
Oil  of  vitriol,  2  scruples. 
Spanish  flies,  6  ounces. 
Palm  oil  or  lurd. 
Resin,  of  each  1  lb. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  3  ounces. 
"  Melt  the  resin  with  the  lard  or  palm  oil. 
Having  previously  mixed  the  oil  of  vitriol  with 
an  ounce  of  water  gradually,  as  gradually  add 
this  mixture  to  the  melted  mass  ;  which  again 
set  on  a  very  slow  tire  for  ten  minutes  more  : 
afterward  remove  the  whole,  and,  when  begin- 
ning to  cool,  add  the  powders  previously  mixed 
together. 

3. 
A  mercurial  Blister  for  Splints,  Spavins   and 
Ringbones. 
Of  either  of  the  above,  4  ounces. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  finely  powdered,  half  a 
drachm. 

4. 
Strong  Liquid  Blister. 
Spanish  flies  in  gross  powder,  1  ounce. 
Oil  of  origanum,  2  drachm*. 

573 


PHARMACOPOEIA. 


Oil  of  turpentine,  4  ounces. 
Olivo  oil,  2  ounces. 

"  Steep   the   flies   in   the   turpentine   three 
weeks,  strain  off,  und  add  the  oil. 

5. 
Mild  Liquid  or  Sweating  Blister. 
Of  the  above,  1  ounce. 

Olive  oil  or  goose  grease,  one  ounce  and  a 
half. 

Clysters,  a  Laxative  one. 
J. 
Thin  gruel  or  broth,  5  qnart^s. 
Cpsom  or  common  salts,  G  ounces. 
Clyster  for  Gripes. 
2. 
Ma«h  two  moderate-sized  onions. 
Pour  over  them  oil  of  turpentine,  2  ounces. 
Capsicum,  or  pepper,  half  an  ounce. 
Thin  gruel,  4  quarts. 

Nutritious  Clystei. 
3. 
Thick  gruel,  3  quarts. 
Strong  sound  ale,  1  quart. 

Or  4. 
Strong  broth,  2  quarts.  , 

Thickened  milk,  2  quarts. 

Astringent  Clyster. 
5. 
Tripe  liquor,  or  suet  bodied  in  milk,  3  pints. 
Thick  starch,  2  pints. 
Laudanum,  half  an  ounce. 

Or  6. 
Alum  whey,  1  quart. 
Boiled  starch,  2  quarts. 

Cordial  Balls. 
Gentian,  powdered,  4  ounces. 
Ginger,  do.,  2  ounces. 
Coriander  seeds,  do.,  4  ounces. 
Caraway,  do.,  4  ounces. 
Oil  of  anise  seeil,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce. 
"  Make  into  a  mass  with  honev,  treacle,  or 
lard,  and  give  one  ounce  and  a  ha'lf  for  a  dose. 
Chronic  Cough  Balls. 
1. 
Calomel,  1  scruple 
Gum  ammoniacum, 
Horseradish,  of  each  2  drachms. 
Balsam  of  Tolu, 
Squills,  each  1  drachm. 
"  Beat  all  together,  and  make  into  a  baU  with 
honey,  and  give  every  morning  fasting. 


Drink  for  the  same. 
2. 

Tar  water, 

Limewater,  of  each  half  a  pint. 
Tincture  of  squills,  half  an  ounce. 
Powder  for  the  same. 
3. 
Tartar  emetic,  2  drachms. 
Powdered  foxglove,  half  a  drachm. 
Powdered  squill,  half  a  drachm. 
Calomel,  1  scruple. 
Nitre,  3  drachms. 
"  Give  every  night  in  a  malt  mash. 

Diuretic  Balls. 
Resin,  yellow,  I  lb. 
Nitre,  half  a  pound. 
Horse  turpentine,  half  a  pound. 
Vrllow  soap,  quarter  of  a  pound. 
574 


"  Melt  the  resiu,  soap,  and  turpentine  over  a 
blow  fire  ;  when  cooling,  add  the  nitre.  For  a 
strong  dose,  an  ounce  and  a  half;  for  a  mild 
one,  an  ounce.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
mild  diuretics  are  always  equal  to  what  is  re- 
quired, and  that  strong  diuretics  are  alwavs 
hurtful.  •' 

Diuretic  Powders. 
Yellow  resin,  powdered,  4  ounces. 
Nitre,  do.,  8  ounces. 
Cream  of  tartar,  do.,  4  ounces. 
"Dose,  6,  8,  or  10  drachms  nightly,  which 
some  horses  will  readily  eat  in  a  mash. 
Urine  Drink. 
Glauber's  salts,  2  ounces. 
Nitre,  fi  drachms. 

"  Dissolve  in  a  pint  of  warm  water. 
Embrocations.— Cooling  for  Inflammations. 

I. 
Goulard's  extract,  half  an  ounce. 
Spirit  of  wine  or  brandy,  1  ounce. 
Soft  water,  1  quart. 

2. 
Mindererus  spirit,  4  ounces. 
Water,  12  ounces. 

For  Strains. 
Bay  salt,  bruised,  half  a  pound. 
Crude  sal  ammoniac,  2  ounces. 
Sugar  of  lead,  quarter  of  an  ounce. 
Vinegar,  one  pint  and  a  half. 
Water,  1  pint. 

For  the  Eyes. 
1. 
Sugar  of  lead,  1  drachm. 
White  vitriol,  2  scruples. 
Water,  1  pint. 

2. 
Brandy,  1  ounce. 
Infusion  of  green  tea,  4  ounces. 
Tincture  of  opium,  2  drachms. 
Infusion  of  red  roses,  4  ounces. 

3. 
Rose  water,  6  ounces. 
Mindererus  spirit,  3  ounces. 

4. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  4  grains. 
Alcohol,  1  ounce. 
Lime  water,  1  pint. 

5. 
Alum,  powdered,  I  drachm. 
Calomel,  half  a  drachm. 
"  Mix,  and  insert  a  little  at  one  corner  of  the 
eye.     The  custom  of  blowing  it  in  alarms  the 
horse. 

Fever  Powders. 
1. 
Tartar  emetic,  1  drachm. 
Nitre,  5  drachms. 

2. 
Antimonial  powder,  1  drachm. 
Cream  of  tartar. 
Nitre,  of  each  4  drachms. 

Fever  Drink. 
3. 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  1  ounce. 
Mindererus  spirit,  6  ounces. 
Water,  4  ounces. 

Malignant  Epidemic  Fever. 
4. 
Simple  oxymel, 


PHA 

Mindererus  spirit, 
Deer  yeast,  of  each  4  ounces. 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  1  ounce. 
Fumigations  for  purifying  infected  Stables, 

Sheds,  <5-c. 
Manganese,  2  ounces. 
Common  salt,  ditto. 
Oil  of  vitriol,  3  ounces. 
Water,  1  ounce. 

"  Put  the  nii.\ed  manganese  and  salt  into  a 
basin  ;  then,  having  before  mixed  the  vitriol  and 
water  very  gradually,  pour  them,  by  means  of 
tongs,  or  anything  that  will  enable  you  to  stand 
at  a  sulTicient  distance,  on  the  articles  in  the 
basin  gradually,     -^s  soon  a.s  the  fumes  rise, 
retire  and  shut  up  the  door  close. 
Hoof  Liquid. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  4  ounces. 
Tar,  4  ounces. 
Whale  oil,  S  ounces. 

"  This  softens  and  toughens  the  hoofs  ex- 
tremely, when  brushed  over  them  night  and 
morning. 

Purging  Medicines. 
Balls — very  mild. 
Aloes,  powdered,  6  drachms. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  1  drachm. 

Mild. 
Aloes,  powdered,  8  drachms. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  1  drachm. 

Strong. 
Aloes,  powdered,  10  drachms. 
Oil  of  tur|ientine,  1  drachm. 
"  The  aloes  may  be  beaten  with  treacle  to  a 
mass,  adding,  during  the   beating,  the  oil  of 
turpentine.     All  spices,  oil  of  tartar,  cream  of 
tartar,  jalap,  &c.,  are  useless,  and  often  hurt- 
ful additions. 

Liquid  Purge. 
Epsom  salts,  dissolved,  8  ounces. 
Castor  oil,  4  ounces. 
Watery  tincture  of  aloes,  8  ounces. 
"  Mix.— The  watery  tincture  of  aloes  is  made 
liy  beating  powdered  aloes  with  the  yolk  of 
egg,  adding  water  by  degrees  ;  by  these  means 
half  an  ounce  of  aloes  may   be  suspended  in 
eight  ounces  of  water;  and  such  a  purge  is 
useful  when  a  ball  cannot  be  got  down,  as  in 
partial  locked  jaw. 

Scalding  Mixture  for  Pole  Evil. 
Corrosive   sublimate,  finely  powdered,  one 

drachm. 
Yellow  basilicon,  4  ounces. 

Foot  Stoppings. 
Horse  and  cow  dung,  each  about  2  lbs. 
Tar,  half  a  pound. 

Wash  for  coring  out,  destroying  Fungus,  or 

proud  Flesh,  ^c,  ifC. 
Lunar  caustic,  1  drachm. 
Water,  2  ouuces. 

Wash  for  Mange. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  2  drachms. 
Spirit  of  wine  or  brandy,  1  ounce. 
Decoction  of  tobacco. 
Ditto  of  white  helleliore,  of  esch  1  pint. 
"  Dissolve  the  mercury  in  the  spirit,  and  then 
add  the  decoctions. 


I'llO 

Ointments  for  Healing. 
1. 
White  vitriol,  powdered,  half  a  drachm. 
Lard,  8  ounces. 

For  Digesting. 
\. 
White  vitriol,  1  drachm. 
Yellow  basilicon,  7  ounces. 

For  Mange. 
Sulphur  vivum,  8  ounces. 
Arsenic,  in  powder,  2  drachms 
Mercurial  ointment,  2  ounces. 
Turpentine,  2  ounces. 
Lard,  8  ounces. 
"  Mix,  and  dress  with  every  morning. 

For  Seal)  or  Shab  in  Sheep,  Mallenders  and 
Sclttndrrs  in  Horses,  and  foul  Blotches  and 
Eruptions  m  Cattle  in  general. 

Camphor,  1  drachm. 

Sugar  of  lead,  half  a  drachm. 

Mercurial  ointment,  1  ounce." 

PHARYNX  (from  <j>epeiv,  to  con- 
vey, because  the  food  is  conveyed  by 
it  into  the  oesophagus  and  stomach). 
The  back  part  of  the  mouth  ;  it  is 
somewhat  funnel-shaped,  attached  to 
the  fauces  behind  the  larynx,  and 
terminatmg  in  the  gullet. 

PHENECIN.  The  red  hydrate  of 
indigo. 

PHENOMENON,  plural  PHE- 
NOMENA. A  natural  occurrence, 
or  object  of  a  recondite  nature. 

P  H  L  E  A  M.  The  knife  used  in 
bleeding  horses. 

PHLEBOTOMY.  An  old  term  for 
bleeding. 

PHLORIDZIN.  A  silky,  bitter, 
and  almost  insoluble  solid,  obtained 
from  the  root  of  the  apple,  pear,  cher- 
ry, and  plum  trees.  It  closely  re- 
sembles salicin  ;  formula,  0«  H23  O18 
-|-  6  H  O.  Phlorizcin,  produced  by 
the  action  of  ammonia  and  air  on 
moist  phloridzin,  is  a  red  colouring 
matter ;  a  bright  blue  is  also  produ- 
ced by  chemical  means. 

PHLOX.  A  genus  of  handsome 
flowering  plants. 

PHOSPHATES.  Salts  of  phos- 
phoric acid. 

PHOSPHITES.  Salts  of  phospho- 
rous acid. 

PHOSPHORESCENCE.  The 
quality  of  shining  at  a  temperature 
below  a  red  heat. 

PHOSPHORITE.  Native  bone 
earth,  or  phosphate  of  lime. 

575 


PHO 

PHOSPHORUS  (from  tpur,  Urrht, 
and  (pcpu,  I  carry).  "  So  called  from  its 
property  of  shining  in  the  -lark  :  it  is 
extracted  from  bone  earth.  The 
hones  are  calcined,  so  as  to  destroy 
the  animal  matter,  and,  bcin<5  |)0\v- 
dered,  are  mixed  with  water,  to  which 
half  their  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  is 
added.  Tiie  bone  earth,  consisting 
chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime,  is  thus 
decomposed,  sulphate  of  lime  is  form- 
ed, and  phosphoric  acid  is  evolved ; 
or,  rather,  superphosphate  of  lime, 
which,  being  much  more  soluble  than 
the  sulphate,  remains  in  the  liquid, 
and  may  be  obtained  by  its  evapora- 
tion. It  is  mixed  with  about  half  its 
weight  of  charcoal,  and  put  into  a 
well-luted  earthen  retort,  the  beak  of 
which  dips  into  water.  At  a  bright 
red  heat  the  phosphorus  distils  over 
into  the  water.  It  is  purified  by  care- 
fully melting  it  under  water,  and 
straining  it  through  a  piece  of  cha- 
mois leather. 

"  Pure  phosphorus  is  an  element 
almost  colourless  and  semitranspa- 
rent ;  it  may  be  cut  with  a  knife,  and 
its  surface  has  a  waxy  lustre.  It  fu- 
ses at  108°,  boils  at  550 -,  and  is  con- 
verted into  vapour,  having,  accord- 
ing to  Dumas,  a  density  =  4-35.  It 
is  sparingly  soluble  in  fixed  and  vola- 
tile oils,  and  in  ether  and  alcohol  ; 
but  insoluble  in  water.  It  shines  in 
the  dark,  and  emits  a  luminous  va- 
pour, undergoing  a  slow  combustion, 
and  exhaling  a  peculiar  smell  like 
garlic.  When  rubbed,  or  heated  to 
a  temperature  of  about  110^  it  takes 
fire  and  burns  with  great  rapidity, 
with  a  white  flame,  emitting  abun- 
dajice  of  acid  fumes  of  phosphoric 
acid. 

"  The  product  of  the  perfect  com- 
bustion of  phosphorus  is  phosphoric 
acid,  a  fusible  substance,  very  solu- 
ble in  water,  and  intensely  sour.  It 
appears  to  consist  of  1  equivalent 
of  phosphorus  =  31  44,  and  5  of 
oxygen  =  41,  its  equivalent  being 
7144. 

"  There  are  two  other  acids  of  phos- 
phorus, namely,  the  phosphorous  acid, 
consisting  of  31-44  phosphorus  -\-  24 
oxygen,  and  the  hypophosphorous 
576 


PHY 

acid.  When  phosphorus  is  boiled  in  a 
solution  of  caustic  potash  a  gas  is 
evolved,  which  is  remarkably  distin- 
guished by  its  spontaneous  inflamma- 
bility, each  bubble,  as  it  rises  through 
the  water,  taking  fire  upon  the  sur- 
face and  producing  a  beautiful  ring  of 
smoke  :  this  gas  is  commonly  called 
phosphuretted  hydrogen.  Phospho- 
rus may  be  made  to  combine  with  the 
greater  number  of  the  metals,  form- 
ing compounds  called  phosphurets." 
Phosphorus  is  not  found  in  the  ele- 
mentary state  in  nature,  but  in  the 
form  of  phosphoric  acid  it  is  combi- 
ned with  lime,  magnesia,  alumina, 
and  many  metals,  forming  native 
phosphates.  Most  of  these  are  insol- 
uble in  pure  water,  but  dissolve  in 
acids  and  in  carbonic  acid  water.  In 
this  solution  they  are  carried  to  plants, 
which  have  the  property  of  decompo- 
sing them,  and  assimilating  the  phos- 
phorus. Fibrin,  albumen,  some  oils, 
I  and  other  products  of  vegetation,  con- 
tain phosphorus.  It  is  to  all  vegeta- 
tion an  essential  body,  especially  for 
the  production  of  seeds.  I3one  earth, 
'  or  phosphate  of  lime,  is  the  principal 
\  source  for  manure ;  but  urine,  and 
j  the  dung  of  all  animals,  contain  phos- 
:  phates. 

I      It  is  frequent  to  see  a  distinction 

I  made  between  phosphoric,  metaphos- 

phoric,and  pyrophosphoric acids;  but 

,  these  have  all  the  same   basis,  the 

phosphoric  acid  being  tribasic,  and 

forming  three  sets  of  salts  with  some 

bodies  which  are  different  in  charac- 

f  ters. 

!      PHOTOMETER   (from   <puc,  and 
I  f/erpov,  a  measure).     An  instrument 
to  measure  the  intensity  of  light. 

PHRENITIS.  Inflammation  of  the 
brain. 

PHRYGANID-E.  Tricopterous  in- 
sects, case-worm  flies. 

PHYCOMETER.  The  gelatinous 
matter  in  which  the  sporules  of  the 
lowest  plants  germinate. 

PHYLLODIA.  Leaves  in  which 
the  petiole  is  very  much  expanded 
and  the  lamina  absent. 

PHYSICS.  Mechanical  philoso- 
phy. The  study  of  the  properties  of 
objects  and  their  motions. 


PIN 


PIC 


PHYSIOLOGY.  The  investiga- 
tion of  the  properties  and  functions 
of  plants  and  animals. 

PHYTOCillAriiY.  Descriptive 
botany. 

PIA  MATER.  The  delicate  mem- 
brane covering  the  brain. 

PIAZZA.     An  arcade. 

PICAMAR.  A  bitter  substance 
found  in  tar. 

PICID.E,  PICE.  The  family  of 
woodpeckers. 

PICK.     A  pickaxe. 

PICKLING.  The  preservation  of 
vegetables  or  meats  in  vinegar  or 
brine. 

PICIIOMEL.  Sugar  of  bile:  bilin, 
changed  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid, 
&c. 

PICROTOXIA.  A  poisonous  al- 
kaloid in  Cocculus  Indicus. 

PIE.  A  mould,  or  rounded  mass 
of  earth,  compost,  &c.^ 

PIER.  In  architecture,  the  solid 
between  the  openings  of  a  building, 
or  that  from  which  an  arch  sprmgs. 
An  abutment  pier,  in  a  bridge,  is  that 
next  the  shore. 

PIG.     See  Hog. 

PIGNUT.     See  Hickory. 

PIGEON.  Birds  of  the  genus  Co- 
lurnba  ;  the  young  are  tender,  and 
used  as  food,  to  some  extent.  The 
dung  is  a  choice  manure,  and  collect- 
ed with  great  care  and  expense  in 
the  East  for  melons  :  it  is  the  same 
as  poultry  dung.  The  full-grown 
birds  are  tough,  but  may  be  ren- 
dered tender  by  cooping  for  10  days  or 
more,  and  feeding  with  Indian  meal. 

PIGGERY.     See  Hog-sty. 

PILASTER.  A  square  pillar  sit- 
uated in  a  wall,  usually  projecting  not 
more  than  one  fifth  or  one  sixth  of 
its  widtli.  Pilasters  are  subject  to 
the  same  rules  of  proportion  as  col- 
umns. 

PILCHARD.  A  small  kind  of  her- 
ring. 

PILE.     The  hair  on  furs. 

PILES.  Timbers  driven  into  a 
marshy  soil  to  afford  a  better  founda 
tion.  In  surgery,  enlargement  of  the 
veins  of  the  rectum. 

PILEUS.  The  cap  of  a  mush-room. 

PILOSE.     Hairy,  set  with  hairs. 
C  c  c 


PIMENTO.  Myrtus  pimcnla.  All- 
spice. The  aromatic  berries  of  an 
evergreen  tree  of  Jamaica  and  the 
tropics  of  America. 

PIMPERNEL.  Aiiagallis  arvensis. 
A  pretty,  indigenous  annual. 

P1ND.\RS.  Arachis  hypogcca.  The 
ground  pea.  The  following,  from 
Mr.  M'Caughan,  of  Mississippi,  is 
worthy  of  the  attention  of  Southern 
planters : 

"  I  planted,  the  18th  of  February 
last,  three  acres  in  pindars,  in  rows 
five  feet  apart,  the  peas  about  12 
inches  apart,  in  a  common  small  fur- 
row made  with  a  bull-tongue  plough, 
on  level  ground,  having  first  broken 
up  and  harrowed  it  well.  The  weath- 
er afterward,  in  ^larch,  was  very  cold, 
wet,  and  unfavourable,  and  killed 
many  of  the  peas  which  had  sprout- 
ed, so  that  I  had  a  very  poor  stand  ; 
they,  however,  grew  finely,  and  in- 
terlocked across  the  rows,  and  cov- 
ered the  ground  pretty  well.  On  the 
27th  of  October  I  began  digging  (for 
fear  of  frost)  by  loosening  the  ground 
a  little  round  the  bunch  with  an  iron 
fork  with  three  prongs,  each  above  13 
inches  long,  and  then  pitched  the  fork 
under  the  tap  root  and  pressed  it  up  ; 
a  hand  follows  and  lifts  up  the  bunch, 
most  of  the  [lease  adhering  to  it,  and 
shakes  the  sand  (dirt  we  have  none) 
all  off',  and  lays  it  out  straight  to  cure 
like  hay  ;  when  sufficiently  cured,  tie 
up  in  bundles  the  proper  size  for  a  cut- 
ting-box, and  stow  away  for  winter 
food  for  horses,  cows,  &c.,  than 
which  there  can  be  nothing  better  or 
more  nutritious.  The  pindars  that 
are  torn  from  the  vine  are  partly  left 
on  the  top  of  the  ground,  and  can  ea- 
sily be  picked  up  after  a  rain  ;  I  then 
turn  the  hogs  in,  and  they  gather  the 
balance,  and  fatten  as  finely  on  them 
as  on  corn.  Our  poorest  land  will 
yield  50  to  80  bushels  of  the  pease, 
atid  over  a  ton  of  hay  per  acre,  and 
altogether  I  regard  it  as  one  of  the 
finest  crops  the  Southern  farmer  can 
raise.  If  we  could  afford  to  give  an 
entire  crop  to  the  land,  I  am  persua- 
ded it  would  be  quite  as  good  as  a 
crop  of  your  best  red  clover  to  fer- 
tilize it.  There  has  been  a  mistaken 
677 


PIN 

policy  pursued,  almost  universally,  in 
cuilivalinff  tin-  piiidar,  by  rcnering 
over  llie  lop  uitli  earlli  wlion  they 
hegin  to  bloom  ;  this  is  not  only  un- 
necessary, but  positively  injurious ; 
although  the  top,  or  vine,  grows 
straight  up  at  first,  yet  when  it  is 
time  to  seed,  the  small  fibres  on  the 
end  of  which  the  poa  grows  arise, 
the  vine  inclines  to  the  ground  until 
it  finds  a  proper  location,  and  then 
extends  its  branches,  two,  three,  or 
lour  feet  in  length  in  every  direction, 
touching  the  earth.  The  only  culti- 
vation requisite  is  to  keep  the  ground 
loose  and  clear  of  weeds  and  grass, 
and  as  level  as  possible,  so  that  the 
fibres  on  which  the  pea  grows  can 
penetrate  the  ground  easily.  I  intend, 
next  year,  to  plant  pmdars  in  hills, 
or,  rather,  in  checks,  two  feet  apart 
each  way,  which  will  cause  them  to 
grow  in  upright  bunches,  yielding 
more  hay,  and  will  be  easier  dug,  and, 
I  think,  will  probably  yield  as  many 
peas." 

The  pindar  is  a  legumen,  like  the 
pea  and  bean,  and  it  is,  when  raised 
for  seed,  as  exhausting.  It  differs 
from  them  in  containing  a  large 
amount  of  oil,  and  is  therefore  much 
more  fattening,  and  equally  nutri- 
tious as  respects  the  strength  of  ani- 
mals. Lime  and  bone  earth  would 
be  found  capital  manures.  Tlie  green 
stems,  ploughed  in,  are  equal  to  clo- 
ver as  a  I'ertilizer. 

PINEAL  GLAND.  A  small  gland 
of  the  brain. 

PINEAPPLE.  Bromdia  ananas. 
A  native  of  the  American  tropics, 
with  dry,  spiny  leaves.  The  supply 
of  this  fruit  is  so  great,  and  the  price 
so  cheap,  that  no  inducement  is  of- 
fered for  its  cultivation,  which  is  te- 
dious, and  requires  a  full  supply  of 
heat.  The  woody  fibres  of  the  leaves 
are  readily  separated  by  dew-rotting, 
and  are  said  to  form  a  silky  fiax, 
which  has  been  made  use  of  to  a  lim- 
ited extent  in  manufactures. 

PINE  BARREN.  The  extensive 
districts  of  sandy  lands  in  the  South 
on  which  the  pine  only  grows.  It 
is  supposed  by  naturalists  that  they 
would  become  deserts  if  the  trees 
579 


PIN 

were  once  removed,  for  they  are  wa- 
tered chiefly  by  the  moisture  attract- 
ed bv  tlie  trees. 

PINE-TREE.  The  genus  Finus, 
the  trees  of  which  afford  the  well- 
known  timber,  as  well  as  tar,  turi)en- 
tine,  &c.  The  pines  are  distinguish- 
ed from  firs,  larches,  and  spruces  by 
their  needle-shaped  leaves,  grouped 
in  twos,  threes,  &c.,  and  collected 
into  a  sheath  at  the  base.  The  F. 
strolms,  or  white  pine,  also  called 
Weymouth  pine,  yields  nearly  all  the 
choice  deals  of  the  country  :  the 
leaves  are  in  fives.  The  P.  palustris 
yields  tlie  tar  and  resin  of  North 
Carolina  ;  it  is  southern,  but  the  P. 
rigida,  which  is  more  extended,  and 
fills  the  barren,  sandy  lands  of  the 
seaboard,  is  also  rich  in  tar.  The 
/-•.  Canadensis,  or  hemlock,  furnishes 
timber,  and  the  bark  is  used  in  tan- 
ning. The  old  field  pine  of  the  South 
is  the  Pinus  lada  ;  the  young  shoots, 
or  browse,  are  very  healthy  and  nu- 
tritious for  sheep  ;  they  answer  well 
to  protect  autumn  and  spring  garden 
crops  from  frost.  The  pines  are 
readily  propagated  by  seeds,  which 
are  found  in  the  cones  before  they 
have  been  exposed  too  long.  They 
may  be  budded,  or,  rather,  grafted  in 
the  growing,  tender  shoots,  with  a 
little  care,  but  not  on  the  drier  wood. 
Several  species  of  pines  produce 
seeds  in  their  cones,  which  are  suffi- 
ciently large  to  be  obtained  for  food. 
In  Italy,  the  P.  pinca  yields  a  large, 
excellent  nut,  much  esteemed  ;  some 
of  the  Mexican  pines  also  produce 
edible  fruit. 

PINING.  A  disease  of  sheep, 
languishing.  "  It  is  most  fatal  in  a 
season  of  drought,  and  June  and  Sep- 
tember are  the  most  deadly  months. 
If  ever  a  farmer  perceives  a  flock  on 
such  a  farm  having  a  flushed  appear- 
ance of  more  than  ordinarily  rapid 
thriving,  he  is  gone.  By  that  day 
eight  days,  when  he  goes  out  to  look 
at  them  again,  he  wdl  find  them  ly- 
ing, hanging  their  ears,  running  at 
the  eyes,  and  looking  at  him  like  so 
many  condemned  criminals.  As  the 
disease  proceeds  the  hair  on  the  ani- 
mal's face  becomes  dry,  the  wool  as- 


PIS 


PLA 


sumes  a  bluish  cast,  and  if  the  shep- 
herd have  not  the  means  of  changing 
the  pasture,  all  those  affected  will  fall 
in  the  course  of  a  month." 

PINION.  A  small  wheel  playing 
in  the  teeth  of  a  larger  one.  It  is 
sometimes  only  a  spindle  or  arbor. 

PINK.  The  genus  Dianlhus;  per- 
ennial flowering  plants,  propagated 
readily  by  layering. 

PINK  ROOT.  Spigelia  Marilandi- 
ca.  Carolina  pink,  a  handsome  per- 
ennial, growing  about  liie  borders  of 
woods  in  the  South  ;  the  roots  are 
used  in  infusion  as  a  powerful  vermi- 
fuge ;  the  dose  for  children  of  tbree 
years  is  10  grains  of  the  powder  :  in 
very  large  quantities  it  proves  a  dan- 
gerous narcotic. 

PINNACLE.  A  square  or  polyg- 
onal pillar  rising  above  a  building,  and 
terminating  in  an  ornamental  pyra- 
mid. 

PINNATE.  Leaves  whh  separate 
leaflets  arranged  along  the  midrib,  or 
petiole  :  some  are  doubly  pinnate. 

PINNATIFID.  Imperfectly  pin- 
nate. In  this  case  the  leaflets  are 
not  distinct,  but  a  portion  of  tiie  lam- 
ina runs  along  the  central  petiole. 
Cut-leafed. 

PINT.  The  eighth  part  of  a  gallon ; 
half  a  quart. 

PIP.  A  disease  of  poultry,  attend- 
ed with  the  formation  of  a  tough 
membrane  at  the  tip  of  the  tongue, 
which  hinders  feeding  ;  it  is  cured  by 
pulling  off  the  membrane  and  wash- 
ing the  part  with  salt :  the  cause  is 
said  to  be  bad  water  and  food,  which 
should  be  changed. 

PIPE.  A  wine  measure  of  rather 
uncertain  capacity — 105  imperial,  or 
126  wine  gallons. 

PIPE  CLAY.  White  clay,  disin- 
tegrated feldspar  found  in  primitive  re- 
gions, with  which  the  white  smoking 
pipe  and  coarse  pottery  are  made. 

PIPERIN.  A  white,  crystalline, 
inactive  alkaloid,  obtained  from  black 
pepper. 

PISE.  In  building,  a  wall  con- 
structed of  stiff  earth  or  clay,  carried 
up  in  moulds,  and  rammed  down  as 
the  work  is  carried  up.  The  ex- 
pression, buildmg  enpisc,  is  common. 


PISOLITE.  Native  limestone, 
moulded  into  grains  like  peas. 

PISTACHIO,  or  PISTACHIA 
NUTS.  Pislachia  vera.  A  turpen- 
tine-tree, a  native  of  Syria  ;  the  nuts 
are  the  size  of  small  filberts,  of  a 
sweet  taste  and  pleasant  flavour  re- 
sembling almonds. 

PISTIL,  PISTILLUM.  The  cen- 
tral organ  of  flowers  ;  it  is  divided 
into  an  ovarium,  or  lowest  part,  a 
style,  and  stis^nm,  which  last  is  the 
uppermost  surface,  and  receives  the 
fertilizing  pollen.  It  is  called  the 
female  organ,  because  flowers  in 
which  it  is  absent  are  barren.  Pis- 
tils are  made  of  one  or  more  carpels, 
the  styles  of  which  unite.  Flowers 
with  pistils  only  are  termed  fistd- 
late. 

PISTON.  A  short  cylinder  of 
wood  or  metal,  which  fits  e.xactly  the 
cavity  of  a  pump  or  barrel,  and  is 
worked  up  and  down  in  it  alternate- 
ly. Two  sorts  of  pistons  are  used 
in  pumps  :  one  hollow,  with  a  valve, 
used  in  the  sucking  pump  ;  and  the 
other  solid,  which  is  employed  in  the 
forcing  pump. 

PITCH.  The  substance  that  re- 
mains after  boiling  or  distilling  tar  ; 
it  is  used  as  a  coarse  paint  when 
warmed. 

PITCH  OF  A  ROOF.  Its  incli- 
nation to  a  level  plane. 

PITHING.  The  operation  of  kill- 
ing animals  suddenly  and  without 
loss  of  blood,  by  driving  a  knife  into 
the  spinal  marrow  :  this  is  done  by 
directing  the  knife  to  the  space  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  vertebra, 
or  rack  bones. 

PITTACALL.  A  blue  substance 
obtained  from  oil  of  tar. 

PITUITARY  GLAND.  The  pi- 
neal gland,  situated  in  the  base  of 
the  brain. 

PITUITARY  M  E.M  BR ANE, 
SCHNEIDERI AN  M  E  M  B  R  A  N  E. 
The  mucous  membrane  of  the  nos- 
trils. 

PITYRIASIS,  DANDRUFF.  A 
scurfy  disease  olthe  skin. 

PIVOT.  The  extremity  of  an  axle 
which  revolves  in  a  socket  or  hole. 

PLACENTA.  The  after-birth.  A 
579 


PLA 


PLA 


large  sponjry  organ  which  rocrivps 
the  Wood  of  tho  mother,  and  supplies, 
by  the  umbihcal  artery,  tiie  fcRtiis. 

In  botany,  celhilar  tissue  dcvcloijod 
within  a  carpel,  to  whicii  the  ovules 
are  attached  sometimes  by  an  umbil- 
ical cord. 

PLAITED,  PLICATE.  In  bota- 
ny, folded  like  a  fan. 

PLAGUE.  A  violent,  contagious, 
and  typhoid  disease. 

PLANARIA.  A  genus  of  flat  en- 
tozoic  animals,  which  do  not,  how- 
ever, inhabit  the  bodies  of  other  an- 
imals. 

PLANE.     A  flat  surface. 

PLANE  TABLE.  A  square  board, 
furnished  with  a  compass,  and  with 
lines  drawn  on  its  upper  side,  used 
in  taking  angles  and  in  measuring 
land. 

PLANE-TREE.  The  button- 
wood. 

PLANER-TREE.  Planera  vlmi- 
folia  (aqiiatica).  A  tree  of  twenty- 
three  to  thrity  feet  height,  growing 
in  swampy  places,  in  the  South  and 
Southwest,  and  resembling  the  elm. 
The  wood  is  hard  and  strong,  but 
there  is  only  a  small  amount  of  it. 

PLANIPENNATES.  Neuropte- 
rous  insects  with  flat  wings,  the  low- 
er pair  of  which  equal  the  upper. 

PLANKS.  Boards  of  nine  inches 
or  more  in  width,  and  one  to  two 
inches  thick  ;  they  are  sold  by  the 
square  foot. 

PLANO-CONCAVE.  A  thin  disk, 
having  one  surface  flat  and  the  other 
curved  inward  {^concave). 

PLANT.  A  complex  organiza- 
tion, produced  from  seeds  or  sporules. 
The  most  general  characters  are  the 
presence  of  cellular  tissue,  and  the 
power  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid 
in  light ;  but  the  latter  function  does 
not  belong  to  fungi. 

PLANT  CASES,  WARD'S.  Tight 
glazed  boxes,  at  the  bottom  of  which 
a  layer,  six  inches  deep,  of  garden 
mould,  in  a  moist  state,  is  placed  ; 
and  in  which  plants  being  set,  are 
said  to  grow  without  farther  trouble 
if  the  case  be  well  closed. 

PLANTAIN.  The  genus  PlanUi- 
go ;  for  the  most  part  perennial  weeds 
530 


in  meadows  ;  they  are  nutritious,  but 
grow  too  small  for  hay.  The  P.  ma- 
jor is  called  white  man's  footsteps  ; 
it  is  connnonly  recommended  as  an 
application  to  wounds,  being  mucila- 
ginous. 

PLANTATION,  PLANTING. 
"  Planting  is  the  operation  of  placing 
in  the  soil  the  roots  of  a  plant  which 
has  been  previously  removed  ;  and 
the  preservation  of  the  roots  is  the 
first  thing  to  be  attended  to.  It 
should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  spnji- 
ffiulcs,  or  delicate  extremities  of  the 
fibres,  are  the  parts  by  which  the 
chief  supply  of  food  froin  the  earth  is 
absorbed  by  the  plant.  Their  tissue 
being  tender  and  almost  naked,  they 
are  very  susceptible  of  injuries  from 
mechanical  action  ;  and  being  adapt- 
ed for  performing  their  functions  in 
a  humid  medium,  they  readily  suffer 
from  being  kept  for  any  length  of 
time  exposed  to  free  air  and  drought. 
Ill  taking  up  the  jilants,  therefore, 
the  roots  should  be  loosened  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  receive  the  least  pos- 
sible violence  in  the  operation.  Plants 
in  pots  can  be  shifted  from  one  place 
to  another  without  exhibiting  symp- 
toms of  deranged  functions  ;  and  if  it 
were  possible  to  preserve  the  spon- 
gioles  of  a  large  tree  as  entire  as 
those  of  a  plant  in  a  pot,  the  same 
successful  result  would  follow ;  but 
as  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  do  this, 
we  can  only  attempt  to  preserve 
them  as  far  as  circumstances  will 
permit.  If  the  tree  be  large,  a  trench 
should  be  opened  beyond  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  roots,  of  sufficient  width 
and  depth  to  allow  the  process  of  un- 
dermining to  be  freely  carried  on. 
The  roots  should  be  gradually  set  at 
liberty  by  a  round-pronged  fork,  the 
prongs  tapering  so  as  to  be  easily  in- 
serted, yet  not  by  any  means  so  sharp 
as  to  prick  the  roots.  As  the  fork  is 
being  used,  the  soil  from  among  the 
roots  will  fall  into  the  open  trench ; 
but  as  it  accumulates  there  it  must 
be  cleared  away,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  portion  of  roots  set  at  liber- 
ty will  reijuire  to  be  slightly  tied  to- 
gether with  pieces  of  matting,  and, 
if  necessary,  supported  by  temporary 


PLANTATION,    PLANTING. 


stakes,  or  held  to  one  side  by  an  as 

sislant,  while  the  planter  proceeds  in  | 
liberating  others.  If  there  be,  as  is 
frequently  the  ease,  a  tap  root  ex- 
teiiiiiiig  to  a  much  greater  depth  than 
the  other  roots,  and  if  the  latter  have 
been  carefully  preserved  during  the 
operation,  the  tap  root  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  for  it  could  only  be 
raised  in  a  mutilated  state,  owing 
to  the  great  solidity  of  the  earth  at 
such  a  depth. 

"  Although  it  is  verj'  desirable  to 
preserve  the  greatest  possible  quan- 
tity of  sound  roots,  yet  all  that  are 
bruised  or  lacerated  should  be  clean- 
ly amputated  up  to  the  sound  parts. 
Cross  roots  are  apt  to  gall  the  others 
when  they  become  large,  and  there- 
fore the  sooner  they  are  removed  the 
better,  \\hen  the  plants  are  young 
and  in  the  course  of  being  occasion- 
ally removed  in  a  nursing  state,  all 
irregularities  in  the  roots  should  be 
corrected,  which  can  then  be  done 
with  comparatively  little  injury,  as 
the  roots  of  young  plants  bear  a  great- 
er proportion  to  the  top  than  seems 
to  be  the  case  at  a  more  advanced 
period  of  growth,  and  the  loss  of  any 
of  them  is  consequently  felt  less.  In 
tlie  early  stage  of  rearing  trees,  while 
the  proportion  of  roots  predominates, 
it  may  be  found  advisable,  in  various 
cases,  to  shorten,  not  only  the  tap 
root,  as  above  mentioned,  but  also, 
judiciously,  some  of  the  other  strong 
roots,  in  order  that  subdivisions  of  a 
more  fibrous  nature  may  be  produced, 
and  a  number  of  rootlets  substituted 
for  large  root  branches.  Even  in  the 
case  of  large  trees  this  principle  has 
been  acted  upon  for  centuries,  and 
latterly  it  has  been  strongly  advoca- 
ted and  put  in  practice  for  the  pur- 
pose of  producing  immediate  etTect  in 
park  or  landscape  scenery.  A  trench 
is  cut  out  round  the  tree,  and  the 
roots  shortened  wherever  they  hap- 
pen to  traverse  this  trench,  so  as  to 
leave  it  quite  clear.  This  being  done, 
the  trench  is  filled  up,  either  with  its 
own  excavated  soil,  or,  in  very  par- 
ticular cases,  with  fresh  soil.  The 
tree  has  still  a  sufficient  number  of 
undisturbed  roots  to  keep  it  alive  ; 
C  c  c  2 


and,  in  fact,  it  ought  not  to  be  mere- 
ly kept  alive,  but  as  many  roots  should 
be  lelt  as  will  ensure  its  continuing 
in  a  healthy,  though  not  a  vigorous 
state  of  growth.  In  the  course  of  a 
year  or  two  after  this  operation  has 
been  performed,  a  number  of  young 
roots  will  have  been  protruded  from 
the  various  amputations  into  the 
loosened  soil  of  the  trench  ;  and,  part- 
ly from  the  possibility  of  preserving 
these  roots,  and  partly  from  the  top 
becoming  habituated  to  a  more  limit- 
ed supply  of  food,  the  tree  feels  com- 
paratively little  the  change  conse- 
quent on  transplantation. 

"  Roots  may  be  produced  of  a  prop- 
er description  for  planting  by  the 
adoption  of  such  means  as  the  above, 
and,  if  care  be  taken,  they  will  suf- 
fer little  from  the  operation  of  re- 
moval. Still,  they  may  be  seriously 
injured  from  exposure  to  air,  and 
more  especially  to  drying  winds, 
frost,  and  even  to  wet.  To  be  cov- 
ered in  the  soil  is  the  natural  condi- 
tion of  the  roots  of  most  vegetable 
productions,  and,  therefore,  endeav- 
ours should  be  made  to  place  them 
in  such  a  condition  with  the  least 
possible  delay ;  or,  at  all  events,  if 
circumstances  render  delay  unavoid- 
able, such  means  should  be  adopted 
as  will  preserve  them  in  a  state  of 
moisture  similar  to  that  which  they 
have  in  the  soil.  It  is,  however,  ne- 
cessary to  observe,  that  when  the 
tops  are  closely  packed  up  and  evap- 
oration from  them  prevented,  the 
roots  should  be  kept  rather  dry  than 
otherwise,  lor,  under  such  circum- 
stances, damp  is  found  to  be  much 
more  frequently  destructive  than  a 
little  dryness. 

••  Though  the  preparatory  steps  to 
planting,  as  regards  roots  and  their 
preservation,  may  be  properly  taken, 
yet,  if  the  operation  be  not  perform- 
ed at  the  proper  season,  success  will 
not  be  complete.  It  is  true  that  in- 
stances may  be  adduced  of  planting 
being  done  at  the  very  opposite  sea- 
son to  that  which  is  here  recommend- 
ed as  the  best ;  but  such  cases  are 
only  examples  of  what  may  be  done 
by  extraordinary  care  in  adopting  ar- 
581 


PLANTATION,     PLANTING. 


tificial  means,  so  as  to  imitate  more 
natural  circumstances.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  plants  are  subject  to 
a  process  of  evaporation  from  all  the 
parts  which  arc  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere, provided  the  latter  is  not  in 
a  state  of  saturation.  The  source 
from  whence  this  evaporation  is  sup- 
plied is  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and 
the  roots  are  the  media  by  which  it 
is  <;olIected  and  transmitted  to  the 
stem  branches  and  leaves.  If  the 
expenditure  be  greater  than  the  sup- 
ply of  moisture,  the  plant  will  begin 
to  suffer  ;  if  the  disparity  be  great 
and  continued,  a  degree  of  desicca- 
tion will  be  occasioned  sufficient  to 
deprive  the  vegetable  tissue  of  that 
moisture  which  constitutes  the  me- 
dium of  intercommunication  between 
the  different  cells ;  organization  is 
destroyed  ;  the  chain  which  connected 
it  with  vitality  is  broken,  and  incapa- 
ble of  being  reunited  by  any  mechan- 
ical means. 

"A  much  greater  amount  of  evap- 
oration takes  place  from  a  given  sur- 
face in  some  species  than  in  others  ; 
but  the  amount  as  regards  plants  of 
the  same  species,  all  other  circum- 
stances being  the  same,  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  of  surface  which 
the  respective  individuals  possess. 
The  leaves  of  a  lime-tree  may  have 
a  surface  equal  to  thirty  times  that 
of  the  stem,  branches,  and  twigs 
which  produce  them,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  demand  on  the  roots  for 
the  supply  of  evaporation  will  be 
thirty  times  greater  when  in  leaf 
than  when  the  branches  are  naked. 
Instances  might  be  adduced  in  which 
this  difference  would  even  be  exceed- 
ed ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  were 
found  considerably  less,  still  there 
would  be  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
impropriety  of  moving  plants  when 
in  leaf;  and  it  may  be  here  remark- 
ed that  young  leaves  admit  of  the 
fluids  being  more  rapidly  evaporated 
than  old  ones. 

"  The  month  of  December  is  that 
in  which  the  condition  of  the  air  with 
regard  to  moisture  approaches  near- 
est to  that  of  complete  saturation  ; 
and  next  in  this  respect  is  January, 
682 


which  is  also  the  coldest.  It  might 
therefore  be  concluded  that  those 
months  are  the  best  for  planting, 
more  especially  as  they  are  the  most 
opposite  in  character  to  June  and 
July,  which,  from  their  being  the  hot- 
test and  driest,  are  found  to  be  the 
worst.  But  November  is  also  moi.st ; 
and  although  the  temperature  of  the 
season  has  not  then  reached  its  min- 
imum, yet  the  foliage,  accustomed  to 
exercise  its  fimctions  under  a  sum- 
mer heat,  can  no  longer  perform  them 
under  a  reduction  of  temperature 
which,  though  not  the  lowest,  is 
comparatively  low  as  regards  sum- 
mer productions.  The  leaves,  in 
consequence,  lose  their  connexion 
with  the  roots  ;  the  earth  still  re- 
tains considerable  warmth ;  and  al- 
though the  absence  of  leaves  in  de- 
ciduous trees,  and  perhaps  the  in- 
activity of  those  .of  evergreens,  may 
prevent  the  formation  of  wood,  ex- 
cept in  the  most  limited  degree,  yet 
the  buds,  while  they  are  themselves 
increased  in  volume,  maintain  a  cor- 
responding action  in  the  roots,  suffi- 
cient, in  many  instances,  to  form 
fresh  spongioles  before  winter .-  a 
process  which  is  favoured  by  the  soil 
Ijeing  warmer  than  the  atmosphere. 
Should  circumstances  occur  to  pre- 
vent the  actual  protrusion  of  cellular 
substance  in  the  form  of  spongioles, 
still  an  accumulation  of  it  will  be  ta- 
king place,  ready  to  burst  forth  in 
spring.  On  this  account,  therefore, 
although  December,  January,  and 
February  are  sufficiently  moist,  yet 
November,  or  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  is  the  preferable  season 
for  planting.  There  may  be  some 
exceptions,  as  in  the  case  of  very 
wet  soils,  where  the  plants,  if  not 
firmly  rooted,  are  liable  to  be  thrown 
out  during  winter,  owing  to  which, 
spring  planting  would  be  more  jirop- 
er  ;  but,  under  ordinary  circumstan- 
ces, all  deciduous  trees  will  succeed 
best  at  the  period  above  indicated. 
Such  species  as  push  forth  their  buds 
early  ought  certainly  to  be  planted 
in  autumn.  Many  of  the  coniferous 
trilie  will  succeed  well  if  planted  soon 
alter  they  have  made  their  summer's 


PLANTATION,  PLANTING. 


growth  ;  the  earth  is  then  warm,  and 
( he  plants  make  roots  very  promi)tly. 
Some  species  of  this  interesting  or- 
der of  trees  require  to  be  planted  ei- 
ther before  winter,  so  as  to  have  suf- 
ficient time  to  strike  root,  or  imme- 
diately before  their  buds  begin  to 
t)urst  in  the  spring.  These  species 
of  trees  are  injuriously  affected  by 
exposure  to  dry,  cold  winds,  even 
when  their  roots  are  undisturbed  by 
removal ;  but  if  planted  at  a  season 
when  several  months  must  elapse 
before  any  perfect  action  can  com- 
mence, the  tops  are  apt  to  become 
dried  up  in  the  interval.  It  appears 
that  if  their  juices  become  inspissa- 
ted to  a  certain  extent,  they  never 
again  become  licpiefied,  probably  ow- 
ing to  their  resinous  nature. 

"  The  watering  of  newly-planted 
trees  ought  to  be  attended  to.  The 
supply,  in  the  first  instance,  should 
be  copious,  in  order  to  wash  the  earth 
into  the  cavities  among  the  roots. 
Some  err  in  keeping  the  roots  of 
newly-planted  trees  constantly  soak- 
ed with  water,  as  if  they  were  those 
of  bog  plants,  for  vviiich  only  such 
treatment  is  proper.  In  watering, 
consideration  should  always  be  had 
to  the  nature  of  the  plant ;  to  which, 
if  it  delight  in  dry  soils,  no  more  wa- 
ter should  be  artificially  applied  than 
is  necessary  to  moisten  it  as  much 
as  the  soil  m  which  the  species  grows 
naturally,  and  at  a  time  when  shoots 
and  leaves  are  abundantly  produced. 
When  watering  is  performed,  it 
should  be  done  thoroughly,  so  as  to 
reach  the  lowest  portions  of  the  root. 
In  the  case  of  plants  being  much  dri- 
ed from  long  carriage  or  other  caus- 
es, the  supply,  on  first  planting,  should 
be  very  moderate.  The  tops,  how- 
ever, should  be  frequently  syringed, 
in  order  to  moisten  the  bark,  and  pre- 
vent its  absorbing  the  organizable 
matter  which  descends  towards  the 
root  by  the  inner  bark.  The  flow 
must  be  extremely  weak  under  such 
circumstances  ;  but  if  it  can  be  pre- 
served from  the  effects  of  drought 
till  it  reach  the  extremities  of  the 
roots,  the  formation  of  fresh  spongi- 
oles  will  immediately  commence,  and 


the  tree  may  then  be  pronounced  out 
of  danger. 

"  The  manner  of  performing  the 
operation  of  planting  may  be  reduced 
to  one  general  principle,  that  of  pla- 
cing the  roots  in  the  soil  so  as  to  im- 
itate as  closely  as  possible  the  posi- 
tion which  they  occupy  when  grow- 
ing wild  and  uncontrolled.  Plants, 
inileed,  may  be  instanced  whose 
roots  have  been  observed,  in  one 
situation,  penetrating  to  the  depth  of 
four  or  five  feet  ;  or,  in  another, 
creei)ing  along  the  surface,  among 
stones,  or  into  the  crevices  of  rocks, 
with  scarcely  soil  to  cover  them,  as, 
for  example,  in  the  vine.  But  al- 
though roots  can  usually  accommo- 
date theinselves  to  that  position 
which  the  nature  of  the  situation 
renders  it  alone  possible  for  them  to 
occupy,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  in  all  cases  the  extremities  of 
the  roots  should  be  lower  than  where 
they  diverge  from  the  stem  :  a  rule 
which,  however  self-evident  it  may 
be,  is  frequently  violated  in  practice, 
by  making  a  basin-shaped  hole,  deep- 
est in  the  middle,  in  which  the  roots 
are  either  doubled,  or  have  their  ex- 
tremities tending  upward  on  the  slo- 
ping sides  of  the  cavity. 

"  The  excavation  for  the  reception 
of  the  roots  of  a  plant  should  be  con- 
siderably larger  than  those  roots  will 
traverse  when  extended  at  the  time 
of  planting.  It  should  be  as  wide  at 
bottom  as  at  top.  The  bottom  should 
be  more  or  less  convex,  and  the  depth 
such  as  to  admit  of  the  roots  being 
covered  to  the  extent  observed  in 
undisturbed  seedling  plants  of  the 
same  species  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  up- 
per part  of  the  root  should  only  be 
just  covered.  The  lower  roots  should 
be  regularly  disposed  over  the  con- 
vex bottom  of  the  excavation,  and 
carefully  strewed  with  some  of  the 
finer  portion  of  soil,  over  which  the 
other  roots  may  be  spread.  More  soil 
stiould  then  be  carefully  rather  than 
forcibly  introduced.  There  should 
be  no  vacant  spaces  left,  except  those 
of  so  minute  a  description  that  they 
will  be  readily  filled  up  by  the  finer 
particles  of  earth  washed  down  by  a 
583 


PLANTATION,  PLANTING. 


plentiful  watering.  This  watering 
should  be  given  when  the  soil  is  near- 
ly all  filled  in,  and,  alter  tiio  water 
has  subsided,  so  as  not  to  stand  above 
the  surface,  the  latter  should  be  cov- 
ered with  the  remaining  portion  of 
soil.  Except  in  very  loose  or  light 
soils,  tills  method  will  supersede  the 
necessity  of  the  hard  beating  and 
treading  in  to  which  the  roots  of 
trees  are  very  generally  subjected. 
The  latter  practice  is  now,  however, 
being  laid  aside  by  many,  from  a  con- 
viction of  its  injurious  effects.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  remark  that  a  plant 
should  be  placed,  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  soil,  exactly  as  it  is  in- 
tended it  should  stand  ;  and  it  should 
not  be  pulled  from  side  to  side  for  the 
purpose  of  shaking  the  earth  among 
the  roots.  If  the  tree  be  drawn  to 
one  side,  the  fibres  of  the  root  will 
also  be  drawn  towards  the  same  side  ; 
but  they  are,  of  course,  too  flexible 
to  force  their  way  back  when  the 
tree  is  drawn  in  a  contrary  direction, 
and  they  must  therefore  become 
more  or  less  doubled.  Nor  should 
the  soil  be  thrown  against,  the  fibres 
w  hile  the  roots  are  being  covered  ; 
it  should  be  made  fine,  and  either 
shaken  from  the  spade  so  as  to  fall 
perpendicularly  among  the  roots,  or 
scattered  by  a  force  impelling  it  in 
the  direction  of  the  fibres,  which  will 
be,  in  general,  from  the  stem  towards 
the  extremities,  or  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference. 

"  The  principles  here  stated  are 
applicable  to  the  planting  of  large  as 
well  as  small  trees,  and,  in  fact,  to 
any  terrestrial  species  of  plant.  There 
are,  however,  many  modifications  in 
practice,  some  of  which  may  be  no- 
ticed as  proper  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, and  others  as  only  to  be 
condenmed  under  any  circumstances 
whatever. 

"  Small  plants  are  very  frequently 
inserted  by  the  dibble,  a  cylindrical 
piece  of  wood,  shod  with  iron,  and 
tapering  to  a  point.  This  is  thrust 
into  the  soil,  and  in  the  hole  formed 
by  this  means  the  roots  of  the  plant 
are  introduced,  and  a  portion  of 
soil  passed  towards  them  by  a  sec- 
584 


end  stroke  of  the  dibble.  It  is  ev- 
ident, however,  that  by  this  proce- 
dure the  roots  cannot  be  in  the  most 
natural  position  ;  they  are,  in  fact, 
the  very  reverse  of  being  spread  out 
to  the  best  advantage.  In  the  case, 
of  very  valuable  species,  the  spade 
or  planting  trowel  is  used  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  dibble.  The  latter  has 
nothing  to  recommend  it  on  the  score 
of  good  principles  in  planting  ;  the 
expedition  with  which  it  can  be  em- 
ployed is  all  that  can  be  said  in  its 
favour. 

"  Besides  the  spade  and  dibble,  va- 
rious other  implements  are  used  in 
planting,  such  as  the  diamond  dibble, 
a  pointed  plate  of  steel,  with  a  short 
iron  liandle  ;  a  mattock,  used  in  stony 
soils  ;  and  some  others,  adopted  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  In  all  ca- 
ses, however,  where  the  spade  can 
be  used,  it  is  undoubtedly  the  best 
instrument.  If  the  soil  be  unfit  for 
allowing  the  use  of  the  spade,  it 
should  be  rendered  fit  previously : 
and  if  some  time  be  lost  and  expense 
incurred  by  using  it  instead  of  small- 
er and  more  expeditious,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  more  cramping  imple- 
ments as  regards  the  roots,  the  dif- 
ference will  certainly  be  ultimately 
in  favour  of  a  proper  disposition  of 
the  roots  by  means  of  the  spade.  - 

"  With  regard  to  the  preparation 
of  the  soil  for  plantations,  it  is  found 
that  trenching  the  ground  is  attended 
with  profit  wliere  it  is  practised  for 
the  purpose  of  rearing  wood  for  fuel 
and  small  timber.  This  mode  of  prep- 
aration ought  likewise  to  be  adopted 
where  trees  are  intended  to  be  plant- 
ed for  ornament  or  for  shelter.  It 
has  not  been  generally  attempted  in 
the  case  of  extensive  plantations  of 
heath  or  rugged  mountain  land.  It 
may,  however,  be  affirmed,  without 
hesitation,  that  great  advantages 
would  be  derived  from  the  operation 
being  more  extensively  performed. 
Something  more  than  merely  burying 
the  roots  of  hard-wooded  plants  is 
thought  necessary,  and,  accordingly, 
pits  are  made.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  observe  that,  if  these  are  not 
of  considerable  size,  the  direct  prog- 


PLANTATION,  PLANTING. 


ress  of  the  roots  is  soon  obstructed. 
Tlie  time  required  to  form  these  pits 
as  they  ought  to  be  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  regularly  trench  double  their 
area.  The  expense  of  trenching  the 
intermediate  spaces  will  be  compen- 
sated by  the  greater  return  derived 
from  the  nurse  plants,  such  as  larch, 
when  they  come  to  be  removed. 

"  Plantations  are  generally  planted 
thick  in  the  first  instance,  and  with 
various  species  of  trees.  Larch, 
Scotch  fir  or  pine,  mountain  ash, 
&c.,  are  interspersed  among  the  hard 
wood  for  shelter,  or  as  nurses.  La- 
burnum is  also  useful  for  preserving 
the  other  sorts  from  the  depredations 
of  hares,  as  they  prefer  the  laburnum 
to  every  other  bark.  Nurses  arc  gen- 
erally left  till  they  are  fit  for  various 
purposes  for  which  small  timber  is 
applicable.  Tliey  should  be  planted 
closer  to  each  otlier  than  to  the  prin- 
cipal trees  intended  to  constitute  the 
more  permanent  part  of  the  planta- 
tion. 

"After  all  the  care  of  the  planter, 
and  the  skill  with  which  the  opera- 
tion of  removing  may  have  been  ef- 
fected, much  of  the  success  of  a 
plantation  depends  on  the  proper 
adaptation  of  species  to  the  soils  and 
situations  most  suitable  to  them. 

"  The  following  remarks  upon 
some  of  the  timber-trees  principally 
cultivated  may  be  useful  : 

"The  oak  (Qucrctis  robur,  and  Q. 
sessiliflora)  prefers  strong,  or  even 
clayey  loam ;  any  soil  not  wet  or 
chalky. 

"  Beech  {Fagus  si/lvatira),  calcare- 
ous soils,  gravelly  or  sandy  loam ; 
dislike  stiff  clay. 

"Elm  {Ulmus  campeslris,  U.  gla- 
bra. U.  mnnlaria)  attains,  near  the 
banks  of  rivers,  a  large  size;  thrives 
in  most  soils. 

"  Ash  {Fraxinus  excelsiar)  prefers  a 
dry  subsoil  ;  dislikes  stiff  clay.  ! 

"  Plane  {Plalanus  Oricntulis),  rich, 
warm  soil,  tolerably  moist,  but  not 
retentive. 

"  Sycamore  (.leer  ■pseudo-platanus, 
A.  platanoidcs),  best  in  moist,  deep 
soil,  but  will  thrive  in  others  not  too 
stiff;  withstands  the  sea-breeze. 


"Chestnut  {Castanea  vcsca),  deep, 
sandy  l«ain. 

"  ^^'alnut  {Juglans  regia),  deep 
loam,  with  a  pervious  subsoil ;  dis- 
likes strong  clays. 

"  Hickory  {Vanja  alha),  similar  soil 
to  that  required  by  the  walnut. 

"  Acacia,  or  locust-tree  (Robinia 
pscud-acacia),  sandy  loam ;  a  shel- 
tered situation  ;  cannot  bear  storms. 

"Birch  {Bctula  alba),  forms  best 
timber  on  dry  sandy  or  gravelly  soil. 

"  Laburnum  {Cytisus  alpinus),  any 
soil  not  too  wet. 

"  White  bean  {Pyrus  Aria),  any 
good  soil,  with  a  pervious  subsoil ; 
dislikes  wet  clay. 

"  Lime  {Tilia  EuropcEa),  soft,  deep 
loam,  in  low,  rather  moist  situations. 

"  Horse-chestnut  {JEsculus  hippo- 
castanum),  deep  loam  ;  not  in  expo- 
sed situations. 

"  Poplar  (Popubis  alba,  P.  canes- 
cens,  P.  nigra,  P.  trcmula,  P.  fastigi- 
ata,  P.  GrcEca,  P.  monili/cra).  These 
thrive  in  almost  any  soil,  but  best  in 
that  which  is  deep  and  rather  moist. 

"Mountain-ash  {Pi/riis  aucuparia), 
any  soil,  wet  clay  excepted  ;  adapted 
for  high  situations. 

"  Alder  (Ahnis  glutinosa),  moist, 
or  even  swainpy  soil. 

"  Willow  (Salix),  of  numerous  spe- 
cies. Some  thrive  in  rather  dry  soil, 
but  all  prefer  moist. 

"  Pine  {Pinus  sylvcstris,  P.  Laricis, 
P.  Pinaster,  P.  Strobus).  The  first 
two  are  adapted  for  thin,  rocky,  grav- 
elly soils ;  tliey  grow  at  a  great  eleva- 
tion on  the  warmest  sides  of  mount- 
ains, but  better  in  mountain  glens  ; 
they  dislike  stiff  clay  and  deep,  strong 
loam,  and,  like  all  coniferous  plants, 
they  do  not  thrive  on  chalk.  P.  Pi- 
naster and  P.  Strobus  require  a  less 
exposed  situation  than  the  other  two. 

"  Spruce  (Abies  excelsa,  A.  alba,  A. 
rubra,  A.  nigra),  deep,  moist  soil,  in 
low  situations  ;  dislikes  thin,  sandy 
soil,  and  exposure. 

"  Larch  (Abies  Larix),  adapted  for 
thin  mountain  land,  or  any  soil  of 
which  the  subsoil  is  not  retentive, 
excepting,  however,  red  sandstone 
or  chalk,  as  above  mentioned. 

"  Cedar  of  Lebanon  {Abies  cedrus), 
585 


PLANTATION,  PLaNTINO. 


any  tolerably  good  soil,  ratlior  dcopor 
tlian  for  tlic  laicli,  Imt  a  pervious  stib- 
soil,  free  fVoiii  sla^iiaiit  water. 

"Too close  planting  produces  weak, 
dra\vn-u|)  timber,  in  consequence  of 
the  tops  only  receivinjr  a  due  share 
of  light.  It  is  true  that  the  most 
magnificent  trees  arc  found  in  tliose 
ancient  forests  that  have  never  been 
sowed,  planted,  or  thinned  by  the 
hand  of  man  ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
it  will  not  be  denied  that,  wlierever 
natural  forests  exist,  the  soil  and  sit- 
uation must  be  exceedingly  favoura- 
ble for  the  species  produced  ;  and 
that,  although  tliousands  sprung  up 
more  than  could  possibly  find  room 
to  attain  perfection,  yet  those  only 
that  were  the  most  favourably  cir- 
cumstanced and  most  vigorous  would 
continue  ;  and  whcui  once  their  tops 
got  completely  above  those  of  the 
general  mass,  the  latter  must  have 
inevitably  fallen  into  decay.  There 
is  no  reason,  however,  to  suppose 
that  those  which  maintained  their 
ground,  and,  favoured  by  propitious 
soil,  became  lofty  specimens,  would 
not  have  been  benefited  by  the  assist- 
ance of  the  axe,  to  relieve  them  soon- 
er from  their  rivals. 

"  If,  on  the  contrary,  trees  are 
planted  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
each  other,  they  are  inclined  to  ram- 
ify into  large  limbs  and  spreading 
tops,  with  a  stem  short,  but  mucli 
thicker  than  where  the  space  admits 
of  less  expansion  of  foliage.  If,  there- 
fore, very  thick  timber  of  no  great 
length  be  required,  wide  planting  is 
proper  ;  but  if  tall  timber  be  the  ob- 
ject, the  plantation  must  be  moder- 
ately thick. 

"  The  care  which  plantations  re- 
quire from  year  to  year  consists  in 
making  up  deficiencies,  thinning,  and 
pruning.  Deficiencies  seldom  occur 
if  the  planting  be  at  first  duly  per- 
formed ;  and  every  endeavour  should 
be  used  to  prevent  the  necessity  of 
making  up.  This  is  always  done 
with  considerable  disadvantage  to 
the  plants  thus  introduced,  unless  the 
spaces  be  trenched  ;  but  in  that  case, 
if  the  species  of  tree  be  properly 
chosen,  the  plants  may  do  well  in 
586 


consequence  of  the  shelter  afforded 
by  tiie  older  surrounding  individuals. 

"Thinning  should  be  commenced 
in  due  time.  No  branch  of  the  tem- 
porary trees  should,  by  any  means, 
overhang  the  top,  or  even  branches  of 
those  that  are  permanent.  The  shel- 
ter on  the  most  exposed  sides  of  the 
plantation  should  be  formed  of  ro- 
bust, vigorous-growing  kinds,  and  it 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  unbro- 
ken. Plantations  that  have  been  neg- 
lected till  they  have  formed  a  dense 
thicket  must  be  thinned  gradually  ; 
for  if  thinned  at  once,  those  left  would 
be  injured  by  tlie  sudden  exposure, 
and  would  be  blown  over  by  winds. 

"  Pruniiiff  is  an  important  opera- 
tion in  the  management  of  planta- 
tions, but  it  is  often  improperly  prac- 
tised, for  want  of  the  knowledge  of  a 
few  physiological  facts,  which  are  es- 
sentially necessary  to  be  stated  be- 
fore any  rules  for  pruning  can  be 
properly  given.  If  these  facts  be  un- 
derstood, few  rules  will  be  required, 
but  otherwise  a  volume  of  directions 
are  liable  to  be  misapplied.  It  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  understood,  that  the 
sap  ascends  from  the  stem  chiefly 
through  the  alburnum,  or  outer  layers 
of  young  wood.  It  then  enters  the 
leaves,  when  it  is  exposed  to  the  in- 
fluence of  light.  Having,  in  conse- 
quence, undergone  an  elaboration,  it 
descends  on  the  outside  of  the  albur- 
num, that  is  to  say,  through  the  inner 
bark  ;  the  internal  surface  of  the  lat- 
ter possessing  a  great  degree  of  lu- 
bricity, whereby  the  passage  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  juices,  at  least,  is  facilita- 
ted to  the  roots,  while  part  is  detain- 
ed and  becomes  organized,  forming  a 
new  layer  of  woody  matter.  The 
thickness  of  the  layer  so  formed  is 
very  different  in  different  species  ; 
but  in  the  same  species,  all  other  cir- 
cumstances being  the  same,  it  is  in 
proportion  to  the  surface  of  leaves. 
The  aggregate  horizontal  growth,  or, 
in  other  words,  the  diametrical  ex- 
tension of  the  stem,  branch,  and  even 
roots,  depends  upon  the  quantity  of 
healthy  foliage.  The  diametrical  in- 
crease of  any  particular  part  corre- 
sponds with  the  greater  or  less  pro- 


PLANTATION,  PLANTING. 


portion  of  foliage  above  that  part. 
Again,  it  may  be  stated  that  if  one 
tree  has  a  clear  stem  of  20  feet  in 
lengtii,  and  another  has  one  of  40  feet, 
tlie  roots  and  toMage  of  both  being 
equal,  the  layer  of  new  wood  w-ill  be 
much  thinner  in  the  latter  case  than 
in  the  former ;  for  the  deposition  of 
woody  matter  will  have  to  extend 
over  double  the  surface  in  the  tall 
tree.  It  may  be  also  remarked  that, 
in  general,  if  a  tree  be  left  entirely  to 
nature,  it  will  ultimately  produce  a 
greater  bulk  of  wood,  taking  stems 
and  branches  togetiier,  than  would  be 
the  case  if  subjected  to  pruning.  Ex- 
cept, however,  in  the  case  of  growing 
for  fuel,  pruning  is  more  or  less  neces- 
sary. The  value  of  a  timber-tree  de- 
pends chiefly  on  the  stem,  the  branch 
timber  being  of  less  value.  The  ob- 
ject to  be  kept  in  view  in  pruning  for 
timber  is  the  production  of  a  clean 
stem  with  as  small  a  proportion  of 
branches  as  possible.  But  it  has  been 
explained  that  the  growth  of  the  stem 
depends  on  the  quantity  of  foliage, 
and  without  branches  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  foliage  cannot  be  main- 
tained. While,  on  the  one  hand,  an 
undue  preponderance  of  branches  is 
prevented  by  pruning,  yet,  on  the 
other,  as  much  foliage  should  be  pre- 
served as  circumstances  will  permit. 
"  An  excessive  privation  of  foliage 
should  never  be  occasioned  at  any 
one  time.  It  is  therefore  advisable 
to  commence  pruning  early,  in  order, 
as  it  were,  to  repress  irregularities  in 
the  bud.  At  all  events,  whenever  an 
irregularity  can  be  clearly  distinguish- 
ed as  such,  it  should  be  checked. 
Thus,  when  a  shoot,  occupying  the 
position  of  a  branch,  ascends  in  com- 
petition with  the  top,  or  leading  shoot, 
and  is  allowed  to  go  on  for  years,  the 
stem  will  have  a  forked  character  ; 
or  if  the  competing  portion  be  ampu- 
tated after  it  has  acquired  a  large 
size,  the  timber  will  be  rendered  un- 
sound. But  if  the  shoot  from  w^hich 
this  aspiring  liml)  took  its  rise  had 
been  stopped  in  the  first  or  second 
season  of  its  growth  in  summer,  the 
tree  might  have  been  grown  with  a 
clean,  regularly  tapering  stem.     It  is 


only  great  irregularities,  however, 
that  should  be  meddled  with  during 
the  e;niy  growth  of  the  plant ;  other- 
wise the  increase  of  roots  is  prevent- 
ed, such  increase  being  reciprocal 
with  that  of  the  branches. 

"  Young  shoots  of  the  above  de- 
scription may  be  checked  by  being 
shortened  in  summer ;  but  no  large 
branches  should  be  cut  off  at  that 
season,  nor  after  the  sap  begins  to 
flow  briskly  in  spring.  Towards  au- 
tumn, however,  when  the  leaves  have 
nearly  ceased  to  carry  on  their  func- 
tions, pruning  may  be  very  properly 
performed  ;  and  some  species,  for 
example,  the  birch  and  maple,  require 
to  be  pruned  at  that  time,  otherwise 
they  are  apt  to  bleed.  The  period  at 
which  bleeding;  that  is,  an  extravasa- 
tion of  sap,  takes  place  with  greatest 
force,  is  immediately  before  the  burst- 
ing of  the  buds  in  spring.  If  a  branch 
be  cut  off  when  it  is  in  foliage,  the 
remaining  portion  draws  the  sap 
and  prevents  effusion  at  the  wound. 
Some  derangement  will  of  course  be 
produced  in  the  flow  of  sap  ;  and  a 
diminution  of  the  process  of  lignifica- 
tion  and  of  the  formation  of  roots  will 
be  occasioned,  owing  to  the  abstrac- 
tion of  a  certain  extent  of  foliage. 
But  when  the  sap  is  in  motion,  and 
the  leaves  at  the  same  time  not  ex- 
panded, the  amputation  of  a  branch 
is  followed  by  a  flow  of  sap,  which 
appears  to  drain  from  every  part  of 
the  tree.  The  sap  becomes  stale  on 
exposure  to  the  air ;  it  then  aflects 
the  cambium  and  inner  bark,  often 
to  a  considerable  extent  below  the 
wound,  and  if  these  are  not  in  all 
cases  so  far  completely  killed,  yet 
they  are  generally  more  or  less  in- 
jured, and  canker  is  apt  to  ensue. 

"  Suppose  it  were  required  to  rear 
a  tree  so  as  to  have  a  stem  of  clean- 
grown  timber  as  tall  and  as  thick 
as  could  possibly  be  obtained  in  any 
given  time.  The  first  consideration 
is  the  root,  the  plant  being  supposed 
to  be  young,  with  a  top  or  upright 
leading  shoot, and  several  side  branch- 
es. All  these  should  be  left  undis- 
turbed in  the  first  instance,  unless 
such  of  the  latter  as  may  require  a 
587 


PLA 


PLA 


check  if  growing  too  strong  for  the 
others  or  for  tho  U.^ader.  Tiie  later- 
als should  be  left,  for  the  sake  of  ilie 
roots,  till  tiieir  presence  on  the  stem 
becomes  inconsistent  with  the  object 
of  producing  it  as  free  as  possible 
from  knots,  taking  also  into  consid- 
eration that  the  diliiculty  in  healing 
the  wound  increases  as  the  branches 
get  older.  A  J'eiv  of  the  largest 
shoots  should  be  those  first  removed. 
They  may  be  shortened  in  the  first 
instance  after  midsummer,  and  af- 
terward cut  off  smoothly  by  the  low- 
est circular  wrinkles  which  form 
round  their  base,  close  to  the  stem, 
but  without  slicing  off  a  portion  of 
the  bark :  a  slovenly  practice,  of 
which  only  bad  pruners  are  guilty, 
and  which  can  only  have  the  effect 
of  diminishing  the  power  of  the  bark 
to  close  over  the  wound  necessarily 
made  by  the  pruning-knife.  Such 
unnecessary  wounds  cause  an  extrav- 
asation of  sap,  as  may  be  seen  espe- 
cially in  coniferous  trees,  where  they 
are  generally  covered  with  resinous 
exudations.  In  the  following  sea- 
son the  next  largest  branches  should 
be  in  like  manner  displaced,  care  be- 
ing still  taken,  on  account  of  the  im- 
portance of  tlie  foliage,  as  already 
explained,  that  the  quantity  removed 
shall  be  no  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

"  Small  branches  along  the  stem 
should  be  left  till  they  approach  the 
dimensions  by  which  the  removal  of 
the  others  is  regulated.  These  prin- 
ciples should  be  followed  up  till  the 
required  height  of  stena  is  attained  ; 
after  which  the  branches  composing 
the  top  shall  be  allowed  full  freedom, 
in  order  to  increase,  by  their  organ- 
izing power,  the  diameter  of  the 
stem. 

"  Coniferous  trees  require  little 
pruning  ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  com- 
mence so  early  with  them  as  in  the 
case  of  other  kinds.  In  dense  for- 
ests, they  are  found  with  straight 
stems,  approaching  the  height  of  100 
feet  clear  of  side  branches,  the  latter 
gradually  decaying  below  as  they  be- 
come excluded  from  light  and  moist- 
ure by  those  above  them.  When, 
588 


from  this  cause,  the  lower  branches 
of  coniferous  trees  are  observed  to 
lose,  in  a  great  measure,  their  vigour, 
and  when  their  foliage  contributes  lit- 
tle to  the  enlargement  of  the  stem, 
they  may  then  be  very  properly  cut 
off,  without  waiting  for  their  actual 
decay.  It  is  a  question  whether  the 
branches  of  these  trees  should  be  cut 
close  to  the  stem  at  once,  in  pruning, 
or  whether  they  should  first  be  snag- 
ged, that  is,  cut  at  some  distance  from 
the  stem,  and  either  allowed  so  to 
remain  or  be  afterward  cut  close. 
That  plan  is  best  to  adopt  by  which 
the  least  exudation  of  resinous  sub- 
stance is  occasioned,  and  the  blemish 
soonest  overgrown.  With  the  view 
of  preventing  the  former,  the  branch 
may  be  shortened  only  to  the  first  live 
twigs,  so  as  almost  to  nullify  its  con- 
nexion with  the  stem,  preparatory  to 
its  final  and  close  removal  in  the  fol- 
lowing season. 

"  By  choosing  the  proper  season, 
and  by  previous  shortening,  large 
limbs  of  any  healthy  tree  may  be 
closely  amputated  so  as  to  heal  over 
without  aft"ei,;ling  the  tree  generallj', 
or  even  the  portion  of  stem  more  im- 
mediately connected  with  the  limb  to 
any  material  extent ;  yet  the  new 
layer  of  wood  will  prove,  on  cutting 
up  the  timber,  to  be  only  in  close  con- 
tact with  the  surface  of  the  wound, 
which  will  remain  dead,  and  with 
which  the  living  matter  enclosing  it 
could  not  coalesce.  A  piece  of  un- 
sound wood  is  thus  imbodied.  In 
this  case,  it  would  be  advisable  to 
shorten  the  limb  to  such  of  its  later- 
als as  will  just  be  sufficient  to  keep  it 
alive  till  the  tree  is  felled.  If,  in  the 
interval,  the  branch  should  push  vig- 
orously, means  must  be  adopted  to 
keep  it  always  in  a  reduced  state,  by 
merely  allowing  as  much  foliage  to 
grow  as  will  keep  the  branch  alive, 
without  affording  any  material  ad- 
dition to  its  diameter." — (Professor 
Lindley.) 

PLANTING.  See  Plantation. 
The  following  table  shows  the  num- 
ber of  plants  required  for  one  acre  of 
land,  from  one  fool  to  twenty-one  feet 
distance  from  plant  to  plant. 


PLA 


PLO 


Pistance. 

Distance. 

Ft.     In. 

Number. 

Ft. 

In. 

Knmber. 

1        0    . 

.  43.560 

8 

6  . 

.     .  602 

1        6    . 

.   19.360 

9 

0  . 

.     .  538 

2       0    . 

.   10,890 

9 

6  . 

.     .  482 

2      6   . 

.     6,960 

10 

0  . 

.     .  436 

3      0   . 

.     4,840 

11 

0  . 

.     .  361 

3      6    . 

.     3,556 

12 

0    . 

.     .  302 

4      0    . 

.     2,722 

13 

0   . 

.    .  253 

4       6    . 

.     2,151 

14 

0  . 

.     .  223 

5      0    . 

.     1,712 

15 

0    . 

.    .  194 

5      6   . 

.     ],-140 

16 

0   . 

.     .  171 

6      0    . 

.     1,210 

17 

0   . 

.    .  151 

6      6    . 

.     1,031 

18 

0   . 

.     .  135 

7      0   . 

6S9 

19 

0  . 

.     .   121 

7      6   . 

775 

20 

0   . 

.     .  109 

8      0   . 

680 

21 

0   . 

.    .    99 

PLANT  LICE. 

See  Aphis. 

PLASIILXG. 

'  A  mode  o 

f  repair- 

ing  or  making  a  hedge  by  bending 
down  a  portion  of  the  shoots,  cutting 
them  iialf  through  near  tiie .ground,  to 
•render  them  more  pliable,  and  twist- 
ing them  among  the  upright  stems, 
so  as  to  render  the  whole  effective  as 
a  fence,  and,  at  the  same  time,  pre- 
serve all  the  branches  alive.  For 
this  purpose,  the  branches  to  l)e  plash- 
ed or  bent  down  must  not  be  cut 
more  than  half  through,  in  order  that 
a  sufficient  portion  of  sap  may  rise 
up  from  the  root  to  keep  alive  the 
upper  part  of  the  branches.  Where 
hedges  are  properly  formed  and  kept, 
they  can  very  seldom  require  to  be 
plashed  ;  but  this  mode  of  treating  a 
hedge  is  most  valuable  in  the  cases 
of  hedges  abounding  with  hedge-row 
trees,  when  from  neglect,  or  from 
any  other  cause,  the  hedge  has  be- 
come of  irregular  growth. 

PLASTER.  A  mixture  of  burned 
plaster  of  Paris  with  water,  which 
sets  with  great  rapidity,  and  is  used 
in  moulding  and  the  finer  work  of 
plasterers. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.  Gypsum, 
which  see. 

PLASTIC.  Capable  of  being 
moulded,  adhesive. 

PLATBAND.  A  square  moulding, 
projecting  from  the  wall  less  than  its 
width. 

PLATE.  In  building,  a  timber  ly- 
ing horizontally  on  a  wall  to  receive 
the  ends  of  girders,  joists,  rafters,  &c. 

PLATFORM.  A  level  structure 
of  any  materials,  to  receive  a  super- 
incumbent building. 

PLATINUM,  PLATINA.     An  ex- 

D  D  D 


pensive  metal,  of  the  appearance  of 
silver,  but  very  infusible,  and  of  spe- 
cific gravity  21-5.  It  resists  most 
chemical  reagents,  and  is  used  in 
chemistry  for  crucibles,  and  in  foil 
and  wire  for  numerous  purposes. 
The  bichloride  of  platinum,  dissolved 
in  alcohol,  forms  insohil)lc  salts  with 
chloride  of  potash,  or  annnonia,  but 
not  with  soda,  and  is  used  to  separate 
the  former  alkalies  from  the  latter. 
PL.\TYPH  YLLUM.  The  Katydid, 

wllictl  SG6. 

PLATYSO.MES,  PLATYSOMA. 
A  family  of  coleoptera  with  wide  and 
fiat  bodies,  living  under  the  bark  of 
trees. 

PLEASURE  GROUNDS. 
Grounds  laid  out  in  shrubberies, 
groups  of  trees,  winding  walks,  and 
lawns. 

PLESIO.MORPHISM  (from  K^.T^ai- 
of,  near,  and  /J.op(p7],  form).  A  terra 
used  to  denote  a  similarity  between 
different  crystals  in  their  angles,  but 
not  an  identity. 

PLETHORA.  A  fulness  of  the 
circulatory  system,  almost  amount- 
ing to  disease,  and  calling  for  bleed- 
ing. 

PLEURA.  The  serous  membrane 
surrounding  the  cavity  of  the  chest, 
lungs,  and  heart ;  it  consists  of  two 
parts,  which  are  united  along  the 
middle,  and  forms  the  mcdmslinum. 
Its  inflammation  is  called  pleurilis,  or 
pleurisv. 

PLICIPENNATES,  PLICIPEN- 
NES.  Neuropterous  insects,  the  in- 
ferior wings  of  many  of  which  are 
larger  than  the  upper  pair,  and  are 
folded  lengthwise,  as  the  caddis  flies. 

PLINTH.  The  lowest  form  or 
member  of  the  base  of  a  column,  of 
a  square  figure  and  small  height. 

PLIOCENE.  The  uppermost  por- 
tion of  the  tertiary  formation,  con- 
taining recent  fossils,  for  the  most 
part. 

PLOTTING.  In  surveying,  laying 
down  on  paper  the  angles  and  lines 
measured  to  calculate  the  contents 
of  a  given  tract ;  it  is  done  with  a 
protractcr  or  plotting  scale. 

PLOTTING  SCALE.  "It  con- 
sists of  two  graduated  ivory  scales, 
589 


PLO 


PLO 


one  of  which  is  perforated  nearly  its 
wliolc  length  by  a  dovctail-shapcd 
groove,  for  tiic  reception  of  a  sliding 
piece,  to  which  tiic  second  scale  is 
attached,  and  with  which  it  moves, 
the  edge  of  the  second  being  always 
at  rijiht  angles  to  the  edge  of  the  first. 
By  this  means  the  rectangular  co-or- 
dinates of  a  point  are  measured  at 
once  on  the  scales,  or  tlie  position 
of  the  point  laid  down  on  the  plan." 
— (Braude's  Encyclopccdia.) 

PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHINCx. 
"  Before  we  enter  into  any  details,  it 
may  be  as  well  that  we  describe  the 
difl'erent  essential  parts  of  a  plough 
by  the  names  which  are  usually  given 
to  them. 

"  The  body  of  a  plough  is  that  part 
to  vvhi(,'h  all  the  other  parts  are  at- 
tached. The  bottom  of  it  is  called 
the  sole,  or  slade,  to  the  fore  part  of 
which  is  affixed  the  point,  or  share ; 
the  hind  part  of  the  sole  is  called  the 
heel.  The  beam,  which  advances  for- 
ward from  the  body,  serves  to  keep 
the  plough  in  its  proper  direction,  and 
to  the  end  of  it  are  attached  the  oxen 
or  horses  which  are  employed  to 
draw  it.  Fixed  in  the  beam,  in  a 
vertical  position,  before  the  point  of 
the  share,  with  its  point  a  little  for- 
ward, is  the  coidler,  which  serves  to 
cut  a  vertical  section  in  the  ground, 
while  the  point  of  the  share,  expand- 
ing into  a  fin,  separates  a  slice  by  a 
horizontal  cut  from  the  solid  ground 
under  it.  The  mould-hoard,  or  turn- 
furrow,  is  placed  obliquely  behind  the 
fin,  to  the  right  or  left,  in  order  to 
push  aside  and  turn  over  the  slice  of  ^ 
earth  which  the  coulter  and  share 
have  cut  off:  it  thus  leaves  a  regular 
furrow  wherever  the  plough  has  pass- 
ed, which  furrow  is  intended  to  be 
filled  up  by  the  slice  cut  olTfrom  the 
land  by  the  side  of  it  when  the  plough 
returns.  The  stilts  or  handles,  of 
E 

Fig.  1 
C 


which  there  may  be  either  one  or  two, 
as  is  thought  more  convenient,  direct 
the  plough  by  keeping  it  in  the  line 
required,  and  at  a  regular  depth  in 
the  ground.  The  single  stilt  appears 
to  be  the  most  ancient  form. 

"  Wheels  are  a  modern  invention 
in.com|)arison  with  the  other  parts. 
They  support  the  end  of  the  beam, 
and  prevent  it  from  going  too  deep 
into  the  ground,  or  rising  out  of  it 
while  the  plough  is  going  on.  The 
greatest  improvements  introduced 
into  modern  ploughs  are  in  the  shape 
of  the  mould-board  or  turn-furrow, 
of  which  we  shall  take  particular  no- 
tice, and  the  contrivances  for  regu- 
lating the  line  of  draught,  so  as  to 
make  the  plough  go  at  an  equal  depth, 
and  cut  off  a  regular  slice  of  equal 
breadth  without  any  great  force  being 
applied  by  the  ploughman  who  holds 
the  stilts. 

"  The  ploughs  in  use  in  different 
countries  in  Europe  have  undergone 
little  change  for  many  centuries  ;  it 
is  only  lately  that  any  attempt  has 
been  made  to  vary  the  old  forms. 

"The  Roman  plough,  such  as  is 
described  by  Virgil  in  the  '  Georgics' 
(i.,  169),  is  still  used  in  many  parts  of 
France,  under  the  name  of  Araire 
Komain.  It  consists  of  a  beam  {te- 
mo),  a  body  {buris),  a  share  {vomer), 
and  a  handle  or  stilt  {stiva).  The  of- 
fice of  the  turn- furrow  is  performed 
by  two  pieces  of  wood,  about  six  inch- 
es long,  projecting  obliquely  upward, 
and  very  properly  called  teeth  {denla- 
lia),  E  F  {Fig.  1).  The  sole  of  the 
plough,  A  B,  has  two  pieces  of  wood, 
G  G  and  D  H,  fi.xed  to  it  on  each 
side,  forming  an  acute  angle  with  it, 
in  which  the  teeth  are  inserted.  This 
exactly  answers  the  description  of 
Virgil,  '  Duplici  aptantur  dentalia  dor- 
so'  (the  teeth  are  fitted  to  the  double 
back). 


590 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


"  These  teeth  help  to  push  aside 
the  earth  to  the  right  and  left,  and 
the  instrument  resembles  what  is 
called  a  inouldin;?  plough,  which  is 
used  in  throwinj;  the  soil  aside  against 
young  plants  growing  in  rows,  as  tur- 
nips, potatoes,  &.C.  A  chain  or  pole 
connected  with  the  end  of  the  beam, 
was  hooked  to  the  middle  of  the  yoke 
on  the  neck  of  the  oxen,  and  thus  the 
plough  went  on  making  parallel  fur- 
rows, so  near  to  each  other  that  the 
preceding  furrow  was  partially  filled 
with  the  earth  which  the  dentalia 
pushed  aside.  The  point  was  in  the 
shape  of  the  head  of  a  lance.  This 
plough  might  suffice  in  liL'ht,  mellow 
soils  which  had  been  long  in  cultiva- 
tion, and  had  more  the  texture  of 
garden  mould  than  of  stubborn  clay. 

"  The  small,  double  mould-board 
plough,  common  in  other  parts  of 
France,  is  evidently  taken  from  this. 
The  teeth  not  being  sufficiently 
strong,  a  slanting  board  was  sul)sti- 
tnted  on  each  side,  and  wheels  were 
added,  to  diminish  the  labour  of  the 
ploughman.  The  stdt  remained  the 
same  at  the  place  where  it  is  attach- 
ed to  the  plough,  but  higher  up  it  was 
divided  into  two,  like  a  fork,  for  the 
convenience  of  holding  it  with  both 
hands.  This  plough  acts  exactly  like 
the  other,  but  it  is  stronger  and  better 
adapted  for  heavier  land.  Neither  of 
them  goes  much  deeper  than  four  or 
five  inches,  leaving  shallow  parallel 
ridges,  in  which  the  seed  falls,  and  is 
buried  by  light  wooden  harrows, 
which  are  drawn  over  the  land  after 
sowing.  This  is  an  imperfect  till- 
age, the  bottoms  of  the  furrows  being 
only  partially  stirred.  The  broad,  flat 
share,  and  the   single  mould-board, 


r:.,ugh. 

which  turns  the  earth  completely 
over,  after  lifting  it  up,  is  a  far  more 
eflectual  instrument,  and  has  been 
adopted  wherever  agriculture  has 
made  any  improvement.  This  plough 
more  nearly  imitates  the  digging  with 
a  spade,  and  the  more  perfect  the  imi- 
tations, the  better  is  the  work. 

"  The  mould-board  of  a  modern 
plough  is  either  fixed  on  one  side,  or 
made  to  be  shifted  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  or  there  are  two  mould- 
boards,  as  in  Barnaby  and  Mooer's 
double  mould-board  plough, _/ig- 3.  In 
the  first  case,  one  half  the  furrow  sli- 
ces lie  on  one  side,  and  half  on  the  oth- 
er, and  there  is  of  necessity  a  double 
furrow  where  they  join.  When  it  is 
desirable  that  the  surface  should  be 
quite  flat,  and  the  furrow-slices  all  in 
one  direction,  the  mould-board  must 
be  shifted  at  every  turn,  and  a  plough 
which  admits  of  this  is  called  a  turn- 
wrest  plough,  or  there  must  be  two 
boards. 

"The  form  of  the  turn- furrow  is  of 
material  importance,  for  on  this  de- 
pends not  only  the  perfection  of  the 
work,  but  also  the  lightness  of  the 
draught.  When  we  follow  a  plough 
working  in  a  mellow  soil  which  slight- 
ly adheres  to  the  plough,  we  often 
perceive  that,  instead  of  being  turned 
aside,  the  earth  is  carried  forward, 
and  only  falls  off  when  the  accunui- 
lation  of  it  becomes  heavy  enough 
to  overcome  the  adhesion.  It  does 
not  slido  ofT  from  the  mould-board  it- 
self, but  separates  from  the  earth 
which  adheres  to  the  latter:  thus 
showing  that  the  shape  is  defective, 
and  giving  good  hints  for  its  improve- 
ment. But  as  the  same  plough  will 
sometimes  turn  over  the  same  earth 
591 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHLNG. 


better  when  it  is  either  drier  or  moist- 
er,  it  is  very  ciifncult  to  determine, 
by  ex|>eriinent  only,  wimt  may,  on 
the  whole,  be  the  i)est  sliape.  A  lit- 
tle relieclion,  and  the  application  of 
scientilic  jjrinciples  may  greatly  as- 
sist us  here.  It  is  not  suflicient, 
however,  to  find  the  curve  which 
will  make  the  plough  go  tlirough  the 


ground  with  the  least  force.  The 
plough  must  also  perform  its  work 
perfectly,  and  if  anything  is  to  be 
sacrificed,  it  is  better  to  employ  more 
power  than  to  plough  the  ground 
badly.  After  liaving  ascertained  the 
mechanical  principles  which  bear  on 
the  working  of  the  plough,  we  must 
observe  its  action  carefully,  follovvr 
the  plough  day  after  day,  in  different 
soils  and  diderent  weatlier,  and  thus 
we  may  be  led  to  observe  all  the  cir- 
cumstances which  attend  its  opera- 
tion, and  correct  any  mistakes  which 
an  erroneous  theory  might  have  led  to. 
"  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  ascertain  the  exact  curve  which 
the  turn-furrow  should  have  to  per- 
form the  work  well,  ^nd  at  the  same 
time  to  produce  the  least  resistance. 
The  difficulty  of  the  problem  lies  in 
determining  the  data,  or  principles 
on  which  the  investigation  is  found- 
ed ;  and  these  are  so  various  that  it 
is  not  surprising  that  no  very  satis- 
factory conclusion  has  yet  been  ob- 
tained. We  will  make  an  attempt  at 
a  solution  from  a  simple  examination 
of  the  motion  to  be  produced  in  the 
portion  of  earth  to  be  turned,  which 
we  call  the  furrow-slice.  We  shall 
suppose  this  separated  from  the  ad- 
jacent soil  by  the  vertical  cut  of  the 
coulter,  and,  at  the  same  time,  from 
the  subsoil  by  the  horizontal  cut  of 
the  share  :  a  section  of  the  slice,  by 
a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
the  ploughing,  will  be  a  parallelo- 
gram A  B  D  C  (Fig.  4),  the  depth, 
Fig-.  4. 


692 


C  D  6  6' 

A  C,  being  the  thickness  of  the  slice, 
and  A  B  its  width.  Confining  our  at- 
tention to  this  section  of  the  slice, 
the  object  is  to  move  it  from  its  po- 
sition, A  B  D  C,  as  cut  off  by  the 
coulter  and  share,  to  that  of  b'  d'  c'  a', 
where  it  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
45^  to  the  horizontal  line,  the  surface, 
A  B  (i'  a'),  being  laid  on  the  slice 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


previously  turned  over,  so  as  to  bury 
the  grass  or  weeds  winch  might  be 
I  rooted  there,  exposing  the  roots  to 
I  the  sun  and  air.  The  more  uniform- 
f'  ly  this  motion  is  produced,  and  the 
more  regularly  the  successive  sec- 
tions follow  each  other,  the  less  pow- 
er will  be  required  to  turn  over  the 
whole  slice.  The  motion  of  C  D 
round  the  point  D  must  therefore  be 
uniform.  If  the  turn-furrow  is  hori- 
zontal at  the  point  where  it  joins  the 
share,  and  of  the  same  width  as  tlio 
furrow-slice,  it  will  slide  under  the 
slice  ;  and  if  the  vertical  sections  of 
its  upper  surface,  at  equal  distances 
from  the  share,  are  inclined  at  an- 
gles regularly  increasing  with  this 
distance  till  it  arrives  at  the  perpen- 
dicular, the  turn-furrow  will,  as  it 
advances,  turn  the  slice  from  a  hori- 
zontal to  a  perpendicular  position  ; 
the  section  of  it  will  then  be  Dc  ab. 
The  inclination  of  the  section  of  the 
turn-furrow  must  now  be  to  the  oth- 
er side,  forming  an  obtuse  angle  with 
the  section  of  the  sole,  until  it  has 
pushed  the  slice  over  at  the  required 
inclination  of  45°,  which  theory  and 
experience  have  shown  to  be  the 
best  adapted  to  expose  the  greatest 
surface  to  the  action  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  likewise  to  form  the  most 
regular  furrows  for  the  reception  of 
the  seed,  which  the  harrow  can  then 
most  readily  bury. 

"  Tlie  surface  of  this  turn-furrow 
is  curved  in  the  form  of  the  spiral 


thread  of  a  screw,  such  as  would  be 
generated  by  a  line  moved  uniformly 
forward  in  a  direction  at  right  angles 
to  its  length,  while  it  revolved  uni- 
formly round  one  of  its  extremities. 
This  surface  is  easily  constructed 
mechanically  thus  :  take  a  rectangu- 
lar parallelogram,  A  B  C  D  {Fig.  5), 

Fi;,'.  5. 
A  B 


of  the  width  of  nine  inches,  or  as 
wide  as  the  intended  furrow,  and  of 
a  length  equal  to  four  times  the  width. 
Bisect  B  C  in  E,  and  D  C  in  F  ;  at 
F  raise  a  perpendicular  F  G  to  the 
plane  of  the  rectangle,  and  make  it 
equal  to  C  E.  Join  E  G  and  produce 
it  to  K,  making  F  K  equal  to  F  E. 
Join  K  D.  Draw  from  every  point 
in  C  U  lines  at  right  angles  to  C  D, 
meeting  the  line  E  K  in  different 
points  ;  these  lines  will  form  the  re- 
quired surface.  The  line  K  D  will 
be  found  inclined  45^  to  the  horizon, 
at  the  angle  K  D  H,  which  is  the  in- 
clination at  which  the  furrow-slice  is 
most  advantageously  laid.  To  those 
who  are  not  familiar  with  solid  geom- 
etry, these  lines  may  be  easily  ex- 
hibited, by  means  of  a  wire  inserted 
at  E,  and  bent  at  a  right  angle  at  K, 
B 


<\\\\\ll//////. 


F 
/  U  Fig.  6. 

inserting  the  bent  portion  into  the 
board  A  B  C  D  {Fig.  6)  at  D,  so  that 
it  shall  be  inclined  45-  at  D,  lying  in 
the  direction  of  E  K,  in  Fis:^.  5  and 
6.  Care  must  be  taken  that  G  F  be 
equal  to  C  E,  and  perpendicular  to 
the  board. 

"  It  is  evident  that,  as  the  plough 
moves  on.  a  particle  at  E  will  slide 
alon'.r  the  line  E  K.  become  at  G  per- 
pendicular to  the  bottom  of  the  turn- 

D  D  D  2 


furrow,  which  should  be  parallel  to 
the  sole,  and  at  K  be  at  an  angle  of 
45^  with  that  line.  If  the  slice  were 
a  solid  substance,  this  line,  E  K, 
would  be  all  that  is  required  to  turn 
it  in  its  proper  position  ;  but  as  the 
soil  is  generally  loose,  and  would 
crumble  to  pieces,  a  support  must  be 
given  to  it  by  a  surface  at  least  as 
wide  as  the  slice.  This  surface  is 
generated  by  drawing  lines  from  dif- 
593 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 

fcrent  parts  of  D  C  at  rijj^ht  angles  to  ]  at  45°  beyond  it  at  D.     The  curve 


this  hnc.  and  meeting  the  line  K  E 
(,Fiff.  7).  These  lines  will  be  at  dif- 
Horizontal  Plan  of  the  Plough. 


A  B,  the  Sole.     C,  the  Fin.    D  C,  the  bottom 
of  the  Turn-furrow. 


ferent  angles  to  the  horizon,  nearly 
horizontal  at  C,  where  the  fin  of  the 
point  begins,  perpendicular  at  F,  and 
Sections  of  the  three  different  Turn-furrows,  at  different  distances  from  the  Heel 


thus  generated  will  be  found  to  turn 
over  soils  of  a  moderate  tenacity 
very  perfectly.  If  it  is  very  light, 
the  surface  may  be  formed  by  arcs 
of  circles  with  a  considerable  diame- 
ter, the  concave  part  upward  ;  if  it  is 
very  tenacious,  the  convex  part  of 
the  arches  may  be  upward.  Thus  the 
surface  may  be  varied  without  alter- 
ing the  ti\ed  line  E  K.  The  annexed 
figures  (8,  9,  and  10)  will  explain  this. 
The  distance  of  the  perpendicular  F  G 
from  the  lin  of  the  share  may  also  be 
varied,  either  lengthening  or  short- 
ening the  turn-furrow  as  experience 
may  show  to  be  most  advantageous. 


Fig.  9. 


"  A  plough  has  lately  been  con- 
structed on  this  principle ;  it  prom- 
ises to  realize  the  expectations  form- 
ed of  it.  In  soils  of  a  loose,  mellow 
nature  it  answers  completely,  and 
does  the  work  more  perfectly  than 
any  other  plough.  It  unites  the  par- 
allelism of  the  sole  and  bottom  of  the 
turn-furrow  of  the  Flemish  plough 
with  the  improved  shape  of  the  turn- 
furrow.  By  adopting  the  variations 
in  the  shape  of  the  turn-furrow  which 
we  have  suggested,  this  plough  may 
be  adapted  to  any  soil,  and  be  used 
with  or  without  wheels. 

"  Ploughs  were  formerly  made  of 
wood,  having  those  parts  covered 
with  iron  where  the  greatest  friction 
takes  place,  the  share  and  coulter 
only  being  of  iron ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  greater  facility  of  cast- 
ing iron  in  modern  times,  most  of  the 
parts  are  now  made  of  this  metal. 
The  beam  and  stilts  are  still  usually 
of  wood,  but  even  these  are  now 
sometimes  made  of  wrought  iron  and 
cast  iron.     The  advantages  of  iron 


A  D 

and  consequent  greater  friction  of 
the  sole.  Recent  experiments  have 
proved  this  to  be  greater  than  was 
generally  suspected.  A  great  im- 
provement has  been  introduced  by 
making  the  points  of  the  shares  of 
cast  iron,  which,  by  a  mode  of  cast- 
ing the  lower  surface  on  a  plate  of 
metal,  makes  one  surface  much  hard- 
er than  the  other ;  and  as  the  softer 
surface  wears  more  rapidly,  a  sharp 
edge  is  always  preserved. 

"  The  stilts  of  the  plough  are  most- 
ly of  wood.  Where  the  soil  is  light 
and  crumbling,  without  stones,  a  sin- 
gle handle  or  stilt  is  sufficient ;  but 
where  some  force  is  occasionally  re- 
quired to  prevent  stones  or  other  ob- 
stacles from  turning  the  plough  out 
of  its  course,  two  stilts  are  most  con- 
venient, placed  at  a  more  obtuse  an- 
gle with  the  sole  of  the  plough. 

"The  force  required  to  draw  a 
plough  depends,  not  only  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  but  also  on  the  shape 
of  the  plough,  and  especially  on  the 
position  of  its  difTerent  parts  with  re- 


are  its  durability  and  the  smaller  fric-  |  spect  to  each  other,  so  that  they  do 
tion  it  occasions  when  once  polished  |  not  counteract  each  other, 
by  use.    The  inconveniences  are  the        "  If  a  plough  w'ere  drawn  in  the  di- 
additional  weight  of  the  instrument,  J  rectioa  of  the  sole,  the  obliquity  of 
594 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


the  turn-furrow  would  cause  it  to 
turn  towards  one  side,  and  it  would 
require  a  considerable  force  to  keep 
it  straight.  In  order  to  prevent  this, 
the  line  of  draii<ilit  is  placed  at  an 
angle,  which  vaiics  with  that  of  the 
turn-furrow  and  liie  force  recjuired 
to  push  the  furrow-slice  over.  To 
adjust  this  angle,  so  as  to  cause  the 
plough  to  keep  in  the  intended  line, 
there  is  a  contrivance  at  the  end  of 
the  beam  to  cliange  the  position  of 
the  ring  by  which  the  plough  is  drawn 
to  the  right  or  lelt  of  the  line  of  the 
beam,  and  another  by  which  it  may 
be  raised  or  lowered.  In  most  ploughs 
the  beam,  having  been  originally  set 
at  a  small  angle  with  the  sole  towards 
the  right,  has  an  arch  of  wood  or 
iron  at  the  end,  as  in  the  annexed 
Fig.     An  iron,  shaped  as  in  Fig.  13, 


Fig.  11 


is  made  to  embrace  the  beam,  to 
which  it  is  attached  by  a  pin  {a),  round 


Fi^.l2.     J 


which  it  turns  as  a  centre.  Another 
pin  (i)  passes  through  one  of  the 
holes  in  the  circular  end,  and  keeps 
the  iron  in  any  required  position  to 
the  right  or  left  of  the  line  of  the 
beam.  The  end  of  this  iron,  which 
is  called  a  bridle  or  clevis,  has  sev- 
eral projecting  hooks  in  the  ol)long 
curve  which  terminates  it,  on  which 
an  iron  ring  is  hung  at  different 
heights.  By  these  contrivances  the 
plough  maybe  drawn  from  a  point  on 
either  side  of  the  beam,  and  higher 
or  lower,  as  may  be  required.    When 


the  plough  is  found  to  take  too  much 
land,  as  ploughmen  say,  that  is,  tends 
to  increase  the  width  of  the  slice  cut 
off  by  the  coulter,  the  bridle  is  shifted 
to  the  left  by  moving  the  pin  (4)  into 
another  hole  ;  when  it  goes  out  of  the 
land,  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  diminishes 
the  width  of  tlie  furrow-slice,  the  pin 
is  moved  a  hole  or  two  to  the  right, 
until  the  [ilough  has  no  tendency  to 
deviate  to  either  side.  If  it  inclines 
to  rise  out  of  the  ground,  tlie  ring  is 
shifted  in  the  iron  bridle,  and  placed 
in  a  hook  or  notch  higher  up ;  if,  on 
the  contrary,  it  dips  too  deep,  the 
ring  is  hooked  lower.  Thus  a  plough 
may  be  made  to  go  straight  and  at  a 
regular  depth,  without  any  more  force 
being  applied  to  the  stilts  than  is  re- 
quired to  counteract  inequalities  in 
the  land,  or  accidental  obstacles,  such 
as  stones  or  roots,  which  might  throw 
the  plough  out  of  the  ground.  When 
the  soil  is  of  unequal  texture,  it  is 
useful  to  have  a  small  wheel  con- 
nected with  the  fore  part  of  the  beam, 
so  as  to  prevent  its  dipping  down- 
ward, which  would  require  a  great 
pressure  on  the  stilts  to  keep  the 
point  of  the  share  up,  and  thus  in- 
crease the  friction  of  the  sole  on  the 
ground, and, consequently,  the  labour 
of  the  horses.  In  the  Rutland  plough, 
two  wheels  are  connected  with  the 
beam,  one  of  which  runs  in  the  fur- 
row to  the  right,  and  the  other  on  the 
unploughed  soil  to  the  left.  When 
the  plough  has  been  well  adjusted, 
and  the  larger  wheel  runs  in  the  angle 
of  the  furrow,  it  acts  as  a  gauge  to 
regulate  the  width  of  the  slice,  as 
well  as  its  depth  ;  in  very  uniform 
soils  without  stones,  the  plough,  when 
set  in  the  proper  direction,  will  make 
a  very  straight  and  even  furrow,  par- 
allel to  the  one  in  which  the  wheel 
runs,  without  any  person  holding  the 
stilts  ;  so  that  all  that  is  required  is 
to  turn  the  plough  at  the  end  of  each 
furrow,  and  set  it  into  the  proper  line 
to  form  the  next.  As  this  admits  of 
a  very  correct  adjustment,  no  unne- 
cessary force  is  required  to  draw  the 
plough,  and  hence  this  plough  appears 
to  be  the  easiest  for  the  horses  ;  and 
if  the  wheels  are  not  very  heavy,  and 
595 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


the  plough  is  of  a  good  form,  it  certainly  re- 
quires less  power  to  move  it  than  many  which 
596 


are  without  wlieels.  There 
are  some  very  irregular  and 
stony  soils,  where  a  common 
swing -plough  can  scarcely 
be  kept  steady  without  the 
help  of  wlieels,  and  where  it 
would  not  be  so  convenient 
to  have  the  beam  fixed  on 
the  wheels.  In  this  case,  a 
separate  carriage  is  neces- 
sary, that  the  ploughman 
may  have  a  fulcrum  on  which 
he  can  raise  his  plough,  or 
turn  it  to  either  side  to  avoid 
any  considerable  stone  or 
other  obstacle.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  it  may  be  safely 
asserted  that  a  slight  but 
strong  swing-plough,  in  the 
hands  of  a  clever  ploughman 
— with  one  wheel  in  partic- 
ular soils,  but,  in  general, 
without  any  wheel — will  ef- 
fect its  purpose  with  the 
greatest  precision,  and  the 
least  exertion  of  the  horses 
drawing  it.  Theory  and  prac- 
tice agree  in  this  ;  and  if  any 
experiments  appear  to  throw 
a  doubt  upon  it,  we  siiall 
probably  find  some  circum- 
stances which  have  influen- 
ced the  result,  when  wlieel- 
ploughs  have  appeared  to  re- 
quire the  least  power  of 
draught.  But  wheels  have 
one  advantage — they  will  en- 
able an  inferior  ploughman 
to  make  better  work  than  lie 
could  possibly  do  without 
them ;  and  that,  too,  with 
less  labour  to  the  horses,  be- 
cause, from  his  want  of  skill, 
the  swing-plough  would  be 
continually  subject  to  sud- 
den deviations,  requiring  him 
to  use  his  strengtli  to  coun- 
teract them  ;  and  each  exer- 
tion of  the  ploughman  adds 
to  the  labour  of  the  horses." 
The  numbers  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  show  the  com- 
parative draught  of  the  same 
ploughs  in  different  soils  ; 
they  are  from  Mr.  Pusey's 
experiments : 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


.  17 J  stom 
.  4T|  " 
.  16*  " 
•  3I5  " 
.  28$  "- 
.  20        " 


Trial  1.  Sandy  loam 
"  2.  Clay  loam  . 
"  3.  Loamy  sand 
"  4.  Strong-  loam 
"  5.  Clay  loam  . 
"     6.  Miwry  soil  . 

"  Without  enterin<j  into  any  com- 
parison of  ploughs  differently  con- 
structed, it  is  evident  that  the  shape 
of  the  plough  must  vary  with  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil  which  it  is  to  turn  up. 


A  light  soil  must  be  shovelled  up ; 
a  mellow  one  may  be  turned  over 
with  any  kind  of  mould-board  ;  a  very 
stiff,  tenacious  soil,  which  adheres  to 
any  surface  pressed  ajiainst  it,  will 
be  more  easily  turned  over  by  a  few 
points  of  contact  which  do  not  allow 
of  adhesion."'  Where  the  soil  is  a 
stiff,  moist  clay,  the  skeleton  plough 
of  Finlayson  {Fig.  14)  is  drawn  with 


half  the  force  necessary  for  a  com- 
mon implement.  This  plough  is  used 
to  some  extent  in  the  upper  prai- 
rie lands,  the  beam  being  modified. 
"  Hence  the  point  and  turn-furrow 
have  been  made  of  all  imaginable 
shapes,  and  while  one  man  contends 
for  a  very  concave  form,  another  will 
admit  of  nothing  which  is  not  very 
convex.  That  plough  will,  no  doubt, 
have  the  least  draught  which  is  best 
suited  to  the  soil  which  it  has  to 
move.  The  lighter  the  plough  is, 
consistently  with  sufficient  strength, 
the  less  draught  it  requires,  all  other 
circumstances  remaining  the  same. 
Lightness  and  strength  combined  are, 
consequently,  great  advantages,  and 
if  a  very  light  plough  does  its  work 
as  well  as  a  heavier,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  is  preferable.  DurabiK 
ity  is  nothing  compared  with  the  sa- 
ving of  one  horse  in  three ;  it  is 
cheaper  to  have  a  new  plough  every 
year  than  to  keep  an  additional  horse 
all  the  year.  If  a  wooden  plough  is 
found  to  be  more  easily  moved  than 
an  iron  one,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
which  should  be  preferred. 


"The  Flemish  plough  is  made  of 
wood,  and  is  very  light ;  the  share 
and  coulter  only  are  of  iron,  besides 
a  thin  sheet  of  iron  over  the  mould- 
board,  which  is  shaped  as  if  it  had 
been  rolled  obliquely  over  a  cylinder, 
a  shape  well  adapted  to  sandy  soils. 
In  ploughing  land  which  is  more  or 
less  mellow  and  crumbling,  the  great 
object  is  to  bring  to  the  surface  that 
portion  which  has  lain  buried,  and 
has  not  served  to  nourish  the  pre- 
ceding crop,  and  to  bury  that  which 
has  produced  vegetation,  and  in  which 
the  roots  of  various  weeds  have  estab- 
lished themselves.  When  manure 
is  to  be  covered  with  a  certain  depth 
of  earth,  a  more  complete  subversion 
is  required,  in  order  that  no  part  of 
it  may  remain  uncovered.  When  the 
land  is  in  a  compact  state,  from  the 
roots  which  pervade  it,  and  it  is  only 
ploughed  once  to  prepare  it  for  re- 
ceiving the  seed,  much  greater  nicety 
is  required  to  lay  the  slices  at  a  cer- 
tain angle,  so  as  to  leave  regular 
lines  or  depressions  in  which  the 
seeds  may  fall  and  be  regularly  cov- 
ered by  the  harrows  which  follow. 
5D7 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING 


In  tliis  case,  the  angle  of  15°  is  found 
to  be  tlie  uiost  convenient  at  which 
the  furrow-sUces  may  1)0  laid  against 
one  another.  The  licld  will  then 
have  the  appearance  of  being  laid  in 
small  ridges,  as  in  the  annexed  figure, 

Fig.  15. 


all  towards  the  same  side  if  ploughed 
with  a  double  mould-board  plough,  or 
towards  a  middle  line  if  a  plough  with 
a  fixed  turn-furrow  has  been  used. 
To  produce  this  regularity,  the  end 
of  the  turn-furrow  is  made  to  press 
on  the  slice  turned  over ;  and  some 
ploughmen  fi.x  a  piece  of  wood  or  iron 
to  the  end  of  the  turn-furrow,  which 
makes  a  groove  in  the  furrow-slice 
at  the  place  where  the  next  one  will 
be  laid  upon  it.  This  prevents  use- 
less openings  between  the  slices.  It 
adds,  no  doubt,  to  the  draught,  but  it 
makes  better  and  neater  work. 

"  When  the  seed  is  to  be  dibbled 
on  the  sward,  which  is  reversed  by  a 
single  ploughing,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  sod  should  be  completely  turned 
over  and  laid  flat.  To  do  this,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  bury  all  the  grass, 
requires  the  furrows  to  be  very  equal 
and  parallel ;  so  that  when  a  roller 
has  gone  over  the  land,  it  is  perfectly 
fiat,  without  any  interstices  between 
the  slices  which  ar6  turned  over.  It 
requires  a  good  ploughman  to  do  this 
perfectly. 

"  When  clover  ley  or  old  grass  is 
ploughed  up,  it  is  difficult  to  bury  all 
the  grass  which  grows  on  the  edge  of 
tlie  slice  ;  and  if  it  remains  exposed, 
it  will  grow  and  increase,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  corn.  To  prevent  this,  a 
wing  is  sometimes  added  to  the  side 
of  the  coulter,  a  few  inches  from  the 
point.  It  cuts  a  small  horizontal  slice 
(iff  the  surface  before  the  sod  is  turn- 
ed over,  and  this  falls  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow,  and  is  buried  there. 
l"he  coulter  with  such  a  wing  is  called 
a  skim-coulter,  because  it,  as  it  were, 
skims  the  surface  {Figs.  16  and  17). 
This  instrument  may  require  an  ad- 
.538 


ditional  horse  to  be  put  to  the  plough 
in  tenacious  soils,  but  this  cannot  be 
avoided.  There  is  no  doubt  that  no 
more  horses  should  be  put  to  a  plough 
than  can  do  the  work  ;  but  whatever 
be  the  number  required,  the  work 
must  be  done  well.  There  is  no  sav- 
ing in  doing  the  work  imperfectly. 
The  discussion  about  the  number  of 
horses  which  should  draw  a  plough 
might  easily  be  settled,  if  the  nature 
of  the  soil  were  sufficiently  taken 
into  consideration.  The  shape  of  the 
plough  may  make  some  difference, 
but  the  tenacity  of  the  soil  makes  a 
much  greater.  It  is,  however,  not  a 
little  surprising  that  there  should  be 
so  little  variety  in  the  width  of  the 
furrows.  It  would  appear  as  if  there 
were  a  law  prohibiting  furrows  less 
than  eight  inches  wide,  or  more  than 
ten  :  a  furrow-slice  five  inches  wide 
and  ten  deep  requires  no  more  pow- 
er than  one  ten  inches  wide  and  five 
deep.  It  is  true  that  a  plough  will 
not  do  more  than  half  an  acre  at  most 
in  a  day  with  narrow  furrows  ;  but, 
if  two  horses  will  do  this,  and  two 
ploughs  instead  of  one  be  used,  with 
one  man  and  two  horses  each,  an 
acre  will  be  ploughed  in  a  day  with 
four  horses  and  two  men,  which  is 
the  number  usually  employed  when 
the  furrows  are  deep  and  nine  or  ten 
inches  wide  ;  but  the  land  will  be 
much  better  stirred,  and  laid  more 
even.  The  Romans  ploughed  with 
deep,  narrow  furrows,  and  varied  the 
width  purposely,  the  better  to  pulver- 
ize the  soil.  The  plough  need  not  be 
narrower  for  this  work  ;  for  if  the 
first  furrow  be  made  wide  enough, 
the  plough  can  deepen  it  by  a  second 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING, 


turn  in  it,  and  a  trench  is  formed  in 
which  the  next  shce  (alls,  and  is  push- 
ed aside  by  the  tail  of  the  turn-fur- 
rows, so  as  to  leave  another  trench 
open  ten  inches  wide. 

"  Suppose  A  B  C  D  (Fig.  18)  the 
section  of  the  first  wide  furrow,  and  a 
slice,  A  E  F  B,  is  cut  off  the  solid  side 
Fig.  18. 
E        A        o         D 


I 

I 
I 

J L_ 


F         It  b  C 

of  the  land  half  the  width  of  the 
trench  ;  the  mould-board  pushes  this 
earth,  after  it  has  been  turned  over, 
into  the  space,  D  C  a  i,  marked  with 
the  dotted  line,  and  in  doing  so  beats 
and  crumbles  it,  leaving  a  fresh 
trench,  abF  E,  equal  to  the  first,  and 
so  the  whole  field  may  he  ploughed 
without  difficulty.  In  nine  cases  out 
often,  where  the  soil  is  properly  cul- 
tivated, and  ploughed  in  a  proper 
state,  this  mode  of  ploughing  would 
be  found  a  great  improvement,  and 
equal  to  a  trench  ploughing,  or  sub- 
soil ploughing.  Where  the  farms  are 
email,  and  few  horses  are  kept,  deep 
ploughing  is  not  practicable  with  the 
usual  width  of  furrow  ;  but,  with  a 
narrow  furrow,  the  land  may  be 
moved  to  a  very  great  deptii  with  a 
couple  of  horses.  The  plough  must 
be  made  sharp  and  narrow,  and  the 
turn-furrow  not  much  curved,  so  as 
rather  to  push  the  earth  aside  than  to 
lift  It. 

"  Very  little  attention  was  former- 
ly paid  to  the  straightness  of  the  fur- 
rows. It  was  natural  to  follow  the 
thapc  of  the  boundary  of  the  field, 
which  was  seldom  straight ;  and  this 
practice  increased  gradually  tUl  no 
straig'.it  furrow  was  to  be  seen  ;  but 
no  curves  can  be  laid  so  perfectly 


parallel  as  two  straight  lines.  Every 
deviation  from  parallelism  causes  a 
defect  in  the  contact  of  the  slices, 
and  a  loss  of  force  by  the  oblicpiity  of 
the  draught.  A  superficial  observer 
would  not  perceive  this,  but  minute 
examination  proves  it.  Hence  equal 
and  straight  furrows  are  a  sign  of 
good  ploughing. 

"  When  tiic  land  lies  on  a  dry  sub- 
soil, and  no  more  moisture  remains 
in  it,  after  continued  rains,  than  is 
useful  to  promote  vegetation,  it  may 
bo  ploughed  quite  fiat.  This  may  be 
done  by  a  plough  with  a  double  mould- 
board,  or  by  ploughing  in  a  continued 
spiral  from  tlie  centre  to  the  circum- 
ference, or  tiie  reverse.  In  this  case 
straight  furrows  cannot  be  made. 
The  best  way  is  to  draw  a  furrow 
the  whole  length  of  the  field  in  the 
middle,  and  plough  towards  this  from 
both  sides.  If  the  field  is  wide,  it  is 
most  convenient  to  plough  it  into  sev- 
eral broad  stitches,  each  a  certain 
number  of  perclies  in  breadth.  A 
perch  (16^  feet)  is  a  very  common 
width  for  a  stitch,  or  land,  and  con- 
venient to  guide  the  sower  or  the 
drdling  machine. 

"  But  on  moist,  impervious  subsoils 
it  is  necessary  to  lay  the  land  in  a 
rounded  form,  in  order  to  let  the 
superfluous  water  run  off  into  fur- 
rows, from  which  it  is  conducted  by 
proper  channels  into  the  ditches.  In 
this  case,  half  a  perch  is  a  common 
width  for  each  stitch,  or  land.  It  re- 
quires some  practice  to  lay  up  a  land 
in  a  rounded  form  from  a  llat  sur- 
face. After  cross-ploughing  and  har- 
rowing, the  first  furrow  is  drawn 
wide  and  shallow,  and  the  earth  is 
thrown  upon  the  surface  to  the  right : 
when  the  plough  returns,  it  takes  an- 
other furrow^  about  nine  or  ten  inch- 
es from  the  first,  laying  the  earth  or 
furrow-slice  somewhat  obliquely  over 
the  first.  At  the  next  turn  another 
slice  is  laid,  meeting  the  last  at  an 


Fig.  10. 


599 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 

Fig.  20. 


angle,  the  first  slice  being  quite  cov- 
ered by  the  last  two.  This  now 
forms  the  crown  of  the  ridge,  and 
the  succeeding  slices  are  laid  oblique- 
ly, leaning  to  the  right  and  left,  till 
the  required  width  is  obtained.  An- 
other land  is  now  begun  at  the  dis- 
tance of  a  quarter  of  a  perch  from 
the  last  furrow,  and  laid  exactly  in 
the  same  manner.  When  the  two 
lands  meet,  the  intervening  furrow, 
which  had  been  purposely  left  shal- 
lower, is  deepened,  and  there  is  a 
furrow  between  every  two  lands,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  considerably  be- 
low the  bottom  of  the  other  furrows. 
When  this  licld  is  ploughed  again  af- 
ter harvest,  the  work  is  reversed  ; 
the  furrow  between  the  lands  is  filled 
■\vith  the  first  slice,  and  another  is 
placed  over  this,  which  now  becomes 
the  crown  of  the  land  to  be  formed  : 
this  is  called  ploughing  crown  and 
furrow.  When  the  lands  are  plough- 
ed towards  the  crown,  it  is  called 
gathering.  By  gathering  several 
limes  in  succession,  the  soil  is  much 
raised  at  the  crown,  at  the  expense 
of  the  sides.  This  was  the  old  prac- 
tice, when  lands  were  laid  very  wide 
and  very  high  ;  in  conmion  fields  the 
land  or  stitch  was  often  the  whole 
widtii  of  the  possession,  from  which 
came  the  name  of  land." 

Every  practical  man  will  be  pre- 
pared to  understand  that  the  longer 
his  furrows  are,  the  less  loss  is  made 
in  turning  ;  but  the  amount  of  this 
loss  is  much  heavier  than  will  be  sup- 
posed :  according  to  Stephens,  it  is, 


Len<'th 

Breadth  of 

Time  lost 

Time  de 

Hours 

or  rutge. 

slice. 

inturnin!;. 

plough- 

ofwork. 

Yards. 

Incites. 

h.  m. 

h.m. 

/.. 

78 

10 

5  n 

4    4 

10 

149 

— 

2  44 

7  16 

— 

200 



2     1 

7  59 

— 

212 



1  bU 

8     3.V 

— 

274 

— 

1  26 

8  32 

— 

"  One  of  the   most  useful  opera- 
tions in  ploughing  land  is  to  cross  the 
600 


former  furrows,  by  which  means  the 
whole  soil  is  much  more  completely 
stirred  ;  and  if  any  part  has  been  left 
solid  without  being  moved  by  the 
ploughshare,  which  is  called  a  balk, 
it  is  now  necessarily  moved.  The 
leaving  of  balks  is  a  great  fault, 
and  is  owing  to  the  sole  of  the 
plough  being  narrower  than  the  fur- 
row-slice, and  the  wing  of  the  point 
too  short,  or  to  the  ploughman  not 
holding  his  plough  upright.  The 
share  should  cut  the  ground  to  the 
whole  width  of  the  furrow,  that  no 
roots  of  thistles,  docks,  or  other  large 
weeds  may  escape  and  grow  up  again. 
iMany  ploughmen  hold  the  plough  in 
an  oblique  position  ;  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  is  consequently  not  level,  and 
the  soil  is  not  stirred  equally.  This 
is  a  great  fault,  especially  in  wet 
ground  ;  for  the  furrows  thus  become 
channels,  in  which  the  water  remains, 
not  being  able  to  run  over  the  in- 
equalities of  the  bottom.  It  is  of  no 
use  to  lay  the  surface  convex  if  the 
solid  earth  below  lies  in  hollows  or 
gutters.  The  water  naturally  sinks 
down  into  the  newly-ploughed  land, 
till  it  meets  the  solid  bottom  which 
the  plough  has  gone  over ;  if  it  can 
run  over  this  into  the  deeper  furrows 
between  the  stitches,  it  evaporates  or 
runs  off,  and  the  land  is  left  dry,  and 
so  consolidated  as  to  let  the  water 
run  along  the  surface  without  sink- 
ing to  any  deptii ;  but  if  the  bottom 
is  uneven,  it  remains  in  the  hollows, 
and  stagnates  there,  to  the  great  in- 
jury of  the  growing  crops. 

"  There  are  various  modes  of 
ploughing  land  when  it  is  intended  to 
pulverize  and  expose  it  to  the  sun  in 
summer,  or  the  frost  in  winter,  to  pu- 
rify and  fertilize  it.  To  expose  as 
great  a  surface  as  possible,  the  whole 
field  is  laid  in  high  and  narrow  ridges, 
bringing  to  the  surface  all  the  fertile 
portion  of  the  soil,  and  often,  also,  a 
portion  of  the  subsoil,  so  as  to  deep- 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


en  the  productive  portion,  and  give 
more  room  for  the  roots  to  spread  in. 
The  simplest  method  of  increasing 
the  surface  exposed,  when  the  land 
is  first  broken  up  from  pasture,  or  af- 
ter liaving  been  some  years  in  grass, 
and  is  in  a  foul  state,  is  called  ribbing. 
The  plough  turns  up  a  slice,  which  it 
lays  over  flat  on  the  adjoining  sur- 
face.   It  does  not  cover  this  with  the 
next  slice,  as  if  it  were  beginning  the 
crown  of  a  stitch,  but  it  takes  anotli- 
er  slice  at  some  distance,  and  then 
one  parallel  to  the  lirst,  likewise  laid 
flat  on  the  solid  part.      When  the 
whole  field  has  been  so  ploughed,  the 
surface  consists  altogether  of  ridges 
and  furrows,  but  only  half  the  sur- 
face has  been  ploughed.     No  grass 
appears  ;  if  it  has  been  well  done,  the 
unploughed  strips  being  covered  by 
the  slices  raised  by  the  sides  of  them, 
the  two  surfaces  with  grass  on  them 
cover  each  other.     It  is  left  in  this 
state  till  the  grass  is  rotten,  and  when 
the  sod  is  broken  to  pieces  by  heavy 
drag  harrows,  the  land  can  be  cross- 
ploughed  and  cleaned  or  fallowed  in 
dry  weather. 

"  There  is  another  mode  ofridging, 
when  the  land  has  had  one  or  two 
ploughings,  in  order  to  expose  it  to 
t!ie  frost  in  winter,  and  to  mellow  it. 
The  operation  is  somewhat  similar 
to  ribbing,  but  after  the  first  slice  is 
turned  over,  another  is  added,  as 
deep  as  the  plough  can  be  made  to  go 
so  as  not  to  bring  up  the  subsoil ;  by 
this  means  the  whole  surface  is  laid 
in  high  ridges  and  deep  furrows  ;  and 
Fig.  21. 


wlien  this  ploughing  is  reversed  in 
spring,  the  soil  which  has  been  ex- 
posed to  the  frost  and  wind  is  mixed 
with  the  rest,  and  lends  greatly  to 
mellow  it.  This  is  an  excellent  prep- 
aration for  potatoes  and  roots,  if  the 
land  has  been  well  cleaned.  The 
manure,  being  distributed  in  the  deep 
furrows,  is  covered  by  the  plough 
right  and  left,  or  at  one  operation  by 
a  plough  with  a  turn-furrow  on  each 
side,  which  divides  the  ridge  and  lays 
half  of  it  ill  each  contiguous  furrow. 

E  EE 


:  The  plough  is  a  double  mould-board 
plough,  which  is  extremely  useful  ia 
j  many  operations  of  husbandry. 
!      "  In  order  to  save  hands  and  ex- 
:  pedite  the  tillage  of  the  land,  ploughs 
I  have  been  contrived  which  make  two 
j  or  more  furrows  at  once.   "When  they 
are  well  constructed,  they  are  very 
useful  on  light  soils.     If  it  is  not  re- 
quired  to  go  deep,  and  two  horses 
can  draw  a  double  plough,  there  is  a 
decided  saving  of  power  ;  but  if  it  re- 
I  quires  four  horses,  nothing  is  gained. 
The   double    ploughs   are   therefore 
not  much  in  use.     But  there  are  in- 
I  strunients  which  cultivate  the  earth, 
'  stirring  and  pulverizing  it  much  more 
speedily  than  the  plough.     Some  of 
these  will  stir  the  ground  to  the  depth 
of  seven  or  eight  inches,  going  over 
a  width  of  five  or  six  feet  at  once. 
Such  an  instrument  is  preferable  to 
the  plough,  after  the  ground  has  al- 
ready had  a  certain  degree  of  stirring, 
and  is  become  mellow  and  crumbling ; 
but  to  break  up  pasture  or  clover  ley 
there  is  nothing  so  eflicacious  as  the 
plough,  which  cuts  regular  slices,  and 
lays  them  over  so  that  all  the  grass 
shall  rot,  and  the  roots,  being  exposed 
to  the  air,  shall  decay,  and  thus  fur- 
nish food  for  other  crops. 

"  The  instruments  which  have 
been  invented  to  save  the  time  and 
labour  required  by  repeated  plough- 
ings are  very  numerous.  Some  of 
the  most  useful  have  been  noticed 
before  (see  Arable  Land.)  A'ew  ones 
are  daily  invented,  and  some  are  sup- 
ported by  wheels,  which  render  them 
both  lighter  and  more  convenient. 
They  are  easily  raised  out  of  the 
ground,  when  not  intended  to  work, 
and  the  depth  to  which  they  are  let 
down  is  more  easily  regulated. 

"  Deep  ploughing  is  generally  ac- 
knowledged to  accord  with  the  best 
husbandry,  where  the  subsoil  is  dry 
naturally,  or  has  been  artificially 
drained  ;  but  some  inconvenience 
may  arise  from  bringing  a  barren 
subsoil  to  the  surface,  in  trench- 
ploughing,  by  two  ploughs  following 
each  other  in  the  same  furrow.  It 
has  therefore  been  suggested  to  take 
off  the  turn-furrow  from  the  plough 
601 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


which  follows  the  first,  so  as  to  stir 
the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the 
surface.  Tliis  idea  has  been  im- 
proved upon  by  constructing  a  sub- 
soil plough  of  great  strength,  which 
will  go  very  deep  into  the  ground,  and 
stir  the  subsoil  a  foot  or  more  below 
the  bottom  of  the  usual  furrow.  Mr. 
Smith,  of  Deanstone,  has  invented 


one  made  entirely  of  iron  (Fig.  22). 
This  plough  requires  four  horses  in 
the  most  favourable  soils,  and  six  in 
tenacious  clays,  to  keep  up  with  the 
common  plough,  which  always  should 
precede  it.  Many  improvements  have 
been  made  on  Mr.  Smith's  original 
implement ;  that  represented  in  Fig' 
urc  23  is  one  of  the  best ;  the  three 


points  cut  down  the  earth  gradually, 
and  pulverize  it  thoroughly.  Some- 
times, however,  the  subsoil  plough 
may  be  used  alone,  where  the  surface 
is  already  mellow  and  crumbling. 

"  Many  different  ploughs  have  been 
invented  for  the  purpose  of  saving  la- 
bour in  draining  land.  See  Draining 
Plough.  As  they  all  cut  out  a  slice 
from  the  bottom  of  a  furrow,  and  raise 
it  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
they  are  of  little  use  in  crumbling 
soils,  and  in  the  most  tenacious  re- 
quire the  assistance  of  much  manual 
labour  to  complete  the  work.  They 
act  on  the  principle  of  the  carpenter's 
tool,  by  which  a  groove  is  formed  in 
tlie  edge  of  planks  or  deals,  when 
they  are  intended  to  be  joined  close- 
ly, as  in  a  floor.  This  instrument  is 
also  called  a  plough  ;  but  the  uniform 
tenacity  of  the  wood  allows  a  narrow 
chisel  to  cut  an  even,  regular  groove. 
In  the  draining  plough  the  two  sides 
of  the  drain  arc  to  be  cut  obliquely 
downward  and  the  bottom  scooped 
out  evenly.  The  plough  requires  to 
602 


be  often  adjusted,  and  the  deep  fur- 
rows to  be  kept  cleared  from  loose 
earth  by  means  of  spades  and  scoops. 
In  this  way  drains  may  be  made  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  deep,  in 
which  loose  stones  or  tiles  may  be 
laid  to  form  a  channel  for  the  water. 
The  expense  is  much  less  than  when 
the  drains  are  made  with  the  spade. 
"  ^^'hen  grass  land  lies  low  and  wet 
on  a  very  tenacious  subsoil,  a  plough 
is  sometimes  used  which  consists  of 
a  cylinder  of  iron  pointed  at  one  end, 
and  connected  with  a  strong  beam  by 
a  thick  plate  of  iron,  which  is  sharp 
on  the  side  nearest  the  point  of  the 
cylinder,  and  acts  as  a  coulter.  This 
instrument  is  forcibly  drawn  horizon- 
tally through  the  stiff  subsoil  at  a 
depth  of  twelve  to  eighteen  inches, 
so  as  to  leave  a  round  channel  like 
a  pipe  where  the  cylinder  has  pass- 
ed. This  has  been  called  a  mole 
plough,  the  passage  made  by  it  under 
ground  resembling  the  workings  of  a 
mole.  It  takes  six  horses  to  draw 
this  plough  when  the  cylinder  is  fif- 


I 


1 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


Lambert's  Mole  Plough. 


teen  inches  under  the  surface,  but  is 
the  most  easy  and  expeditious  means 
of  temporarily  draining  land.  It  can 
only  be  done  when  the  soil  is  moist 
and  gives  way  without  cracking,  but 
at  that  time  the  feet  of  the  horses 
greatly  damage  the  surface.  In  con- 
sequence of  this,  a  windlass  with  a 
long  chain  has  been  invented.  The 
drum,  which  is  vertical,  and  round 
which  the  chain  is  coiled,  is  turned 
by  a  horse,  who  walks  round  and 
round,  while  the  whole  apparatus  is 
kept  in  its  place  by  means  of  au  an- 
chor fixed  in  the  ground.  It  draws 
the  mole  plough  the  length  of  the 
chain,  and  is  then  moved  forward  on 
small  wheels  while  the  chain  uncoils. 
As  soon  as  the  chain  is  all  off  the 
drum,  the  anchor  is  refixed,  and  the 
operation  continues.  This  mode  of 
draining  land  has  now  been  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  a  more  regu- 
lar and  permanent  system  of  drain- 
ing with  stones  or  tiles.  The  chan- 
nels made  by  the  mole  plough  are 
very  apt  to  fill  up  in  dry  weather  ; 
and  the  mole  takes  advantage  of  a 


ready-made  passage  to  work  in  it, 
stopping  it  purposely  to  retain  water 
and  to  form  its  nest.  When  this  is 
the  case,  the  water  rises  to  the  sur- 
face and  does  much  harm.  Nothing 
but  a  fresh  application  of  the  mole 
plough  parallel  to  the  old  channels 
can  remedy  this  evil. 

"  Various  ploughs  have  been  con- 
structed with  the  intention  of  dimin- 
ishing the  draught,  or  improving  the 
form  of  the  turn-furrow  ;  but  most  of 
them  without  much  regard  to  scien- 
tific principles,  merely  from  a  vague 
notion  founded  on  some  real  or  sup- 
posed defect  in  the  ploughs  in  com- 
mon use,  or  in  order  to  adapt  them 
to  particular  soils  and  situations." 

Of  late,  some  have  favoured  the 
idea  that  the  introduction  of  a  wheel 
in  the  heel  of  the  plough  would  di- 
minish the  draught  by  converting  a 
sliding  into  a  rolling  friction.  The 
figure,  from  Mr.  ^^■ilkie's  implement, 
will  explain  the  mechanism  {Fig.  25). 
In  a  public  trial  it  was  found  to  di- 
minish the  draught  thirty  per  cent. 

Burrell,  of  Geneva,  New- York,  and 


other  plough-wrights  in  the  United 
States,  have  patented  friction-wheel 
ploughs  ;  and  in  the  case  of  Burrell's 
shell -wheel  plough,  the  draught  by 
the  dynamometer,  at  the  New-York 
Agricultural  Society's  Fair,  1843,  w^as 


298  pounds,  his  own  Geneva  plough 
drawing  100  pounds  more. 

Draught. — It  is  the  custom  at  the 
fairs  of  several  agricultural  associa- 
tions, to  have  a  trial  of  plouglis  with 
the  dynamometer,  whereby  their  com- 
603 


PLOUGH  AND  PLOUGHING. 


parative  draught  is  in  some  measure 
ascertained.  We  are  not,  however, 
to  regard  these  as  absolute  quanti- 
ties ;  they  are  true  only  for  the  tin)0. 
The  adhesiveness  of  the  soil,  its  state 
of  moisture,  the  depth  of  the  furrow, 
its  width,  and  the  pace  of  the  horses, 
are  all  sources  of  disturbance.  Thus 
we  find,  by  comparing  the  different 
results  with  the  same  implement, 
that  tlie  Bergen  plough,  at  Sing  Sing, 
drew  472  pounds,  and  the  next  year, 
at  Patterson,  350  pounds.  The  same 
difference  is  seen  in  other  cases  ;  how- 
little  these  experiments  can  be  taken 
as  a  guide,  appears  from  the  fact  that 
ploughs,  which  at  one  season  were 
lowest  on  the  list,  take  the  prize  the 
next  year.  From  these  experiments 
we  gather,  however,  two  miportant 
facts,  viz.,  that  a  two-horse  plough 


ought  not  to  weigh  more  than  170 
pounds,  nor  require,  in  a  medium 
soil,  more  than  450  poimds  draught, 
these  numbers  being  the  average  re- 
sults of  the  better  kind  of  implements. 
The  length  and  sharpness  of  a  plough 
have  much  to  do  with  its  draught ;  but 
it  is  properly  urged  by  practical  men, 
that  such  plouglis  become  difficult  to 
manage  in  rough  lands  or  new  fields, 
the  leverage  of  the  body  being  too 
great.  It  is  in  this  respect  that  Amer- 
ican ploughs  differ  so  strikingly  frcjm 
Scotch  and  English  implements  :  they 
have  a  mellow,  clean  soil  to  till,  we 
a  rough,  stumpy  soil.  The  accom- 
panying figure  gives  a  good  general 
outline  of  our  best  class  of  ploughs. 
It  is  not,  however,  a  good  represen- 
tation of  Ruggles,  Nourse,  and  Ma- 
son's implements. 


It  would  be  very  invidious  to  state 
that  any  particular  machine  was  the 
best  ;  nor  is  it  true,  for,  as  is  justly 
remarked  by  Mr.  Rham,  the  figure  of 
the  plough  must  difTer  with  the  soil, 
and  that  is  a  bad  one  in  any  soil 
wiiich  either  drags  too  heavily  on  the 
horses,  or  does  not  fully  tax  their  pow- 
er. In  a  list  I  procured  from  ^^'ash- 
ington  of  ploughs,  I  find  164  patented 
since  1831.  Of  these,  there  are  mark- 
ed by  Mr.  Ellsworth  as  being  good, 
in  his  knowledge  and  experience, 
Beat's,  Moore's,  Prouty  and  Mear's. 
AVoodcock's,  John  Mear's  ;  and  of  my 
knowledge  I  can  recommend  Barna- 
hy  and  Mooer"s,  Delano's,  Bergen's, 
Ruggles  and  Go's,  centre  draught, 
the  Wisconsin,  Codding"s  American, 
Howard's,  Eastman's,  of  Baltimore, 
the  Caledonia,  Livingston  County, 
the  iron  beam,  Burrell's  Geneva  and 
shell-wheel  ploughs,  the  Montgome- 
ry  County   plough,  and   the  Scotch 


wrought-iron  plough.  The  editor  of 
Johnson's  Encyclopsedia  also  men- 
lions  Beech's,  Miles's,  Peacock's,  and 
Wiley's  ploughs,  besides  which  there 
are  numerous  excellent  implements 
in  the  West  and  elsewhere. 

Wiard,  of  Avon,  Thorp,  and  other 
instrument  makers,  have  placed  three 
or  four  small  ploughs  on  a  frame,  so 
as  to  run  as  many  furrows  ;  in  light 
sand  soils,  and  for  an  after  ploughing, 
these  may  answer ;  but  if  we  have 
to  hitch  on  additional  horses,  there 
is  little  gain.  The  shares  of  Lang- 
don's  cultivators  are  in  some  meas- 
ure of  the  figure  of  mould-boards. 

The  table  on  the  following  page 
will  be  found  useful  in  showing  the  dis- 
tance travelled  by  a  horse  in  plough- 
ing or  scarifying  an  acre  of  land  ;  as 
well  as  the  quantity  of  land  work- 
ed in  a  da^  at  the  rate  of  sixteen 
and  eighteen  miles  per  day  of  nine 
hours. 


604 


PLU 


PLU 


Urci.ltb  of 
F.irrowslice 
or  Scanlicr. 

Spacetravel- 
teil  in  pluu^li 

Extent  ploughed  per  Jay, 
at  llie  rate  of 

Breadth  of 
Furrow-slice 
or  Scarifier. 

Space  travel- 
led in  plough 
,ng  au  acre. 

Extent  ploughed  per  day, 
at  the  rate  of 

luches. 

Miles. 

18  Miles.     1     Iti  Miles. 
Acres. 

Inches. 

Miles. 

18  Miles.     1     16  Miles. 
Acres. 

7 

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PLOUGHING.     See  Plough. 

PLUG.  "  In  buildins,  a  piece  of 
wood  driven  horizontally  into  a  wall, 
its  end  being  then  sawn  away  flush 
with  the  wall,  to  afford  a  hold  for  the 
nailing  up  of  dressings." 

PLUM.  Prunus  domestica.  The 
improved  fruit :  the  following  excel- 
lent observations  are  chiefly  from 
Mr.  Thomas : 

Varieties.  —  "  White  Primordian, 
Early  Yellow,  or  Jaime  Hative,  is  one 
of  the  very  earliest  of  plums,  ripen- 
ing in  the  middle  of  July,  and  is  chief- 
ly valuable  on  this  account.  It  is  a 
small  yellow  fruit,  a  good  bearer,  with 
a  sweet  taste,  thougli  not  first-rate. 

"  Wilmot's  Early  Orleans. — This  is 
a  large,  flne  fruit,  ripening  early  in 
August. 

"  Greengage.  —  This  is  generally 
admitted  to  be  the  finest  of  ail  plums  ; 
the  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  and 
round  ;  the  skin  is  yellowish  green, 
When  fully  ripe  nearly  yellow,  »no^?/f(Z 
with  russety  red  near  the  stem ; 
flesh  melting,  and  of  exquisite  fla- 
E  E  F.  2 


vour.  There  are  many  varieties  cul- 
tivated in  this  state  under  the  name 
of  greengage,  which  appear  to  have 
originated  from  stones  of  the  genuine 
variety,  but  are  greatly  inferior  in  fla- 
vour. 

"  Prince's  Imperial  Gage  was  ob- 
tained from  the  seed  of  the  green- 
gage ;  the  fruit  is  imuch  larger  than 
that  of  the  greengage,  and  the  tree 
is  very  productive.  Manning  says 
that  this  is  '  the  most  productive 
and  profitable  of  all  plums.' 

"  Orleans.  —  Fruit  nearly  round, 
middle-sized  or  rather  large,  skin  red- 
dish purple,  flesh  yellow,  firm,  and 
good,  separating  freely  from  the  stone. 
An  excellent  fruit,  ripening  about  the 
time  of  the  greengage. 

"  Gifford's  La  Fayette  was  obtained 
from  the  seed  of  the  Orleans,  and  is 
an  excellent  fruit,  remarkable  for  the 
richness  and  sprightlincss  of  its  fla- 
vour. 

"  Ruling's  Superh.  —  Fruit  very 
large,  often  two  inches  or  more  in 
length,  not  inferior  in  richness,  but 
605 


PLUM. 


more  acid  than  the  grcenprage,  of 
very  vigorous  growth,  and  ot  extraor- 
dinary excellence. 

"  W(is/ii>ifrto?i. — Fruit  oblong,  very 
large,  orange  yellow,  with  a  fine  blush 
next  the  sun  ;  flesh  yellow,  firm, 
sweet,  and  excellent.  Though  the 
flavour  of  this  is  inferior  to  that  of 
some  other  varieties,  it  is  highly  es- 
teemed as  a  first-rate  plum.  Ripens 
about  a  week  later  than  the  Orleans. 

"  Impcratrice.  —  A  good  phim,  ri- 
pening in  October.  One  of  the  best 
late  plums. 

"  Coe^s  Golden  Drop. — Fruit  of  large 
size,  skin  golden  yellow,  spotted  with 
rich  red  next  the  sun,  flesh  yellow, 
sweet,  and  delicious.  Like  the  pre- 
ceding, slightly  necked  next  the  stem, 
a  clingstone,  and  a  great  bearer.  The 
best  late  plum.  The  writer  has 
measured  them  more  than  2i  inches 
long. 

"  The  Egg  Plum,  or  Yellow  Mag- 
num Bonum,  is  a  very  large  plum,  of 
a  sweet,  agreeable  flavour  ;  but,  as 
the  texture  is  rather  coarse,  is  chiefly 
used  for  cooking  and  preserving.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  the  Red  Mag- 
num Bonum,  wliich  is  harsh  and  acid. 
These  two  are  admired  as  table-fruit 
where  finer  varieties  are  unknown. 

"  The  plum  is  propagated  by  bud- 
ding or  grafting.  The  former  can 
only  be  successfully  practised  on  the 
most  thrifty  stocks. 

"  The  principal  enemy  to  the  plum 
is  the  Curculio  {likynchanus  pruyii). 
This  is  a  small  insect  with  an  elon- 
gated thorax  and  head,  which  resem- 
bles a  proboscis  in  appearance.  The 
whole  insect  is  not  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  lung,  of  a  dark  brown 
colour,  the  slieaths  covering  the 
wings,  slightly  variegated  with  light- 
er colours.  It  makes  a  small  incis- 
ion in  the  young  fruit,  and  lays  its 
egg  in  the  opening.  Its  presence 
may  now  be  perceived  by  examina- 
tion, 36  these  crescent-sliaped  incis- 
ions are  very  easily  seen.  The  egg 
soon  hatches  into  a  small  white  worm, 
which  penetrates  deeper  and  feeds 
upon  the  fruit,  causing  it  to  fall  pre- 
maturely to  the  ground,  or  if  it  ripens, 
it  is  unsound.  The  worm,  when  the 
606 


[  fruit  falls,  makes  its  way  into  the 
earth,  where  it  remains  through  win- 
I  ter,  as  is  supposed,  in  the  pupa  state, 
to  be  transformed  the  succeeding 
spring  into  a  perfect  insect,  and  thus 
perpetuate  its  race.  The  easiest  and 
most  effectual  way  to  destroy  them 
is  to  confine  a  sufficient  number  of 
swine  with  the  trees,  to  eat  all  the 
injured  fruit  which  falls.  When  this 
has  been  pursued  perseveringly,  it  has 
proved  completely  successful.  To 
render  this  operation  easy  and  effect- 
ual, all  trees  which  are  liable  to  at- 
tacks of  the  curculio  should  be  plant- 
ed separately,  so  that  they  may  be 
enclosed  apart  for  the  confinement 
of  the  swine. 

"  Another  remedy  is  to  spread 
white  sheets  under  the  tree  and  jar 
it  briskly.  The  insects  immediately 
drop  upon  the  sheet,  and  remain  mo- 
tionless a  few  seconds,  during  which 
time  they  may  be  destroyed.  The 
operation  should  be  repeated  two  or 
three  times  a  day  so  long  as  any  re- 
main. This  remedy  rarely  fails  if  thor- 
oughly and  unremittingly  pursued. 

"Trees  near  path  doors,  paved 
yards,  and  other  frequented  places, 
are  frequently  observed  to  be  full  of 
fruit,  while  others  are  all  destroyed. 
Hence  favourite  trees  of  the  plum, 
nectarine,  or  apricot  may  be  often 
planted  to  advantage  near  such  fre- 
quented places,  and  the  fruit  will  es- 
cape. The  black  excrescences  on 
the  branches  of  the  plum  may  be  pre- 
vented by  a  constant  and  vigorous 
excision  of  tlie  affected  parts,  and 
burning  them  as  fast  as  they  ap- 
pear. 

"The  plum  is  by  some  cultivators 
regarded  as  only  fitted  for  heavy  or 
clay  soils,  and  some  striking  instan- 
ces are  given  in  proof;  but  the  wri- 
ter has  seen  trees  in  abundant  bear- 
ing year  after  year,  and  yielding  fruit 
of  the  finest  quality,  on  light  or  sandy 
soils.  A  porous  earth  may  possibly 
furnish  a  better  retreat  for  the  cur- 
culio ;  but  to  what  extent  this  may  be 
true  requires  farther  examination." 

The  plum  is  often  brought  into 
bearing  by  root  pruning,  horizontal 
training,  and  similar  expedients.  The 


POD 


POI 


lime  compost  used  by  Mr.  Pell  is  very  f  dine  birds,  in  which  the  web  of  the 


serviceable 

PLL'.MBAGO.  Native  carburet  of 
iron  ;  black-lead. 

PLU.MULA.  The  leaf-like  portion 
of  the  embrj'o. 

PLUS.  More  :  marked  by  the 
S!gn  + 


foot  is  not  perfect. 

POIKILITIC.  Variegated.  In  ge- 
ology, the  new  red  sandstone  foriiia- 
tion. 

POINTS  OF  LIVE  STOCK.  "The 
first  point  to  be  ascertained  in  exam- 
ining an  ox  is  the  purity  of  its  breed, 


PLUTONIC  ROCKS.  Unstratified  I  whatever  that  breed  may  be.  The 
crystalline  rocks,  like  granite,  por-  ascertainment  of  the  purity  of  the 
phyry,  basalt.  breed  will  give  the  degree  of  the  di.s- 

PLU VIA.METER.      The   rain   position  to" fatten  in  the  individuals 


gauge. 

PNEUMATICS.  The  science 
which  treats  of  the  mechanical  char- 
acters of  gases  and  vapours. 

PNEUMATIC  TROUGH.  A 
chemical  utensil  used  for  the  collec- 
tion of  gases  over  water  or  fluids. 
It  consists  of  a  vessel  of  tin  or  wood 
containing  water,  in  which  is  placed 
one  or  more  ledges,  within  two  inch- 
es of  the  surface.  On  the  ledges  the 
jars  which  are  to  receive  the  gases 
rest,  and  they  are  at  first  filled  with 
the  fluid  of  the  trough,  but  the  gas 
passing  up  into  them  from  conduct- 
ors, the  fluid  is  displaced. 

PNEUMONIA.  Inflammation  of 
the  substance  of  the  lungs. 

PNEU.MO-THORAX.  A  collec- 
tion of  air  in  the  cavity  of  the  pleura. 

POA.  An  extensive  genus  of  val- 
uable natural  grasses,  to  which  the 


of  that  breed.  The  purity  of  the 
breed  may  be  ascertained  from  sev- 
eral marks.  The  colour  or  colours 
of  the  skin  of  a  pure  breed  of  cattle, 
whatever  those  colours  are,  are  al- 
vvaj's  definite.  The  colour  of  the 
bald  skin  on  the  nose  and  around  the 
eyes  in  a  pure  breed  is  always  defi- 
nite and  without  spots.  This  last  is 
an  essential  point,  ^^'hen  horns  ex- 
ist, they  should  be  smooth,  small,  ta- 
pering, and  sharp-pointed,  long  or 
short,  according  to  the  breed,  and  of 
a  white  colour  throughout  in  some 
breeds,  and  tipped  with  black  in  oth- 
ers. The  shape  of  the  horn  is  a  less 
essential  point  than  the  colour. 

"  The  second  point  to  be  ascertain- 
ed in  an  ox  is  the  form  of  its  carcass. 
It  is  found,  the  nearer  the  section  of 
the  carcass  of  a  fat  ox,  taken  longi- 
tudinally vertical,  transversely  verti- 


meadow  grass,  blue  grass,  and  many  leal,  and  horizontally,  approaches  to 
important  species  belong.  The  bo-  [  the  figure  of  a  parallelogram,  the 
tanical  characters  of  this  genus  are,   greater  quantity  of  flesh  will  it  carry 


panicle  loose  ;  spikclcts  three  or  more 
flowered,  or  even  two-flowered,  with 
the  pedicels  of  a  greater  number  of 
florets ;  florets  articulated  with  the 
rachis ;  palca  two,  nearly  equal,  awn- 
less  ;  scales  oval,  acute,  gibbous  at  the 
base.     See  Grasses. 

POACHING.  The  treading  of 
cattle  in  wet  meadows,  in  which  they 
leave  their  hoof  marks. 

POCKET.     A  large  bag  of  hops. 

POD.  Those  of  the  pea  and  bean 
are  called  legumes  ;  those  of  the  rad- 
ish, mustard,  and  cruciferae  are  sil- 
iqucs. 

PODENTIA.  The  stalk  which 
supports  the  fructification  of  some 
lichens,  as  the  reindeer  moss. 

PODICEPS.     A  genus  of  palmipe- 


within  the  same  measurement. 

"  These  constitute  the  points  which 
are  essential  to  a  fat  ox,  and  which 
it  is  the  business  of  the  judge  to 
know,  and  by  which  he  must  antici- 
pate whether  the  lean  one,  when  fed, 
would  realize.  The  remaining  points 
are  more  applicable  in  judging  of  a 
lean  than  a  fat  ox. 

"  The  first  of  the  points  in  judging 
of  a  lean  ox  is  the  nature  of  the  bone. 
A  round,  thick  bone  indicates  both  a 
slow  feeder  and  an  inferior  descrip- 
tion of  flesh.  A  flat  bone,  when  seen 
on  a  side  view,  and  narrow  when 
viewed  either  from  behind  or  before 
the  animal,  indicates  the  opposite 
properties  of  a  round  bone.  The  whole 
bones  in  the  carcass  should  bear  a 
607 


roi 


POL 


small  proportion  in  bulk  and  weight 
to  the  flesh,  the  bone  l)cing  only  re- 
quired as  a  support  to  the  fiesli. 

"A  full,  clear,  calm,  and  prominent 
eye  is  another  point  to  be  considered, 
because  it  is  a  nice  indication  of  good 
breeding.  It  is  always  attendant  on 
fine  bone. 

"The  state  of  the  skin  is  the  next 
j)oint  to  be  ascertained.  The  skin 
affords  what  is  technically  and  em- 
phatically called  the  touch,  a  criterion 
second  to  none  in  judging  of  the  feed- 
ing properties  of  an  ox.  The  touch 
may  be  good  or  bad,  fine  or  harsh, 
or,  as  it  is  often  termed,  hard  or  mel- 
low. A  perfect  touch  will  be  found 
with  a  thick,  loose  skin,  floating,  as 
it  were,  on  a  layer  of  soft  fat,  yield- 
ing to  the  least  pressure,  and  spring- 
ing back  towards  the  fingers  like  a 
piece  of  soft,  thick  chamois  leather, 
and  covered  with  thick,  glossy,  soft 
hair." 

POINTS  OF  SUPPORT.  The 
foundations,  walls,  or  pillars  of  a  build- 
ing, whereon  the  superstructure  is 
founded. 

POINTS  OF  THE  COMPASS. 
See  Compass. 

POISON  FANGS.  The  hollow 
teeth  in  the  upper  jaws  of  vipers,  rat- 
tlesnakes, &c.,  through  which  their 
poison  is  discharged  into  the  wounds 
they  make.  Only  such  snakes  as 
have  poison  fangs  are  venomous. 

POISON  OAK.  Rhus  radicans, 
and  R.  toxicodcndroyi,  the  former  be- 
ing also  called  poison  vine :  it  is  a 
climber,  the  stem  throwing  out  an 
abundance  of  black  roots.  The  milky 
juice  is  poisonous,  and,  to  some  per- 
sons, the  volatile  particles  thrown  off 
from  the  plant.  They  produce  in- 
flammation and  swelling,  resembling 
erisypelas.  Light  diet,  laxatives,  and 
a  lotion  of  sugar  of  lead  and  water 
to  the  part  are  best. 

POISONS.  Bodies  which  disturb 
or  destroy  the  natural  functions  of 
the  body.  They  are  narcotic,  acrid 
or  septic.  Many  are  to  be  met  by  an- 
tidotes ;  but  with  animals  the  stom- 
ach pump  is  to  be  looked  to  as  the 
chief  means  of  relief 

POITTEVIN'S  MANURE.   Night 
6(tS 


soil   mixed  with  fine   charcoal  and 
j  dried  to  powder.     12  to  25  bushels 
are  applied,  with  the  seed,  by  a  drill, 
to  the  acre. 

POLARITY.  The  quality  in  the 
particles  of  bodies  of  adjusting  them- 
selves in  given  directions,  as  north 
and  south,  in  the  magnet. 

POLARIZATION  OF  LIGHT. 
"  Light  which  has  undergone  certain 
reflections  or  refractions,  or  been 
subjected  to  the  action  of  material 
bodies  in  any  one  of  the  great  number 
of  ways,  actjuires  a  certain  modifica- 
tion, in  consequence  of  which  it  no 
longer  presents  the  same  phenomena 
of  reflection  and  transmission  as 
light  which  has  not  been  subjected 
to  such  action.  This  modification  is 
termed  the  polarization  of  light,  its 
rays  being  supposed,  according  to 
particular  theoretical  views,  to  have 
acquired  poles  (like  the  magnet),  or 
sides  with  opposite  properties." — 
(B7-a7idc.) 

POLDERS.  The  old  salt  marshes 
of  Holland  and  Flanders. 
POLE.  A  rod.  16^  feet. 
POLECAT.  Sbmk?  {Felis  Pu- 
torius,  Lin.)  "  It  may  be  caught  and 
destroyed  by  a  deadfall,  constructed 
in  tlie  following  manner :  Take  a 
square  piece  of  wood,  weighing  40 
or  50  pounds,  bore  a  hole  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  upper  side,  and  set  a  crook- 
ed hook  fast  in  it ;  then  set  four  fork- 
ed stakes  fast  in  the  ground,  and  lay 
two  sticks  across,  on  which  sticks 
lay  a  long  staff,  to  hold  the  deadfall 
up  to  the  crook  ;  and  under  this  crook 
put  a  short  stick,  and  fasten  a  line  to 
it ;  this  line  must  reach  down  to  the 
bridge  below  ;  and  this  bridge  you 
must  make  about  five  or  six  inches 
broad  ;  on  both  sides  of  this  deadfall 
place  boards  or  pales,  or  edge  it  with 
close  rods,  and  make  it  10  or  12  inch- 
es high  ;  let  the  entrance  be  no  wider 
than  the  breadth  of  the  deadfall.  A 
pigeon-house  surrounded  with  a  wet 
ditch  will  tend  to  preserve  the  pi- 
geons, for  beasts  of  prey  naturally 
avoid  water." 

POLE  E^TL.    See  Ox,  Diseases  of. 

POLES.     The  ends  of  the  wires 

proceeding  from  a  galvanic  battery  ; 


POM 


POP 


the  extremities  of  a  magnet.  There 
are  two  jjoles,  north  and  south,  or 
positive  and  negative.  They  are  also 
called  anode  and  cathode  by  Mr.  Far- 
ady. 

POLLARD.  Bran.  Also,  a  tree 
often  cut  or  lopped  for  hoops,  fire- 
wood, &c. 

POLLED.     Hornless. 

POLLEN.  The  yellow  dust  or  fa- 
rina of  the  stamens  or  male  organs. 
It  fertilizes  the  pistils.  The  pollen 
is  thrown  out  by  the  bursting  of  the 
anthers,  and  alighting  on  the  moist 
and  acid  surface  of  the  stigma,  begins 
to  throw  out  a  lillle  tube,  or  pollen 
tube  {boyau),  which  pierces  the  tissue 
of  the  stigma,  and  reaches  the  ovule, 
where  it  lays  the  foundation  of  the 
eiul)ryo.  Without  pollen,  seeds  would 
not  be  formed  capable  of  germina- 
tion ;  and  in  wet  seasons  a  large 
amount  is  often  destroyed. 

POLY  (from  -o7.vq,  many).  A  pre- 
fix of  many  words,  as  polygon,  poly- 
peialous. 

POLYGHROITE.  The  colouring 
matter  of  saffron. 

POLYGA\nA,  POLYANDRIA. 
See  Botany. 

POLYGASTRIC  INFUSORL\LS. 
The  class  of  animalcules  with  many 
stomachs  inhabiting  infusions. 

POLYGONACE-E.  Herbaceous, 
apetalous  exogens,  with  triangular, 
scaly  fruit,  and  an  ochrea.  The  rhu- 
barbs, sorrels,  docks,  and  backwheat 
belong  to  this  family. 

POLYPES,  POLYPI  (fromTToArf, 
and  77ovf,  a  foot).  The  name  of  an 
extensive  group  of  radiated  animals 
in  the  system  of  Cuvier,  associated 
together  by  the  common  character 
of  a  fleshy  body,  of  a  conical  or  cy- 
lindrical form,  commonly  fixed  by  one 
extremity,  and  with  the  mouth  situ- 
ated at  the  opposite  end,  and  sur- 
rounded by  more  or  less  numerous 
arms  or  tentacles. 

POLYPODY,  POLYPODIUM. 
Several  species  of  handsome  ferns. 

POLYPUS.  A  fleshy  tumour  of 
the  nostrils  or  womb.  It  is  to  be  re- 
moved by  the  knife  with  care. 

PO.MACE,  PO.MAGE.  Refuse  ap- 
ples, after  pressing  for  cider.     It  is 


excellent  food  for  cows  and  hogs,  es- 
pecially if  fresh. 

POMACE.E.  Rosaceous  plants, 
with  an  inferior  ovary,  as  the  apple, 
pear. 

POMEGRANATE.  Pumca  gra- 
natum.  A  beautiful,  hardy,  decidu- 
ous shrub,  growing  from  12  to  15 
feet  high.  Its  varieties  produce  their 
splendid  flowers  and  fruit  very  plen- 
tifully from  July  to  September,  when 
planted  against  a  south  wall.  They 
all  grow  well  in  a  light,  rich  loam, 
and  strike  root  freely  from  cuttings 
or  layers  ;  the  rarer  varieties  are 
sometimes  increased  by  grafting  on 
the  common  kinds.  The  pomegran- 
ate requires  shelter  from  frost.  The 
pulp  of  the  fruit  is  of  an  agreeable 
acid,  and  the  rind  is  very  astringent. 

POMMEL.  The  front  prominence 
of  the  saddle. 

POND.  "  An  artificial  excavation 
in  the  soil,  or  a  natural  hollow,  dam- 
med up  for  the  purpose  of  detaining 
water,  generally  made  in  fields,  in  or- 
der to  supply  drink  to  pasturing  ani- 
mals. The  essential  ditlerence  be- 
tween a  pond  and  a  lake  is,  that  the 
former  is  formed  by  art,  the  water 
being  often  ponded,  or  impounded, 
by  a  bank  of  earth  thrown  across  a 
natural  hollow  or  bourne  containing 
a  stream.  The  soil  should  be  pud- 
dled, to  render  it  impervious,  befi)re 
water  is  let  in.  In  places  where  the 
soil  does  not  abound  in  springs,  the 
formation  of  ponds  in  the  fields  is  as 
essential  to  the  business  of  farming 
as  the  building  of  farm  offices.  \ 
pond  in  a  garden,  when  of  a  round 
form,  is  termed  a  basin ;  and  when 
of  some  length,  with  parallel  sides,  a 
canal." 

PONE,  PONES  OF  BREAD. 
Small  loaves. 

PONS  VAROLII.  An  eminence 
of  the  medulla  oblongata,  at  the  top 
of  the  spinal  marrow. 

PONTI  A.  The  genus  of  insects  to 
which  the  cabbage  butterfly  belongs. 

POPLAR.  The  genus  Populus  of 
amentaceous  exogens.  They  prefer 
a  moist,  deep,  and  good  soil,  and  are 
readily  increased  by  cuttings.  The 
wood  of  the  P.  momltfera  is  very  good 
609 


POR 


POT 


when  thoroughly  dried,  and  not  ex- 
posed to  ni()i:stiire.  The  luli|)-trec  is 
improperly  called  a  poplar. 

P U  P L IT ]•:  A  L.  Relating  to  the 
space  behind  the  knee  joint. 

POPPY.  The  genus  Papavcr,  of 
which  the  P.  somnifcrum  is  cultivated 
for  opium  and  the  bland  oil  furnished 
by  expression  from  its  seeds.  It  is 
cultivated  on  the  best  soil,  well  ma- 
nured. The  land  sometimes  receives 
as  many  as  five  stirrings,  and  the 
seed  IS  then  dropped  into  shallow 
drdls,  about  two  feet  apart.  Durmg 
the  growth  of  the  plants,  the  soil  is 
stirred,  well  watered,  and  sometimes 
top-dressed.  In  two  months  from 
the  time  of  sowing,  the  capsules  are 
ready  for  incision,  which  process 
goes  on  for  two  or  three  weeks  ; 
several  horizontal  cuts  being  made 
in  the  capsule  on  one  day,  on  the 
next  the  milky  juice  which  had  oozed 
out,  being  congealed,  is  scraped  off. 
This  operation  is  generally  repeated 
three  times  on  each  capsule,  and 
then  the  capsules  are  collected  for 
their  seed.  The  raw  juice  is  knead- 
ed with  water,  evaporated  in  the  sun, 
mixed  with  a  little  poppy  oil,  and, 
lastly,  formed  into  cakes,  which  are 
covered  with  leaves  of  poppy,  and 
packed  in  chests  with  poppy  husks 
and  leaves. 

The  F.  Rhcas  is  also  cultivated  as 
an  oil  plant  in  France,  where  little  of 
the  opium  is  made.  In  Europe  some 
species  are  a  great  pest  in  corn- 
fields. 

P  0  P  U  L I N.  A  crystalline  sub- 
stance obtained  from  the  bark  of  the 
aspen. 

PORCATE.  In  entomology,  divi- 
ded into  ridges  ;  a  surface  on  which 
there  are  several  elevated  and  paral- 
lel grooves. 

PORCELAIN  CAPSULES.  Evap- 
orating basins  of  porcelain  ;  this  ma- 
terial resists  a  great  heat,  and  is  not 
readily  acted  on  except  by  potash  or 
soda. 

PORCH.  An  arched  or  flat  ceiled 
vestibule  to  a  door  or  building. 

PORES.  Small  spaces  existing 
between  the  atoms  of  bodies  ;  also, 
distinct  apertures  through  leaves  or 
610 


membranes,  from  which  perspiration 
and  vapours  pass. 

POROSITY.  The  property  of  bod- 
ies whereby  they  transmit  fluids  or 
gasses,  and  which  depends  on  their 
pores. 

PORK.     See  Bacon,  Ham,  Hog. 

PORK,  CLEAR.  Side  pork  for 
barrelling,  free  from  lean,  being  aU  fat ; 
theBerkshires,  if  fully  fat,  cut  as  largo 
a  quantity  as  anv  other  breed. 

P  O  R  P  H  Y  R  Y.  A  hard  red  or 
gray  stone  of  the  nature  of  granite, 
of  igneous  origin,  and  consisting  oj 
feldspar,  with  quartz  or  hornblende 
It  occurs  in  the  oldest  dikes. 

PORRECT.  Extending.  When  a 
part  extends  horizontally. 

P  O  R  R  I  G  O.  Scahi  head,  ring- 
worm, tetter.  Tar  ointment,  cleanli- 
ness, and  attention  to  the  general 
heerlth,  are  the  best  remedies. 

PORTAL.  The  lesser  of  two 
gates. 

PORTAL  CIRCULATION.  Tho 
circulation  of  venous  blood  from  the 
abdominal  viscera  through  the  liver 
to  the  riglit  auricle  of  the  heart. 

PORTER.  A  beer  coloured  with 
dark  malt  or  molasses. 

PORTICO.  A  projection  from  a 
building,  supported  by  arches  or  pil- 
lars. 

POSITIVE  ELECTRICITY.  See 
Elechiciiy.     A  surplus  of  electricity. 

POST.  A  perpendicular  piece  of 
timber  ;  a  piece  driven  into  the  earth ; 
the  end  should  be  charred.  Locust, 
catalpa,  and  oak  posts  are  preferred, 

POST  ABDOMEN.  The  five  pos- 
terior segments  of  the  abdomen  of  in- 
sects, or  the  tails  of  some  crusta- 
ceans. 

POTASH,  POTASSA,  KALI.  Pro- 
toxide of  potassium,  a  well-known 
caustic  (vegetable  caustic).  See  Po- 
tassium. 

POTASHES.  The  washed  or 
lixiviated  ashes  of  trees,  especially 
of  oaks,  hickories,  maples,  sycamores, 
the  elm,  willow,  and  beech.  The  ash, 
mixed  with  lime,  is  leached  in  bar- 
rels or  vats,  and  the  clear  solution, 
being  drawn  off,  or  allowed  to  drip 
from  holes  made  in  the  bottom  of  the 
vats,  is  next  evaporated  in  large  iron 


POT 


POT 


pots  set  in  a  furnace  :  these  are  kept 
full  several  days.  When  the  liuid 
becomes  black  and  of  the  consistence 
of  thick  molasses,  it  is  subjected  to 
the  highest  heat  of  a  wood  fire  for 
some  hours  ;  by  this  means  much  of 
the  combustible  matter  is  burned. 
As  soon  as  the  fused  matter  becomes 
quiet  it  is  dipped  out  by  iron  ladles 
into  iron  pots,  where  it  congeals  ; 
this,  broken  into  pieces  and  barrelled, 
forms  commercial  potash.  The  lye 
should  be  sufficiently  strong  to  bear 
an  egg  before  being  evaporated. 
Pearlash  is  made  by  transferring  the 
black  potash  into  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace, and  stirring  it  while  hot:  this 
is  continued  until  it  acquires  a  whi- 
tish colour. 

Composition.  —  American  potash 
consists  of  85-7  parts  caustic  potas- 
sa,  15  4  sulphate  of  potassa,  20  com- 
mon salt,  11-9  carbonic  acid  and  wa- 
ter, and  0  2  insoluble  matter  in  115 
parts.  Pearlash  contains  75-4  caus- 
tic potash,  80  sulphate,  04  common 
salt,  30  8  carbonic  acid  and  water, 
0  6  insoluble  matter  in  115  parts. 

Amounl  of  pure  potash  in  1000  lbs. 
of  wood :  in  elm  and  maple,  3  9  lbs.  ; 
willow,  28  lbs. ;  oak  and  beech,  H 
lbs.  ;  poplar,  \  lb.  :  the  spray  and 
young  branches  are  richest  in  ashes. 
The  varieties  of  pine  seldom  furnish 
half  a  pound  to  the  1000  of  timber. 

POTASSIUM.  The  metallic  basis 
of  potash ;  it  is  white  and  brilliant, 
hut  soft  as  wax,  lighter  than  water, 
sp.  gr.  "86,  and  spontaneously  inflam- 
mable on  water  ;  symbol,  K.  ;  propor- 
tional, 39  3.  Its  compound  with  1 
equivalent  oxygen,  potash,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  chemical  agents: 
a  powerful  base  and  an  alkali. 

Potash  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
neutralizes  acids,  discharges  the  col- 
our of  red  litmus,  converting  it  into 
blue  ;  it  is  also  soluble  in  alcohol. 
It  unites  definitely  with  water,  form- 
ing the  hydrate,  or  fused  potash,  con- 
taining 47-3  potash,  and  9  parts  wa- 
ter. Potash  combines  with  nearly  all 
acids  ;  by  the  agency  of  heat  it  also 
dissolves  silica,  being  converted  into  \ 
silicate  of  potash.  Its  prominent 
salts  are  the  nitrate,  carbonate,  sul-  : 


phate,  and  muriate  (chloride  of  po- 
tassium). 

In  the  mineral  kingdom  it  exists 
abundantly,  forming  10  to  20  per  cent, 
of  many  minerals,  as  mica,  feldspar, 
lava,  and  green  sand.  In  these  it  is 
insoluble,  and  in  the  form  of  silicate; 
but  it  becomes  slowly  dissolved  by 
water  containing  carbonic  acid.  In 
plants  it  is  also  abundant,  especially 
in  the  grasses  and  cerealia ;  the  vine, 
oak,  willows,  maples,  cruciferous  and 
chenopodiaceous  plants  contain  a  con- 
siderable proportion.  It  is  found  in 
urine,  and  in  other  animal  excretions. 

POTATO  {Solamim  tuberosum, 
Linnaeus).  Varieties:  "Of  the  better 
kinds,  we  may  enumerate  the  follow- 
ing : 

"  1.  Kidneys,  or  Foxites,  white 
flesh,  rather  small,  and  seemingly  de- 
teriorating, as  an  old  variety. 

"2.  Pink  Eves,  white  flesh,  rather 
kidney- shaped,  yield  well,  and  are  yet 
in  their  prime. 

"  3.  St.  Helen.4.,  very  similar  in 
flesh,  shape,  colour,  and  quality  to 
the  foregoing,  without  the  pink  eyes 
or  blotches  :  to  us  a  new  variety. 

"  4.  Early  Kidneys,  real  kidney- 
shaped,  smooth,  white,  and  of  fair 
size  :  the  best  early  variety. 

"  5.  Mercer,  well-known  and  de- 
servedly liked. 

"  6.  S.A.ULT  St.  M.iRiE  :  the  true 
kind  large,  long,  dark-coloured,  and 
good. 

"  7.  Liverpool  Blues  :  coloured, 
good  size,  and  productive.  Boil  white, 
and  may  be  placed  in  the  first  class 
for  the  table. 

"  The  foregoing  we  esteem  the  best 
kinds.  There  may  be  other  kinds 
equally  good,  and  some  that  we  have 
enumerated  may  be  known  by  other 
names.  The  Forty-fold  has  been 
highly  commended  for  its  productive- 
ness and  good  qualities,  with  what 
truth  we  will  not  venture  to  say. 

"In  this  latitude  the  potato  is  bet- 
ter, both  as  to  product  and  flavour, 
when  grown  on  a  moist  and  cool, 
than  when  grown  on  a  warm  and  dry 
soil :  better  on  a  moderately  loose 
and  friable  than  on  a  hard,  compact 
soil. 

611 


POTATO. 


"  They  do  belter  on  a  grass  ley 
than  on  stubble  ;  and  belter  with  long 
or  unfermentcd  manure  than  with 
short  muck. 

"  The  medium-sized  whole  tubers 
give  a  better  crop  than  sets  or  very 
large  tubers. 

'•  Drills  or  rows  should  be  adapted 
to  Ihe  growth  of  the  tops,  and  the 
condition  of  the  soil — the  small  growl- 
ing tops  nearer,  and  those  having 
larger  lops,  farther  apart,  so  that 
the  sun  may  not  be  excluded  from 
the  intervals  ;  and  where  the  soil  is 
slifT,  or  the  sod  tough,  hills  are  con- 
sidered preferable  to  drills. 

"  If  the  ground  is  well  prepared, 
and  the  seed  well  covered,  they  are 
not  benefited  by  heavy  earthing  ; 
ploughing  among  them,  or  earthing 
them,  after  they  come  in  bloom,  2s 
prejudicial. 

"The  kinds  best  for  the  table  are 
also  best  for  farm  stock,  containing  a 
larger  portion  of  nutriment  than  in- 
ferior kinds." 

"  Those  who  are  curious  about  ob- 
taining new  varieties  can  almost  in- 
definitely pursue  their  object  ;  for 
the  seed  of  a  species,  the  red  apple, 
for  example,  will  sport,  and  this,  too, 
without  hybridizing  (that  is,  without 
the  admixture  of  its  pollen  with  that 
of  any  other  species,  the  produce  of 
Avhich  would  be  hybrids),  into  num- 
berless varieties  of  form  and  colour 
— round,  fiat,  oblong,  red,  pink,  black, 
white,  mixed,  and  purple,  of  every 
shade  and  colour.  These,  wheth- 
er hybrids  or  not,  are  reproduced 
through  successive  seasons  by  the 
tubers  alone,  irttiey  possess  those 
qualities  which  render  them  desirable 
for  continued  cultivation,  on  account 
of  peculiar  adaptation  to  early  or  late 
seasons,  size,  predominance  of  fari- 
na, &c. 

"  This  mode  of  propagation  by  tu- 
bers either  improves  those  qualities 
or  gradually  develops  objectionable 
properties  ;  some  varieties  are  there- 
fore permanently  established,  while 
the  culture  of  others  is  either  aban- 
doned, or,  if  continued,  it  is  known 
that  those  varieties  revert,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  generations,  to  the 
612 


nature  of  their  parent  kind,  and  there- 
fore cease  to  constitute  a  variety. 

"  In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  hybrid 
plants  have  not  the  power  of  jjrojia- 
gation  by  seed  ;  but  they  can  be  ren- 
dered reproductive  by  budding  and 
grafting,  or  by  means  of  cuttings, 
slips,  and  tubers,  and  an  original 
stock,  comparatively  worthless,  may 
be  highly  improved  by  such  modes  of 
multiplication.  But  when  a  farmer 
possesses  two  or  three  kinds  of  de- 
cided excellence,  he  will  act  wisely 
by  not  encumbering  his  stores  with 
too  many  varieties,  which  always  oc- 
casion trouble  and  confusion  in  the 
field  management. 

"  In  order  to  obtain  seed,  properly 
so  called,  the  potato-apple,  when  per- 
fectly ripe,  should  be  dried,  and  then 
disengaged  from  its  seed  by  rubbing 
with  the  hand.  The  seed  should  be 
preserved  in  a  dry  place,  in  paper  or 
cloth  bags,  until  the  middle  of  Alarch 
or  beginning  of  April,  when  it  may  be 
sown  in  wooden  boxes  or  earthen 
pans,  with  a  covering  of  less  than 
half  an  inch  of  well-pulverized  earth ; 
the  vessels  ought  then  to  be  placed 
in  hot-beds  of  inild  heat,  such  as  is 
suited  to  the  raising  of  half-liardy  an- 
nuals. The  plants,  when  an  inch 
high,  should  be  pricked  out  into  oth- 
er vessels,  and  placed  in  a  tempera- 
ture somewhat  lower  than  betbre,  to 
inure  them  to  the  external  air,  to 
which  they  should  be  exposed  after 
frosts  have  ceased.  These  plants 
should  be  put  out  in  drills  16  inches 
apart,  and  with  the  interval  of  six 
inches  between  the  plants  in  the 
rows  ;  they  will  produce  tubers  in  the 
first  year,  and  these  may  be  planted 
in  the  following  season  in  the  ordi- 
nary way. 

"  For  very  early  crops,  such  as 
those  which  the  ash-leaved  and  wal- 
nut-leaved kinds,  in  particular,  yield, 
the  most  successful  treatment  was 
that  practised  by  the  late  Mr.  Knight, 
president  of  the  London  Horticultu- 
ral Society,  from  the  course  of  whose 
practice  we  give  the  following  de- 
tails of  instruction  :  Drills  may  be 
formed  in  a  warm  and  sheltered  sit- 
uation (and  in  the  direction  of  north 


POTATO. 


and  south)  iluring  any  of  the  winter 
montlis,  two  lect  apart,  and  seven  or 
ejfiht  inches  deep.  tStable  dung,  iialf 
decomposed,  should  be  laid  in  the 
drills,  and  combined  with  the  earth 
four  inciies  downward,  and  covered 
with  some  of  the  mould  which  had 
been  thrown  out  in  forming  the  drills, 
by  the  rake,  to  within  four  inches  of 
the  surface.  The  sets,  uncut,  are  then 
to  be  placed,  with  the  crown  eye  up- 
permost, in  the  centre  of  the  furrow, 
four  inciies  from  each  other,  and  to 
be  covered  with  only  an  inch  of  mould 
at  first,  and  afterward  with  an  occa- 
sional quantity  of  sifted  coal  ashes,  un- 
til the  plants  arc  so  vigorous  and  ad- 
vanced as  to  require  the  usual  earth- 
ing, of  which,  however,  very  little  is 
necessary.  Mr.  Knight  used  leaves 
as  a  lining  at  the  sides  of  the  drills 
in  the  early  periods,  to  preserve  as 
much  warmth  as  possible,  and  bet- 
ter to  guard  against  the  effects  of 
frost.  The  sets  near  the  top  end 
{Fig.,  a)  are  found  to  come  to  matu- 
rity a  fortnight  ear- 
lier than  those  at 
the  root  end  (</)  ; 
and  these,  there- 
fore, form  two  class- 
es of  sets  for  an 
earlier  and  a  later 
crop.  The  sets  from 
the  middle  (b,  c)  are 
put  together  for  an 
intermediate  crop. 

"  This  management  alone  will  be 
found  successful,  except,  perhaps,  in 
very  tenacious  clay  soil,  in  wliich  the 
rains  of  winter  may  lodge  so  near  the 
fibres  of  the  plants  as  to  destroy  them 
altogether;  but  destruction  from  this 
cause  may  easilj'  be  avoided  by  in- 
creasing the  original  depth  of  the  fur- 
rows and  loosening  the  bed  of  clay 
below  with  the  spade  to  such  a  depth 
as  will  allow  the  water  to  descend 
from  the  surface,  with  a  drain  to 
carry  it  off  altogether  ;  or  by  laying 
below  some  absorbent  matter,  such 
as  aslies,  chalk,  or  calcareous  gravel. 
"  The  germination  of  the  sets  may 
be  accelerated  by  a  little  management 
previously  to  their  being  planted,  by 
laying  them  on   a  floor,  sprinkling 

F  F  F 


them  with  water  until  they  bud,  and 
then  covering  them  with  finely-sifted 
mould.  If  this  be  done  early  in  Jan- 
uary, the  sets,  with  strong  shoots, 
may  be  taken  up  in  April  (with  as 
much  earth  as  possible  adhering  to 
thein),  and  carefully  placed  in  the 
drills  prepared  as  directed,  and  cov- 
ered with  well-rotted  leaves  or  earth 
in  the  same  way. 

"  To  market  gardeners  it  is  a  great 
object  to  raise  the  earliest  potatoes, 
considering  the  high  price  which  they 
obtain  for  them,  though  in  their  waxy 
state  they  are  neither  wholesome  nor 
palatable.  Next  in  early  maturity  to 
the  ash-leaved  and  walnut-leaved  are 
the  early  manly  and  early  champion, 
and  Fox's  seedling. 

"The  best  soil  for  potatoes  gener- 
ally is  that  which  is  altogether  fresh 
from  the  state  of  ley,  or  which  has 
not  long  been  broken  up  :  land  which 
has  been  in  grass  for  only  two  or 
three  years  is  easily  prepared  for 
the  principal  crop.  It  should  be  as 
deeply  ploughed  as  possible  before 
winter,  and  early  in  April  harrowed, 
and  thoroughly  cross-ploughed.  Af- 
ter lying  in  this  state  for  two  or 
three  weeks,  it  should  again  be  well 
harrowed  and  very  deeply  ploughed 
twice,  without  bringing  up  any  bad 
substratum,  and  it  will  then  be  fit  ibr 
the  reception  of  the  crop. 

"  The  most  approved  modes  of 
setting  are  as  follows  :  Drills  should 
be  formed  in  the  well-pulverized  field, 
with  double  boutings  of  tlie  plough, 
in  order  to  have  the  shoulders  uni- 
form, which  is  essential  to  the  cor- 
rectness of  succeeding  operations. 
The  dung  is  then  to  be  carted  out, 
and  divided  by  the  carter  with  a  drag 
fork,  as  his  horse  and  cart  move  for- 
ward (the  horse  walking  in  the  centre 
of  tlirce  drills,  while  the  wheels  move 
in  the  other  two),  in  such  quantities 
as  can  be  most  conveniently  shaken 
out  into  the  drills  by  tlu;  labourers 
employed  to  spread  it.  In  dry  weath- 
er the  carting  does  no  injury,  and 
this  method  is  universal  in  Scotland. 
The  other  principal  mode,  more  gen- 
erally pursued  in  Ireland  by  some  of 
the  best  cultivators  of  the  potato,  i 
613 


POTATO. 


to  part  out  the  manure  before  the 
drills  are  formed,  in  rows  seven  or 
eifillit  yards  apart,  and  to  supply  the 
drills  from  the  heaps  as  the  plough 
advances  in  its  work,  reserving  just 
as  much  as  is  supposed  sufficient  for 
the  concluding  drills,  which  are  to  be 
made  in  the  sections  of  the  field  pre- 
viously occupied  by  the  rows  of  ma- 
nure. By  the  latter  treatment  the 
manure  may  be  laid  over  the  sets, 
which  cannot  be  done  in  the  former 
case,  and  this  will  preserve  them  from 
being  displaced  or  crushed  by  the 
feet  of  the  horses  during  the  process 
of  covering  the  seed.  But  against 
this  advantage,  which  is  not  incon- 
siderable, there  is  the  inconvenience 
of  calculating  with  precision  and  lay- 
ing aside,  as  the  plough  advances  to 
draw  tlie  last  drills — where  the  rows 
had  stood — the  precise  complement 
of  manure,  and  the  difficulty  to  the 
ploughman  of  preserving  the  exact 
breadth  in  those  drills. 

"  Some  avoid  any  perplexities  in 
those  respects  by  ploughing  in  the 
manure  thoroughly  before  drilling, 
and  either  dropping  the  set  in  every 
third  furrow,  or  rolling  the  whole 
manured  and  ploughed  surface,  and 
then  making  drills.  Our  own  expe- 
rience is  greatly  in  favour  of  this  lat- 
ter mode,  when  the  fertilizing  matter 
is  abundant  and  of  the  short  descrip- 
tion, which  freely  combines  with  the 
soil,  and  does  not  obstruct  the  plough 
in  the  subsequent  drilling.  The  lazy- 
bed  method  is  so  generally  condemn- 
ed that  any  explanation  of  it  here 
would  be  superfluous,  yet  in  undrain- 
ed  bog  land,  or  under  any  circumstan- 
ces in  which  a  redundancy  of  wetness 
is  probable  in  the  autumn,  as  on  low, 
marshy  lands,  or  stiff  clay  soils  which 
have  no  sufficient  inclination  to  carry 
off  the  water,  and  are  likely  to  be 
saturated  with  moisture  in  winter, 
from  want  of  drainage,  the  lazy-bed 
system  is  by  far  the  safest.  The 
deep,  wide  furrows  at  each  side  car- 
ry off  the  water,  or,  at  least,  remove 
it  from  the  potato.  Thousands  of 
tons  of  potatoes,  in  the  year  1839, 
were  utterly  lost  in  Ireland,  being 
drilled  in  flat  and  tenacious  lands, 
614 


which  would  have  escaped  destruc- 
tion from  the  continued  rains  of  that 
season  if  drained  by  the  furrow  of 
the  lazy-bed.  Besides,  where  circum- 
stances preclude  the  practicability  of 
deep  ploughing,  the  lazy-bed  practice, 
repeated  for  three  years,  will  com- 
pletely spade-trench  the  entire  land, 
and  thus  effect  an  important  benefit, 
not  otherwise  attainable  by  the  hum- 
ble tiller  of  the  soil,  who  has  no  teauis 
for  ploughing  it  effectually.  Thus 
local  or  national  modes,  though  aj)- 
parently  defective  to  the  superficial 
observer,  are  sometimes  founded 
upon  sound  principles ;  and  though  we 
feel  disposed  to  exclude  the  minute 
details  of  what  is  only  defensible  un- 
der peculiar  circumstances  from  an 
essay  on  potato  culture  under  our 
modern  system,  we  protest  against 
the  unqualified  condemnation  of  a 
method  which  is  still  pursued  through- 
out nearly  one  half  of  Ireland. 

"  The  sets  (uncut,  for  reasons  to  be 
yet  assigned)  are  next  to  be  laid  down, 
either  under  or  over  the  manure,  at 
the  average  distance  of  sixteen  inch- 
es, by  the  setters,  who  move  in  a 
retrograde  direction,  and  are  provi- 
ded with  aprons  to  contain  the  sets. 
A  sufficient  number  of  men  is  in  at- 
tendance to  divide  the  manure  even- 
ly in  the  drills  ;  the  plough  also  is  in 
the  field,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
the  least  possible  exposure  of  the 
manure  and  sets  to  the  sun  or  to 
parching  wind,  but  the  plough  should 
cover  the  sets  rather  lightly  in  clay 
soil. 

"  The  roller  is  next  used  to  lay  an 
even  surface  to  the  young  plants,  and 
to  facilitate  the  subsequent  progress 
of  the  paring  plough,  which  is  to  be 
set  to  work  when  the  stems  are  six 
or  seven  inches  high,  and  sliould 
move  as  close  to  the  plants  as  is 
practicable  without  injuring  their  ten- 
der fibres.  The  weeders  should  then 
hoe  the  plants  carefully,  and  imme- 
diately afterward  (for  the  influence 
of  wind  or  hot  air  on  the  roots  is  per- 
nicious) the  scufller  or  drill-harrow 
is  to  follow,  in  order  to  clean  and  lev- 
el the  intervals,  liefore  the  earthing- 
plough,  with  either  double  or  single 


I 


POTATO. 

mould-board,  is  introduced  to  apply  I  erage  depth,  unless  there  be  a  very 
fresh  earth  to  the  sKMns.  vride  interval  between  the  drills,  and 

••  Such  is  the  method  of  earthing  it  is  certain  that  much  earthing  in 
universally  pursued  by  the  fanner  in  ,  dry  and  shallow  soil  is  injurious  ;  for 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  but  in  England    by  withdrawing  the  earth  from  con 


the  hand  hoe  is  principally  used  for 
destroying  weeds,  loosening  the  earth, 
and  moulding  the  plants  ;  for  the  first 
two  of  these  operations  the  beau  hoe 


tiguity  to  the  fibres  which  ramify  and 
penetrate  far  in  loose  soil,  and  laying 
it  on  the  head  of  the  drill,  and  in  the 
high  ridgclet  form,  it  is  applied  where 


(which  cuts  about  six  inches  deep)  is  j  it  is  useless  for  the  nourishment  of 
used,  and  the  turnip  hoe  for  drawing ,  the  tubers,  and  in  a  position  that  fa- 
the  earth  to  the  stems.  One  man  I  vours  the  rapid  escape  of  moisture, 
will  hoe  out  the  weeds  and  loosen  ;  which,  in  such  soil,  it  ought  to  he  an 
the  soil  of  half  an  acre  per  day,  and  ,  object  to  retain.  In  deep  land,  more 
the  subsequent  earthing  of  the'  same  !  particularly  if  it  be  of  tenacious  qual- 
quantity  is  also  executed  by  one  ity,  the  furrows  at  each  side  of  the 
man.  This  is  far  cheaper  than  horse  ;  drill  will  be,  in  general  seasons,  most 
work,  and  it  does  no  injury  to  any  |  serviceable  as  drains,  as  well  as  for 
of  the  stems,  and  makes  no  waste  |  furnishing  earth  to  support  the  stems. 


land  at  the  head-riggs  ;  and  where 
the  earth  has  been  perfectly  well  pre- 
pared at  the  commencement,  this 
manual  husbandry  is  the  best. 

'■  .\s  to  the  distance  between  the 
drills,  due  regard  must  be  had  to  the 
natural  quality  of  the  soil,  and  the 
quantity  and  description  of  manure 
available,  or,  in  other  words,  to  the 
probable  luxuriance  of  foliage.  Mr. 
Knight,  aware  of  the  necessity  of  al 
lowing  room  in  proportion  to  tlie  vig 


while  the  moisture  will  be  sufficiently 
retained  for  the  roots. 

"  Experiments  have  led  to  the  in- 
ference that,  in  soil  of  a  loose,  porous 
quality,  there  is  probably  a  greater 
produce  by  not  affording  any  (or  a 
very  slight)  moulding,  but  by  digging, 
instead,  between  the  rows  ;  for  deep 
and  perfect  pulverization,  next  to  an 
adequate  allowance  of  rich  manure, 
is  the  main  cause  of  a  large  produce. 
In    proportion    to    the   deficiency  of 


our  and  height  of  the  plants,  has  laid  '  manure  will  be  the  necessity  for  open- 
down   an   exact   rule,    thus:    'Thejing  the  soil   beneath,  to  allow  the 


height  of  the  stems  being  three  feet, 
the  rows  ought  to  be  four  feet  apart ;' 
but  for  a  general  average  thirty 
inches  is  the  best  distance.  As  to 
excess  of  foliage,  we  are  certain  that 
it  is  not  desirable,  for  the  produce 
of  tubers  is  not  always  in  propor- 
tion to  the  degree  of  foliage  ;  under 
hierh  and  rank  stems  there  is  often  a 


fibres,  which  maybe  distinctly  traced 
to  a  depth  incredible  to  those  who 
have  not  followed  their  ramifications, 
to  extract  all  the  nourishment  which 
the  subsoil  may  afford.  If  there  be 
an  abundance  of  nutriment  above, 
neither  the  necessity  nor,  perhaps, 
the  inclination  for  penetrating  deeply 
can  exist,  and  in  such  cases  the  op- 


very  scanty  crop,  and  Mr.  Knight  is ;  eration  of  earthing  by  the  plough,  as 
justified  by  experience  in  his  obser- :  long  as  it  can  be  introduced  without 
vation  that  '  the  largest  produce  will ,  injury  to  the  stems,  may  be  useful  in 
be  obtained  from  varieties  of  rather  many  ways,  but  unquestionably  by 
early  habits  and  rather  low  stature, !  guarding  them  from  the  effects  of 
there  being  in  very  tall  plants  much  storm  in  exposed,  and  from  excessive 
time  lost  in  conveying  the  nutriment  I  wetness  in  low  situations  ;  besides, 
from  the  soil  to  the  leaves,"  and  con-  in  regulating  this  point,  regard  should 
sequently  strong  and  upright  stems,  I  always  be  had  to  the  quality  of  the 
which  do  not  fall  down  and  shade  the  potato,  for  the  tubers  of  some  varie- 
others,  are  those  which  are  desirable,  ties  have  a  tendency  to  push  to  the 
"Two  more  earthings  are  usually |  surface,  while  others  tend  into  the 
given,  but  it  is  questionable  whether  earth,  and  therefore  require  a  differ- 
even  one  be  necessary  in  soil  of  av- ,  ent  treatment. 

615 


POTATO. 


"  But  in  all  cases  the  earth  should 
be  rendered  as  loose  and  friable  as 
possible,  by  sjiade,  hoe,*  or  plough, 
and  where  labour  is  easily  eoaunand- 
ed,  the  spade  will  be  lound  to  be  the 
more  etiieacious  iin|)leuient  in  the 
first  course  of  treatment,  after  the 
plants  are  well  up. 

"  Some  plant  one  or  two  sets  in 
the  centre  of  every  square  yard,  but 
in  such  cases  great  and  continued 
earthing,  until  each  square  presents 
the  form  of  a  pyramid,  is  contem- 
plated ;  and,  if  our  preceding  remarks 
be  correct,  this  treatment  is  only  ap- 
plicable to  deep  and  retentive  soils. 
Great  returns  have,  no  doubt,  been 
thus  obtained,  but  by  this  mode  there 
is  the  least  possible  incorporation  of 
the  manure  with  the  soil. 

"  In  minute  husbandry,  such  as 
that  exemplified  in  labourers'  allot- 
ments, which  excludes  the  plough  al- 
together, the  ordinary  and  best  prac- 
tice is  to  lay  the  sets  in  rows,  after  a 
very  deep  winter  digging,  marked 
■with  a  garden-hne.  The  workmen 
digs  precisely  as  in  a  garden  plot  for 
cabbages  :  he  clears  a  little  drill,  lays 
the  sets  straight,  puts  a  sufficiency 
of  manure  over  them,  and  then  covers 
from  the  next  spit,  which  he  digs 
with  a  spade  or  a  three-pronged  fork 
flattened  at  the  ends,  levelling  and 
pulverizing  as  he  advances  to  the 
distance  at  which  he  again  puts  down 
his  line  and  forms  a  new  drill.  Thus 
the  entire  piece  is  thoroughly  loosen- 
ed, the  manure  perfectly  covered, 
and  every  facility  given  for  the  hand- 
hoeing  in  due  course. 

"  The  ne.xt  stage  of  the  potato  is 
that  in  which  it  blossoms.  It  has 
been  recommended  to  pluck  off  the 
flowers.  Excessive  blossoming  is  no 
doubt  injurious,  but  experience  has 
generally  proved  that  the  extra  cost 
is  hardly  defrayed  by  the  additional 
produce  obtained.  If  the  flowers  are 
plucked  off,  they  should  be  nipped  in 
the  early  bud. 

"  When  the  crop  is  fully  ripe, 
which  is  indicated  by  the  withering 
of  the  stalks,  and  when  the  land  is 

*  That  kind  called  the  bean  hoe,  shaped  like 
an  adze. 

616 


free  from  stones,  labourers,  in  the 
proportion  of  about  twenty  to  one 
plough  (half  of  these  being  usually 
men,  and  the  remainder  women  or 
young  persons),  should  be  set  to  pull 
up  the  stalks,  and  carefully  collect 
the  tubers  which  may  be  attached  to 
them  before  the  plough  proceeds  in 
its  operation.  When  it  is  prepared 
for  work,  the  men,  with  prongs  flat- 
tened at  the  extremity,  are  placed  at 
such  distances  from  each  other  as 
will  give  them  proper  time  to  fork 
out  the  potatoes  cleanly  for  the  pick- 
ers, who  are  also  stationed  at  exact 
distances  with  a  basket  between  ev- 
ery pair,  into  which  they  gather  the 
potatoes. 

"  The  common  swing  plough  may 
be  employed  in  three  ways  ;  First,  in 
taking  off  a  slice  from  each  side  of 
every   drill,    and   leaving    it   to   the 
workmen  to  open  out  the  centre  with 
their  prongs ;  or,  in  its  third  move- 
ment,  it  may  turn   up  this  centre, 
under  which  the  main  body  of  the 
tubers  lie,  which  is  more  expeditious- 
ly and  easily  done  if  the  earth  be  in  fit 
condition.     Second,  a  double  mould- 
board  plough  with  a  long  sack,  and 
divested  of  its  coulter,  maybe  drawn 
by  two   strong  horses  through   the 
centre  of  the  drills,  and  completely 
under  the  level  of  the  tubers,  so  as  to 
avoid  injuring  them,  by  which  means 
the  work-people  will  be  kept  exceed- 
ingly busy  ;  and  if the  land  be  in  good 
friable  order,  this  is  the  most  expe- 
ditious mode  ;  and  provided  there  is 
a  perfect  harrowing  afterward,  the 
crop  will  be  taken  out  with  sufficient 
cleanliness.     Third,  the  crop  may  be 
taken  up  by  prongs,  or  long,  narrow 
;  spades,  without  the  plough.     In  wet 
!  weather,  this  more  tedious,  but  far 
{  safer  method  is  frequently  adopted  ; 
i  and  if  the  drill  be  short  and  the  head- 
riggs  under  crop  also,  it  is  the  most 
desirable,  effectual,  and  economical 
1  mode.     In  removing  the  produce  in 
I  this  manner,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
number  of  gatherers  should  be  much 
less,  in  proportion  to  the  men,  than 
under  the  other  circumstances.     The 
!  head-riggs  should  evidently  be  the 
1  first  parts  of  the  field  cleared,  to  make 


POTATO. 


a  free  space  for  the  ploughs  in  the 
boulinjrs  and  lor  the  carts. 

"  One  liorse  will  answer  for  three 
carts,  if  the  distance  of  draii<j;lit  to 
the  pits  be  short,  by  changing  hnn  al- 
ternately from  an  empty  to  a  full 
one,  but  this  only  applies  to  the 
Scotch  and  Irish  system  of  draught 
by  single  carts  and  iiorses.  The 
general  mode  of  securing  the  crop  in 
pits  in  the  field  is  the  safest.  In 
making  the  pits — improperly  so  term- 
ed, for  the  base  is  only  sunk  a  few 
inches,  and  the  potatoes  are  raised 
considerably  in  the  heaps — the  only 
caution  to  be  observed  is,  that  fur- 
rows should  be  cut  on  all  sides  to 
prevent  water  from  lodging  or  [)ene- 
trating  inward,  and  that  the  earth 
thrown  up  and  over  them,  to  the 
depth  of  four  or  five  inches,  should 
be  well  beaten  with  spade  or  shovel 
to  exclude  moisture  and  frost.  The 
potato  stalks,  however  apparently 
dry,  should  never  be  laid  between 
the  potatoes  and  the  earth  in  these 
accumulations,  for  they  soon  ferment 
and  rot,  and  injure  all  the  potatoes 
in  contact  with  them.  Straw  is  at 
least  useless.  The  length  of  the  pit 
depends  on  circumstances,  but  the 
breadth  should  not  exceed  four  feet, 
as  large  accumulations  are  most  lia- 
ble to  fermentations." 

The  potato  crop  is  commonly  be- 
low 200  bushels  the  acre,  but  by  good 
management  400  bushels  may  be  ob- 
tained. 

"The  only  decided  diseases  of  the 
potato,  besides  the  dry  rot,  is  '  the 
curl,'  which  is  an  imperfect  forma- 
tion ;  and  a  rot  of  the  new  tubers, 
which  seems  to  be  owing  to  a  fungus, 
and  may  be  overcome  by  liming  or 
using  salt  to  the  land.  One  thing, 
however,  is  clear,  that  from  a  crop 
of  which  any  part  is  intended  for 
seed,  all  the  plants  affected  with  curl 
should  be  carefully  separated  before 
the  general  removal  commences. 
The  dry  rot,  or  decay  of  the  set,  is 
also  still  unexplained  as  to  its  real 
cause,  though  the  press  has  teemed 
with  essays  and  very  plausible  theo- 
ries respecting  it.  The  same  malady 
was  remarked  for  many  years,  and, 

F  F  F  2 


we  have  reason  to  think,  m  seasons 
similar  to  tliose  which  w-e  have  ex- 
perienced in  latter  years.  The  set, 
though  ajjparentiy  sound  when  plant- 
ed, has  either  failed  to  germinate  at 
all,  and  rotted  away,  or  has  feebly 
and  partially  thrown  out  its  sickly 
shoots.  The  most  contradictory 
causes  have  been  assigned :  over- 
ripening  in  the  preceding  year ;  un- 
der-ripening ;  fermentation  in  the 
pits  ;  I'ermeiitation  of  the  set  in  the 
ground  when  placed  in  contact  witli 
hot  dung  (which  is  utterly  absurd, 
for  when  in  the  ground  no  injurious 
fermentation  can  arise) ;  very  hot 
weather,  great  drought,  hot  sun,  cold, 
parching  wind,  dry  and  healing  ma- 
nure, sea-ware,  which  is  always 
damp  ;  exhaustion  of  the  kind  from 
a  long  course  of  culture,  contradicted 
by  many  instances,  in  which  it  ap- 
pears that  the  produce  of  the  same 
variety — for  instance,  the  apple — has 
been  successively  cultivated  during 
sixty-five  years  without  any  lailure  ; 
or  the  loss  of  vitality  from  prema- 
turely shooting. 

"  If  potatoes  have  fermented  in 
their  accumulated  state,  they  would 
bear  obvious  evidence  of  it,  and 
therefore  be  rejected.  Fermentation 
cannot  be  the  true  cause  in  every  or 
even  the  majority  of  cases,  nor  does 
the  failure,  probably,  proceed  from  in- 
sects in  the  eyes,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested ;  for  if  so,  it  is  difficult  to  ac- 
count for  the  fact  that  sets  from  the 
same  heap  planted  at  one  part  of  the 
day  have  totally  failed,  while  others 
put  into  the  ground  at  another  have 
pushed  forth  healthy  shoots.  As  to 
decay  in  the  land,  from  the  contiguit)'- 
of  fermenting  manure.  How  is  it 
to  be  proved  that  the  gases  evolved 
by  fermenting  manure  can  injure  the 
sets]  Fermenting  manures  would 
rather  stimulate  by  their  warmth, 
and  excite  their  growth  by  the  ali- 
ment which  their  essential  (juaiities, 
carbon  and  ammonia,supply  to  plants. 
Wliy  do  not  the  gaseous  exhalations 
from  rank  and  fermenting  hot-beds 
destroy  the  tender  plants  which  are 
raised  in  them  V 

"  The  same  causes  which  are  sev- 
G17 


POT 


POT 


erally  assigned  for  the  total  or  par-  ] 
tial  failure  of  the  potato  in  number- 
less instances,  ami  to  a  most  distress- 
ing extent  in  Ireland,  have  existed 
since  the  culture  of  the  potato  com- 
menced, but  without  the  effects  de- 
plored, which  have  only  prevailed 
within  a  very  recent  space  of  time. 
But  from  the  frequent  and  searcliing 
investigation  of  the  subject  by  the 
most  competent  and  practical  men,  a 
preventive  against  the  failure  has 
been  ascertained,  namely,  the  plant- 
ing of  entire  tubers.  When  cut  sets 
have  failed,  the  entire  tubers  have 
resisted  premature  decay  ;  whether 
it  arises  from  atmospheric  influence 
or  debility  of  constitution,  or  from 
any  of  the  conjectured  causes,  the 
entire  tubers  resist  these  noxious  in- 
fluences, and  germinate  healthily  and 
freely.  All  reports  agree  on  this 
point :  there  is  no  risk  in  this  case, 
if  the  tubers  be  sound  when  planted  ; 
and  it  may  be  added,  that  in  all 
stages  of  their  growth,  the  uncut  tu- 
bers maintain  a  decided  superiority 
and  yield  a  corresponding  produce. 

"  The  farina  of  the  potato,  properly 
granulated  and  dried,  is  sold  in  our 
shops  as  tapioca,  to  which  it  bears 
the  closest  resemblance  both  in  ap- 
pearance and  essential  properties. 
For  confectionery,  the  flour  is  so  del- 
icately white,  and  it  is  so  digestible 
and  nutritious,  that  it  ought  to  be  in 
more  general  use.     Few  housewives 


are  ignorant  of  the  method  of  obtain- 
ing it  by  the  use  of  a  connnon  hand- 
grater  and  sieve ;  but  for  yielding 
larger  supplies,  some  machinery  is 
necessary.  The  preceding  figure  rep- 
resents an  approved  implement :  b  is 
the  hopper  ;  the  potatoes  are  scraped 
by  the  wires  set  in  the  revolving 
wheel  a." 

Manures  for  the  Potato. — Lime  is 
eminently  serviceable  in  improving 
the  mealiness  and  flavour  of  the  po- 
tato ;  salt,  at  the  rate  of  five  bush- 
els the  acre,  is  also  an  invaluable  ma- 
nure ;  but  all  gross  animal  composts 
are  injurious,  many  of  them  render- 
ing the  tubers  waxy  and  of  bad  fla- 
vour. The  fresh  potato  contains  75 
per  cent,  water  ;  1000  pounds  in  the 
ordinary  state  yield  8-28  pounds  ash- 
es. The  composition  of  the  ash  is,  by 
Sprengel, 

1000  lbs.  tubera. 
Potash  anJ  soda     .     .     .  636 
Lime  and  magnesia     .     .      65 
Phosphoric  acid       .     .     .     "40 
Suliihuric  acid  ....     '54 

Sihca -08 

Chlorine '16 

Iron,  alumina,  &c.      .     .     '08 

This  analysis  also  explains  why 
plaster  is  sometimes  useiul  in  com- 
posts intended  for  the  potato.  A  light 
soil  abounding  in  humus  is  most  prof- 
itable for  this  crop. 

POTATO  FLY.  See  Blistermg 
Fly. 

POTATO  PIES,  CAMPS,  or 
PITS.  See  Potato  and  Barrow. 
Earthen  mounds  to  store  potatoes 
and  other  roots. 

POTATO  STARCH.  The  farina. 
See  Potato. 

POTATO  SUGAR.  The  sugar 
produced  from  potatoes  by  boiling  po- 
tato starch  with  sulphuric  acid.  It 
is  s^lucose.     See  Siisar. 

POTATO  WASHER.  The  figure 
on  the  following  page  represents  a 
simple  and  effective  implement.  It 
consists  of  a  trough  containing  water, 
on  which  is  made  to  revolve  a  cylin- 
drical cage  (c)  containing  the  pota- 
toes. The  cage  opens  to  allow  the 
tubers  to  be  introduced  and  with- 
drawn. 


1000  lbs.  tops 

8-29 
14-67 
1-97 
0-42 
494 
050 
006 
"30^85 


I 


618 


POT 


POU 


POTS  FOR  PLANTS.  The  com- 
mon unglazed  earthen  pots  are  su- 
perior to  those  that  are  glazed,  be- 
cause they  allow  excess  of  fluid  to 
drain  ofT  by  their  pores.  The  size 
should  be  proportional  to  the  plants. 

POT-STONE.  A  tough  soap-stone. 

POTTER'S  CLAY.  Plastic  clay 
either  of  a  white  or  red  colour. 

POTTLXG.  The  placing  of  young 
plants  in  small  pots  for  the  following 
purposes : 

"  The  first  and  greatest  end  at- 
tained by  potting  is  the  power  of  mo- 
ving plants  about  from  place  to  place 
without  injury  ;  green-house  plants 
from  the  open  air  to  the  house,  and 
the  reverse  ;  hardy  species,  difficult 
to  transplant,  to  their  final  stations 
in  the  open  ground  without  disturb- 
ing their  roots ;  annuals  raised  in 
heat  to  the  open  borders,  and  so  on  : 
and  when  this  power  of  moving 
plants  is  wanted,  pots  afford  the  only 
means  of  doing  so.  It  also  cramps 
the  roots,  diminishes  the  tendency  to 
form  leaves,  and  increases  the  dispo- 
sition to  flower.  Another  object  is 
to  effect  a  secure  and  constant  drain- 
age from  roots  of  water  ;  a  third  is, 
to  expose  the  roots  to  the  most  fa- 
vourable amount  of  bottom  heat, 
which  cannot  be  readily  accomplish- 
ed when  plants  of  large  size  are  made 
to  grow  in  the  ground,  even  of  a  hot- 
house ;  and,  finally,  it  is  a  conveni- 
ent process  for  the  nourishment  of 
delicate  seedlings.  Unless  some  one 
of  these  ends  is  to  be  answered,  and 
cannot  be  effected  in  a  more  natural 
manner,  potting  is  better  dispensed 
with." — {Lindicy.) 


POUDRETTE.  Dried  night  soil 
mixed  with  charcoal  powder,  with 
gypsum,  with  lime,  with  peat,  or 
merely  dried  in  the  air.  The  manu- 
facturers usually  reserve  the  process  : 
that  with  gypsum  and  charcoal  is 
best.  From  twenty  to  thirty  bushels 
the  acre  are  used  with  great  effect  in 
the  drill,  or  sown  over  growing  crops 
in  spring.  It  forwards  the  plant  con- 
siderably, but  seldom  lasts  for  more 
than  one  season.     See  Nisrht  Soil. 

POULTICE.  "  An  external  appli- 
cation employed  for  promoting  the 
suppuration  of  tumours,  or  abating 
painful  inflammation.  The  chief  in- 
tention of  the  poultice  is  to  retain  the 
heat  on  the  tumour  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  ;  consequently,  corn 
meal,  linseed  meal  are  the  best  fitted 
for  poultices.  The  fatty  matter  usu- 
ally added  is  to  give  softness  to  the 
poultice,  which  is  otherwise  apt  to 
harden  as  the  moisture  evaporates. 
Few  farmers  are  aware  of  the  value 
of  these  simple  applications  in  abating 
inflammation,  relieving  pain,  cleans- 
ing wounds,  and  disposing  them  to 
heal.  The  poultice  may  be  rendered 
more  soothing  by  opium,  or  increased 
activity  may  be  given  by  the  addition 
of  common  turpentine  or  chloride  of 
lime,  and  in  cases  of  foul  ulcers  pow- 
dered charcoal  may  be  added.  As 
an  emollient  poultice  for  grease  and 
cracked  heels,  and  especially  if  ac- 
companied by  much  unpleasant  smell, 
there  is  nothing  preferable  to  a  poul- 
tice of  mashed  carrots  with  charcoal. 
It  is  always  best  to  enclose  poultices 
in  bags." 

POULTRY  (from  the  French  pou- 
C19 


POULTRY. 


Id).  The  term  includes  all  the  do- 
mesticated birds  reared  for  the  table  : 
fowls,  turkeys,  geese,  ducks,  and 
Cruinea  fowls. 

"  Fuicls. — '  The  strong  feet  of  the 
gallinaceous  birds  are  adapted  to  the 
region  wlicre  they  chiefly  resort  for 
their  food  and  the  purposes  of  incu- 
bation ;  their  toes  and  nails  peculiar- 
ly formed  for  scratching  up  the  grains 
and  seeds  which  constitute  the  main 
part  of  their  subsistence  ;  their  short 
wings  and  the  weakness  of  their  pec- 
toral muscles,  whi'ch  cause  the  heavi- 
ness of  their  flight,  a  deficiency  which 
is  counterbalanced  by  the  strength  of 
those  muscles  of  the  thighs  and  legs 
that  contribute  to  their  powers  of 
running  ;  their  gregarious,  and,  gen- 
erally speaking,  polygamous  habits  ; 
the  ease  with  which  they  are  domes- 
ticated ;  their  wholesome  flesh,  to- 
gether with  many  striking  peculiari- 
ties in  their  anatomy,  serve  equally 
to  distinguish  thera.' 

"  Some  foreign  varieties  have  not 
even  the  rudiment  of  a  tail,  while 
others  are  distinguished  by  it.  The 
gamecock,  which  is  probably  a  native 
of  India,  has  an  unusual  length  of 
spur,  his  natural  weapon  of  combat. 
The  flesh  of  this  variety  is  delicate- 
ly white  and  of  the  finest  flavour,  the 
plumage  brilliant,  and  the  form  sym- 
metrical ;  but  from  their  pugnacious 
temper,  there  is  great  difficulty  in 
rearing  even  those  of  the  same  brood ; 
and  for  companionship  with  the  gen- 
eral inmates  of  the  fowl-yard  they  are 
very  exceptionable  for  the  same  cause. 

"  The  best  breed  of  Dorking  fowls 
is  the  produce  of  the  Dorking  cock 
and  the  common  dunghill  fowl.  This 
cross  is  larger  and  plumper,  and  more 
hardy  than  the  pure  Dorking,  without 
losing  delicacy  of  flavour  or  white- 
ness of  flesh. 

"The  characteristics  of  the  pure 
Dorking  are,  that  it  is  white-feather- 
ed, short-legged,  and  an  excellent 
layer.  The  peculiarity  of  this  estab- 
lished variety,  which  has  frequently 
five  claws  perfectly  articulated  (with 
sometimes  a  sixth  springing  laterally 
from  the  fifth,  but  always  imperfect), 
is  well  known.  But  though  the  true 
600 


Dorking,  which  is  white,  is  much  es- 
teemed, that  colour  is  rare,  and  prized 
for  the  ornament  of  the  poultry-yard  . 
speckled  colours  are  most  generally 
seen. 

"  The  Poland  breed,  which  is  black- 
feathered,  with  white  topknots,  lays 
well,  and  is  highly  desirable  where 
the  production  of  eggs  for  the  table 
is  the  principal  object ;  but  they  sel- 
dom sit. 

'•  The  Chiltagong,  or  Malay,  which 
is  a  very  large  Indian  variety,  is  gen- 
erally long-legged,  with  yellow  body 
and  coarse,  yellow  flesh.  Fanciers 
used  to  like  them  for  their  fine  ap- 
pearance and  their  large  eggs ;  but 
as  their  long  legs  incapacitate  them 
from  steady  sitting,  they  are  not  gen- 
eral favourites.  One  of  our  practical 
acquaintances  recommends  the  male 
produce  of  the  Poland  and  Chittagong  M 
as  a  good  cross  with  the  common  ■ 
dunghill  hen,  as  their  progeny  will  sit.     ~ 

"  Parmentier  thus  describes  the 
cock ;  '  He  is  considered  to  have  ev- 
ery requisite  quality  when  he  is  of  a 
good  middling  size  ;  when  he  carries 
his  head  high  ;  has  a  quick,  animated 
look,  a  strong  and  shrill  voice,  short 
bill,  a  fine  red  comb,  shining  as  if 
varnished  ;  wattles  of  a  large  size, 
and  of  the  same  colour  as  the  comb  ; 
the  breast  broad  ;  the  wings  strong ; 
the  plumage  black,  or  of  an  obscure 
red  ;  the  thighs  very  muscular ;  the 
legs  thick,  and  furnished  with  strong 
spurs ;  the  claws  rather  bent,  and 
sharply  pointed.  He  ought  also  to  be 
free  in  his  motions,  to  crow  frequent- 
ly, and  to  scratch  the  ground  often  in 
search  of  worms,  not  so  much  for 
himself  as  to  treat  his  hens.  He 
ought,  withal,  to  be  brisk,  spirited, 
ardent,  and  ready  in  caressing  the 
hens ;  quick  in  defending  them,  at- 
tentive in  soliciting  them  to  eat,  in 
keeping  them  together,  and  in  assem- 
bling them  at  night.'  " 

'■  The  Bantam  is  a  beautiful  little 
bird,  usually  white  in  colour,  with 
short  legs,  feathered  oftentimes  to 
the  extremity  of  its  toes.  It  is  often 
of  variegated  colours,  inclined  to  red, 
brown,  and  white,  prettily  mixed.  Oc- 
casionally a  variety  is  met  with  that 


POULTRY 


are  smooth-legged.  They  are  very 
domestic,  often  making  tlieir  nest  in 
the  kitchen  and  cupboards  of  the 
(IweUiiig,  wiien  ])crmilted.  They  are 
(■\ceik'nt  layers  and  good  nurses, 
but  require  a  dry  location,  on  account 
of  their  short,  featliered  legs.  The 
males  are  wonderful  crowers,  exceed- 
ingly pugnacious,  and  make  three 
times  the  luss  about  the  poultry-yard 
that  anything,  but  a  bantam,  should 
do.  They  arrive  at  maturity  early, 
and  are  well  worthy  of  propagation. 
"The  Btirfcs  County  breed  has  re- 
ceived some  celebrity  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Philadelphia  as  a  valua- 
ble variety  of  fowl,  principally  on  ac- 
count of  its  enormous  size.  I  have 
seen  many  specimens  of  this  fowl, 
paid  some  attention  to  its  habits,  and 
learned  from  those  who  have  tried 
them  their  principal  merits.  It  is  a 
large  bird,  weighing,  at  maturity, 
eight,  and  even  ten  pounds,  rather 
thinly  feathered,  of  various  colours 
from  gray  to  black,  and  frequently 
speckled  black  and  white.  They  are 
coarse  in  their  legs,  tall  and  bony, 
and  have  evidently  a  cross  of  the  Ma- 
lay in  tlieir  composition.  They  are 
but  moderate  layers  ;  their  eggs  very 
large  and  good.  They  are  bad  sit- 
ters, frequently  breakmg  their  eggs, 
on  account  of  their  great  weight  and 
size,  by  cru.shingthem  ;  are  not  hardy, 
and,  on  the  whole,  will  not  compare 
with  the  common  dunghill  fowl  for 
ordinary  uses.  They  do  not  breed 
equaJly  in  size  and  appearance,  show- 
ing t  hem,  evidently,  to  be  a  cross  from 
other  breeds  ;  but  from  what  they  are 
derived,  other  than  the  Malay,  it  is 
difficult  to  say.  A  gentleman  of  my 
acquaintance,  who  is  very  curious  as 
well  as  nice  in  the  selection  of  his 
fowls,  tried  them  effectually  for  his 
poultry-yard,  and  they  disappointed 
him.  He  then  crossed  them  with  the 
game  breed,  and  has  succeeded  fine- 
ly, the  cross  being  reduced  in  size, 
fuller  feathered,  hardier,  and  better 
layers,  with  an  excellent  carcass,  and 
finer  flesh.  As  a  fancy  fowl,  or  to 
make  up  a  variety,  they  are  very 
well,  but  they  can  never  become  of 
great  uUliiy,  except  to  cross  with  the 


common  or  the  game  fowl,  to  the 
farmer. 

"  The  Java  or  Indian  fowl  is  a 
large,  coarse  bird,  covered  with  a 
coarse,  long  down  or  hair,  of  a  dirty 
white  or  yellow  colour,  and  running 
from  that  into  all  the  shades  of  brown, 
even  to  a  smoky  black.  It  appears 
to  difler  little  from  the  Malay  fowl, 
save  in  its  crowing,  and  perhaps  lay- 
ing deeper-coloured  eggs.  Its  gener- 
al characteristics  are  the  same.  In  the 
Northern  States  it  is  hardly  worth 
propagation  :  as  a  fancy  bird,  it  pos- 
sesses neither  beauty  nor  utility." 

"  Those  who  intend  to  rear  fowls 
or  any  kind  of  poultry  on  a  large  scale 
should  have  a  distinct  yard,  perfectly 
sheltered,  and  with  a  warm  aspect, 
well  fenced,  secure  from  thieves  and 
vermin,  and  sufficiently  inclined  to  be 
always  dry,  and  supplied  with  sand 
or  ashes  for  the  cocks  and  hens  to 
roll  in,  an  operation  necessary  to  dis- 
engage their  feathers  from  vermin  : 
running  water  should  be  especially 
provided  ;  for  the  want  of  water,  of 
which  all  poultry  are  fond,  produces 
constipation  of  the  bowels  and  in- 
flammatory diseases  ;  and  for  geese 
and  ducks  bathing  is  an  indispensa- 
ble luxury.  A  contiguous  field  is  also 
necessary  for  free  exercise,  as  well 
as  for  the  suijjtly  of  grubs  and  grass 
to  the  geese.  The  fowl-house  should 
be  dry,  well  roofed,  and  fronting  the 
east  or  south,  and,  if  practicable,  at 
the  back  of  a  stove  or  stables,  warmth 
being  conducive  to  health  and  laying, 
though  extreme  heat  has  the  contra- 
ry efTect.  It  should  be  furnished  with 
two  small  lattice  windows,  that  can 
be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  at  op- 
posite ends,  for  ventilation,  which  is 
frequently  necessary  ;  and  the  perch- 
es should  be  so  arranged  that  one  row 
of  roosting  fowls  should  not  be  di- 
rectly above  another. 

"  M.  Parmentier   has    shown    by 

what  arrangement  a  house  twenty 

feet  long  and  twelve  feet  wide  may 

be  made  to  accommodate  150  hens 

at  roost.     The  plan  is  simply  this  : 

\  the  first  roosting-perch  (rounded  a 

little  at  the  upper  angles  only,  for  gal- 

,  linaceous  fowls  cannot  keep  a  firm 

6S1 


POULTRY. 


hold  on  perfectly  cylindrical  support- 
ers) should  be  placed  loiiptlnvisc,  and 
rest  on  trcsscls  in  each  end  wall,  ssix 
feet  from  the  front  wall,  and  at  a  con- 
venient height,  which  must  depend 
on  the  elevation  of  the  house  from 
the  floor,  which  should  be  formed  of 
some  well  consolidated  material  that 
can  be  easily  swept.  Another  perch 
should  be  fi.ved  ladder-wise  {en  eche- 
lon) above  this,  but  ten  inches  nearer 
to  the  back  wall,  and  so  on,  until 
there  are  four  of  these  perches,  like 
the  steps  of  a  ladder  \\  hen  properly 
inclined,  but  with  a  sufficient  distance 
between  the  wall  and  the  upper  one 
to  allow  the  poultry-maid  to  stand 
conveniently  upon  when  she  has  oc- 
casion to  examine  the  nests,  which 
it  is  her  duty  to  do  every  day  at  least 
once,  and  in  the  forenoon.  The  high- 
est of  these  she  can  reach  by  stand- 
ing on  a  stool  or  step-ladder.  By  this 
contrivance  the  liens,  when  desirous 
of  reaching  the  nests,  have  no  occa- 
sion to  fly,  but  merely  to  pass  from 
one  stick  to  another.  If  the  size  and 
form  of  the  house  permit,  a  similar 
construction  may  be  made  on  the  op- 
posite side,  care  being  taken  to  leave 
an  open  space  in  the  middle  of  the 
room,  and  a  sufficiently  wide  passage 
for  the  attendant  to  pass  along  the 
walls.  It  is  not  at  all  required  to 
have  as  many  nests  as  hens,  because 
they  have  not  all  occasion  to  occupy 
them  at  the  same  time  ;  and  besides, 
they  are  so  far  from  having  a  repug- 
nance to  lay  in  a  common  receptacle, 
that  the  sight  of  an  egg  stimulates 
them  to  lay.  It  is,  however,  true  that 
the  most  secluded  and  darkest  nests 
are  those  which  the  hens  prefer. 

"  The  nests,  if  built  into  the  wall, 
are  in  tiers  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top,  the  lowest  being  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  a  foot  square. 
If  the  laying  chambers  consist  of 
wooden  boxes,  they  are  usually  fur- 
nished with  a  ledge,  which  is  very 
convenient  for  the  hens  when  rising. 

"  But  the  best  receptacles  for  the 
eggs  are  those  of  basket-work,  as 
they  are  cool  in  summer,  and  can  ea- 
sily be  removed  and  washed.  They 
ought  to  be  fastened,  not  directly  to 
022 


the  wall,  as  is  generally  the  case,  but 
to  boards  fixed  in  it  by  hooks,  well 
clinched,  and  with  a  little  roof  to  cov- 
er the  rows  of  baskets.  They  will 
thus  be  isolated,  to  the  great  satis- 
faction of  the  hen,  which  delights  in 
the  absence  of  all  disturbing  influ- 
ences when  laying.  All  the  ranges 
of  nests  should  be  placed  check-wise, 
in  order  that  the  inmates,  when  com- 
ing out,  may  not  startle  those  imme- 
diately under.  Those  designed  for 
hatching  should  be  near  the  ground 
(where  instinct  teaches  the  hen  to 
choose  her  seat),  and  so  arranged 
that  the  hens  can  easily  enter  them 
without  disturbing  the  eggs.  The 
house  should  be  thoroughly  fumigated 
with  tobacco  and  sulphur  in  spring, 
to  kill  the  disagreeable  lice,  the  straw, 
&c.,  all  changed,  and  the  dung  care- 
fully removed. 

"  Wheaten  or  rye  straw  is  the  most 
approved  material  for  the  bedding, 
being  cooler  than  hay :  the  hens  are 
sometimes  so  tortured  by  lice  as  to 
forsake  their  nests  altogether,  in  an 
agony  of  restlessness.  A  housewife 
has  assurred  us  that  she  once  lost  an 
entire  clutch,  from  iiaving,  as  she  be- 
lieves, given  a  bed  of  hay  seeds  to 
her  sitting  hen.  The  chicks  were  all 
glued  to  the  shells,  and  thus  destroy- 
ed, owing,  as  she  thinks,  to  the  high 
temperature  occasioned  by  the  fer 
menting  seeds. 

"  For  all  f)urposes  two  cocks  in  a 
good  run  are  considerd  as  sufficient 
lor  twelve  or  fourteen  hens,  but  in 
France  they  allow  twenty  mistresses 
to  each  cock,  which  no  doubt  is  on 
account  of  the  higher  temperature 
there.  In  a  conhned  yard,  five  hens 
are  sufficient  for  one  cock,  and  a 
double  set  will  not  answer  in  very 
limited  space.  When  there  are  two 
or  more  cocks,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  have  them  of  equal  age  or  size, 
for  in  this  case  they  are  always  jeal- 
ous and  quarrelsome  ;  if  one  is  deci- 
dedly ascendant,  the  other  will  nev- 
er presume  to  dispute  with  him.  It 
will  be  judicious,  also,  to  avoid  the  in- 
troduction or  changing  of  cocks  in 
the  breeding  season,  for  the  hens  re- 
quire constant  intercourse  with  them, 


POULTRY. 


and  several  days  frequently  elapse 
before  tliey  become  familiarized  with 
a  stranger.  The  best  way  is  to  bring 
in  the  new  cock  in  tiie  summer,  ei- 
ther as  a  chick,  or  late  in  the  year  in 
the  moulting  season,  when  he  will 
not  take  too  much  notice  of  tlie  liens. 
As  a  general  rule,  it  would  be  well  to 
have  one  a  yearling,  and  the  other  a 
year  older.  In  the  third  year,  the 
cock,  who  then  becomes  lazy  and  ex- 
cessively jealous,  should  be  killed. 

'•  In  order  to  have  the  earliest  chick- 
ens, hens  should  be  induced  to  sit  in 
October,  which  they  may  do  if  they 
have  moulted  early.  By  attention 
in  this  particular,  chickens  can  be 
brought  to  the  market  at  Christmas  ; 
but  the  object  should  be,  in  general, 
to  set  the  eggs  as  soon  as  possible 
after  Christmas,  in  order  to  have 
chickens  with  the  forced  asparagus 
in  March. 

"  In  selecting  eggs  for  hatching, 
care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  not, 
at  the  utmost,  more  than  a  month  old, 
but  their  condition  for  hatching  will 
greatly  depend  upon  the  temperature 
of  the  weather :  vitahty  continues 
longest  when  the  air  is  cool. 

'•  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  fu- 
ture sex  of  tlie  bird  is  indicated  by 
the  shape  of  the  egg,  the  round  pro- 
ducing the  female,  and  the  oblong  the 
male.  But  this  is  contradicted,  and, 
we  believe,  with  sufHcient  reason, 
and  it  is  impossible  not  only  to  foretell 
the  sex,  but  even  to  ascertain  wheth- 
er the  egg  be  fecundated.  This,  how- 
ever, is  certain,  that  if  the  air-bag  (at 
the  obtuse  end),  which  has  been  mis- 
taken for  the  germ,  and  the  purpose 
of  which  is  to  oxygenate  the  blood  of 
the  chick,  be  perforated  even  in  the 
least  conceivable  degree,  the  genera- 
ting power  is  lost  altogether.  Those 
eggs  only  which  have  been  fecunda- 
ted by  the  male  are  possessed  of  the 
vital  principle.  The  number  of  eggs 
for  a  hen  should  not  exceed  sixteen, 
as  she  cannot  unpart  the  necessary 
warmth  to  more.  It  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  with  experienced  breed- 
ers to  place  two  hens  on  the  same 
day  on  their  respective  eggs,  and  then 
on  the   twenty-first   day,  when  the 


broods  are  out,  to  give  the  maternal 
charge  of  both  to  one  of  the  hens,  re- 
moving the  other  to  another  set  of 
eggs,  which,  if  she  be  a  steady  settee, 
she  will  hatch  as  in  the  first  instance. 
This,  however,  must  be  deemed  a  cru- 
elty, though  some  hens  would  in- 
stinctively continue  to  sit  until  death. 
They  woidd,  however,  become  so  at- 
tenuated by  continued  sitting,  as  to 
lose  the  i)ower  of  communicating  to 
the  eggs  the  necessary  degree  of 
warmth.  The  practice  of  the  Surrey 
breeders  is  to  feed  the  hen  on  oats 
while  sitting,  as  less  stimulating  than 
barley,  which  they  give  to  the  laying 
hens  on  account  of  this  very  quality. 

"  Some  fanciers  use  artificial  moth- 
ers, which  effect  the  purpose  of  im- 
parting the  necessary  heat  to  the 
young  chicks  after  birth,  when  there 
is  no  natural  mother  nor  a  trained 
capon  to  brood  them.  These  artifi- 
cial mothers — as  used  by  Mr.  Mou- 
bray,  and  described  by  him — are  box- 
es lined  throughout  with  wool.  He 
recommends  that  a  curtain  of  flannel 
should  be  suspended  over  the  open- 
ing of  the  box  for  the  exclusion  of 
cold  air. 

"Mr.  Young  states  that '  five  broods 
may  at  once  be  cherished  under  an 
artificial  mother.  This  mother  may 
be  framed  of  a  board  ten  inches  broad 
and  fifteen  inches  long,  resting  on  two 
legs  in  front,  two  inches  in  height, 
and  on  two  props  behind,  two  inches 
also  in  height.  The  board  must  be 
perforated  with  many  small  gimlet- 
holes,  for  the  escape  of  the  heated 
air.  and  lined  with  lamb's  skin  dressed 
with  the  wool  on,  and  the  woolly  side 
is  to  come  in  contact  with  the  chick- 
ens. Over  three  of  these  mothers  a 
wicker  basket  is  to  be  placed  for  the 
protection  of  the  chickens,  four  feet 
long,  two  feet  broad,  and  fourteen 
inches  high,  with  a  lid  open,  a  wooden 
sliding  bottom  to  draw  out  for  clean- 
ing, and  a  long  narrow  trough  along 
the  front,  resting  on  two  very  low 
stools,  for  holding  their  food.  Perches 
are  to  be  fi.xcd  in  the  basket  for  the 
more  advanced  to  roost  on.  A  flannel 
curtain  is  to  be  placed  in  front,  and  at 
both  ends  of  the  mothers,  for  the 
623 


POULTRY. 


chickens  to  run  under,  from  which 
they  soon  learn  to  push  outward  and 
inward.  These  mothers,  with  tlie 
wicker  baskets  over  them,  are  to  be 
placed  against  a  hot  wall,  at  the  back 
of  the  kitciien  fire,  or  in  any  other 
warm  situation  where  tlie  heat  shall 
not  exceed  80  degrees  of  Fahrenheit. 

"  '  When  the  chickens  are  a  w'eek 
old,  they  are  to  be  carried,  with  the 
mother,  to  a  jjfrass-plat,  for  feeding, 
and  kept  warm  by  a  tin  tube  filled 
with  hot  water,  which  will  continue 
suflicientiy  warm  for  about  three 
hours,  when  tlie  hot  water  is  to  be 
renewed.  Towards  the  evening  the 
mothers  are  to  be  again  placed 
against  the  hot  wall.' 

"The  artificial  mother,  however, 
is  only  a  iricchanical  house  for  chicks 
already  hatched  ;  but  the  process  of 
bringing  the  embryo  of  organized  life 
in  the  egg  through  all  the  stages  of 
the  vital  principle,  until  it  becomes 
matured,  by  means  of  heated  ovens, 
has  been  long  and  successfully  prac- 
tised in  Egypt. 

"  These  ovens,  which  are  con- 
structed with  bricks,  are  about  nine 
feet  high,  with  galleries  extending 
through  the  whole  length,  and  con- 
taining chambers  into  which  a  man 
can  creep,  through  a  very  contracted 
orifice,  for  the  purpose  of  deposit- 
ing the  eggs,  which  are  laid,  to  the 
amount  of  several  thousands,  on 
mats  or  beds  of  flax  over  the  brick 
floors.  The  heat  is  conveyed  through 
fire-places  ;  and  the  material  of  the 
slow  fires,  which  are  most  effective, 
is  the  dung  of  cows  or  camels  com- 
bined with  straw.  The  fires  are  kept 
up  for  as  many  days  (according  to 
the  temperature  of  the  weather)  as 
are  sufficient  to  impart  such  a  degree 
of  heat  as  will  continue  to  the  expi- 
ration of  the  21  days  required  for 
the  hatching  of  chickens,  care  being 
taken  to  confine  the  warmth  by  clo- 
sing up  all  the  orifices  communica- 
ting with  the  external  air.  One  hun- 
dred millions  of  chickens  are  said  to 
be  thus  annually  produced  in  Egypt. 

"  M.  Reaumur  made  various  ex- 
periments in  hatching  with  ferment- 
ed dung  in  hot-beds,  but  unsuccess- 
624 


fully ;  life  was  developed,  but  never 
matured  ;  the  chicks  were  in  some 
cases  even  feathered,  but  long  be- 
fore the  full  time  they  lost  vitality. 
He  succeeded  at  length,  '  after  trials 
enough  to  wear  out  the  most  endu- 
ring patience,'  with  an  oven  free 
from  the  influence  of  the  vapour  ex- 
haled from  the  dung,  which  in  the 
previous  experiinents  had  been  de- 
structive of  the  embryo.  He  after- 
ward succeeded,  to  a  great  degree, 
by  using  a  box  or  shelves  over  an 
oven,  with  due  regard  to  uniformity 
of  temperature.  Several  of  the  eggs 
in  this  latter  case  were  hatched  on 
the  twentieth  day,  by  which  the  usu- 
al course  of  nature  was  anticipated 
by  one  day.  But  though  artificial 
hatching  has  long  been  practised 
with  success  in  Egypt,  it  has  not 
been  found  worth  the  expense  and 
trouble  in  France,  from  the  variable- 
ness of  temperature  there  compared 
with  that  in  the  Delta,  where,  in  the 
autumnal  season,  when  the  mammals 
(hatching-ovens)  are  used,  it  is  re- 
markably steady  and  extremely 
warm. 

"  Since  the  attempt  to  pursue  the 
Oriental  system  has  failed  in  France, 
there  is  no  probability  of  its  succeed 
ing  in  the  climate  of  Great  Britain  ; 
but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  suc- 
cess may  not  attend  such  manage- 
ment as  will  obviate  the  obstructions 
which  arise  from  irregularities  of 
temperature.  The  object  was  par- 
tially attained  some  years  ago  by 
means  of  steam,  but  uniformity  of 
heat  was  not  preserved,  and,  conse- 
quently, that  experiment  failed.  It 
would  appear,  however,  that  the  ap- 
plication of  the  Eccaleobion*  ma- 
chinery, exhibited  in  London  by  Mr. 
Bucknell,  the  inventor  and  proprie- 
tor, may  be  successful.  Mr.  Buck- 
nell asserts  that  his  eccaleobion  pos- 
sesses a  perfect  and  absolute  com- 
mand over  temperature  from  300 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit  to  that  of  cold 
water ;  so  that  any  substance  sub- 
mitted to  its  influence  shall  uniform- 
ly be  acted  upon  over  its  whole  sur- 

*  From  iKKaXcoi,  I  call  forth,  and  /?ioj, 
life. 


POULTRY. 


face  at  any  required  intermediate  de- 
pree  within  the  above  range,  and  such 
lii^at  maintained  unaltered,  without 
trouble  or  difficulty,  lor  any  length 
of  time,  and  that  '  by  means  of  this 
absolute  and  complete  command  over 
the  temperature  obtained  by  this  ma- 
chine, the  impregnated  egg  of  any 
bird,  not  stale,  placed  within  its  influ- 
ence at  the  proper  degree  of  warmth, 
is,  at  the  expiration  of  its  natural 
time,  elicited  into  life,  without  the 
possibility  of  failure,  which  is  some- 
times the  case  with  eggs  subjected  to 
the  caprice  of  their  natural  parent.' 

"That  chickens  are  thus  hatched 
in  considerable  numbers  is  unques- 
tionable, upward  of  thirty  thousand 
having' been  already  brought  into  ex- 
istence by  this  single  eccaleohion  ma- 
chine ;  nor  has  any  difficulty  been 
found  in  the  subsequent  rearing  of 
those  chickens,  when  proper  yards 
and  suitable  temperature  were  pro- 
vided, more  than  m  the  natural  way  ; 
indeed,  in  some  respects  less  so,  as  the 
losses  sustained  in  poultry  by  the  sud- 
den changes  of  the  weather,  and  the 
influence  of  dampness  in  particular, 
and  accidents  from  various  causes, 
are  very  considerable.  Supposing  Mr. 
Bucknell's  experiment  to  answer  the 
purpose  in  every  respect,  the  increase 
in  the  production  of  poultry  might  be 
rendered  incalculably  great  by  the 
adoption  of  his  principle  on  a  great 
scale,  wherever  the  essentials  of  a 
dry  soil,  warmth,  and  proper  build- 
ings can  at  the  same  time  be  supplied. 

" '  It  must  have  struck  even  the 
most  superficial  observer,  that  the 
extraordinary  fecundity  of  gallinace- 
ous fowls  is  a  wise  and  most  benev- 
olent dispensation  of  nature  to  pro- 
vide the  more  abundantly  food  for 
rnan,  as,  in  those  tribes  of  birds  not 
suited  for  his  table,  the  female  lays 
no  more  eggs  than  she  can  incubate. 
With  respect,  therefore,  to  domestic 
poultry,  the  most  nutritious  of  all  hu- 
man food,  this  rich  provision  of  a 
bounteous  providence  is,  for  the  first 
time,  available  to  Europe.' 

"  The  eccaleobion  machine,  capa- 
ble of  containing  2000  eggs,  r'^sem- 
bles  an  oblong  box,  nine  feet  in  length, 

G    G    3 


three  feet  in  breadth,  and  the  same 
in  height.  It  has  no  connexion  with 
the  walls,  against  which  it  is  placed 
on  the  table  on  which  it  stands  ;  its 
regulating  power  is  within. 

"  The  following  striking  passage, 
from  Mr.  Bucknell's  work  '  On  Arti- 
ficial Incubation,'  above  alluded  to, 
will  show  the  importance  of  this  sub- 
ject in  its  commercial  and  domestic 
bearings. 

"Mr.  Bucknell  observes  (page  16), 
'  We  call  the  Egyptians  barbarous  ; 
the  procuring,  however,  by  art  and 
industry,  an  abundant  supply  of  that 
necessary  of  life,  good  animal  food, 
is  no  evidence  of  barbarism.  If 
the  population  of  the  United  King- 
dom, which,  as  respects  Egypt,  is  as 
twenty-four  to  two,  were  as  well 
supplied  with  this  artificial  produc- 
tion as  Egs'pt,  it  would  require,  not 
92,000.000,''but  1,104,000,000  of  poul- 
try annually,  for  them  to  be  as  well 
fed  in  this  respect  as  the  uncivilized 
natives  of  Egypt.  But  how  stands 
the  account  in  this  matter  !  Full  one 
third  of  our  population  subsist  almost 
entirely,  or,  rather,  starve,  upon  po- 
tatoes alone  :  another  third  have,  in 
addition  to  this  edible,  oaten  or  infe- 
rior wheaten  bread,  with  one  or  two 
meals  of  fat  pork,  or  the  refuse  of 
the  shambles,  per  week  ;  while  a  con- 
siderable majority  of  the  remaining 
third  seldom  are  able  to  procure  an 
ample  daily  supply  of  good  butcher's 
meat,  or  obtain  the  luxury  of  poultry 
from  year  to  year. 

"  '  On  the  Continent  of  Europe  the 
population  is  still  in  a  worse  condi- 
tion ;  fish,  soups  made  from  herbs, 
a  stuff  called  bread,  made  from  every 
variety  of  grain,  black,  brown,  hard, 
and  sour,  such  as  no  Englishman 
could  eat ;  olives,  chestnuts,  the  pulpy 
saccharine  fruits,  roots,  stalks,  and 
leaves,  and  not  unfreqiicntly  the  bark 
of  trees  ;  sawdust,  blubber,  train-oil, 
with  frogs  and  snails,  make  up  and 
constitute  a  good  part  of  the  food  of 
the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Europe.  There  is  no  other  cause 
for  this  than  the  excessive  ignorance 
of  its  population.' 

"  The  contemplation  of  the  pro- 
625 


POULTRY. 


gressive  stages  throngli  wliich  life  is 
developed  and  nialurcil  in  the  egg  is 
highly  interesting.  The  contents  of 
the  shells,  of  the  species  under  im- 
mediate consideration,  taken  out  and 
placed  on  a  pUite  or  a  saucer  on  Mr. 
BuckncH's  table,  present  the  follow- 
ing appearances,  according  to  the  re- 
spective periods ; 

"  On  the  third  day,  the  embryo  or- 
ganization of  the  skull,  brain,  heart, 
and  blood,  is  perceptible  by  the  aid 
of  a  magnifying  glass. 

"  Fourth  day.  The  pulsation  of 
the  heart  is  distinguishable  by  the 
naked  eye. 

"  Sixth  day.  The  chief  vessels  and 
organs  rudimentally  formed  ;  the  pul- 
sation and  circulation  of  blood  appa- 
rent. 

"  Ninth  day.  Intestines  and  veins 
formed,  and  the  deposition  of  flesh 
and  bony  substance  commenced  ;  the 
beak  for  the  lirst  time  open. 

*'  Twelfth  day.  The  feathers  have 
protruded,  the  skull  has  become  car- 
tilaginous, and  the  fust  voluntary 
movement  of  the  chick  is  made. 

"  Fifteenth  day.  Organs,  vessels, 
bones,  feathers,  closely  approaching, 
in  appearance,  to  the  natural  state. 

"  Eighteenth  day.  Vital  mecha- 
nism nearly  developed,  and  the  first 
sign  of  life  heard  from  the  piping 
chick. 

"  Twenty-first  day.  The  chick 
breaks  the  shell,  and  in  two  or  three 
hours  is  quite  active  and  lively. 

"The  exit  of  the  chick  from  the 
shell  is  assuredly  one  of  the  most 
interesting  processes  of  animated  na- 
ture ever  investigated  by  naturalists. 
It  was  supposed  that  the  mother  bird 
broke  the  shell ;  but  M.  Reaumur  has 
long  since  detailed  the  processeSj  and 
we  ourselves  have  witnessed  the  ev- 
olution of  the  chick  in  the  eccaleo- 
bion,  by  its  own  unassisted  efforts, 
The  French  naturalist  to  whom  we 
have  just  now  referred  thus  explains 
some  interesting  facts  :  '  I  have  seen 
chicks  continue  at  work  for  two  days 
together.  Some,  again,  work  inces- 
santly ;  others  lake  rest  at  intervals, 
according  to  their  physical  strength. 
I  have  observed  some,  in  consequence 
626 


of  their  impatience  to  see  the  light, 
begin  to  break  the  shell  a  great  deal 
too  soon  ;  for  they  ought,  before  they 
make  their  exit,  to  have  within  them 
provision  enough  to  serve  for  twenty- 
four  hours  without  taking  food,  and 
for  this  purpose  the  unconsumed  por- 
tion of  the  yolk  enters  through  the 
navel.  The  chick,  indeed,  which 
comes  out  of  the  shell  before  taking 
up  all  the  yolk,  is  certain  to  droop 
and  die  a  few  days  alter  it  is  hatched. 
The  help  which  1  have  occasionally 
tried  to  give  to  several  of  them  to- 
wards their  deliverance  has  aflbrded 
me  an  opportunity  of  observing  those 
which  had  begun  to  break  their  shells 
before  this  was  accomplished  ;  and  I 
have  opened  many  eggs  much  frac- 
tured, in  each  of  which  the  chick  had 
as  yet  much  of  the  yolk  not  absorbed. 
Besides,  some  chicks  have  greater 
obstacles  to  overcome  than  others, 
since  all  shells  are  not  of  an  equal 
thickness  nor  of  an  equal  consist- 
ence ;  and  I  think  it  probable  that  the 
same  inequality  takes  place  in  the  li- 
ning membrane.  The  shells  of  the 
eggs  of  birds  of  various  species  are 
of  a  thickness  proportional  to  the 
strength  of  the  chick  that  is  obliged 
to  break  through  them.'* 

"  If  the  chick  should  be  glued  to 
the  shell,  as  sometimes  occurs,  and 
is  indicated  by  the  faintness  of  its 
chip  and  the  non-enlargement  of  the 
fracture  for  some  hours,  it  must  be 
assisted  (but  not  until  the  necessity 
is  fully  ascertained)  in  its  liberation 
'  with  a  key,  or  some  such  instru- 
ment, and  by  cutting  the  membrane 
with  the  points  of  a  pair  of  scissors. 
The  operation,  though  painful  to  the 
chick,  does  not  prove  mortal ;  for  it 
is  no  sooner  freed  than  it  exhibits  as 
much  vigour  as  any  other  chick  of  its 
age.'t  But  unless  the  chick,  after  a 
full  day's  effort,  is  found  unable  to 
chip  the  shell,  from  weakness  or  ad- 
hesion to  its  envelope,  it  is  better  not 
to  assist  it  in  its  extrication  ;  for  in 
ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred 
aid  proves  ineffectual,  through  the 
injury  inflicted  upon  the  delicate  or- 


*   "  Domestic   Haliits  of  Birds,"  Library  of 
Entertaining  Knowledge.  t  IbiJ. 


POULTRY. 


ganizatioii  of  the  bird  ;  or,  more  prob-   fects  the  most  surprising  change  in 
ably,  the  previous  weakness  or  im-    her  disposition  and  temper.     Before 


perfection  of  the  chick,  which  occa- 
sioned the  necessity  for  assistance, 
also  occasions  its  death  at  the  mo- 
ment of  its  birth,  and  would  take  place 
even  if  its  disengagement  were  ef- 
fected without  any  injury. 


she  attained  her  matronly  character, 
she  was  greedy,  and  always  scaich- 
ing  for  food,  fond  of  gadding  about, 
and  timid  in  the  extreme.  iS'ow  she 
becomes  generous,  self-denying,  and 
intrepid  ;  she  assumes  the  liery  tem- 


' There  is  a  caution  to  be  observed  !  per  of  the  cock,  and  becomes  a  vira- 
in  all  cases  regarding  the  eggs  when  go  in  defence  of  her  helpless  brood, 
the  chicks  are  on  the  verge  of  inatii-  An  anecdote  is  told  by  White,  in  his 
rity  :  they  should  not  i)e  stirred  when  •  Natural  History  of  Sclborne.'  of  the 
within  two  days  of  the  evolvcment  ■  punishment  inliicted  by  some  hens 
of  the  chicks.  U  any  circumstances  j  upon  a  hawk  which  had,  at  different 
render  it  absolutely  necessary  to  do  ,  times,  killed  their  chickens.  By  some 
so,  care  should  be  taken  to  place  !  means  this  hawk  was  caught,  and  the 
them  with  the  broad  end  inclining  !  owner  gave  him  up  to  the  tender  mer- 
upward,  as  the  beak  of  the  chick  is  ;  ciesof  the  bereaved  mothers.  In  his 
then  in  its  proper  position  ;  and  if  |  own  words,  '  Resentment  suggested 
this  be  reversed,  the  chick  becomes  '■  the  laws  of  retaliation.  He  clipped 
unable  to  chip  the  shell,  and  must  the  hawk's  wings,  cut  off  his  talons, 
therefore  die.  and,  fixing  a  cork  on  his  bUl,  threw 

"Chickens  should  be  fed  the  day  I  him  down  among  the  brood  hens, 
after  their  birth  with  crumbs  of  bread  ;  Imagination  cannot  paint  the  scene 
soaked  in  milk,  or  with  the  yolk  of  !  that  ensued  ;  the  expressions  of  fear, 
an  egg  boiled  hard;  and  they  will  rage,  and  revenge  inspired  were  new, 
quickly  learn  to  eat  curds,  grits,  and  or,  at  least,  such  as  had  been  unno- 
barley-meal  and  milk.  If  not  design-  ticed  before.  The  exasperated  ma- 
ed  for  immediate  use,  they  should  trons  upbraided,  they  execrated,  they 
soon  get  raw  corn,  and  occasionally  insulted,  they  triumphed.  In  a  word, 
alteratives  of  green  food,  such  as  they  never  desisted  from  buffeting 
bruised  leeks,  nettles,  lettuces,  (Sec.  their  adversary  tUl  they  had  torn  him 
For  the  first  week  they  should  be  con-  in  a  hundred  pieces.' 
fined  to  the  house  altogether ;  after  ,  "  The  same  writer  calls  attention 
that  time  they  may  be  let  out  for  a  to  the  language  of  the  fowl,  from  a 
short  time  in  the  sun,  and  gradually  pleased  twittering  to  a  scream.  A 
habituated  to  the  weather.  To  ren-  laying  pullet  utters  a  complacent,  soft 
der  the  hen,  which  has  already  dis-  \  note  ;  but  when  she  has  been  deliv- 
charged  her  duty,  still  more  produc-  ered  of  an  egg,  her  cackle  of  delight 
live  to  her  owner,  she  is  frequently  '  and  importance  is  loud  enough  to  ex- 
confined  to  a  coop,  called,  in  Surrey,  cite  the  sympathetic  voices  of  all  her 
a  Tip,  for  some  weeks  after  the  chicks  companions  ;  when  her  chickens  are 
have  seen  the  light.  Her  offspring  hatched,  she  has  a  different  language, 
during  this  time  pass  freely  through  which  is  intelligible  to  her  little  ones, 
the  prison  bars,  returning  at  her  call,  The  crested  cock  has  various  notes  ; 
or  on  occasions  of  alarm,  to  the  ma-  his  tone  and  language,  for  such  it  is 
tcrnal  wings,  and  then  hopping  out'  in  effect,  as  he  calls  his  favourites  to 
again,  to  the  inexpressible  misery  of  partake  of  the  food  which  he  gallant- 
their  imprisoned  mother,  who  is  kept  ly  scrapes  for  them,  is  of  a  very  pe- 
in  this  state  of  confinement  until  she   culiar  kind,  and  very  different  from 


becomes  indifferent  to  the  chickens 
and  disposed  to  lay  again. 

"  The  courage  of  the  hen  in  de- 
fence of  her  offspring  has  been  a 
common  theme  of  admiration  ;  the 


his  ordinary  voice,  that  is  so  familiar 
to  us. 

"  Poultry  are  the  better  for  high 
feeding  from  the  very  shell,  and.  on 
this  account,  the  heaviest  corn  is  oft- 


force  of  her  maternal  solicitude  ef- 1  ea  far  cheaper  for  them  in  the  eod 

627 


POULTRY. 


than  tailings,  as  regards  tlir  flesh,  or 
the  size  and  substantial  jioddncss  of 
the  eggs.  Chickens  may  be  piii  up 
for  feeding  as  soon  as  the  hen  lias 
ceased  to  regard  them,  and  before 
they  lose  tlieir  first  good  condition. 
When  chickens  are  wanted  (or  do- 
mestic purposes,  they  are  often  left 
at  liberty  in  the  farm-yard  ;  and  if 
they  have  plenty  of  good  food,  they 
will  be  in  the  most  healtlifnl  state  for 
the  table,  and  rich  and  juicy  in  fla- 
vour. Mr.  Moiibray  ascertained  that 
pullets  hatched  in  March,  if  constant- 
ly high  fed,  laid  eggs  abundantly  in 
the  autumn  ;  and  it  killed  in  the  Feb- 
ruary or  March  following,  were  so  ex- 
cessively fat  from  the  run  of  the  yard 
as  to  open  more  like  Michaelmas 
geese  than  chickens.  Experienced 
poulterers  will  fatten  fowls  in  two  or 
three  weeks  vvitii  the  aid  of  grease, 
which  gives  a  luscious,  but,  in  our 
judgment,  a  very  disagreeable  fla- 
vour to  the  flesh,  which,  though  not 
actually  diseased,  is  very  inferior  to 
that  of  the  fowl  fed  at  large  in  the 
common  way  at  the  barn-door. 

"The  practice  of  cramming  poul- 
try by  the  hand  is  quite  common.  A 
machine  for  this  purpose  is  used  in 
France,  by  which  one  man  can  cram 
fifty  birds  in  half  an  liour.  It  is  some- 
what on  the  principle  of  a  forcing- 
pump.  The  throats  of  the  birds  are 
held  open  by  the  operator  until  they 
are  gorged  tlirough  a  pipe,  which 
conveys  the  food  from  a  reservoir  be- 
low, placed  on  a  stool.  In  fifteen 
days  fowls  are  said  to  attain  the  high- 
est state  of  fatness  and  flavour  by 
this  feeding.  In  addition  to  the  or- 
dinary paste  of  barley-meal,  or  meal 
made  into  little  balls  with  milk,  the 
dried  seeds  and  leaves  of  nettles  have 
been  recommended  by  the  continent- 
al poulterers,  some  of  whom  give  a 
little  henbane  seed  to  induce  sleep, 
while  others  put  out  the  eyes  of  the 
prisoners,  as  the  most  efl~ectual  way 
of  keeping  them  in  a  state  of  dark- 
ness, which  is  considered  essential 
to  their  becoming  rapidly  fat ;  and, 
under  the  pretext  of  relieving  them 
from  the  irritation  of  vermin,  they 
pluck  the  feathers  from  their  heads, 
628 


bellies,  and  wings.  While  fowls  are 
thus  preparing  for  the  knife,  though 
their  bodies  are  closely  confined,  tlieir 
hinder  i)nrts  are  free  for  evacuatitm 
and  cleanliness,  and  their  heads  are  at 
liberty  to  take  in  fresh  supplies  of 
nutriment. 

"The  practice  of  making  capons 
(emasculating  the  males)  is  practised 
a  little  in  some  of  the  English  coun- 
ties, and  very  much  in  France,  where 
the  females  are  also  rendered  inca- 
pable of  breeding,  and  termed  in  their 
nnsexed  condition  poiilardes,  in  order 
to  give  them  the  tendency  to  fatten. 
An  incision  is  made  near  the  parts, 
and  through  this  the  finger  is  intro- 
duced to  take  hold  of  and  bring  away 
the  genitals,  but  so  carefully  as  not 
to  injure  the  intestines  :  the  wound  is 
then  stitched  up,  and  rubbed  with  oil 
or  grease  ;  and  the  comb  (which  ap- 
pears to  be  an  unnecessary  and  gratu- 
itous pain  and  insult  to  the  sufferer)  is 
oiien  cut  off.  Tiie  lemales  are  treated 
nuK-li  in  the  same  way,  when  they  do 
not  promise  well  for  laying,  or  when 
they  have  ceased  to  be  fertile  ;  they 
are  deprived  of  the  ovarium.  The 
subsequent  treatment  is  similar  to 
that  in  the  former  case.  Care  is  ta- 
ken to  give  them  good  food  for  three 
or  four  days,  and  during  that  time  to 
keep  them  in  a  place  of  moderate 
temperature,  to  avoid  the  danger  of 
gangrene,  which,  considering  the 
time  of  the  year — midsummer,  when 
the  operation  is  usually  performed — 
is  a  very  probable  consequence.  Pul- 
lets of  the  largest  breed  are  selected 
for  the  purpose,  as  they  yield  the 
greatest  weight  to  the  poulterer ;  and, 
if  employed  in  hatching,  cover  the 
greatest  number  of  eggs. 

"  Cuvier  states  that  the  capon  may 
be  taught  to  hatch  eggs,  and  to  act 
the  part  of  a  good  nurse,  with  a  little 
bell  round  his  neck  to  supply  the  want 
of  a  good  voice.  He  asserts  that  the 
natural  courage  and  energy  of  this 
bird  are  not  abated  by  the  alteration 
of  his  condition,  in  which  his  audaci- 
ty enables  him  to  impose  on  the  cocks 
and  hens,  so  that  they  allow  him  to 
strut  about  with  his  former  gait  of 
I  consequential  importance,  and  to  ful- 


I 


POULTRY. 


fil  his  duties  without  interference  or 
nuili'station.  Tliis  seems  incredible, 
as  a  bold  and  liauglity  spirit  under 
siK-h  circumstances  is  unnatural  in 
the  extreme.  Tlie  pallidness  of  his 
head  and  the  diniinuliveness  of  his 
comb  and  yills  indicate  the  contrary 
disposition,  and  he  is  so  despised  by 
the  other  fowls  that  they  will  hardly 
condescend  to  roost  with  him. 

"Mr.  Young,  in  his  '  Report  of  the 
County  of  Sussex,'  says  that  much 
art  and  attention  are  requisite  to 
make  capons,  and  that  the  Sussex 
breed  are  too  long  in  the  body  for 
success  in  the  operation,  by  which 
many  are  lust.  A  perfectly  fat  capon 
will  weigh  from  seven  to  ten  pounds. 

"  As  soon  as  fowls  are  rendered 
sufficiently  fat,  they  should  be  killed, 
or  they  will  loose  tlesh  and  become 
unhealthy.  The  most  humane  and 
expeditious  mode  of  putting  them  to 
death  is  by  a  smart  blow  with  a  blunt- 
edged  stick,  such  as  a  child's  bat,  at 
the  back  of  the  neck.  Higglers  break 
the  vertebraj  of  the  neck  by  a  sudden 
twist,  and  never  bleed  fowls,  as  this 
mode  of  despatching  them  dries  up 
the  juices  of  the  flesh.  They  bleed 
turkeys  and  geese,  however,  after  a 
stunning  blow  on  the  neck,  not  by 
cutting  the  tliroat,  but  by  an  incision 
in  the  upper  part  of  tiie  mouth. 

"  Store  fowls  will  feed  well  upon 
the  tailings  of  corn,  potatoes,  and  in- 
sects, and  require  little  attention  ex- 
cept when  laying,  during  which  time 
the  food  for  the  hens  should  be  abun- 
dant, and  their  roosting  places  dry 
and  warm. 

"  The  diseases  of  all  poultry  prin- 
cipally arise  from  cold  and  moisture. 
Rheumatism  decidedly  arises  from 
this  cause.  During  or  after  moult- 
ing in  a  wet  season,  fowls  frequently 
become  diseased,  as  is  evident  from 
their  drooping  appearance,  swelled 
and  watery  eyes,  and  the  dropsical 
affections  of  the  legs.  Severe  laying 
also  sometimes  causes  emaciation 
and  illness,  which  give  way  to  a  more 
healthy  condition  after  the  moulting 
season,  if  they  have  good  food  and 
dry  weather. 

'  Chickens  are  very  subject,  in  wet 

G  G  G  2 


or  variable  weather,  to  a  disease  call- 
ed the  chip,  which  appears  in  about 
a  fortnight  after  their  birth,  when 
they  are  changing  their  feathers. 
Warmth  and  sunshine  are  the  only 
restoratives  within  our  knowledge. 

"  The  roup  is  properly  a  gathering 
upon  the  rump,  which  is  cured  or  re- 
lieved by  opening,  squeezing,  and 
bathing  with  warm  water.  Mr.  Mow- 
bray, however,  who  is  a  good  practi- 
cal authority,  states  that  the  roup  is  a 
general  term  for  all  diseases,  though 
it  is  chiefly  applied  to  catarrh,  which 
is  indicated  by  watery  eyes  and  run- 
ning at  the  nostrils.  This  last  disease 
resembles  glanders  in  horses,  and 
is  infectious,  and  generally  fatal.  As 
all  these  diseases  originate  in  moist- 
ure, dryness  and  warmth  are  the 
best  counteracting  influences.  The 
nostrils  should  be  washed  with  soap 
and  water,  and  the  eyes  with  milk 
and  water.  Mr.  Mowbray  recom- 
mends a  pepper-corn  in  dough  at  first, 
to  impart  warmth,  and  afterward 
calomel  three  times  a  week,  as  a  fin- 
ish to  the  cure. 

"  We  have  had  the  trachea  of  a 
chicken  dying  of  the  gapes  (which  is 
the  incipient  stage  of  roup)  cut  and 
opened,  and  have  taken  out  narrow 
worms,  about  half  an  inch  in  length, 
wiiich  lay  imbedded  in  a  serous  fluid. 
A  medical  friend  has  frequently  cured 
fowls  of  the  same  disease  by  putting 
the  upper  part  of  a  feather,  stripped 
for  the  purpose,  down  the  trachea, 
turning  it  round,  and  thus  bringing 
up  the  worm,  which  he  thinks  is  the 
sole  cause  of  the  disease.  It  may, 
however,  be  the  effect  of  the  malady, 
as  is  the  opinion  of  many. 

"  The  pip,  which  the  same  individ- 
ual considers  analogous  to  the  thrush 
in  the  human  kind,  he  cures,  not  by 
scraping  roughly,  but  by  an  applica- 
tion of  powdered  borax  dissolved  in 
tincture  of  myrrh  and  water,  and 
rubbed  on  the  tongue  with  a  cainel's- 
hair  brush  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
This,  at  the  same  time,  assists  the 
bowels.  The  Jinx  is  not  uncommon. 
Solid  corn  is  the  most  certain  reme- 
dy for  this  disease.  Taken  at  the 
commencement,  it  is  rarely  serious, 
629 


POULTRY. 


but  if  once  established  in  the  consti- 
tution, it  becomes  incurable,  and,  ac- 
cording to  some,  contagious.  For 
constipatioji,  bran,  or  pollard,  with 
milk,  beet  leaves,  and  lettuces,  afford 
a  certain  cure. 

"  Much  of  the  foregoing  matter  ap- 
plies to  the  rearing  and  management 
of  all  poultry.  The  succeeding  ob- 
servations will  be  brief 

"  Turkeys. — The  greatest  weight 
to  which  our  domesticated  poultry 
can  be  made  to  attain  is  thirty  pounds, 
and  a  turkey  of  even  half  this  weight 
is  a  '  dainty  dish.' 

"  The  varied  plumage  of  the  bird 
in  the  domesticated  state  is  well 
known  to  every  one  ;  and  in  no  spe- 
cies is  that  sure  mark  of  subjection 
to  man  more  strongly  seen.  The 
bronze,  or  copper-coloured,  is  not 
considered  hardy,  nor  often  reared, 
and  the  varieties  may  be  stated  to  be 
only  twofold,  the  dark-coloured  and 
the  light. 

The  dark-coloured  birds  are  most 
prized  for  size  and  hardihood. 

"  Turkeys,  though  extremely  deli- 
cate in  their  infancy,  become  very 
hardy,  and,  if  permitted,  will  roost  on 
the  highest  trees,  in  the  cold  dry 
nights  of  winter,  without  suffering 
injury.  The  hen,  which  lays  many 
eggs  early  in  spring,  sits  thirty  days, 
and  covers  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
eggs.  It  is  unnecessary  for  the  tur- 
key-cock, as  is  the  case  with  gallina- 
ceous fowl,  to  be  in  constant  inter- 
course with  the  hen  during  her  pe- 
riod of  laying.  Two  visits  from  him 
in  that  season  are  sufficient  to  im- 
pregnate all  the  eggi.  She  is  a  very 
steady  sitter,  and  must  be  removed 
to  her  food  and  supplied  with  water, 
for  she  would  never  leave  her  nest. 
She  wants  the  alertness,  and  courage, 
and  sagacity  of  the  common  hen,  and 
might  be  called  a  fool  with  much 
more  propriety  than  the  goose,  which 
is  an  intelligent  bird.  The  turkey 
hen  is  incapable  of  teaching  her  young 
ones  how  to  pick  up  their  food,  on 
which  account  a  poultry  maid  should 
always  attend  them  until  they  are 
reared. 

"  On  account  of  the  constitutional 
630 


delicacy  of  this  bird,  the  hatching 
should  not  be  commenced  too  early 
in  the  spring,  and  when  the  chicks 
are  hatched  they  should  be  guarded 
from  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
for  some  weeks.  Rain  is  almost 
always  fatal  to  them  in  their  early 
stage.  Curd,  boiled  eggs,  and  barley 
or  oatmeal,  kneaded  with  milk  (or 
water,  in  case  milk  should  produce 
looseness),  potatoes,  nettles,  parsley, 
Swedish  turnips,  with  chopped  beet 
leaves,  after  a  little  time,  are  their 
proper  food.  As  they  retain  so  much 
of  their  original  wild  namre  as  to 
stray  a  considerable  distance,  if  per 
mitted,  the  hen  should  be  tied  oi 
cooped  for  at  least  six  weeks,  when 
the  chicks  will  be  hardy  enough  to 
follow  her  about,  under  the  vigilant 
eye,  however,  of  the  poultry  maid, 
who  should  beware  of  their  being 
caught  by  a  shower. 

"  They  are  soon  familiarized  to  the 
society  of  fowls  in  the  poultry  or 
farm  yard.  "Without  the  advantage 
of  the  latter,  it  is  an  unprofitable 
speculation  to  rear  any  description  of 
poultry  on  a  large  scale  ;  but  where 
a  farmer's  yard  presents  facilities,  the 
economy  of  having  all  those  kinds  to 
which  the  soil  and  climate  are  suita- 
ble is  considerable.  The  only  cau- 
tion with  regard  to  turkeys,  where 
gallinaceous  birds  are  numerous,  is 
to  have  separate  houses  for  them  at 
night.  These  should  be  very  lofty 
and  well  ventilated.  They  may  be 
altogether  open  to  the  air  in  front,  the 
doors  being  of  trellis-work.  Fowls 
(which  are  equally  unsocial  with  the 
capons  of  their  own  kind)  have  a 
strong  disinclination  to  roost  with 
them. 

"  When  well  grown,  turkeys  sup- 
ply themselves  in  their  ramblings  so 
far  as  to  require  food  only  when  leav- 
ing their  house  in  the  morning  and 
returning  at  night.  The  chances  of 
rearing  a  second  brood  are  not  so 
great  as  to  render  it  expedient  to 
make  the  trial. 

"  After  six  months,  turkeys  may 
be  crammed  like  fowls,  but  they  re- 
quire a  much  longer  period  to  render 
them  fully  fat.     Those  great  birds 


POULTRY. 


which  are  sent  to  the  market  about 
Christmas,  freiiuciitly  weighing  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds,  are 
usually  cocks  from  the  preceding 
year. 

••  Guinea  Fowl. — This  bird,  which  is 
not  much  larger  than  the  common 
barn-door  fowl,  is  of  beautiful  form 
and  plumage,  and,  though  not  a 
source  of  profit  to  those  who  rear 
poultry  for  immediate  sale,  is  usually 
kept  where  there  is  proper  accommo- 
dation, as  much  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cellence and  abundance  of  the  eggs 
(which,  though  small,  are  well-fla- 
voured) as  for  the  sake  of  the  flesh, 
which  is  prized.  The  number  of  hens 
allowed  to  the  male  is  about  the  same 
as  among  the  gallinaceous  family. 
The  cock,  little  distinguished  in  ap- 
pearance from  the  female,  is  an  at- 
tentive and  affectionate  mate,  and 
even  obtrusively  so  to  his  favourites, 
whom  he  will  attend  to  the  nest,  and 
remain  with  until  they  have  laid  their 
eggs. 

"  Retaining  some  of  their  original 
wildness,  Guinea  fowl  dislike  the  con- 
finement of  a  house.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  laying,  they  prefer  shrubber- 
ies, clover  meadows,  or  corn-fields, 
in  which  they  will  deposite  their 
eggs,  unless  closely  watched.  The 
Guinea  hen  is  fruitful  during  the  en- 
tire summer,  but  not  earlier  than  May. 
On  this  account,  and  the  difficulty  of 
rearing  a  late  brood,  it  is  more  bene- 
ficial to  keep  her  entirely  for  laying, 
and  to  put  the  earlier  eggs  under  a 
common  hen,  or  capon,  which  will 
cover  from  twenty  to  twenty-five, 
than  to  encourage  the  incubation  of 
the  natural  parent,  which  is,  more- 
over, indisposed  to  it,  especially  if  un- 
der cover.  If  left  to  her  instinct,  this 
bird  would,  at  a  late  season,  in  the 
open  air,  sit  for  the  natural  period, 
which  is  twenty-eight  or  twenty-nine 
days. 

"  The  cock,  having  the  same  dis- 
like to  incubation  which  character- 
izes the  male  of  pea  fowl,  will  de- 
stroy the  eggs  if  he  can  discover 
them.  Though  the  shell  is  remarka- 
bly hard,  the  chicks  break  through  it 
at  the  proper  moment,  and  are  soon 


after  as  vigorous  and  ready  to  eat 
as  the  young  of  any  other  tribe  of 
poultry. 

"  The  loud  cry  of  these  birds  is  not 
agreeable,  but.  like  the  scream  of  the 
pea  fowl,  it  announces  with  certainty 
an  approaching  change  of  weather. 
The  hen  utters  a  cry  when  she  de- 
sires to  roost,  to  call  in  her  compan- 
ions, to  summon  assistance,  or  to  give 
notice  of  any  of  those  alarms  which 
her  sensibilities  cause  her  to  express 
with  such  energy  of  voice,  and  in  all 
which  cases  she  is  sure  of  receiving 
a  ready  sympathy. 

"  The  same  food  which  is  suited  to 
the  young  of  gallinaceous  fowls  and 
turkeys  is  good  for  the  chicks  of  this 
kmd  ;  but  as  they  are  not  often  des- 
tined to  the  coops  for  fattening,  a 
good  deal  of  garden  or  field  green 
food  may  be  combined  with  their 
grits,  &c.,  after  the  first  month.  They 
have  a  great  relish  for  insects  of  ev- 
eiy  kind,  and  thrive  upon  them  as 
well  as  upon  hemp  seed.  When  de- 
signed for  the  table,  they  ought  to  be 
killed  at  an  early  age,  at  which  time 
the  flesh  is  more  juicy  than  that  of 
other  poultry  of  the  same  age,  and 
very  like  that  of  the  pheasant,  though 
when  old  it  becomes  exceedingly 
tough. 

"  Ducks. — The  white  duck,  being 
the  largest  of  the  common  domesti- 
cated kmds,  is  perhaps  the  best  for 
the  poulterer,  though  it  is  not  deem- 
ed so  delicate  in  flavour  as  the  dark- 
coloured,  such  as  that  bred  from  in- 
termixture with  the  Rhone  duck, 
which  is  also  large.  The  Muscovy 
variety  is  said  to  be  a  good  breeder. 
One  drake  is  suflieient  for  five  fe- 
males. It  is  generally  believed  that 
the  duck  lays  no  more  eggs  than  she 
can  cover  (from  twelve  to  fifteen), 
but  Mr.  Moubray  states  that,  if  well 
fed,  some  ducks  will  lay  a  great  num- 
ber, and  he  gives  an  instance  of  one 
laying  an  egg  every  day  for  eighty- 
five  days. 

"  For  a  fortnight  after  their  birth, 
ducklings  should  be  kept  from  rush- 
ing into  the  water,  to  which  their  in- 
stinct soon  leads  them  ;  and  with 
this  view  the  mother  is  frequentlv 
631 


POULTRY. 


confined  (where  there  is  any  pond 
within  her  reacli)  to  the  rip,  already 
described,  w  liicli  s^hould  be  placed  on 
a  field  of  short  grass  with  a  fiat  dish 
of  water  near  it.  The  ducklings  wad- 
dle about  in  search  of  insects,  and  at 
the  maternal  call  return  to  the  coop. 
This  restraint  upon  tlie  liberty  of  the 
poor  mother  should  be  avoided  if  cir- 
cumstances permit,  for  to  protract 
her  close  confinement  after  more 
than  four  weeks'  sitting  is  a  cruel  re- 
straint. It  is  very  common  to  place 
duck  eggs  under  a  hen,  on  account 
of  her  excellent  qualities  as  a  nurse. 

"  Any  kind  of  meal  is  good  for 
ducklings  at  first,  and  this  may  soon 
be  mixed  with  potatoes.  The  rel'use 
of  the  kitchen  will  not  only  support, 
but  fatten  them  ;  but  to  have  them 
quickly  and  highly  fattened,  they 
should  have  oatmeal  made  into  paste. 
They  will  also  devour  any  animal  of- 
fal, and  have  no  fastidiousness  what- 
ever. If  allowed  to  lollow  a  plough, 
or  attend  on  the  gardener  when  his 
spade  is  at  work,  their  greediness 
and  activity  in  picking  up  worms  are 
extreme  ;  and  for  gobbling  up  snails 
and  slugs,  and  other  such  delicacies 
in  the  field  or  garden,  they  are  most 
useful,  while  they  are  at  the  same 
time  putting  themselves  into  high 
condition.  Having  no  fastidiousness 
of  appetite,  they  never  require  cram- 
ming ;  indeed,  they  act  as  if  they 
considered  it  their  duty  to  get  fat  as 
quickly  as  possible,  and  therefore  re- 
quire no  artificial  aid. 

'•In  a  poultry-yard  the  ducks  and 
geese  are  frequently  lodged  on  the 
lower  floor  of  ihe  fowl-houses,  but  it 
is  better,  if  the  locality  will  permit,  to 
give  them  distinct  chambers,  partic- 
ularly where  a  good  pond  (free  from 
eels)  is  available  ;  on  the  margin  of 
this  their  huts  may  be  placed,  with 
very  trifling  labour,  and  an  invisible 
palmg  all  round  the  water,  construct- 
ed at  bottom  on  the  principle  of  the 
cage-trap,  so  as  to  prevent  the  in- 
gress of  rats  or  weasels,  while  it  af- 
fords them  a  ready  outlet,  renders 
this  department  of  the  poultry  estab- 
lishment complete,  though  far  too 
expensive  for  common  adoption. 
632 


^' Geese. — The  proportion  of  fe- 
males to  the  males  is  ihe  same  as  in 
the  duck  tribe,  and  the  period  of  in- 
cubation and  the  numl)er  of  eggs  that 
may  be  set  correspond  exactly.  The 
goose  lays  in  a  mild  spring  very  ear- 
ly, and  on  this  account  (but  only  with 
high  corn-feeding  in  the  previous  win- 
ter, and  stimulating  food  during  the 
entire  breedmg  season)  two  broods 
may  be  had  in  the  same  year.  Un- 
like the  peacock  and  the  Guinea  cock, 
the  gander  is  not  only  indisposed  to 
do  any  mischief  to  the  nests,  hut  is 
very  attentive  to  the  hatching  birds, 
whom  he  vigilantly  protects  as  he 
sits  patiently  by ;  nor  is  his  protec- 
tion, as  he  accompanies  the  goslings 
in  due  course,  less  creditable  to  his 
paternal  character.  The  goose  is  a 
very  steady  sitter,  but  usually  rises 
often  enough  to  drink  and  take  sus- 
tenance, without  its  being  necessary 
to  remove  her  from  her  nest  for  the 
purpose. 

"  The  early  treatment  of  the  gos- 
lings is  similar  to  that  of  ducklings. 
The  mother  should  be  penned  up  for 
some  days  upon  dry  grass,  but  nei- 
ther too  early  nor  very  late  in  the 
day  :  beet  leaves,  or  other  green  food, 
may  be  mixed  even  with  the  early 
diet,  if  immediate  fattening  be  not 
the  object. 

"Green  geese  are  brought  very 
early  to  market  ;  they  can  be  made 
quite  fat  with  oatmeal  and  pease, 
and  skimmed  milk  or  buttermilk, 
when  from  four  to  six  months  old : 
many  prefer  oats  alone. 

'•The  management  of  them  is  thus 
detailed  in  a  communication  to  ■\ir. 
Moubray  : 

" '  Cleanliness,  punctuality,  and  reg- 
ularity prevail ;  the  business  is  con- 
ducted, as  it  were,  by  machinery,  ri- 
vallinir  the  vibrations  of  the  pendu- 
lum in  uniformity  of  movement.  The 
grand  object  of  preparing,  not  geese 
only,  but  poultry  in  general,  for  mar- 
ket, in  as  short  a  time  as  possible,  is 
efTected  solely  by  paying  unremitting 
attention  to  their  wants  ;  in  keeping 
them  thoroughly  clean  ;  in  supplying 
them  with  proper  food  (dry,  soli,  and 
green),  water,  exercise  ground,  &,c. 


POU 

On  arriving  at  the  feeders,  they  are  , 
classed  according  to  condition,  &c.  :  j 
they  soon  become  reconciled  to  their  ' 
new  abode  and  to  each  other.    They 
are  fed  tlree  times  a  day,  and  it  is 
truly  astonishing  how  soon  they  ac-  i 
quire  th;?  knawledge  of  the  precise  , 
time  ;  marching   from  the   exercise  j 
ground  to  the  pens  like  soldiers  in  | 
close   column.     Goslings,  or  young 
geesn,  come  to  hand  generally  about 
the  month   of  April,  after  which  a 
regular  and  constant  supply  arrives 
weekly  througliout  the  season.     At 
firat  they  are  fed  on  soft  meat,  con-  ■ 
sioting  of  prime  barley  or  oat  meal,  [ 
afterward  on  dry  corn.    An  idea  pre- 
vails with  many  that  any  sort  of  corn  j 
"^'iU  do  for  poultry :  this  is  a  grand 
iiistake.      Those  who    feed  largely 
■tnow  better,  and  invariably  make  it  a 
rule  to  buy  the  best.     The  Messrs. 
Boyce,  whose  pens   are  capable  of 
lokiing  the  extraordinary  number  of 
1000   geese,  independent   of  ducks, 
-urkeys,  &c.,  consume  SO  bushels  of 
oats  daily,  exclusive  of  other  food.' 

'■  But.  though  green  geese  bring  an 
enormous  price  in  the  spring,  if  thor-  I 
oughly  fat,  farmers  generally  find  it  | 
more  profitable  to  feed  goslings  on 
the  stubbles,  where  they  supply  them- 
selves  with  the  best    food   without  ! 
cost,  and  become  sufficiently  fat  at 
Michaelmas,  when   ancient    custom 
renders  them  a  favourite  dish. 

"  Though  young  geese  are  subject  [ 
to   a   disease  called  the  cramp,  the 
greater  number  of  those  which  die  in  : 
summer  are  destroyed  by  starvation, 
and  the  change  from  corn,  and  other 
nutritive  food,  to  the  miserable  her- 
bage which  the  fields  and  commons 
yield  ;  and  this  constitutes  their  chief 
diet  until  the  harvest  season.     Cold  j 
and  wet  weather  are  often  fatal  to  | 
them  in  the  earlier  months,  if  tbey  be 
neglected.     Much  mortality  also  pre- 
vaUs  among  grown  geese,  wherever 
the  horrible  system  of  plucking  them 
alive   is  practised.      It  is  generally 
urged   in  excuse  for  this  barbarity 
that   feathers   are  most  elastic  and 
valuable  before  the  period  of  moult- 
ing, and  that  geese  have  been  thus 
treated  ever  since  feather  beds  came 


POU 

into  fashion.  The  offence  carries 
some  punishment  with  it,  for  it  ren- 
ders the  flesh  very  tough,  and  in 
many  respects  deteriorates  the  value 
of  a  bird,  if  it  does  not  destroy  it  al- 
together ;  but  the  immediate  gain 
from  the  feathers  counterbalances 
this  and  every  humane  consideration. 

"  The  cramming  system  is  prac- 
tised in  France,  when  the  object  is 
to  render  the  liver  unnaturally  en- 
larged by  disease,  with  circumstan- 
ces of  great  cruelty.  We  do  not  in- 
tend to  give  any  information  upon 
practices  which  we  cannot  recom- 
mend, and  which  we  strongly  con- 
demn. 

"  Eggs. — The  most  certain  way  of 
preserving  eggs  fresh  is  by  greasing 
them  with  some  unctuous  matter,  or 
immersing  them  in  milk  of  lime.  In 
packing,  they  should  be  laid  on  end ; 
for  otherwise  the  yolks,  preserving 
their  centre  of  gravity,  fall  to  the 
lowest  side,  and,  by  adhesion  to  it, 
become  tainted  sooner  than  if  they 
were  suspended  in  the  centre.  Briny 
salt,  or  sawdust,  are  good  packing 
materials. 

"  The  only  management,  besides 
v/arinth  and  high  feeding,  by  which  a 
perpetual  succession  of  eggs  can  be 
obtained  in  winter,  is  by  having  pul- 
lets and  hens  of  different  ages,  which, 
moulting  at  different  periods,  do  not 
all  cease  laving  at  the  same  time." 

POULTRY  DUXG.  The  urine  of 
birds  is  solid,  and  voided  along  with 
the  matters  rejected  from  the  bowels; 
their  dung  is,  therefore,  nearly  ap- 
proaching to  urate  or  the  dried  urine 
of  animals,  and  is  richer  the  less  ve- 
getable food  they  take ;  hence  the  ex- 
crement of  sea  gulls  forms  guano, 
the  best  manure  known.  The  com- 
position of  poultry  dung  varies  with 
their  food,  the  husks  and  green,  indi- 
gestible parts  of  vegetables  being  im- 
purities which  diminish  the  value  of 
the  white  solid  uric  acid.  The  com- 
position of  the  urine  or  white  part  is 
the  same  for  all  birds,  and  consists 
chiefly  of 

Incacid  .  .  88-71 - 
Aminiinia  .  .  8  5b 
Hone  earth  .     .      2T5  i 

I  luooo-J 

6^3 


POU 


PRA 


The  uric  acid  by  decay  becomes  l 
converted  into  bicarbonate  of  ammo- 
nia, so  that  tlic  manure  i.s  nearly  ap- 
proacliing  to  commercial  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  with  a  litlie  bone  cartb. 
Four  or  live  busbels  comiwjsted  with 
moist  charcoal,  gypsum,  and  peat, 
and  allowed  to  rot  partially,  forms  a 
very  stimulating  application  to  young 
plants  and  seeds,  being  as  good  as 
about  one  half  the  quantity  of  guano. 
Johnstone  makes  the  following  re- 
marks on  the  comparative  value  of  the 
difTerent  kinds  of  dung,  but  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  fowls  fed  on  in- 
Soluble  matter  in  pigeons'  dung    ...    23 

"  The  soluble  matter  consists  of  | 
uric  acid  in  small  quantity,  of  urate,  i 
sulphate,  and  especially  of  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  common  salt,  and  sul- 
phate of  potash  ;  the  insoluble  chiefly 
of  phosphate  of  lime,  with  a  little 
phosphate  of  magnesia,  and  a  varia- 
ble admixture  of  sand  and  other 
earthy  matters.  When  exposed  to 
moisture,  the  pigeons'  dung,  especial- 
ly if  recent,  undergoes  fermentation, 
loses  a  portion  of  its  ammoniacal 
salts,  and  thus  becomes  less  valuable. 
When  it  is  intended  to  be  kept,  it 
should  be  mixed  with  a  dry  vegetable 
soil,  or  made  into  a  compost  with 
earth  and  sawdust,  with  a  portion 
of  pulverized  or  charred  peat,  or 
■with  such  a  disinfecting  charcoal  as 
that  which  is  employed  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  animalized  carbon. 

"  Fowl  dung  often  accun)ulates, 
decomposes,  and  runs  to  waste  in 
poultry-yards,  when,  with  a  little  care, 
it  might  be  collected  in  considerable 
quantities 

"  Goose  dung  is  less  rich  than  that 
of  hens  or  pigeons,  because  this  bird 
feeds  less  upon  graifl,  and  derives  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  nourish- 
ment from  the  grass  which  it  crops 
when  allowed  to  go  at  liberty  over 
the  fields.  Its  known  injurious  ef- 
fects upon  the  grass  on  which  it  falls 
arise  from  its  being  in  too  concen- 
trated a  state.  In  moist  weather,  or 
where  rain  soon  succeeds,  it  does  no 
injury,  and  even  when  in  dry  weath- 
634 


sects  or  animal  matters  will  make 
manure  as  rich  as  guano. 

"  Pigeons'  dung  is  much  prized  as 
a  manure,  wherever  it  can  be  obtain- 
ed in  any  considerable  (juantity.  In 
Belgium  it  is  esteemed  as  a  top-dress- 
ing for  the  young  tlax,  and  the  yearly 
produce  of  100  pigeons  is  sold  for 
alxnit  20s.  Its  inunediate  effect  de- 
pends upon  the  quantity  of  soluble 
matter  it  contains,  and  this  varies 
much,  according  to  its  age  and  to 
the  circumstances  under  which  it  has 
been  preserved.  Thus,  Davy  and 
Sprengel  obtained  respectively  of 


Recent. 
(Davy.) 
per  cent. 


Six  montlLS  old. 
(.Sl,rengel.) 
lb  per  cent. 


After  fermentation. 

(l'av.v.) 

8  per  cent. 


er  it  kills  the  blades  on  which  it 
drops,  it  brings  up  the  succeeding 
siioots  with  increased  luxuriance." 

POl'ND,  LB.  The  avoirdupois 
contains  16  oz.  and  7000  troy  grs. 
The  troy  pound  12  oz.  and  5760  grs. 
Also,  an  enclosure  for  cattle.  In 
England  a  penal  enclosure  for  tres- 
passing cattle. 

POUP ART'S  LIGAMENT.  A 
tendinous  expansion,  running  from 
the  top,  or  crista,  of  the  ilium  to  the  os 
pubis,  under  which  hernias  protrude. 

POVERTY  GRASS.  Ansthla 
dichotoma.  A  grass  growing  on  steril 
places. 

POWER.  In  mechanics,  denoting 
a  force  which,  being  applied  to  a  ma- 
chine, tends  to  produce  motion.  A 
mechanical  poirer  denotes  one  of  the 
six  simple  machines,  viz.,  the  lever, 
the  inclined  plane,  the  scrcic,  the  wheel 
and  axle,  the  ired^e,  and  the  pulley. 

POZZUOLANA.  Volcanic  ashes, 
used  in  making  hydraulic  cements. 

PR-ECORDIA.  The  fore  part  of 
the  chest. 

PR.EMORSE,  BITTEN.  Stumpy 
roots  which  appear  to  have  been 
bitten. 

PRAIRIE.  This  name  is  given  to 
the  immense  tracts  of  grass  land  oc- 
curring throughout  the  West.  They 
are  usually  gently  rolling  or  undula- 
ting lands,  the  grass  of  which  is 
thickly  matted,  and  from  a  few  inches 
to  three  or  four  feet  high,  being  most 
luxuriant    in   wet,   swampy  places. 


PRAIRIE. 


The  prairie  is  often  adorned  with 
beautilul  lowers  in  spring,  and,  in- 
deed, thruuifhout  tiie  year.  Tiie 
grass  is  of  various  kinds,  some,  as 
that  called  hiiflalo  grass,  being  of 
great  value  ;  the  whoh;  is,  however, 
nutritious,  and  sustains  oxen,  liorses, 
and  sheep  remarkably  well  :  there 
are  numerous  species.  The  great 
defect  of  the  prairie  is  want  of  tim- 
ber ;  in  some  places  this  is  provided 
on  the  islets  of  the  rivers,  or  on 
bluffs,  but  it  is  often  altogether  absent 
for  great  distances.  There  is  a  de- 
scription of  partially  timbered  land, 
called  barrens,  in  which  the  trees 
stand  apart,  with  a  tender  grass  grow- 
ing between  them. 

The  method  of  breaking  up  the 
prairie,  and  other  interesting  topics 
to  the  emigrant,  are  contained  in  the 
following  remarks  by  Mr.  Robinson, 
of  Indiana  : 

"  Breaking  vp  the  Prairie. — Fancy 
upon  a  level,  smooth  piece  of  ground, 
free  from  sticks,  stumps,  and  stones, 
a  team  of  four,  five,  or  even  si.x  yoke 
of  oxen,  hitched  to  a  pair  of  cart 
wheels,  and  to  them  hitched  a  plough 
with  a  beam  fourteen  feet  long,  and 
the  share,  &c.,  of  which  weigh  from 
sixty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
pounds,  of  wrought  iron  and  steel, 
and  which  cuts  a  furrow  from  sixteen 
to  twenty-four  inches  wide,  and  you 
will  figure  the  appearance  of  a  '  break- 
ing team'  in  o|)eration. 

"  1  do  believe,  though,  that  a  smaller 
plough  and  less  team  would  be  bet- 
ter lor  the  land,  though  it  is  said  it 
would  he  more  expensive  ploughing. 
It  is  true  that  the  sod  is  more  tough 
than  can  be  believed  by  those  who 
liave  never  ploughed  it.  It  requires 
the  plough  to  be  kept  very  sharp,  and 
lor  tills  purpose  the  ploughman  is 
always  provided  with  a  large  file,  with 
which  he  keeps  a  keen  edge  as  pos- 
sible upon  the  share  and  coulter. 

"  Such  a  team  ploughs  iVom  one  to 
two  acres  a  day,  usually  about  four 
inches  deej),  which  is  not  near  down 
to  the  bottom  of  the  roots,  so  that 
the  sod  turned  up  aflbriis  but  a  scanty 
covering  for  grain  that  is  sowed  upon 
it  at  first,  yet  very  fine  crops  of  wheat 


are  raised  in  this  way.  It  is  also  a 
common  practice  to  break  up  in  the 
spring  and  drop  corn  in  every  second 
or  third  furrow,  and  from  which 
twenty  or  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre 
are  often  gathered,  nothing  having 
ever  been  done  to  it  after  planting. 
It  takes  two  or  three  years  for  these 
sods  to  become  thoroughly  decom- 
posed, and  then  the  soil  is  of  a  light, 
loose,  black,  vegetable  mould,  very 
easily  stirred  by  the  plough,  but  of  a 
nature  that  it  adheres  to  the  plough 
in  a  troublesome  manner.  In  fact, 
no  plough  has  ever  been  found  to 
keep  itself  clear  ;  and  the  ploughman 
is  generally  obliged  to  carry  with  him 
a  small  wooden  paddle,  with  which  to 
clear  off  the  adhering  mass  of  dirt 
upon  the  mould-board.  With  this 
exception,  the  prairie  soil  is  gener- 
ally one  of  the  easiest  in  the  world  to 
till,  and  of  course  remarkably  fertile. 

"  By  far  the  greatest  portion  is 
based  upon  a  subsoil  of  clay,  though 
in  many  places  the  subsoil  is  sand 
or  gravel,  and  there  are  large  tracts 
of  which  the  surface  is  of  this  mate- 
rial. The  streams  are  often  broad 
and  nearly  covered  with  vegetable 
growth,  in  some  instances  to  that 
degree  that  sheets  of  water,  many 
rods  wide,  actually  burn  over  during 
the  autumnal  fires. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  many  '  in- 
teresting accounts  of  burning  prai- 
ries,' the  fire  upon  a  dry  prairie,  in  a 
calm  time,  does  not  blaze  as  high  as 
it  would  in  an  old  stubble  field  ;  but 
in  the  marshes,  or  wet  prairies,  it 
sometimes  rages  with  grandeur. 

"  Enclosing. — The  settlements  al- 
ready made  are  upon  the  smaller 
prairies,  the  centre  of  which  are  not 
more  than  four  or  five  miles  from 
timi)er,  or  along  the  border  of  '  the 
Grand  Prairie,"  taking  care  not  to  ex- 
tend out  beyond  the  reach  of  conve- 
nient woodland.  But  there  are  many 
places  where  the  groves  are  barely 
sufficient  to  furnish  the  land  most 
contiguous,  and  vast  tracts  of  prairie 
are  to  be  found  ten  or  fifteen  miles 
from  timber.  That  these  tracts  will 
forever  remain  uncultivated,  cannot 
for  a  moment  be  thought  of  That 
635 


PRE 


PRE 


timber  can  be  planted  and  raised  in 
abundance  is  certain.  It  is  eiiiially 
certain  that  they  can  be  fenced  with 
ditches,  and,  perhaps,  wiiii  iiedges, 
though  the  experiments  tiiat  have 
as  yet  been  made  in  the  United  States 
to  enclose  land  with  hedges  have 
generally  proved  failures. 

"The  most  feasible  plan,  it  seems 
to  me,  would  be  to  enclose  large 
tracts  by  ditcliing,  and  cultivate  the 
land  without  division  fences,  even 
between  many  occupants.  Such  is 
the  mode  in  many  parts  of  Europe. 
Or  this  kind  of  land  could  be  profit- 
ably improved  by  grazing  herds  of 
cattle  and  sheep,  under  the  care  of 
shepherds.  Houses  of  a  most  com- 
fortable kind  can  be  built  of  clay 
without  burning  into  brick,  and  the 
expense  of  hauling  lumber  for  roofs 
and  inside  work  would  be  trifling. 
The  only  difficulty  would  be  fuel. 
In  many  parts  of  the  West  coal  ex- 
ists in  abundance,  and  where  that  is 
not  to  be  had,  the  expense  of  hauling 
wood  over  a  smooth  and  nearly  level 
country  would  not  be  a  serious  ob- 
stacle. It  is  also  thought  that  peat 
will  be  found  abundant. 

"  At  present,  however,  there  is  an 
abundance  of  unoccupied  land  so  con- 
venient to  tiinber  as  to  be  easily 
fenced  in  the  cominon  way,  with 
Virginia  or  worm  fence  ;  and  the  oak 
timber  of  this  region  is  very  durable." 

PRASE.     Green  quartz. 

PRECIPITATE.  A  solid  matter 
thrown  down  in  a  clear  fluid  by  chem- 
ical action. 

PREDIAL.     Belonging  to  a  farm 

PREDISPOSING  AFFINITY. 
Chemical  affinity  arising  in  the  pres- 
ence of  three  bodies,  whereby  a  union 
is  accomplished  between  two,  which, 
without  coming  in  contact  with  a 
third,  would  not  readily  unite. 

PREGNANCY.  The  state  of  be- 
ing with  young,  carrying  young.  The 
signs  and  determination  of  pregnancy 
are  often  important.  The  following, 
from  Mr.  Youatt,  is  of  great  service 
in  coming  to  a  conclusion  on  this 
point. 

"  Among  healthy  animals,  the  im- 
pregnation of  the  female  rarely  fails 
636 


to  be  the  result  of  an  intercourse  be- 
tween the  sexes.  The  assurance, 
however,  of  this  having  taken  place 
is  occasionally  an  aflair  of  consider- 
able interest,  and  of  no  little  diflicul- 
ty,  and  the  value  and  tiie  destiny  of 
the  female  may  very  much  depend  on 
the  decision  of  the  question.  A  cer- 
tain time  having  elapsed,  the  thing 
will  speak  for  itself;  but  are  there 
any  symptoms  or  circumstances  that 
will  warrant  the  veterinary  surgeon 
or  the  agriculturist  in  giving  a  deci- 
ded opinion  on  the  case  in  an  early 
period  of  supposed  pregnancy  1 

'•It  occasionally  happens  that  the 
fifth  or  the  sixth  month  arrives,  and, 
even  to  the  practiced  eye,  there  arc 
few  or  no  indications  of  conception 
having  taken  place.  There  are,  also, 
but  somewhat  unfrequently,  diseases 
which  very  closely  simulate  this  nat- 
ural process.  Can  the  veterinary 
surgeon  or  the  breeder  decide  1  The 
answer  is  in  the  affirmative,  and 
plainly  and  unequivocally.  This  is 
one  of  the  boons  which  the  veterina- 
ry art  can  now  confer  on  the  agricul- 
turist. The  altered  character  of  the 
female  is  regarded,  and  very  proper- 
ly, as  a  cn-cumstance  of  no  little 
weight.  She  is  comparatively  calm 
and  quiet ;  her  appetite  returns,  and 
she  regains  her  former  condition  and 
her  former  habits.  Five  or  six  weeks 
pa.ss,  and  there  is  no  outbreak  of  any 
kind.  The  owner  concludes,  and  he 
is  not  often  wrong,  that  she  is  im- 
pregnated. He,  however,  has  had 
little  to  do  with  mares  or  with  cows 
who  has  not  witnessed  the  return  of 
the  most  furious  oestrum,  after  a  much 
longer  period  of  time  has  elapsed.  I 
have  known  more  than  three  months 
pass  in  this  delusive  quietude,  and 
tiien  a  salaciousness  worse  than  at 
first  has  indicated  that  no  actual  im- 
pregnation had  taken  place.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  oestrum,  but  not  with 
all  its  former  fury,  has  returned  two, 
and  three,  and  four  months  after  the 
connexion,  and  yet,  as  the  result 
finally  shows,  impregnation  had  ta- 
ken place  at  their  first  intercourse. 

"Many  circumstances  may  cause 
the  owner  to  be  anxious  to  know  the 


PREGNANCY. 


truth  of  tlie  matter.  He  may  wish 
to  soil  her,  or  he  may  be  unusually 
desirous  to  breed  froui  lier.  Let  the 
animal  be  I'xammed  \u'r  vaginain. 
]jet  the  hand  l)e  slowly  and  cautious- 
ly passed  up  the  vagina  until  it  reach- 
es the  OS  uteri.  Let  there  be  no  at- 
tempt to  penetrate  farther.  No  in- 
formation can  be  gained  from  intro- 
ducing the  fingers  mto  the  uterus.  It 
is  simply  wished  to  ascertain  the 
character  of  the  os  uteri.  In  its  nat- 
ural and  unimpregnaied  state  it  will 
be  closed  ;  but  it  will  not  be  tightly 
or  spasmodically  so,  and  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  mouth  of  the  womb  will 
form  a  kind  of  cup,  with  the  base  to- 
wards that  viscus.  If  she  is  impreg- 
nated, the  entrance  to  the  uterus  will 
he  more  firmly  closed,  and  the  pro- 
trusion will  be  towards  the  vagina. 
This  is  the  only  exploration  per  vagi 
nam  which  I  would  allow  ;  it  is  easi- 
ly made,  and  it  will  be  satisfactory. 
If  an  exploration  of  this  kind  is  at- 
tempted when  half  or  more  than  half 
of  the  period  of  pregnancy  has  passed, 
■it  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that  so  much 
irritation  of  the  parts  will  ensue  as 
to  cause  the  expulsion  of  the  fuBtus. 

"I  will  suppose  that  two  months 
have  passed  since  the  supposed  im- 
pregnation. The  fcEtus  is  still  re- 
maining in  the  pelvic  cavity.  The 
heart  has  begun  to  beat,  and  the 
blood  to  circulate  through  its  little 
veins.  It  will  be  situated  innriedi- 
ately  below  the  rectum.  I  introduce 
my  hand  into  that  intestine.  I  have 
no  occasion  to  pass  it  very  far  up. 
I  feel  the  little  substance  ;  for  it  then 
is  small  in  proportion  to  its  after 
growth.  I  feel  it  under  my  hand.  I 
am  certain  that  I  am  pressing  upon 
the  uterus  and  its  contents.  I  can- 
not, perhaps,  detect  the  pulsation  of 
the  embryo  ;  but  if  I  had  delayed  my 
examination  until  the  f  oRtus  was  three 
months  old,  I  should  have  assurance 
that  it  was  there  by  its  now  increas- 
ed bulk,  wlule  the  pulsation  of  its 
heart  would  tell  me  that  it  was  liv- 
ing. 

"  For  two  months  from  this  period 
in  the  cow,  and  for  three  in  the  mare, 
I  should  have  no  other  indication  of 
Huh 


the  presence  of  the  foetus,  noi  of  its 
life  and  growth,  except  from  the  grad- 
ual eiilargeinent  of  the  abdomen  of 
the  mother  ;  and  by  that  time  the;  lit- 
tle one  would  have  in(-rcased  in  size 
and  strength,  and  would  have  begun 
to  take  occasional  exercise  in  its  first 
donucil,  and  then  would  become  the 
more  evident,  but  not  more  satisfac- 
tory proof  of  the  life  of  the  foetus  ; 
its  motion  strong  enough  to  be  seen 
through  the  integument. 

"  I  might,  perhaps,  wish  to  give 
this  assurance  of  the  life  of  the  foetus 
to  some  curious  spectator,  or  to  some 
intended  purchaser.  I  would  not  gal- 
lo])  the  mare  in  order  to  effect  this  ; 
1  would  not  so  far  disturb  her  or  the 
young  ammal  that  she  bore  within 
her :  much  less  would  I  give  her 
cold  water  to  drink,  and  which  she 
usually  would  drink  until  she  annoy- 
ed the  fcRtus,  and  the  unborn  animal 
told  us  how  much  we  annoyed  him 
by  endeavouring  to  shift  his  ([uarters 
and  get  away  Irom  the  action  of  the 
cold.  I  would  not  run  the  hazard  of 
giving  her  the  colic,  and  perhaps  de- 
stroying him  or  her  by  this  unscien- 
tific and  somewhat  cruel  method  of 
exploration  ;  but  I  probably  should 
give  a  tap  or  two  on  the  outer  wall 
ol  his  dwelling,  just  sufficient  to  rouse 
him  from  his  slumbers,  and  induce 
him  to  express  his  anger  at  the  an- 
noyance by  a  tolerably  distinct  plunge 
or  kick. 

"  Most  certainly,  if  it  was  a  cow 
that  I  was  exhibiting,  I  would  not 
give,  nor  would  I  suffer  any  one  else 
to  give,  those  terrible  punches  in  the 
right  Hank,  which,  I  have  no  doubt, 
are  the  cause  of  much  unsuspected 
injury,  and,  occasionally  at  least, 
connected  with,  or  the  origin  of,  a 
difficult  or  a  fatal  parturition 

"  I  may  here  observe  that  the  foe- 
tus of  the  mare,  from  the  beginning, 
occupies  nearly  the  centre  of  the  bel- 
ly. In  the  early  stage,  Mr.  Mogford 
generally  found  it  'lying  across  the 
pelvic  cavity,  the  spine  being  imme- 
diately under ;  the  head  on  the  left 
side,  and  the  tail  on  the  right  side.' 
In  the  latter  portion  of  its  fcetal  state 
its  motions  are  pretty  equally  dis- 
037 


PRE 


PRE 


tribiitpd  on  either  side,  and  the  beat- 
inji  of  the  fo'tal  hcnit  is  most  phiiiily 
hoard  at  the  very  liase  of  the  alido- 
ineii.  The  fa?tus  of  the  cow  is  iiud- 
dled  up  on  the  right  side  of  the  heily. 
There  its  motions  are  most  seen,  and 
the  beatings  of  its  heart  best  heard. 
The  enormous  paunoh,  lying  princi- 
pally on  the  left  side,  presses  every 
other  viscus,  and  the  uterus  among 
the  rest,  into  the  right  flank.  This 
also  explains  a  circumstance  familiar 
to  every  breeder.  If  the  cow  should 
happen  to  carry  twins,  they  are  crowd- 
ed together  in  the  left  flank,  and  one 
seems  absolutely  to  lie  upon  the  oth- 
er. Whenever  the  farmer  notices  the 
kicking  of  the  fcptus  high  up  in  the 
flank,  he  at  once  calculates  on  twins. 
"To  return  from  this  digression. 
If  half  the  period,  or  more,  of  utero- 
gestation  had  passed,  and  I  could  get 
the  little  stranger  to  move  by  my  gen- 
tle tapping,  and  it  was  a  cow  with 
which  we  had  to  do,  and  a  quiet  one, 
I  would  have  her  carefully  held  by 
the  cowherd,  while  I  stooped  and  ap- 
plied my  ear  flat  upon  the  flank,  and 
then,  slowly,  and  with  gentle  pressure 
upward  and  downward,  and  forward 
and  backward,  over  the  flank  and  the 
lower  part  of  it,  until  1  heard — and 
which  I  should  do  in  a  great  majori- 
ty of  cases — the  pulsations  of  the  los- 
tal  heart.  I  should  recognise  it  by 
their  quickness,  tlie  pulsations  of  the 
foetus  being  doul)le,  or  more  than 
double,  those  of  tlie  mother. 

"  If  it  was  a  mare,  I  would  have  a 
halter  put  on  her,  and  an  assistant 
should  hold  up  one  of  her  legs,  while 
some  person  interested  reached  un- 
der, or,  perhaps,  knelt  under  the  belly 
of  the  mare,  and,  passing  one  ear 
along  an  imaginary  Ime  from  be- 
tween the  teats  to  the  chest,  and  de- 
viating a  little  from  one  side  to  the 
other,  he  would  then  also  recognise 
the  quick  pulsation  of  the  foetal  heart. 
"  These  observations  are  address- 
ed to  practical  men,  and  will  be  speed- 
'  ily  put  to  the  test  by  them.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  author  is  to  get  rid  of  the 
vulgar  and  inefiicient  methods  of  de- 
tecting pregnancy  which  are  now  in 
general  use,  and  to  introduce  others 
638 


that  are  founded  on  a  surer  and  more 

scieiitilic  basis." 

PKESITIVATION     OF     FOOD. 
The  process  ol'  salting,  rubbing  with 
nitre,  and  smoking  or  drying,  is  that 
j  usually  performed  by  tiie  farmer,  and 
it  is  successful.    The  exclusion  of  air, 
I  mechanically  or  by  chemical  means, 
j  is  another  certain  means  of  preserv- 
ing food.     Drying  perfectly,  so  as  to 
separate  the  water  necessary  for  pu- 
trefaction, is  also  a  perfect  process, 
and  much  used  in  keeping  fruits,  as 
[  dried  apples,  jieaches,  &c.      Sugar, 
alcohol,  molasses,  alum  solution,  are 
'  also  serviceable  in  preserving  some 
kinds  of  food.     They  do  this  by  remo- 
ving their  interior  water.     Coldness 
and  absence  of  air,  or  moisture  procu- 
red by  mechanical  means,  are  also 
sufficient. 

PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER. 
Careful  drying  and'preservation  from 
moisture  is  the  commonest  process  ; 
but,  for  a  perfect  preservation,  it  is 
necessary  to  saturate  the  pores  of  the 
wood  with  metallic  salts.  This  sat- 
uration has  to  be  made  in  a  press, 
and  is  hence  very  expensive.  The 
fluids  used  are  solutions  of  blue  vit- 
riol (sulphate  of  copper),  pyroligniie 
of  iron,  sulphate  of  iron,  corrosive 
sublimate.  M.  Boucherie,  three  years 
since,  recommended  the  immersion 
of  the  trunks  of  newly-cut  trees  in 
these  solutions,  which,  under  these 
circumstances,  rose  through  the  stem 
and  branches  to  the  leaves,  and  im- 
pregnated them  thoroughly.  The  in- 
convenience of  this  process  for  large 
trees  has  induced  him  to  niodily  it  to 
the  following : 

•'  Tite  ingenious  process  of  impreg- 
nating wood,  by  the  way  of  vital  as- 
piration, is  not  without  certain  ob- 
jections. In  the  first  place,  it  can 
only  be  performed  at  those  periods  of 
the  year  when  the  sap  is  in  motion 
and  the  trees  are  covered  with  leaves. 
This  time  is  limited  to  a  few  months 
of  the  year,  and  the  usual  practice 
being  to  fell  timber  in  the  winter, 
usage  is  opposed  to  cutting  down 
trees  in  the  spring  and  autumn.  To 
meet  these  objections,  M.  Boucherie 
engaged  in  new  experiments,  which 


PRE 


PRE 


led  him  to  a  means  of  impregnating 
timber  at  all  seasons,  in  winter  as 
well  as  spring  and  autiinin.  and  in  a 
very  short  space  of  tmic  ;  this  second 
method  is  applicable  to  wood  tliat  has 
already  been  squared  as  well  as  to 
the  round  trunk,  provided  it  has  been 
recently  felled. 

"  To  impregnate  timber  by  this 
process,  the  logs  are  placed  upright, 
and  the  upper  extremities  are  fitted 
with  an  impermeable  sack  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  saline  solution  destined 
to  charge  them  ;  the  fluid  enters  from 
above,  and  almost  at  the  same  mo- 
ment the  sap  is  seen  to  begin  running 
out  below.  There  are  some  woods 
which  include  a  large  quantity  of  air 
in  their  tissues  ;  in  this  case  tlie  How 
does  not  go  on  until  this  air  has  been 
expelled  :  once  begun,  it  goes  on 
without  interruption.  The  operation 
is  terminated  when  the  fluid,  which 
drips  from  the  lower  part,  is  of  the 
same  nature  as  that  which  is  enter- 
ing above.  In  my  opinion,  this  meth- 
od must  be  preferable  to  that  by  as- 
piration. In  the  second  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding, in  fact,  we  accomplish  our 
object  l)y  a  true  displacement ;  al- 
most the  whole  of  the  sap  is  expell- 
ed, and  the  saline  solution  introdu- 
ced has  only  to  subdue  or  neutralize 
the  very  small  quantity  of  soluble  or- 
ganic matter  which  may  remain  ad- 
hering to  the  woody  tissue.  By  ac- 
complishing such  a  displacement  by 
means  of  simple  water,  we  should  un- 
doubtedly obtain  results  favourable 
to  the  preservation  of  timber,  inas- 
much as  we  should  have  freed  it  from 
almost  the  whole  of  those  matters 
which  are  regarded  as  the  most  al- 
terable themselves,  and  the  first 
cause  of  rotting  in  timber.  The  ra- 
pidity with  which  the  fluid  introdu- 
ced is  substituted  for  the  sap  which 
it  displaces,  and  the  quantity  of  this  ex- 
pelled sap,  which  may  be  readily  col- 
lected, exceeds  anything  that  could 
have  been  imagined  before  making 
the  experiment ;  thus  the  trunk  of  a 
beech-tree,  about  52J  feet  in  length, 
by  334  inches  in  diameter,  and  con- 
setjuently  forming  a  cube  of  some- 
what more  than  29  feet  and  a  half, 


I  gave,  in  the  course   of  twenty-five 
hours,  upward  of  330  gallons  ot"  sap, 
which  were  replaced  by  about   350 
gallons  of  pyroligneous  acid.     The 
liquid  which  penetrates  in  this  way 
I  acts  so  effectually  in  displacing  the 
I  sap,  that  M.  Boucherie  says  we  can 
j  readily   procure    or    extract    by   its 
I  means  the  saccharine,  mucilaginous, 
:  resinous,   and  coloured  juices    con- 
tained in  trees.     It  would,  perhaps, 
be  possible — and  I  beg  to  suggest  this 
idea  to  colonial  planters — to   apply 
the  method  of  displacement  to  the 
extraction  of  the  colouring  matters  of 
live  woods.'' 

■  PRESS  FOR  CIDER.     The  com- 
mon press  is  represented  in  the  fig- 
I  ure  at  the  head  of  the  following  page  ; 
a  rougher  press,  made  by  means  of  a 
lever,  is  also  much  used. 

PRESS  FOR  OILS.  See  Oils. 
I  PRESS,  HYDRAULIC.  "  The  fra- 
.  ming  consists  of  two  stout  cast-iron 
plates,  d,  d,  which  are  strengthened 
by  projecting  ribs,  not  seen  in  the 
section,  Fig.  1.  The  top,  or  crown 
plate,  b,  and  the  base  plate,  d,  d,  are 
bound  most  firmly  together  by  four 
I  cylinders  of  the  best  wrought  iron, 
c,  c,  which  pass  up  through  holes 
near  the  ends  of  said  plates,  and  are 
fast  wedged  in  them.  The  flat  pie- 
ces, e,  e,  are  screwed  to  the  ends  of 
the  crown  and  base  plates,  so  as  to 
bind  the  columns  laterally,  f  vs  the 
hollow  cylinder  of  the  press,  which, 
as  well  as  the  ram,  g,  is  made  of  cast 
iron.  The  upper  part  of  the  cavity 
of  the  cylinder  is  cast  narrow,  hut  is 
truly  and  smoothly  rounded  at  the 
boring  mill,  so  as  to  fit  pretty  closely 
round  a  well-turned  ram,  or  piston  : 
the  under  part  of  it  is  left  somewhat 
wider  in  the  casting.  A  stout  cup  of 
leather,  perforated  in  the  middle,  is 
put  upon  the  ram,  and  serves  as  a 
valve  to  render  the  neck  of  the  cylin- 
der water-tight,  by  filling  up  the  space 
between  it  and  the  ram ;  and  since  the 
mouth  of  the  cup  is  turned  downward, 
the  greater  the  pressure  of  water  up- 
ward, the  more  forcibly  are  the  edges 
of  the  leather  valve  pressed  against 
the  inside  of  the  cylinder,  atnl  the 
tighter  does  the  joint  become. 

639 


PRESS,  HYDRAULIC. 


"Upontheiupoi  the  ram,  the  press- I  the  follower,  because  it  followa  the 
plate  or  table,  h,  rests  ;  it  is  called  |  ram  closely  in  its  movements. 


640 


PR 

"A:,  k  (Figs.  1  and  2)  is  the  fra- 
ming of  a  forcing  pump,  with  a  nar- 
row barrel ;  i  is  tlie  well  containing 
water  to  supply  the  pump.     F(g.  3  is 
F'g-  3.  Fig.  4. 


a  section  of  the  pump  and  its  valves. 
The  pump,  m,  is  of  bronze  ;  the  suc- 
tion pipe,  71,  has  a  conical  valve  with 
a  long  tail ;  the  solid  piston,  or  plun- 
ger, ;;,  is  smaller  than  the  barrel  in 
which  it  plaj-s,  and  passes  at  its  top 
through  a   stuffing-box,  q ;  r  is  the 
pressure-valve,  s  is  the  safety-valve,  I 
which,  in  Fig.  2,  is  seen  to  be  loaded  j 
with  a  weighted  lever ;  t  is  the  dis- 
charge-valve, for  letting  the  water  es-  i 
cape,  from  the  cylinder  beneath  the  1 
ram,  hack  into  the  well.     See   the 
winding  passage  in  Fig.  4.     u  is  the 
tube  which  conveys  the  water  from 
the  pump  into  the  press-cylinder.    In  ' 
Fig.  2  two  centres  of  motion  for  the 
pump  lever  are  shown.     By  shifting 
the  bolt  into  the  centre  nearest  the  ' 
pump  rod,  the  mechanical  advantage 
of  the   workman    may  be    doubled. 
Two  pumps  are  generally  mounted  i 
in  one  frame  for  one  hydraulic  press  :  ; 
the  larger  to  give  a  rapid  motion  to 
the  ram  at  the  beginnmg,  when  the  ' 
resistance  is  small ;  the  smaller  to 
give  a  slower  but  more  powerful  im- 
pulsion when  the  resistance  is  much 
increased.     A  pressure  of  500  tons 
may  be  obtained  from  a  well-made 
hydraulic  press  with  a  ten  inch  ram, 
and   a  two   and  a  one  inch  set  ofj 
pumps'" — (Ure.)  | 

PRICKLN'G.     The  same  as  nick- 
ing, which  see.  . 

H  H  H  2 


PRO 

PRICKING  OUT.  Thinning 
plants  in  drills,  &c. 

PKICKLi;.  A  sharp  thorn,  pro- 
duced by  a  lliickening  of  the  bark  or 
skin  of  the  plant. 

P  K I  M  A-:  V  I  .E.  The  passage 
through  the  bowels. 

PRIMARY  ROCKS.  Theunstrati- 
fied,  crystalline  rocks,  as  granites. 
Sometimes  the  transition  slates  and 
stratified  rocks  are  included  in  this 
term. 

PRI.MIXE.  The  outermost  cov- 
ering of  the  ovule  ;  afterward  it  be- 
comes the  skin,  or  testa,  of  the  seed. 

PRIMROSE.  Pretty  flowering 
perennials  of  the  genus  Primula. 

P  R  i  S  M.  "  A  solid  contained  by 
planes,  of  which  two  that  are  op- 
posite are  equal,  similar,  and  paral- 
lel, and  all  the  rest  parallelograms. 
Prisms  take  particular  names  from 
the  figures  of  their  ends,  or  opposite, 
equal,  and  parallel  sides.  When  tlie 
ends  are  triangles,  they  are  called 
triangular  prisms  ;  when  the  ends  are 
square,  square  prisms  ;  when  the 
ends  are  pentagonal,  pentagonal 
prisms ;  and  so  on.  A  right  prism 
has  its  sides  perpendicular  to  its 
ends ;  an  oblique  prism  is  that  of 
which  the  sides  are  oblique  to  the 
ends.  The  solid  conumt  of  a  prism 
is  found  by  multiplying  the  area  of 
the  base  into  the  perpendicular  alti- 
tude ;  hence  all  prisms  are  to  one 
another  in  the  ratio  compounded  of 
their  bases  and  altitudes."  The  opti- 
cal prism  is  of  three  similar  sides. 

PRIS.MATIC  COL(JURS.  Light 
passing  through  a  prism  is  divided 
into  seven  colours,  called  the  prix- 
matic  spectrum ;  tiiese  colours  are,  in 
their  order,  red,  orange,  yellow,  green, 
blue,  indigo,  violet.  They  have  each 
peculiar  cliemical  properties. 

PRH'ET.  Ligustrum  vulgare.  A 
small  shrub  with  pretty  white  flow- 
ers and  black  berries,  used  as  an  or- 
namental hedging  in  gardens.  They 
are  readily  propagated  by  seeds,  lay- 
ers, or  cuttings. 

P  R  O  B  .V  .\  G.    CEsophagus  tube. 

See  Ox.     The  tubes  (see  Fig.)  are  of 

leather,  covering  a  spring;  they  are 

sometimes  hollow,  and  contain  a  sti- 

G41 


PRO 


PRO 


F<7 1 


lette.  J,  Fig.,  represents  the  mouth- 
piece to  keep  the  jaws  open  ;  it  is 
fixed  between  the  teeth,  and  kept  in 
its  place  by  the  strap.  The  probang 
is  introduced  through  the  hole  in  the 
wooden  centre-piece,  or  gag.  In  c 
the  stilette  has  a  corkscrew  end, 
which  can  be  made  fast  in  substan- 
ces which  obstruct  the  gullet,  and 
will  enable  the  farmer  to  pull  them 
upward. 

PROBE.  A  wire  of  silver,  with  a 
blunt  or  sharp  point,  used  to  ascer- 
tain the  depth  of  wounds,  sinuses,  &;c. 

PROBOSCIS.  A  trunk,  or  nasal 
projection. 

PROCESS.  In  descriptions,  a  tu- 
mour or  eminence  on  a  bone  or  part. 
A  proiection. 

PROCUMBENT.  Laying  on  the 
ground. 

PROGNOSIS.  A  conclusion  re- 
specting the  termination  of  a  disease. 

PR0L.\PST;S.  a  failing  out  or 
protrusion  of  any  part  of  the  body  ; 
as  of  the  intestines,  womb. 

PROLEGS.  The  imperfect  legs 
of  caterpillars. 

PROMUSCIS.  The  suctional  or- 
gan of  the  hemiptera. 

PROPAGATION.  Seeds  are  the 
most  general  means  of  propagation, 
but  they  do  not  perpetuate  many  im- 
proved varieties,  especially  of  fruits  ; 
buds  do,  however.  Buds  are  propa- 
gated by  hidding,  grafting,  setting 
slips,  cuttings,  layers,  offshoots,  suck- 
ers, and  in  some  plants,  as  the  straw- 
berry, by  natural  runners.  The  bulb 
is  a  peculiar  bud,  which  also  propa- 
gates varieties  by  offsets.  Tubers, 
or  rhizomes,  are  underground  stems, 
642 


as  in  the  potato,  dahlia,  flag,  and  they 
propagate  the  varieties  also.  "  Cut- 
tings are  portions  of  shoots,  either  of 
ligneous  or  herbaceous  plants  ;  and 
they  are  made  of  the  young  shoots 
with  the  leaves  on,  or  of  the  ripened 
wood  either  with  or  without  its 
leaves  ;  and  after  they  have,  either 
in  an  herbaceous  state  with  the 
leaves  on,  or  with  the  wood  mature, 
and  with  or  without  the  leaves,  been 
properly  prepared  and  planted,  they 
form  roots  at  their  lower  extremity, 
each  cutting  becoming  a  perfect  plant. 
In  general,  cuttings  should  be  taken 
from  those  shoots  of  a  plant  which  are 
nearest  the  soil  ;  because,  from  the 
moisture  and  shade  there,  such  shoots 
are  more  predisposed  to  emit  roots 
than  those  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
plant.  The  young,  or  last-formed 
shoots,  are  to  be  taken  in  preference 
to  such  as  are  older,  as  containing 
more  perfect  buds  in  an  undeveloped 
state,  and  a  bark  more  easily  perme- 
able by  roots  ;  and  the  cutting  is  to  be 
prepared  by  cutting  its  lower  extrem- 
ity across  at  a  joint,  the  lenticells,  or 
root-buds,  being  there  most  abundant. 
When  the  cutting  is  planted,  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  art  consists  in  ma- 
king it  quite  firm  at  the  lower  extrem- 
ity, so  as  completely  to  exclude  the  air 
from  the  wounded  section.  Cuttings 
emit  roots  at  this  section,  either  in 
consequence  of  the  action  of  the  ac- 
cumulated sap  in  the  cutting,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  ripened  wood  in  de- 
ciduous trees  and  shrubs  ;  or  in  con- 
sequence of  the  joint  action  of  the 
accumulated  sap  and  of  the  leaves, 
as  in  the  case  of  cuttings  of  soft  wood 


PRO 


PRO 


with  the  leaves  on,  and  in  a  living 
state.  A  few  plants  are  propagated 
by  cuttings  of  the  leaves,  the  petiole 
of  the  leaf  being  slipped  off  from  the 
parent  plant,  and  ])r()l)ab!y  containing 
the  latent  emliryos  of  buds.  (Jraft- 
ing  and  budding  are  processes  which 
have  been  already  explained.  In- 
arching may  be  described  as  a  spe- 
cies of  grafting,  in  which  the  scion  is 
not  separated  from  the  [)arent  plant  till 
it  has  become  united  with  tiie  stock." 

PROPEns.    The  same  as  prolegs. 

PROPHYLACTIC.  Prevcntmg 
disease. 

PROPORTIONS,  CHEMICAL. 
See  Equivalents  and  Atom. 

PROSENCH YMA.  Elongated  cel- 
lular tissue,  as  that  of  woody  struc- 
tiues. 

PROTEIN.  The  pure  basis  of  the 
animal  principles  :  it  is  separated 
from  albumen,  or  fibrin,  by  dissolving 
them  in  caustic  potash,  and  precipita- 
ting by  acetic  acid.  It  is  gelatinous, 
gray ;  when  dry,  semitransparent, 
and  insoluble.  Its  composition  is  C 
55-7  .  H  6-8  .  N  IGI  .  O  21  2  ;  formu- 
la (Mulder)  C40  H:u  N3  O^  (Liebig 
construes  the  composition  into  C+s 
N(5  H36  Oh)  ;  symbol  Pr.  It  is  a  body 
of  great  interest,  since  in  its  combi- 
nations with  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
ammonia,  &c.,  most  animal  tissues 
are  formed.  Thus  10  Pr.  -^sulphur, 
i  phosphorus,  is  albumen.  10  Pr.,2 
sulphur,  ^  phosphorus,  is  another  form 
of  albumen. 

PROTOTHORAX.  The  first  seg- 
ment of  the  thorax  in  insects. 

PROTO-SALTS.  Oxides  ;  com- 
pounds, the  bases  of  which  are  com- 
bined with  but  one  equivalent  of  ox- 
ygen. 

PROTOZOA.  The  lowest  animal- 
cules. 

PROTRACTOR.  "  A  mathemat- 
ical instrument  for  laying  down  an- 
gles on  paper,  used  in  surveying, 
plotting,  &c. 

"  In  its  simplest  form,  the  protract- 
or consists  merely  of  a  semicircular 
limb  of  metal  divided  mto  180%  and 
subtended  by  a  diameter,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  which  is  a  notch  to  mark  the 
position  of  the  centre.     On  placing 


this  notch  over  tlie  angular  point,  and 
laying  the  diameter  along  a  given 
straight  line,  an  angle  of  any  number 
of  degrees  may  be  made  by  marking 
the  point  on  the  paper  which  coin- 
cides with  the  given  degree  on  the 
limb,  and  joining  this  point  witli  the 
centre  when  the  instrument  is  re- 
moved. The  protractor  is  rendered 
more  commodious  by  transferring  the 
divisions  to  the  edge  of  a  parallel  ruler. 
"  When  a  survey  is  to  be  plotted 
on  a  large  scale,  and  it  becomes  ne- 
cessary, in  consequence,  to  lay  down 
the  angles  with  considerable  precis- 
ion, a  more  complex  apparatus  is  re- 
quired. The  most  approved  form  of 
the  protractor  may  be  described  as 
follows  :  It  consists  of  an  entire  cir- 
cle, connected  with  its  centre  by  four 
radial  bars.  The  centre  of  the  metal 
is  removed,  and  a  circular  disk  of 
glass  fixed  in  its  place,  on  which  are 
drawn  two  lines  crossing  each  other 
at  right  angles,  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion denoting  the  centre  of  the  pro- 
tractor. Round  the  centre,  and  con- 
centric with  the  circle,  is  fitted  a  col- 
lar carrying  two  arms,  one  of  which 
has  a  vernier  at  its  extremity  adapt- 
ed to  the  divided  circle  ;  and  the  oth- 
er a  milled  head,  which  turns  a  pin- 
ion working  in  a  toothed  rack  round 
the  exterior  edge  of  the  instrument. 
The  rack  and  pinion  give  motion  to 
the  arms,  which  can  thus  be  turned 
quite  round  the  circle,  and  set  the 
vernier  to  any  angle  that  may  be  re- 
quired. Each  of  the  two  arms  is  pro- 
longed beyond  the  edge  of  the  pro- 
tractor, and  carries  a  fine  steel  prick- 
er, which  is  pressed  down  when  the 
instrument  is  placed  in  its  required 
position,  and  makes  a  small  puncture 
in  the  paper.  It  is  essential  that  the 
points  of  the  two  prickers  and  the 
centre  of  the  instrument  be  accu- 
rately in  the  same  straight  line." — 
{Simms  on  Mathematical  Instruments.) 
PROTUSILE.  Capable  of  being 
protruded  and  withdrawn. 

PROVENDER.      Dry  food.     See 
!  Fodders. 

PROXIMATE  ANALYSIS.    The 
I  separation   of  a   compound   organic 
I  body  into  its  several  complex  parts, 
643 


PRU 


PRU 


as  the  flour  of  wheat   into  starch,  ' 
sugar,  gum,  fibrin,  gluten,  alljumen. 
These  are  also  called  proxnnair  prin- 
ciples.   Tliis  kind  of  analysis  is  made 
by  means   of  solvents,   as   alcohol,  | 
ether,  water,  potash,  and  acids  :  it  is  j 
coarse  and  unsatisfactory.  j 

PRr.NLXG.  "The  art  of  cutting 
off  parts  of  plants,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  a 
view  to  strengthening  those  which 
remain,  or  of  l)ringing  the  tree  or 
plant  into  particular  forms,  calcula- 
ted to  increase  particular  products. 
Pruning,  therefore,  varies  according 
to  the  kind  of  plant  or  tree  to  be 
pruned,  and  according  to  the  object 
in  view.  In  the  case  of  forest- 
trees,  the  general  object  of  pruning 
is  to  increase  the  quantity  of  tim- 
ber in  the  trunk  by  diminishing  the 
side  branches,  commencing  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  tree  when  it  is 
quite  young,  and  gradually  advancing 
upward  as  the  tree  increases  in 
growth.  In  the  case  of  hedges,  the 
object  is  to  produce  a  dense  mass 
from  the  ground  upward,  which  is  ef- 
fected by  shortening  the  side  branch- 
es. In  the  case  of  pruning  trees 
which  are  cultivated  for  the  sake  of 
their  fruit  or  blossoins,  the  object  is 
to  thin  out  the  branches  so  as  to  ad- 
mit the  light  and  air  more  freely  to 
their  leaves  and  blossoms,  and  to 
concentrate  and  increase  the  nour- 
ishment to  the  branches  which  re- 
main. In  the  case  of  trees  or  shrubs 
cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their 
shapes,  whether  natural  or  artificial, 
the  object  of  pruning  is  to  deprive  the 
trees  or  shrubs  of  all  those  branches 
which  deviate  from  or  interfere  with 
the  natural  shape,  or  witii  tlie  form 
which  is  intended  to  be  produced  by 
art.  In  pruning  with  a  view  to  pro- 
duce fruit,  it  is  necessary  to  know  on 
what  description  of  branches  and 
buds  the  fruit  is  produced.  In  some 
trees,  as  in  the  peach,  it  is  generally 
produced  on  the  wood  of  the  prece- 
ding year  ;  in  others,  as  in  the  apple 
and  pear,  it  is  generally  produced  on 
wood  of  two  years'  growth  ;  and  in 
the  vine  it  is  produced  on  shoots  of 
the  current  year.  The  general  effect 
644 


of  pruning  on  plants  is  to  increase 
their  longevity  ;  since  the  tendem^y 
of  all  vegetables  is  to  exbaust  them- 
selves, and,  consequently,  to  shorten 
their  duration,  by  the  production  of 
seeds.  In  the  operation  of  pruning, 
the  shoots  are  cut  off  close  to  the 
buds,  or  at  a  distance  from  them  not 
greater  than  the  diameter  of  the 
branch  to  be  cut  off;  because,  with- 
out the  near  proximity  of  a  bud,  the 
wounds  will  not  heal  over.  In  shoots 
which  produce  their  buds  alternately, 
the  cut  is  made  at  the  back  of  the  bud, 
sloping  from  it,  so  as  that  it  may  be 
readily  covered  by  bark  in  the  same 
or  in  the  followmg  year.  This  is 
readily  done  with  a  pruning  knife,  by 
a  slanting  cut,  made  at  an  angle  of 
45"  with  the  direction  of  the  branch  ; 
but  in  the  case  of  branches  where 
the  buds  are  produced  opposite  each 
other,  either  one  bud  must  be  sacri- 
ficed, or  the  branch  must  be  cut  off  at 
right  angles  to  its  line  of  direction, 
and  is  more  conveniently  done  by  the 
pruning  shears.  The  operation  of 
pruning  may,  in  many  cases,  he  su- 
perseded by  rubbing  off,  or  pinching 
out  the  leaf-buds,  so  as  to  prevent 
superfluous  shoots  from  being  pro- 
duced."'— {Lindlcy.) 

Where  bleeding  occurs  in  summer 
pruning,  the  stem  should  be  first 
pinched  by  the  thumb  and  finger,  to 
destroy  the  tissues,  and  removed 
when  dead  :  in  this  way  vines  and 
figs  may  be  pruned  at  any  time.  The 
best  time  for  pruning  trees  is  in  June 
and  July,  when  the  wounds  heal 
readilv 

PRUNING  KNIFE.  "  A  knife  the 
blade  of  which  has  a  straight  edge, 
formed  of  well-tempered  steel,  and 
of  no  great  breadth,  with  a  narrow 
point,  in  order  that  it  may  be  more 
readily  introduced  among  crowded 
branches.  Formerly,  pruning-knives 
were  hooked  at  the  point  ;  but  the 
cuts  made  by  such  knives  had  a  ten- 
dency to  crush  the  shoot,  and  leave 
a  rough  section,  more  readily  injured 
by  the  air  and  water,  and  less  likely 
to  be  speedily  healed  over.  Such 
knives,  when  of  a  large  size,  were 
called  pruning  hooks. 


PUL 


PUM 


PRUNING  SHEARS.     Shears  in  i  insects,  enabling  thcin  to  walk  on  the 


ceiling  of  rooms  against  gravity. 

PUMICE.  Porous  lava.  It  consists 
of  silica,  775  ;  alumina,  175  ;  potash 
and  soda,  30  ;  oxide  of  iron,  1-75. 

PUMICED  FOOT.  In  farriery,  a 
wide-spread  hoof,  the  sole  of  which  is 
flat  with  the  ground. 

PUMP.  This  machine  is  of  great 
use  on  the  farm  fur  many  purpo- 
ses.    The  various  forms  may  often 


which  one  of  the  blades  moves  on  a 
pivot,  which  works  in  an  oblong  open- 
ing instead  of  a  circular  one,  by 
which  means  a  draw  cut  is  produced 
smiilar  to  that  effected  by  a  knife, 
instead  of  the  crushing  cut  produced 
by  common  shears,  which  fractures 
the  section  left  on  the  branch,  and 
renders  it  liable  to  become  diseased, 
or  to  decay,  instead  of  being  covered 
over  with  fresh  bark.  Pruning  shears  !  be  employed  for  collecting  or  distrib- 
are  particularly  adapted  for  cutting  \  uting  fluids.  "  Though  the  forms  un- 
spiny  or  prickly  shrubs,  such  as  the  der  which  this  useful  engine  is  con- 
different  species  of  thorns,  gooseber-  structed,  and  the  mode  in  which  the 
nes,  or  roses.  power  is  applied,  may  be  modified  in 

PRUSSIC    ACID.      Hydrocyanic    an  infinite  number  of  ways,  there  are 
acid.     See  Cyanogen.     It  is  distilled 
from  many  flowers  and  seeds,  which 
owe  their  odour  to  it,  as  peaches, 
cherries,  apple  seeds,  &.c. 

P  S  E  U  D  O.  A  common  prefix, 
meaning  false. 

PTYALISM.  Increased  sali- 
vation. 

PUBESCENT,  PUBESCENCE. 
Covered  with  soft  hairs. 

P  U  C  COO  N.  American  alkanet. 
Balschia.  canescens.  A  perennial-root- 
ed plant  of  the  borage  tribe,  the  root 
of  wliich  yields  a  red  pigment,  with 
wiuch  the  Indians  colour  themselves. 

PUDDINGSTONE.  A  conglom- 
erate. 

PUDDLING.  Ramming  clay  with 
sand  and  water  until  it  is  converted 
into  an  impervious  mortar. 

PUERPERAL.  Relating  to  partu- 
rition. 

PUFF-BALL.  The  genus  Lycoper- 
don  yields  numerous  pufT-balls.  The 
dust  was  at  one  time  used  to  stop 
bleeding  from  wounds,  as  a  stvptic. 

PUGGING.  The  stuff  laid  be- 
tween floors  to  deaden  sound. 

PUGIL.     A  pinch  of  any  stuff. 
PULMONARIES.     A  kind  of  spi- 
der. 

PULMONARY, 
lungs. 


only  three  which  can  be  considered 
as  differing  from  each  other  in  prin- 
ciple. These  are  the  sucking  pump, 
the  forcing  pump,  and  the  lifting  pump, 
so  called  from  the  manner  in  which 
they  act. 

"  The  sucking  pump,  or  common 
household  pump,  is  an  apparatus  of 
which  the  principle  and  construction 
will  be  evident  fiom  the  annexed  fig- 
ure. A  A  is  a  pipe  of  any  convenient 
length,  the    lower   end   of   Fig.  l 


which    reaches    below   the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the 
well  or  reservoir  ;  B  is  a  bar- 
rel, generally  of  greater  di- 
ameter than  the  pipe  ;  C  a 
valve  opening  upward  ;  D  a 
piston  moved  by  the  rod  E  : 
in  this  piston  there  is  also  a 
valve  opening  upward.  When 
the  piston  is  raised,  the  air 
in  the  barrel  between  the  valves  is 
expanded,   and    its   tension,   conse- 
quently, diminished  ;  the  pressure  of 
the  air  in  the  pipe,  therefore,  opens 
the  valve  C,  and  the  whole  air  in  the 
pipe  and  barrel  becomes  less  dense. 
In  this  state  the  atmospheric  press- 
ure on  the  surface  of  the  water  caus- 
es it  to  rise  in  the  pipe,  until  the  ten-  ' 
Relating  to  the  I  sion  of  the  confined  air  becomes  equal 
1  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
PULQUE.     The  fermented  juice  i  On  again  depressing  the  piston,  the 
of  the  Mexican  aloe  {Agave  Amer-  \  valve  in  it  opens,  and  the  air  passes 
jcana).  through  it  from  the  barrel  as  it  de- 

PULSE.     Leguminous  crops.  scends  ;  but  the  valve,  C,  is  closed 

PLLVILLI.     The  hairs,  or  a  mem-    by  the  downward  pressure,  and  the 
braue,  which  covers  the  feet  of  some  ,  volume  of  water  which  has  entered 

645 


PUMP. 


the  pipe  remains.  On  again  raising 
the  piston,  llie  same  effect  is  repeal- 
ed, and  an  additional  ijiiantity  of  wa- 
ter enters  the  pipe,  'i'liii.s,  l)v  tiie  al- 
ternating motion  of  the  piston,  a  col- 
umn of  water  is  raised  in  the  pipe 
until  it  reaches  the  piston  when  at 
the  bottom  of  the  barrel,  and  the 
whole  of  the  air  below  it  has  been 
excluded.  On  raising  the  piston 
when  the  water  has  reached  it,  the 
fluid  will  be  compelled  to  follow  by 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  its 
surface  in  the  well.  When  the  pis- 
ton is  again  depressed,  Uie  water 
flows  through  the  valve  in  it,  and  as- 
cends into  the  barrel,  and  by  the  suc- 
ceeding strokes  of  the  piston  is  lifted 
up  until  it  reaches  and  flows  out  of 
the  spout,  F. 

"  Although  in  theory  the  limit  of 
the  height  to  which  water  may  be 
raised  by  the  sucking  pump,  from  the 
surface  of  the  fluid  in  the  well  to  the 
highest  position  of  the  moveable  pis- 
ton, is  about  thirty-four  feet  (the 
height  of  a  colunm  of  water  which 
balances  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere), it  is  not  found  practicable, 
with  pumpo  of  the  ordinary  construc- 
tion, to  raise  it  more  than  about  twen- 
ty-eight feet.  The  difference  arises 
from  the  difficulty  of  making  the  ap- 
paratus absolutely  air-tight. 

''The  forci7i<r  pump  is  represented 
in  Fig.  -i.  The  piston-rod,  E  D,  is 
attached  to  a  solid 
plunger,  D,  adjusted  to 
the  cavity  of  the  bar- 
rel. A  pipe,  G  H,  fur- 
nished with  a  valve, 
F,  opening  outward, 
communicates  with 
the  barrel  at  G.  On  el- 
evating the  plunge  r,D, 
the  water  will  ascend 
through  the  valve,  C, 
in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  sucking  pump, 
till  the  barrel  is  filled  to  D.  Now  when 
the  plunger  is  depressed,  the  valve, 
C,  will  shut,  and  the  water  between 
D  and  C  be  forced  through  the  valve 
F  into  the  pipe  G  H.  When  the 
plunger  is  raised,  the  valve  at  F  shuts, 
the  pressure  on  its  under  side  being 
646 


removed,  so  that  the  water  which 
was  forced  into  the  pipe  liy  the  pre- 
vious stroke  cannot  return  into  the 
barrel.  At  the  next  stroke  of  the 
piston  more  water  is  again  forced 
into  the  pipe,  and  so  on  till  it  is  rais- 
ed to  the  height  required. 

"  In  this  pump  the  pipe,  A  A,  may 
be  dispensed  with,  and  the  barrel,  B, 
immersed  in  the  reservoir  ;  in  which 
case  the  action  of  the  pump  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  could  be  maintained  equally  well 
in  a  vacuum. 

"  In  order  to  produce  a  continued 
stream  through  the  pipe,  G  H,  an  air 


Vxg.  3. 


vessel,  m  n,  may  be 
attached  to  tlie  lateral 
branch  above  the  valve 
F,  Fig.  3.  The  pipe, 
G  H,  reaches  to  near 
the  bottom  of  the  air- 
vessel  ;  and  when  the 
water  has  been  forced 
into  the  vessel  by  the 
action  of  the  pump,  un- 
til it  reaches  above  the 
lower  end  of  the  pipe  at  G,  it  is  evi- 
dent that,  as  all  communication  is 
then  cut  off  with  the  external  atmo- 
sphere, every  additional  quantity  of 
water  thrown  into  the  vessel  will  tend 
more  and  more  to  compress  the  air 
within  it,  which,  acting  by  its  press- 
ure on  the  surface  of  the  water,  for- 
ces it  through  the  pipe,  G  H,  in  a  con- 
tinued stream. 

"  The  lifting  pump  is  represented 
by  Fig.  4.  The  barrel  of  the  pump 
is  immersed  in  the  water 
and  fixed  to  an  immovea- 
ble frame.  The  piston, 
with  its  bucket  and  valve, 
C,  opening  upward,  is  at- 
tached at  E  to  another 
frame,  G  H  I K  L,  consist- 
ingof  twostrongiron  rods, 
H  I  and  LK,  which  move 
through  holes  in  frame- 
work to  which  the  pump 
is  fixed.  An  inclined 
branch,  M  N,  either  fixed  to  the  top 
of  the  barrel,  or  moveable  by  means 
of  a  ball  and  socket,  is  fitted  exactly 
to  the  barrel,  and  furnished  with  a 
valve  at  M.     Suppose  the  barrel  im- 


Fia.  i. 


PUP 

inersed  in  the  water  to  a  certain  depth  : 
if  the  piistou  frame  be  now  thrust  down 
by  the  handle  at  Cr,  the  piston  will 
descend,  and  the  water  be  forced  by 
its  upward  pressure  tiirougli  tlie  valve 
C,  so  as  to  maintain  the  same  level 
in  the  pump  as  in  the  well.  But  when 
the  piston  frame  is  elevated,  the  valve 
C  will  shut  (as  shown  in  the  figure), 
and  the  water  above  C  be  lificd  up 
with  the  piston,  and  forced  througli 
the  valve  M  into  the  branch,  M  N,  from 
which  its  return  will  be  prevented  by 
the  shutting  of  the  valve  M  when  the 
piston  descends. 

"  In  each  of  these  different  kinds 
of  pumps  which  have  been  described, 
the  total  effort  required  to  work  the 
machine,  independently  of  friction,  is 
equal  to  the  weight  of  a  column  of 
water,  the  base  of  which  is  equal  to 
the  area  of  a  section  of  the  working 
barrel,  and  the  altitude  equal  to  the 
distance  between  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  reservoir  and  the  point 
to  which  it  is  raised.  In  the  suck- 
ing pump  the  whole  of  this  effort  is 
expended  in  raising  the  piston  ;  in 
the  forcing  pump  one  part  is  expend- 
ed in  raising  and  the  other  in  de- 
pressing the  piston,  and  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  dispose  the  machinery  so 
that  these  two  parts  shall  be  nearly 
equal.  In  small  pumps  for  domestic 
purposes,  the  strength  of  man  is  usu- 
ally employed  as  the  moving  power  ; 
but  in  raising  water  from  great  depths, 
as  the  bottom  of  mines,  the  steam- 
engine  is  applied  to  this  purpose." — 
{Brandc's  E/icyclopirdia.) 

PUMPKIN.  Citcurbila  pcpo.  The 
best  varieties  are  the  family,  mam-  ' 
moth,  Connecticut  field,  white  bell, 
Valparaiso.  They  are  cultivated  like 
melons,  but  may  be  planted  in  corn- 
fields. They  are  kept  during  the 
winter  by  placing  them  on  shelves  in 
a  cellar  where  the  temperature  is 
uniform  and  not  below  the  freezing  '' 
point.  They  form  admirable  food  for 
stock,  and  are  extensively  employed 
in  the  West  to  fatten  hogs. 

PLNCHEOxN.  A  measure  of  84 
gallons  ;  a  short  post. 

PUNCTATE.     Dotted.  ! 

PUPA.  A  nymph,  grub,  or  chrysalis,  i 


PUT 

PUPIPARES,  PUPIPAR.A.  Those 

insects  are  said  to  be  pupiparoua 
which  produce  their  young  in  tiie  con- 
dition of  a  pupa  or  nymph,  as  the  for- 
est tly  {Hippobosca  equina). 

PUPIVOllES,  PUPIVORA.  The 
name  of  a  tribe  of  hymeuopterous  in- 
sects, comprehending  those  of  which 
the  larvaj  live  parasitically  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  larvaj  and  pupaj  of  oth- 
er insects. 

PURGATIVES.    Medicines  which 
produce  purging.    See  Pliannacopaia. 
PURGING.     Often  used  for  diar- 
rhoea or  over-purging.     See  the  ani- 
mals respectively. 

PURIFORM.     Like  pus. 
I      PURLINE.      In  building,  a  piece 
,  of  timber  lymg  on  the  principal  raft- 
ers to  support  them  in  the  middle. 

PURPURIC  ACID.  A  red  com- 
pound produced  by  the  action  of  nitric 
acid  on  uric  acid. 

PURSIVENESS,  PURSINESS. 
Shortness  of  breath. 

PURSLANE.  Portulacca  olera- 
cea.  An  annual  with  succulent  leaves, 
partially  cultivated  as  a  salad  and 
pot-herb. 

PUS,  MATTER.  A  yellow,  cream- 
like  fiuid  formed  in  abscesses  and 
from  w^ounds.  It  contains  globules, 
and  is  blood  modified  by  inflammato- 
ry action. 

PUT  AMEN.     The  shell  of  a  fruit. 
The  endocarp. 
PUT  LOGS, 
in  scaffolding. 

PUTREFACTION.  The  foetid  de- 
composition of  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  containing  much  nitrogen. 
The  bad  odours  are  due  to  the  for- 
mation of  compounds  of  sulphur  and 
ammonia  with  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. Putrefaction  can  only  take  place 
when  oxygen  is  present  with  moist- 
ure, and  a  temperature  above  32° 
Fahrenheit.  Everything  which  hin- 
ders the  accomplishment  of  these 
conditions  hinders  putrefaction,  as 
drying,  salting,  coldness,  placing  in 
air-tight  vessels.  Saline  substances 
hinder  putrefaction  by  either  coagu- 
lating and  changing  the  nitrogen  com- 
pound, or  withdrawing  the  water  by 
their  greater  affinity. 

647 


Short  timbers  used 


QUA 

PUTTY.  In  building,  a  fine  ce- 
ment of  lime  only.  In  glazing,  a  com 
pound  of  drying  oil,  linseed  oil,  and 
whiting. 

PYLORUS.  The  passage  or  valve 
of  the  stomach  into  the  intestines. 

PYUrj'KS.  Native  sulphurets  of 
iron  or  copper. 

PYKO  (from  nvp,  fire).  A  com- 
mon chemical  prefix,  indicating  com- 
pounds modified  by  the  action  of  heat, 
as  pvrophosphoric,  pvrotartaric  acids. 

PYROACETIC  SPIRIT.  A  vol- 
atile, inflammable,  and  limpid  fluid, 
formed  by  the  distillation  of  acetate 
of  lead.     It  is  also  called  acetone. 

PYROLIGXEOUS  ACID.  The 
vinegar  (acetic  acid)  procured  by  dis- 
tilling wood.  It  contains  creasote 
and  other  tarry  compounds,  but  is 
extensively  used  to  form  solution  of 
iron  or  red  liquor  for  dyers.  Its  com- 
pounds are  called  pvrolignites. 

PYROLIGNEOUS  SPIRIT, 
PYROXYLIC  SPIRIT.  Hydrate  of 
mythylene,  wood  naphtha,  a  very 
vwlatile,  inflammable  fluid,  from  dis- 
tilled wood,  sometimes  used  for 
lamps.  It  is  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful antiseptics,  but  of  an  unpleas- 
ant odour. 

PYROMETER.  An  instrument 
for  measuring  degrees  of  heat  above 
600"^  Fahr.  They  are  all  very  im- 
perfect except  Daniel's,  and  seldom 
used. 

PYROSIS.     Acidity  of  the  stom- 
ach, with  a  discharge  of  hot  fluid  into 
the  throat  and  mouth. 
PYROXENE.     Augite. 
PYROXYLIU  SPIRIT.     Pyrolig- 
neous  spirit 

PYXIDIUM  (from  Tnfif,  a  small 
box).  A  fruit  which  splits  into  an 
upper  and  lower  half,  as  that  of  the 
pimpernel. 


QUADRICORXES.     A  family  of 
wingless  insects,  with  four  antennae. 

QUADRIFID.     Four-cleft. 

QUADRILATERAL.    Four-sided. 

QUADRIPENXATES.    A  tribe  of 
insects  with  four  membranous  wings. 

QUAGGA.    A  quadruped  allied  to 
the  zebra. 
648 


QUI 

QUAGMIRE.  A  muddy,  soft  bog 
or  marsh. 

Q  U  A  I  L.  The  genus  Coturnix. 
Birds  like  the  partridge,  but  of  pas- 
sage. 

QUAKING  GRASS.  The  genus 
Briza. 

QUART.     The  fourth  of  a  gallon. 

QUARTAN.  An  intermittent  fe- 
ver, appearing  everv  fourth  day. 

QUARTER.  Eight  bushels,  a 
fourth  {)art. 

QIJ.ARTZ.  Silica,  silicic  acid  crys- 
tallized, rock  crystal. 

QUARRY'.  A  pit  or  excavation, 
from  whence  stones  are  taken,  by 
blasting  or  otherwise. 

QU.\SSIA.  A  bitter  wood,  from 
the  Q.  cxcclsa  of  South  America.  A 
strong  decoction,  sweetened  with  su- 
gar, is  a  certain  and  safe  poison  for 
flies. 

QUEEN  POST.  In  building,  an 
upright  post  in  a  roof  for  suspending 
the  beam  when  the  principal  rafters 
do  not  meet  in  the  ridge. 

QUERCITRON  BARK.  The  in- 
ner bark  of  the  black  oak.     See  Oak. 

QUICKLIME.  Caustic,  fresh- 
burned  lime. 

QUICKSILVER.     Mercury. 

QUICKS.  The  young  white  thorns. 

QUICKSET  HEDGE.  A  hedge 
of  white  thorn. 

QUINATE.     Five-parted. 

QUINCE.  Cydonia  vulgaris.  A 
well-known  fruit,  readily  cultivated 
from  seed,  cuttings,  and  suckers. 
The  stocks  are  much  used  for  working 
pears  and  apples,  which  they  bring 
forward,  but  render  short-lived.  The 
Portuguese,  eatable,  orange,  and 
musk  kinds  are  most  esteemed  ;  the 
Chinese  is  very  long. 

The  quince  prefers  a  moist,  loose 
soil  ;  it  requires  little  pruning,  ex- 
cept the  removal  of  suckers.  The 
fruit  is  chieflv  used  for  preserves. 

QUINCUNX.     In  the  following 

order  °o°,  with  one  at  each  corner. 

o    o  ' 

and  a  fifth  in  the  centre  of  the  s(]uare 
QUININE.     The  active  principle 

of  Peruvian  bark,  a  white,  crystalline 

alkaloid. 

QUINOA  or  PERUVIAN  RICE. 


I 


RAC 


RAG 


Ckenopoiihim  quinoa.  A  plant  of  the 
Andes,  similar  to  the  gousefoots,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  used  as  spinach. 
The  seeds  are  very  nutritious,  and 
are  eaten  hoiled  in  soups. 

QUINSEY.  "  Indammation  of  the 
tonsils.  This  is  common  intianima- 
tory  sore  tiiroat  :  it  is  not  infectious. 
It  hegfins  with  pain  on  one  side  of  the 
throat,  and  swelling  of  the  tonsil,  at- 
tended by  febrile  symptoms,  which 
sometimes  run  high,  especially  as  the 
tumefaction  advances  ;  there  is  great 
restlessness  and  anxiety,  and  often 
the  utmost  difficulty  of  swallowing 
even  liquids,  and  of  breathing.  Tlie 
disease  has  proved  fatal  by  producing 
sutfocation,  but  it  generally  termi- 
nates in  resolution  or  suppuration  : 
in  the  latter  case  the  abscess  breaks, 
and  a  good  deal  of  pus  is  discharged, 


one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  blind- 
ness of  horses. 

RACKING  FUTIDS.  Decanting; 
separating  the  clear  portions  from 
the  dregs.  The  barrel  into  which 
the  fluid  is  racked  should  be  perfectly 
clean  and  fumigated  with  sulphur. 

RADIANT.  A  luminous  spot  or 
bodv. 

RADIATION.  The  emission  of 
rays  of  heat  or  light  through  air  or 
space,  whereby  little  is  lost. 

RADICAL.  A  base  in  chemistry. 
Compound  radical  is  a  compound  base 
in  organic  bodies. 

RADICLE.  The  miniature  root 
of  the  embryo.     Also,  small  roots. 

R.VDISH.  Raphanus  sativus.  An 
annual  cruciferous  plant,  cultivated 
for  its  roots.  Varieties  :  Long  scar- 
let, scarlet  turnip,  white  turnip-root- 


and  the  patient  is  at  once  relieved  of  ed.  long  w"hite  Naples,  purple  turnip, 


all  his  urgent  symptoms  ;  hut  it  oc- 
casionally happens  that  the  other  side 
of  tiie  throat  becomes  affected,  and 
goes  through  the  same  stages." 

QUITCH  GRASS.     Couch  grass. 

QUOIN.    The  corner  of  a  building. 


R. 

A  moulding. 
Lepus   cuniculus. 


RABBET. 

RABBIT 
well-known  rodent.  They  breed  at 
si.x  months,  and  have  seven  to  eight 
young  in  a  litter.  They  devour  the 
young,  green  vegetation  of  the  farm- 
er, but  are  readily  kept,  and  yield 
an  abundant  supply  of  food.  The 
dung  IS  of  the  same  character  as  that 
of  sheep. 

RACEME.  A  form  of  inflores- 
cence, consisting  of  a  main  stem  with 
stalked  flowers  arranged  along  it. 

RACE.VIIC  ACID.  An  old  name 
for  a  form  of  tartaric  acid  ;  the  para- 
tartaric  acid. 

R.\CHIS.  An  upright  axis  of  in- 
florescence. 

RACK.  A  railed  space  above  the 
manger,  in  which  grass  is  placed. 
Below  should  be  a  box  to  collect  the 
grass  seeds.  The  rack  should  not  be 
placed  above  the  animal's  head  ;  for 
the  dust  of  the  hay,  falling  into  his 
eyes,  may  produce  irritation,  and,  ul- 
timately, blindness. 
I  I  I 


white  Spanish,  black  Spanish.  The 
early  crops  must  be  forwarded  in 
frames  and  hot-beds.  Warm  bor- 
ders are  also  selected  for  crops  in 
May.  The  seed  is  sowed  broad-cast 
or  in  drills  nine  inches  apart.  The 
soil  should  be  light,  drained,  and  mod- 
erately fertile.  A\hen  the  crop  is 
large,  10  to  14  lbs.  of  seed  the  acre 
are  employed.  The  leaves  are  in- 
fested by  skipping  beetles,  and  should 
be  sprinkled  with  air-slacked  lime, 
snuff,  &LC.  The  roots  are  also  sub- 
ject to  a  maggot.  The  green  pods 
are  sometimes  pickled,  and  the  young 
plants  used  as  salad. 

RADISH,  WILD.  The  charlock, 
a  weed. 

RADIUS.  The  length  of  a  straight 
line  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle. 

RADIUS  BONE.  Oneof  the  bones 
of  the  forearm. 

RAFTER.     A  timber  of  the  roof 

RAFTERING  LAND.  Ploughing 
only  half  the  land,  and  turning  the 
grass  side  of  each  furrow'-slice  upon 
an  unploughed  bed. 

R.VG.  Woollen  rags  are  very  use- 
ful as  a  manure.  They  are  chopped 
line,  and  used  at  the  rate  of  half  a 
ton  to  the  acre.  They  last  four  or 
five  years,  and  advance  vegetation, 


This  is,  indeed,  1  especially  the  bop. 


The  rags,  by  de- 
649 


RAI 


RAP 


cay,  become  pon  verted  into  carbonate  ; 
of  aininonia,  in  tlie  sanu;  way  as  hair 
and  horns,  with  wliich  manures  they 
are  identical.  I 

R  A  G  WEE  D.  GROUNDSEL. 
Composite-flowered  weeds. 

R  A  I  L.  Tlie  horizontal  parts  of 
framing.  Pieces  of  timber  of  12  feet, 
used  lor  fencing.  I 

R  A  I  N.      'J"hc   water   of  Clouds, 
which    see.      'J'he    average    amount 
that  falls  in  tliis  state  is  35  inches, 
the  largest  amount  following  south- 
west and  northwest  winds.     Rain  is  ! 
a  true  manure,  containing  carbonic  ' 
acid,   a   little   ammonia,  and   saline  , 
matters.     It  is  preferable  to  preserve  ! 
it   in   tanks,  for   watering   gardens, 
than  to  use  well  water. 

RAINBOW.  A  display  of  the  pris- 
matic colours  in  the  air,  produced  by 
the  action  of  particles  of  water  on  the 
sun's  rays. 

RAIN  GAUGE.  An  instrument 
to  measure  the  amount  of  rain  fallen. 
A  convenient  form  of  the  instrument 
is  represented  in  the  annex- 
ed figure,  where  the  rain 
which  enters  the  funnel  is 
collected  in  a  cylindrical 
vessel  of  copper,  connected  ', 
with  which,  at  the  lower 
part,  is  a  glass  tube  with  an 
attached  scale.  The  water 
stands  at  the  same  height  in  the  cyl- 
inder and  glass  tube,  and  being  visi- 
ble in  the  latter,  the  height  is  read 
immediately  on  the  scale  ;  and  the 
cylinder  and  tube  being  constructed 
so  that  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  their 
sections  is  a  given  part,  for  instance, 
a  tenth,  of  the  area  of  the  funnel  at 
its  orifice,  each  inch  of  water  in  the 
tube  is  equivalent  to  the  tenth  of  an 
inch  of  water  entering  the  mouth  of 
the  funnel.  A  stop-cock  is  added, 
by  which  the  water  is  drawn  offwhen 
the  observation  is  made.  It  should 
be  placed  in  an  open  space. 

R.\I.SINS.  Grapes  allowed  to  dry 
on  the  vine.  As  soon  as  they  are 
ripe,  the  leaves  are  pruned  off",  and 
none  hut  sound  fruit  left.  The  stalk 
is  also  half  cut  through.  When  dry, 
they  are  plucked,  dipped  in  a  solution  ! 
of  lye,  and  dried  ou  frames.  1 

650 


RAISING  PLATE.  The  timber 
to  which  the  upper  ends  of  the  raf- 
ters are  nailed. 

RAKE.  An  implement  consisting 
of  one  or  more  rows  of  long  teeth, 
to  tear  the  ground  or  collect  hay, 
&c.  The  revolving  hay  rake  is  fig- 
ured under  Hay-makiyi<:.  The  horse- 
rake  is  only  a  large  rake  drawn  by  a 
horse,  and  furnished  with  handles  to 
be  held  by  a  labourer. 

RAM.  The  male  of  the  sheep. 
Sec  Sheep. 

RA.MENTA.  Thin,  brown  scales 
seen  on  ferns  and  voung  shoots. 

RAMOSE.     Branched. 

RAMPKJNS.  Campamtla  rapurf 
cultis.  Tiiis  is  cultivated,  to  a  limit- 
ed extent,  for  its  roots,  which  are 
said  to  be  better  than  radishes.  They 
are  cultivated  like  radishes,  and  are 
fit  for  use  in  September  and  the  fall. 
The  soil  should  be  rather  moist.  The 
roots  are  eaten  raw,  in  salads,  sliced 
with  the  leaves,  or  they  may  be  boiled, 
and  treated  as  asparagus.  Seed  is 
obtained  by  setting  out  a  few  of  the 
last  year's  roots  in  spring. 

PvANID.E.  The  reptiles  resem- 
bling the  frog  (rana). 

RANUNCULUS.  Plants  resem- 
bling the  buttercup  and  crowsfoot. 
They  are  vile  weeds  in  meadows, 
inany  of  thein  being  acrid  and  poi- 
sonous. They  have  been  much  im- 
proved for  the  flower  garden. 

RAPE.  Brassica  napus.  "  This 
plant,  which  is  of  the  cabbage  tribe, 
is  cultivated,  like  cole,  or  colza,  for 
the  sake  of  its  seeds,  from  which  oil 
is  extracted  by  grinding  and  i)ressure. 
It  is  also  extensively  cultivated  in 
England  for  the  succulent  food  which 
its  thick  and  fleshy  stern  and  leaves 
supply  to  sheep  when  other  fodder  is 
scarce. 

"  The  mode  of  cultivation  of  the  col- 
za and  rape  forseed  is  nearly  the  same. 
The  colza  takes  a  longer  time  to  come 
to  maturity,  and  produces  more  seed. 
The  rape  grows  on  less  fertile  soils, 
and  may  be  sowed  in  spring  as  well 
as  in  autumn.  Both  are  hardy,  and 
resist  the  winter's  frost. 

"  The  seed-bed.  where  tlie  cultiva- 
tion is  on  a  small  scale,  is  usually 


\ 


RAPE. 


prepared  by  digo:ing  or  trenching  with 
the  spade  in  a  good  loamy  soil,  nei- 
ther too  sandy  nor  too  wet.     A  large 
pro|)ortion  of  rotten  dung  is  spread 
evenly  over  it,  and  dug  in  six  inches 
deep,  and  the  surface  is  raked  fine. 
The  seed  is  sowed  broad-cast  or  in 
drill ;  the  latter  is  the  best  method  : 
it  is  then  slightly  covered  with  the 
rake  ;    and  if  the  ground  will  allow 
of  It,  without  risk  of  its  being  bound 
too  hard  in  case  of  dry  weatiier,  it  is 
well  rolled  or  trodden  with  the  feet. 
The   seed   must   not  be  sowed  too 
thick ;    and  the   plants,  as  soon  as 
they  have  six  leaves,  must  be  thin- 
ned to  a  distance  of  four  or  live  inch- 
es in  the  rows,  which  wdl  make  them 
stronger  and  better  furnished  with 
roots.     One  acre  of  seed-bed  will  fur- 
nish plants  for  ten  acres  or  more. 
The  seed  is  sowed  in  July  or  August, 
that  the  plants  may  not  run  to  seed 
the  same  year,  which  they  are  apt  to 
do  if  sowed  early  ;  and  they  are  trans- 
planted in  September  or  October,  on 
land  which  has  already  borne  a  prof- 
itable crop.     As  this  crop  is  a  substi- 
tute for  a  fallow  on  rich,  heavy  land, 
too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  to  j 
keep  it  free  from  weeds.      Winter 
barley   and    rye,   which   are    reaped, 
early  in  July,  are  very  proper  crops 
to  be  succeeded  by  rape  or   colza.  | 
The  stubble  should  be  ploughed  two  i 
or  three  times,  to  pulverize  and  clean  ' 
it.    A  goodcoat  of  rotten  dung  should  1 
be  put  on,  and  the  land  ploughed  in  ' 
ridges,  as  for  turnips.     The   plants 
should  be  put  in  on  the  ridges  ten 
inches  apart.     It  requires  great  care, 
in  taking  them  up,  not  to  break  the 
fibres  of  the  roots  ;    they  should  be 
raised  with  a  fork,  and  placed  gently, 
with  the  fine  earth  adhering  to  them, 
in  flat  baskets,  and  in  a  slanting  posi- 
tion, so  that  the  tops  may  be  upward. 
In  planting,  the  holes  should  be  made 
with  a  large,  thick  dibble,  that  the 
plants   may   be    introduced    without 
doubling  up  the   principal  roots   or 
breaking  tlie  fibres.   The  earth  should 
be  pressed  to  the  root  by  a  short  dib- 
ble, inserted  to  the  right  or  left  of  the 
h(jle  made  by  the   first  dibble  ;    or, 
which  IS  better  iii  sliS  soils,  a  hole 


should  be  made  with  a  narrow  hoe 
of  sulTicient  depth  to  allow  the  plant 
to  be  placed  in  it,  and  another  hoe 
should  follow  to  draw  the  earth  to 
llie  ()lant.    Thus,  two  men  with  hoes, 
and  one  woman,  will  plant  a  row  more 
rapidly  than  could  be  done  in  any  oth- 
er way.     The  man  who  fills  up  the 
holes  places  his  foot  by  the  side  of 
each  plant  as  he  goes  on,  to  press 
trie  earth  to  the  roots. 
'      '•  An  expeditious  mode  of  planting 
I  rape  is  used  in  Flanders.     A  spade 
I  ten  inches  wide  is  pushed  vertically 
I  into  the  ground,  and,  by  drawing  the 
I  handle  towards  his  body,  the  labour- 
[  er  makes  a  wedge-like  opening;   a 
woman  inserts  a  plant  in  each  side 
of  this  opening,  and  when  the  man 
j  removes    the  spade    the  earth   falls 
back  against  the  plants.     The  wom- 
I  an  puts  her  foot  between   the  two 
plants,   and  they  are  then   fixed   in 
their  places.     In  this  operation  the 
man  moves  backward  ;  and  the  wom- 
an, who  puts  in  the  plants,  forward. 
Instead  of  the  spade,  an  instrument 
is  also  used  called  a  plan/oir.     It  con- 
sists of  two  sharp-pointed  stakes,  a 
foot  or  more  apart,  connected  by  a 
cross-handle  at  top,  and  a  bar  at  about 
eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  points. 
This  instrument  is  pressed  into  the 
ground  by  the  handles,  assisted  by 
the  foot  placed  on  the  lower  bar,  and 
makes  two  holes,  a  foot  apart,  into 
which   the   plants    are    placed,   and 
earthed  round   as   before.      This   is 
done  when  the  land  has  not  been  laid 
up  into  high  ridges. 

'•  When  a  large  field  is  to  be  plant- 
ed, a  more  expeditious  mode  is  adopt- 
ed ;  and  this  is  the  most  usual  prac- 
tice in  Holland  and  Germany.  The 
land  having  been  prepared,  and  the 
manure  well  incorpora.ted,  a  deep  fur- 
row is  drawn  with  the  plough  ;  wom- 
en follow  with  baskets  of  plants, 
which  they  set,  a  foot  apart,  slanting 
against  the  furrow  slice.  When  the 
plough  returns,  the  earth  is  thrown 
against  these  plants,  and  a  man  or 
woman  follows,  who,  with  the  foot, 
presses  the  earth  down  upon  the 
roots.  Sometimes  plants  are  put 
into  each  furrow,  which  is  then  teo 
651 


RAPE. 


inches  or  more  wide  ;  but  the  best 
cultivators  put  them  only  in  every  al- 
ternate furrow.  In  this  case,  also, 
there  are  no  ridges.  The  season  of 
the  year  affords  sufficient  moisture, 
in  the  north  of  Europe,  to  ensure  the 
growth  of  tlie  |)lanls  ;  and  if  they 
have  escaped  the  fly  in  the  seed-bed. 
they  are  now  tolerably  safe  ;  no  far- 
ther attention  is  requisite  till  spring' ; 
the  weeds  are  then  carefully  extirpa- 
ted by  hand  and  hoe,  and  where  the 
distance  of  the  plants  admits  of  it, 
the  light  plough  stirs  the  ground  be- 
tween the  rows,  throwing  the  earth 
towards  the  sterns,  yet  so  as  to  leave 
each  i)lant  in  a  little  basin,  to  catch 
the  water  and  conduct  it  to  the  roots. 
When  the  jilants  are  invigorated  with 
rich  liijuid  manure,  such  as  niuht  soil 
mixed  with  water,  or  the  drainings 
from  dunghills,  they  i)ecome  extreme- 
ly luxuriant,  and  every  trouble  or 
expense  bestowed  upon  thein  is  am- 
ply repaid.  The  difference  between 
a  crop  partially  neglected  and  anoth- 
er carefully  cultivated  often  exceeds 
fifty  per  cent. 

"A  moderate  return  of  seed  for 
colza  is  thirty  bushels  per  acre  ;  but 
it  frequently  exceeds  tifiy  The  value 
on  the  Coiitment  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  wheat.  In  England  it  is 
somewhat  less,  owing  to  the  quanti- 
ty imported.  It  is  usually  sold  by 
the  last  of  ten  quarters. 

"There  is  not  much  difference 
between  the  value  of  colza  and  rape 
seed  (called  7iavet/e  in  French),  but 
the  latter  produces  less.  When  the 
rape  is  transplanted  before  winter  it 
is  much  more  productive  than  when 
sowed  in  spring  In  the  latter  case 
it  produces  seed  the  same  year.-  It 
is  sowed  in  drills,  and  thinned  out  by 
the  hoe  ;  and  in  favourable  seasons 
a  tolerable  crop  is  obtained.  It  is 
generally  sowed  on  land  which  could 
mit  be  brought  into  a  proper  tilth  af-  ' 
ter  harvest,  and  which  would  reqnire 
the  frost  of  winter  to  mellow  it. 

"  Great  crops  of  cole  seed  and  rape 
have  been  produced  by  merely  paring 
and  burning  the  surface  and  plough- 
ing in  the  ashes  ;  and  these  crops, 
alternating  with  oats,  have  iii  many  [ 
652 


instances  so  exhausted  the  soil  as  to 
cause  a  great  prejudice  against  them 
in  the  minds  of  the  landlords.  .Many 
leases  have  a  clause  prohibiting  its 
cultivation,  except  to  be  eaten  green 
by  sheep.  The  principal  cause,  how- 
ever, of  the  diminution  of  this  crop 
in  England  is  the  inferior  price  ob- 
tained for  the  seed  when  compared 
with  wheat,  which  can  be  raised  on 
the  same  laud,  and  is  a  more  certain 
crop. 

"The  rape  and  colza  ripen  their 
seed  very  unequally.  The  lower  pods 
are  ready  to  burst  before  those  at  the 
top  are  full.  If  the  season  is  wet  at 
harvest,  much  of  the  seed  is  lost ; 
and,  without  great  attention,  some 
loss  is  sustained  in  the  most  favour- 
able seasons.  It  should  be  cut  when 
the  dew  is  on  it,  and  moved  as  little 
as  possible.  If  the  weather  permits, 
it  is  thrashed  out  on  a  cloth  in  the 
field  ;  and  as  many  thrashers  are  em- 
ployed as  can  be  conveniently  col- 
lected, that  no  time  may  be  lost  when 
the  weather  is  fair.  The  seed  is 
spread  out  on  the  floor  of  a  grana- 
ry, that  it  may  not  heat,  and  is  turn- 
ed over  frequently.  It  is  then  sold 
to  the  crushers,  who  express  the  oil. 
The  pods  and  small  branches  which 
are  broken  off  in  thrashing  are  much 
relished  by  cattle. 

"  This  crop  returns  little  to  the 
land,  and  is  of  itself  very  exhausting. 
Not  so,  however,  is  the  rape  when 
sown  as  food  for  sheep  ;  it  is,  on  the 
contrary,  a  valuable  substitute  for 
turnips,  upon  land  which  is  too  wet 
and  heavy  for  this  root.  The  Bras- 
sica  clcracr.a  is  more  succulent  than 
the  Brassica  napus.  Its  stem  is  not 
so  hard,  and  the  soft  pith  which  it 
contains  is  much  relished  by  every 
kind  of  live  stock.  To  have  it  in  per- 
fection, the  land  should  be  prepared 
and  manured  as  for  turnips.  The 
rape  should  be  sown  in  drills,  ten 
inches  apart,  about  the  beginning  or 
middle  of  August,  which  gives  ample 
time  for  preparing  the  land  without 
interfering  with  the  turnip  crop.  It 
wdl  be  sufficiently  forward  before 
winter,  and  it  should  then  be  hoed 
over  once.     If  the  crop  is  very  for- 


RAP 

ward,  it  may  be  slightly  fed  off;  but, 
in  gtMieral,  it  is  best  lu  let  it  iciuaiii 
iiiiiuucliud  till  spring.  In  the  end  of 
.March  and  the  begnmnig  of  April  it 
Will  be  a  great  help  to  the  ewes  and 
lainbs.  It  will  produce  e.\.cellent  Ibod 
till  It  begins  to  be  in  llower,  when  it 
should  uninediately  be  ploughed  up. 
'ihe  ground  will  be  found  greatly  re- 
cruited by  this  erop,  which  iias  taken 
nothing  from  it,  and  has  added  much 
by  the  dung  and  urine  ot  tlie  sheep. 
Whatever  be  the  succeeding  crop,  it 
cannot  tail  to  be  productive  ;  and  if 
tlie  land  is  not  clean,  tin.'  larnier  must 
have  neglected  tlie  double  opportuni- 
ty of  destroying  weeds  in  the  prece- 
ding summer  and  in  the  early  part  of 
spring,  if  the  rape  is  fed  olf  m  lime, 
it  may  be  succeeded  by  barley  or 
oats,  with  clover  or  grass  seeds,  or 
potatoes,  if  the  soil  lo  not  too  wet. 
'I'hus  no  crop  will  be  lost,  and  the 
rape  will  have  been  a  clear  addition 
to  the  produce  of  the  land.  Any  crop 
which  IS  taken  olf  the  land  in  a  green 
stale,  especially  if  it  be  fed  off  with 
sheep,  may  be  repeated,  without  risk 
of  failure,  provided  the  land  be  prop- 
erly tilled  ;  but  where  cole  or  rape 
have  produced  seed,  they  cannot  be 
profitably  sown  in  less  than  hve  or 
SIX  years  after  on  the  same  land. 

••  When  the  oil  has  been  pressed 
out  from  the  seed,  the  residue  and 
the  husk  of  the  seed  form  a  hard  cake 
known  tiy  the  name  of  rape-cake. 
This  IS  used  on  the  Continent  to  feed 
cows  and  pigs  with,  as  we  use  the 
linseed  cakes  ;  but  it  is  also  used  as 
a  rich  manure.  When  rape-cake  is 
ground  to  a  powder  and  drilled  with 
the  seed  on  poor,  light  lands,  it  sup- 
plies nourishment  to  the  young  plants, 
and  greatly  accelerates  tlieir  growth  ; 
but  11  It  be  added  in  a  large  propor- 
tion m  immediate  contact  with  the 
seed,  on  heavy,  impervious  soils,  it 
often  undergoes  the  putrid  fermenta- 
tion, which  It  communicates  to  the 
seed  sown,  and,  instead  of  nourish- 
ing, destroys  it.  in  this  case,  it  is 
useful  to  mix  it  with  some  dry,  po- 
rous earth,  or  with  ashes,  which  will 
prevent  the  too  rapid  decomposition  ; 
sixteen  bushels  are  used  to  the  acre. 
I  I  I  2 


RAS 

Dissolved  in  water,  and  mixed  witn 
urine,  it  forms  one  of  the  most  etli- 
cacious  of  artificial  lujuid  manures 
Hence  it  is  probable  tliat  the  most 
advantageous  mode  of  using  it  on  the 
land,  after  it  has  been  dissolved  in 
the  urine  tank,  is  to  apply  it  by  means 
of  a  water  cart  to  the  rows  where  tlie 
seed  has  been  already  drilled,  or  some 
time  before  it  is  put  in.  Where  Uax 
is  to  be  sosvn,  this  mixture,  applied  a 
few  days  belbre  the  seed  is  sown,  so 
as  to  allow  it  to  sink  into  the  soil,  is 
considered,  in  f'landers,  as  ne.vt  in 
value  to  the  emptyings  of  privies, 
which  with  them  hold  the  first  rank  for 
producing  fine  crops  of  tlax.  When  a 
crop  appears  sickly,  and  not  growing 
as  It  should  do,  owing  to  poverty  in 
the  soil,  a  top  dressing  of  rape-cake 
dissolved  in  water,  if  no  urine  is  at 
hand,  will  generally  excite  the  pow- 
ers of  vegetation  ;  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  it  may  greatly  assist 
the  effects  of  saltpetre  or  of  nitrate 
of  soda,  where  these  salts  are  applied. 
The  cultivation  of  rape  or  cole  for 
spring  food  cannot  be  too  strongly 
recommended  to  the  farmers  of  heavy 
clay  soils.'' — ( VV.  L-  Rham.) 

RAPE-SEED  CAKE.     See  Rape. 

RAPHE.  A  suture.  Parts  which 
appear  as  tliougli  they  had  been  uni- 
ted. In  botany,  the  thread  passing 
Iroiii  the  ovule  to  the  placenta. 

RAPlllDES.  Crystals  of  oxalate 
of  potash  and  other  salts  lound  in  the 
juice  of  rhubarbs,  docks,  and  other 
plants. 

RAPTORES,  ACCIPITRES. 
Birds  of  prey,  as  the  hawk,  owl,  eagle. 

RAREFACTION.  The  act  of  di- 
minishing the  density  of  air  or  other 
bodies  :  n  is  done  by  the  air-pump  in 
the  case  of  air. 

RASORES.  Scratchers  ;  gallina- 
ceous birds,  such  as  the  fowl,  turkey, 
pheasant,  &c. 

RASPBERRY.  Ruhus  idaus. 
This  shrub,  in  its  wild  state,  is  found 
growing  in  our  mountainous  woods 
and  thickets  :  it  flowers  in  .May  and 
June.  The  root  is  creeping.  The 
stems  are  biennial,  erect,  three  or 
four  feet  high,  branched,  round,  pale, 
or  purplish,  more  or  less  besprinkled 
653 


RAT 


RAT 


with  small,  straight,  slendor  prickles, 
'"rcqiiently  rather  resemhling  bristles 
than  prickles,  and  sometimes  alto- 
gether absent.  Leaves  pinnate,  of 
five  or  three  ovate,  rather  angular, 
lateral  leaflets,  serrated  or  cut,  and 
angular,  green,  and  nearly  smooth 
above,  ^ery  downy  beneath,  and  a 
larger  terminal  leaflet.  The  foot- 
Btalks  are  furrowed,  downy,  and 
prickly,  with  narrow  lateral  stipules. 
'I'hv,  flowers  are  small,  white,  or  pink- 
ish-white, pendulous,  in  drooping  ter- 
minal clusters.  Fruit  crimson,  of 
numerous  juicy  grains,  beset  with  the 
permanent  styles,  and  highly  fra- 
grant, with  a  very  deliciously-per- 
fumed,  sweet,  and  acid  flavour,  more 
exquisite  in  the  wild  state,  in  general, 
than  Vv'hen  cultivated. 

"The  wood  of  the  raspberry  bush 
produces  fruit  but  one  year,  there- 
fore that  should  be  carefully  cut  down 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
the  young  shoots  should  be  shorten- 
ed to  about  two  feet  high  ;  and  not 
more  than  three  or  four  shoots  should 
be  left  to  each  root,  as  these  will  [iro- 
duce  a  greater  number  of  berries,  and 
larger  Iruit,  than  would  be  obtained 
if  twice  that  number  of  suckers  were 
left.  The  middle  or  end  of  October 
is  the  proper  time  for  this  pruning. 
The  fruit  is  produced  from  young 
branches  out  of  the  last  year's  shoots 
or  suckers.  l"he  plants  raised  by 
layers  are  much  preferred  to  those 
taken  from  suckers  ;  they  should  also 
have  plenty  of  room,  for  when  there 
is  not  space  for  the  air  and  light  to 
pass  between  the  rows,  the  fruit  will 
be  small,  and  will  not  ripen  well. 
They  require  a  fresh,  strong  loam, 
deeply  trenched  and  well  manured  in 
the  lirst  instance,  for  in  warm,  light 
ground  they  |)ro(luce  but  little  fruit. 

"  The  following  selection  is  recom- 
mended fur  a  small  garden  :  Barnet, 
Cornish,  double-bearing  red  Antwerp, 
Williams's  preserving  yellow  Ant- 
werp.' ' — (Joh  nson.) 

RAT.  Mas raftus.  "Few animals 
are  more  destructive  of  every  kind  of 
grain  than  rats.  When  a  barn  is  in- 
fested with  them,  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  get  rid  of  them.  They  will 
654 


leave  it  for  a  time,  and  the  farmer 
imagines  that  they  are  all  destroyed  ; 
but  no  sooner  is  the  corn  brought  in 
than  they  resume  their  depredations. 
There  are  means,  however,  of  de- 
stroying them,  and  some  of  these 
means  are  equally  eflectual  and  inge- 
nious. The  most  obvious  way  of  de- 
stroying rats  is  to  poison  them,  which 
appears  an  easy  matter  ;  but  it  is  not 
so  without  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  habits  of  these  creatures.  Their 
sense  of  smelling  is  more  acute  than 
we  can  well  conceive,  and  their  cau- 
tion is  not  easily  deceived.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  entice  them  with  food  when 
they  have  plenty  of  grain  to  satisfy 
their  hunger.  Patience  and  perse- 
verance alone  can  lull  their  caution 
to  rest. 

"  The  principle  on  which  all  rat- 
catchers proceed  is  to  entice  the  rats 
to  some  particular  spot  convenient 
for  their  future  operations.  There 
are  some  strong  scents  which  these 
animals  seem  to  delight  in,  and  by 
means  of  these  their  natural  sagacity 
is  deceived.  Oil  of  rhodium,  of  cara- 
way, or  anise  seed,  and  musk,  are 
great  favourites  with  rats.  Rags  im- 
pregnated with  these,  and  which  have 
not  been  in  contact  with  any  part  of 
the  body  of  a  man,  being  laid,  as  if 
by  accident,  will  induce  them  to  come 
out  of  their  hiding-places  in  the  night, 
and  frequent  the  spot  where  the  smell 
attracts  them.  Gradually  they  will 
become  familiarized  \vith  the  place  ; 
and  pieces  of  tallow,  or  cheese,  or 
malt-dust  may  be  placed  near  with- 
out exciting  their  suspicion.  After 
they  have  been  fed  for  a  time,  they 
will  readily  eat  anything  thai  may  be 
thrown  down,  provided  it  has  not 
been  touched  by  the  hand  without  the 
covering  of  a  glove  properly  scented. 
It  will  take  some  time  to  accom- 
plish this  ;  and  when  they  are  to  be 
poisoned,  a  quantity  of  poisoned  food, 
similar  to  what  they  have  been  ac- 
customed to  feed  on,  must  be  pre- 
pared, sufficient  to  poison  all  those 
which  are  supposed  to  frequent  the 
place.  The  poisons  commonly  used 
are  arsenic,  nux  vomica,  powdered 
Spanish  flies,  and  cocculus  indicus, 


RAT 


REA 


which  intoxicates  them,  so  that  they  ] 
may  be  taken  l)y  the  hand.  A  small 
chamber,  or  a  large  chest  or  box,  is 
convenient  to  collect  the  rats ;  and 
in  order  to  induce  them  to  go  in, 
pieces  of  toasted  cheese,  or  red  her- 
ring, are  trailed  along  the  ground 
from  the  rat  holes  to  the  place  where 
it  is  wished  that  they  should  assem- 
ble. As  soon  as  they  have  been  ac- 
customed to  find  food  which  they  Hke, 
they  will  all  come  to  it  in  the  night; 
and  they  can  be  poisoned,  or  caught 
by  some  contrivance  by  which  the 
only  entrance  to  the  place  or  box  can 
be  suddenly  closed.  ^Vhen  traps  are 
set,  they  should  be  left  open  for  a 
time,  and  the  rats  allowed  to  go  in 
and  out  without  hinderance,  till  they 
crowd  together  in  them,  and  can  be 
taken  in  great  numbers.  When  rats 
have  been  caught  in  a  trap,  and  have 
soiled  it  with  their  excrements,  it 
should  not  be  washed  nor  much  han- 
dled :  it  should  be  left  in  the  same 
spot  as  h)ng  as  any  rats  are  caught. 
Any  change  of  position  excites  their 
caution.  An  ingenious  trap  is  made 
by  stretching  a  piece  of  parchment 
over  the  open  end  of  a  cask,  and  en- 
ticing the  rats  to  eat  the  food  laid 
upon  the  parchment.  When  they 
have  evidently  been  there  to  feed, 
cross  cuts,  a  few  inches  long,  are 
made  in  the  parchment  with  a  pen- 
knife ;  and  in  the  bottom  of  the  tub, 
which  has  four  inches  of  water  in  it, 
a  brick  is  set  on  its  edge,  so  as  to 
rise  just  out  of  the  water.  The  rats 
coming  for  food,  as  usual,  some  one 
soon  slips  through  the  parchment, 
and,  falling  into  the  water,  seeks  ref- 
uge on  the  brick  ;  as  more  fall  in, 
they  fight  for  the  possession  of  the 
brick,  and  their  noise  attracts  all  the 
rats  within  hearing.  Thus  it  is  said 
that  a  great  number  may  be  caught 
in  one  night." 

RATCHET.  A  small  lever  which 
plays  into  the  teeth  of  a  ratchet- 
wheel,  and  allows  it  to  turn  freely 
onlv  in  one  direction. 

RATTLESNAKE.  Snakes  of  the 
genus  Crotalus.  Their  bite  is  ex- 
tremely venomous.  The  wound 
should  be  cut  out  and  scarified,  and 


the  patient  sustained  by  brandy  and 
ammonia. 

RATTLESNAKE  ROOT.  Sen- 
ega root. 

RAT'S  T.-ML.  A  disease  in  hor- 
ses, in  which  the  hair  of  the  tail  is 
permanently  lost. 

REAPING.  "  The  common  reap- 
ing-hook, or  sickle,  with  which  grain 
is  cut,  is  one  of  the  oldest  instruments 
of  husbandry.  In  reaping  with  it,  a 
portion  of  the  stems  is  collected  with 
the  left  hand  and  held  fast,  while  the 
sickle  in  the  right  hand  is  inserted 
below  the  left,  taking  the  stems  in 
its  semicircular  blade,  and  cutting 
them  through  by  drawing  the  sickle 
so  as  to  act  as  a  saw,  for  which  pur- 
pose the  edge  is  finely  serrated  in  a 
direction  from  the  point  to  the  han- 
dle. The  heads  of  the  grain,  with  the 
upper  part  of  the  straw,  are  then  laid 
on  the  ground  in  quantities,  which 
may  readily  be  collected  into  a  sheaf. 
Practice  soon  gives  dexterity  to  the 
reaper,  and  he  finds  it  more  expedi- 
tious to  cut  small  quantities  in  suc- 
cession, until  he  has  filled  his  hand, 
than  to  attempt  to  cut  through  a  large 
handful  at  once.  Severe  wounds  are 
often  inflicted  on  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  by  beginners,  even  to  the 
loss  of  a  finger  ;  but  this  soon  makes 
them  cautious  and  expert.  The  di- 
vision of  labour  is  introduced  with 
advantage  among  a  band  of  reapers. 
A  certain  number  cut  the  grain,  while 
others  follow  to  gather  the  sheaves  ; 
some  only  preparing  the  bands,  and 
others  tying  them  and  setting  up  the 
sheaves  into  stooks,  or  shocks,  wiiich 
usually  consist  of  ten  or  twelve 
sheaves.  The  smaller  the  sheaves 
are,  the  less  injury  the  grain  sustains 
in  a  wet  harvest,  as  the  moisture  in 
a  thick  sheaf  does  not  so  readily  evap- 
orate. Hence  it  is  the  interest  of 
the  farmer  to  see  that  the  reapers  do 
not  make  the  sheaves  too  large.  la 
many  places  there  is  a  regular  meas- 
ure ior  the  circumference  of  a  sheaf, 
which  should  never  exceed  thirty  inch- 
es. The  bands  are  made  by  taking 
two  small  handfuls  of  the  cut  grain 
and  crossing  them  just  below  the  ears 
into  a  knot.  The  sheaf  is  then  press- 
655 


REAPING. 


ed  with  the  knee,  and  tlie  band  drawn 
tightly  around  it.  The  ends  are 
twisted  together  lilte  a  rope,  and  in- 
serted under  tiie  band,  wiiicli  cfTect- 
ually  fastens  it.  This  operation  is 
soon  learned,  and  is  done  very  rapid- 
ly. The  sheaves  should  be  so  tied 
tliat  there  may  be  no  danger  of  their 
falling  loose  when  pitehed  into  the 
cart  or  slacked,  without  being  so 
tight  as  to  prevent  the  moisture  in 
the  straw  from  evaporating.  They 
should  not  be  tied  too  near  the  ears, 
but  rather  nearer  to  the  butt.  The 
sheaves,  when  tied,  are  placed  two 
and  two  on  the  butt  ends,  with  the 
ears  leaning  against  each  other  : 
sometimes  they  are  placed  in  a  circle, 
all  the  ears  being  together,  and  the 
butts  slanting  outward:  a  sheaf  is 
then  opened  by  inserting  the  hand 
into  the  middle  of  the  ears,  and  re- 
versed over  the  tops  of  the  preceding, 
forming  a  cone,  and  covering  all  the 
other  ears,  while  it  hangs  down 
around  them.  In  this  position  they 
will  bear  much  rain  without  injury. 
It  is  a  good  practice  to  place  the 
shocks  across  the  furrows  between 
the  stitches  or  lands,  so  as  to  allow 
the  air  to  circulate  more  freely  around 
them.  In  this  case  four  or  five  sheaves 
are  placed  in  a  row,  leaning  against 
as  many  in  a  parallel  row,  and  two 
sheaves,  being  opened,  are  reversed 
over  them  to  protect  the  ears.  "What- 
ever be  the  mode  adopted  in  reaping 
the  corn,  the  same  kind  of  sheaves 
are  formed,  and  set  up  in  shocks. 

"  Wherever  the  sickle  is  used  for 
reaping,  the  straw  is  cut  at  a  certain 
height  from  the  ground,  and  the  re- 
mainder forms  a  long  stubble,  which 
may  be  mown  at  leisure  after  har- 
vest, and  carried  into  the  yard  for 
litter ;  but  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
large  towns,  where  straw  is  sold  at 
a  good  price,  or  exchanged  for  sta- 
ble dung,  it  is  important  that  as  much 
as  possible  of  it  should  be  cut  with 
the  grain.  This  has  introduced  the 
practice  called  fagging.  The  instru- 
ment used  for  this  purpose  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  scythe,  as  well  as 
of  a  reaping-hook.  It  is  shaped  like  a 
sickle,  but  is  much  larger  and  broad- 
656 


I  er,  and,  instead  of  being  indented  like 
a  saw,  it   has  a  sharp  edge  like  a 
;  scythe,  which  is  renewed  when^blunt 
by  means  of  a  stone  or  bat.     The  fag- 
,  ging-hook  cuts  the  straw  close  to  the 
ground  by  a  stroke  of  the  hand  ;  and 
j  its  curved  form  is  only  useful  in  col- 
I  lecting  stray  stems,  and  holding  a 
certain  quantity  of  them  between  it 
and  the  left  hand  of  the  reaper  when 
I  he  makes   up  a    sheaf      A   certain 
j  quantity  is  cut  towards  the  standing 
j  grain,  the  left  hand  pressing  it  down 
I  at  the  same  time.     When  as  much 
!  is  thus  cut  as  would  make  half  a 
[  small  sheaf,  the  reaper  comes  back- 
!  ward,  cutting  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  the  first,  and  rijlling  togeth- 
er the  two  parts,  which  he  carries  in 
!  the  bend  of  his  hook  and  places  on 
the  band  which  had  been   prepared 
I  for  him.     A  full-sized  sheaf  is  usu- 
ally composed  of  two  cuttings.     Two 
men  will  fully  employ  a  third  to  make 
bands  for  them,  tie  up  the  sheaves, 
and  set  them  up.     This  method  of 
reaping  is  laborious,  on  account  of 
the  stooping  required  to  cut  near  the 
ground.     The  Hainhault  scythe  does 
the  work  better,  and  with  less  f;itigue ; 
it  is,  in  fact,  a  fagging-hook,  not  quite 
so  curved,  of  which  the  handle  is 
longer,  and  placed  at  an  angle  with 
the  plane  of  the  blade.     It  requires 
some   practice   to   give   the    proper 
swing  to  it  by  a  peculiar  motion  of 
the  wrist ;  but  when  this  is  once  ac- 
quired, a  considerable  saving  of  la- 
bour and  time  is  efiected.      A  better 
instrument,   however,  on  extensive 
farms,  is  the  cradle-scythe,  which,  in 
the  hands  of  an  expert  mower,  will 
do  more  work,  and  more  effectually 
secure  all  the  straw,  than  any  other 
instrument. 

"  The  objection  to  the  great  barn 
room  required  for  so  much  straw  is 
obviated  by  the  practice  of  stacking 
the  grain  in  the  open  air  on  proper 
stands,  to  keep  it  dry  and  out  of  the 
reach  of  vermin.  The  additional 
trouble  in  thrashing  is  not  so  great 
as  that  of  mowing  or  raking  the  stub- 
ble, which  is  generally  deferred  till 
half  of  it  is  lost  by  decomposition  by 
the  air  and  moisture.     When  the  sa- 


REA 


REA 


ving  of  time  is  considered,  as  well  as 
the  saving'  of  expense,  there  seems 
to  be  no  doubt  that  on  an  extensive 
farm  the  scythe  is  far  preferable  to 
the  sickle  for  cutting  every  kind  of 
grain.  Barley  and  oats  are  usually 
mown  and  carried  without  tying  them 
into  sheaves  ;  but  tliis  is  a  slovenly 
and  wasteful  practice  :  by  means  of 
the  cradle-scythe  they  may  be  mown 
so  regularly  as  to  be  readily  tied  into 
sheaves  ;  and  the  additional  expense 
will  be  fully  compensated  by  the  sa- 
ving of  all  the  grain  which,  being  on 
the  outside  of  the  stack,  is  lost  by 
the  depredations  of  small  birds. 

"  Beans  are  usually  reaped  by  the 
sickle,  the  stems  being  too  strong 
and  too  wide  apart  to  admit  of  the 
scythe.  Where  it  can  be  done  con- 
veniently, without  the  soil  adhering 
too  niucii  to  the  roots,  it  is  better  to 
pull  them  up  and  tie  them  in  bun- 
dles with  straw  bands,  or  twine,  which 
will  be  found  both  a  convenient  and 
economical  method. 

"  Pease  are  generally  reaped  by 
means  of  two  large  hooks  similar  to 
the  fagging  hooks,  one  of  which  is 
held  iu  each  hand  ;  and  the  stems, 
which  are  generally  much  interwo- 
ven, are  partly  cut  and  partly  torn 
from  the  roots,  and  so  rolled  up  into 
a  small  bundle  laid  loose,  in  order  that 


it  may  dry.  Tares  are  reaped  in  the 
same  way. 

"  There  have  been  many  attempts 
to  introduce  machinery  for  reaping. 
Some  of  the  inventions  were  inge- 
nious and  promised  well,  but  none, 
when  put  to  the  test,  answered  the 
expectations  formed,  'i'he  various 
inchnalions  of  the  straws  prevent  any 
regular  mode  of  cutting.  The  prin- 
ciple of  most  reaping  machines  is  that 
of  a  revolving  edge  to  cut  the  straw, 
and  a  drum  to  lay  the  cut  grain  down 
regularly.  Whenever  tiie  grain  is 
laid  or  lodged,  it  is  evident  that  no 
machine  can  collect  straws  lying  in 
every  imaginable  direction  and  inter- 
woven with  each  other.  Till  some 
better  invention  appears,  the  scythe 
will  probably  be  found  the  cheapest 
and  most  expeditious  instrument  for 
reaping." — (  W.  L.  Rham.) 

REAPING  HOOK.     See  Reaping. 

REAPING  MACHINE.  Several 
patents  have  been  taken  for  machines 
to  cut  grass  and  grain  crops.  One  of 
these,  which  promised  much,  is  the 
invention  of  ^Ir.  Smith,  of  Deanston, 
and  has  been  modified  and  patented 
by  Mr.  Wilson  in  the  United  States. 
The  original  machine  is  figured  be- 
low. They  have  given  satisfaction 
on  smooth  meadow  lands. 

Mr.  Hussey's  reaping  machine  is 


an  admirable  and  durable  implement.  I  from  several  committees,  and  is  used 
Ithasmet  with  considerable  applause  I  in    Delaware,    Virginia,   and    other 

657 


REC 


RED 


states.  The  grain  is  cut  by  an  ar- 
rangement of  knives,  acting  in  a  way 
nearly  resomliling  scissors.  Tiie  pri- 
ces are  SlOO  and  SITjO.  It  cuts  irom 
fifteen  to  twenty  acres  per  day.  See 
Fig.  2. 
Mr.  M'Cormick's  reaping  machine 


has  been  ii.sed  with  success  on  the  flat 
hinds  of  the  James  River.  It  costs 
SlOO. 

Mr.  Carpenter,  of  Caledonia,  New- 
York,  is  also  the  inventor  of  a  ma- 
chine for  reaping  and  thrashing  grain  : 
it  is  said  to  finish  fifteen  acres  a  day 


•with  the  help  of  one  man  to  drive, 
and  one  man  to  tend  the  machine. 
Cost,  .$600. 

Mr.  Esterly,  of  Heart  Prairie,  Wis- 
consin, has  recently  patented  a  har- 
vesting machine  for  reaping  the  heads 
of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  timothy:  it 
is  warratited  to  cut  twenty-five  acres 
a  day  of  wheat,  and  requires  two  men, 
a  boy,  and  three  horses.  It  is  highly 
recommended  by  those  who  have 
seen  it  in  action,  and  the  State  Agri- 
cultural Society,  at  their  fair  in  18-14, 
awarded  the  inventor  an  extra  pre- 
mium for  it.  AVe  believe  this  to  be 
a  machine  of  great  promise. 

REBATE.  The  groove  sunk  on 
the  edge  of  any  building  material. 

RECEPTACLE.  In  botany,  has 
four  different  significations:  1.  That 
part  of  a  flower  upon  which  the  car- 
pella  are  situated  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  extremity  of  the  fruit  stalk.  2. 
The  axis  of  the  theca  of  Trichomancs 
and  Hymcnophylliim,  among  ferns.  3. 
That  part  of  tiie  ovarium  from  which 
the  ovula  ari.se,  and  which  is  com- 
monly called  the  placenta.  And,  4. 
658 


That  part  of  the  axis  of  a  plant  which 
bears  the  flowers  when  it  is  depress- 
ed in  its  development ;  so  that,  in- 
stead of  being  elongated  into  a  stem, 
it  forms  a  flattened  area,  upon  which 
the  flowers  are  arranged,  as  in  com- 
positfe. 

RECTIFICATION.  A  second 
distillation. 

RECTRICES.  The  tail  feathers 
of  a  bird. 

RECTUM.  The  lowest  intestine, 
ending  in  the  anus. 

RECUMBENT.     Leaning  down. 

REDB.\Y.  An  indigenous  South- 
ern laurel,  the  Laurus  Camlinciisis  : 
it  is  an  evergreen  of  10  to  25  feet. 

REDDLE,  or  RUDDLE.  A  red 
aluminous  marking  stone. 

RED  GUM.  A  kind  of  blight  which 
affects  grain. 

RED  LIQUOR.  Crude  pyrolignate 
of  alumina,  used  in  dyeing  as  a  mor- 
dant. 

RED-LEAD.  A  mixture  of  the 
protoxide  and  peroxide  of  lead,  used 
as  a  paint. 

RED  ROOT.     A  name   given  lo 


RES 

some  dozen  (lifTerent  plants  with  red- 
dish-coloured roots. 

RED  SPIDER,  PLANT  MITE. 
Acarius  tflarius.  A  sinall  red  insect 
which  spins  a  uel,  and  lives  on  the 
juices  of  many  phmts  and  trees,  at- 
lachinjr  itself  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
leaf.  It  is  especially  injurious  to  hot- 
houses. They  are  destroyed  by  fre- 
quent syringing  with  cold  water,  by 
fumigations  and  washes  of  whale-oil 
soap  and  water. 

RED  TOP.  A  name  sometimes 
given  to  herd's  grass,  and  also  to  a  dry 
perennial  grass  of  the  Middle  States 
{Tricuspis)  of  little  or  no  value. 

RED  WATER.  A  disease  of  cat- 
tle.    See  Ox. 

RED  WORM.  An  old  name  for 
the  wire-worm. 

REED.  The  gem--^  Arando,  tall, 
aquatic,  and  bogsj  grasses.  They 
may  be  destrov^u  by  draining  the 
soil,  bv  limin?  ind  ashes.  The  soil 
is  usually  xnj  fertile. 

REED  -ltR.VSS.     Canary  grass. 
REF-^ECTIOX.       The    throwing 
back  jf  the  rays  of  heat  or  light  by  a 
po'.shed  surface  or  mirror. 

REFLEXED.  Bent  back,  turned 
back. 

REFRACTION.  The  action  ex- 
erted by  water,  glass,  and  all  trans- 
parent bodies  of  changing  the  direc- 
tion of  rays  of  light,  so  as  to  make 
them  appear  bent. 

RE.MIGES.  The  quill  feathers  of 
birds. 

REMIPES.  An  order  of  coleop- 
terous insects  wliich  are  capable  of 
swimming. 

REMITTENT  FEVERS.     Fevers 
■which  are  subject  to  periodical  par- 
oxysms, as  the  ague,  bilious  fever,  &c. 
ilENAL.    Relating  to  the  kidneys. 
RENIFORM.      Kidney-shaped,  of 
the  shape  of  a  kidney  bean. 
RENNET.     See  Cheese. 
REPENT.      Running  .  on   the 
gr(umd. 

REPTILIA.  Cold-blooded  verte- 
brate animals,  as  snakes,  tortoises, 
IroL's,  lizards,  &c. 

RKSlN.  An  inflammable  product 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  rich  in  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  soluble  m  alcohol, 


RET 

but  insoluble  in  water.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  species,  some  of 
which  are  evidently  oxidyzed  oils. 
They  are  used  in  varnishes. 

RESERVOIR.  A  tank  or  artificial 
excavation  to  hold  water. 

RESOLUTION.  In  farriery,  the 
discussion  or  dispersion  of  inflamma- 
tory gatherings  or  abscesses,  by  ap- 
plying leeches  and  other  means. 

K  E  S  P I  R  A  T I  O  N .  The  act  of 
breathing.  It  is  accomplished  by  the 
movements  of  the  diaphragm  and 
muscles  of  the  chest.  Atmospheric 
air  passing  into  the  lungs  is  changed, 
oxygen  being  separated  from  it  and 
absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  four  per 
cent,  of  carbonic  acid  thrown  out. 
Water  also  passes  ofT  from  the  lungs. 
By  these  changes  heat  is  produced. 
The  etTect  of  respiration  is  to  alter 
the  colour  of  the  blood  from  black  to 
bright  red  ;  it  is  at  the  commence- 
ment of  life,  and  any  interruption  of 
the  function  is  rapidly  fatal. 

REST  HARROW.  Ononis,  a 
pricklv  shrub. 

RETE  .MUCOSUM.  The  part  of 
the  skin  immediately  below  the  scarf- 
skin  (epidermis). 

RETIARIES.  Spiders  which  spin 
w"ebs. 

RETICULATE.     Like  a  net. 
RETICULU.M.     The  honey-comb 
bag  of  ruminants.     See  Ox. 

RETINA.  The  nervous  layer  at 
the  back  of  the  eye  which  receives 
the  images  of  things. 

RETORT.  A  chemical  vessel  em- 
ployed in  a  variety  of  distillations. 
It  is  generally  made  of  glass  or  earth- 
en-ware, and  sometimes  is  provided 
with  a  stopper  so  placed  above  the  bulb 
as  to  enable  substances  to  be  intro- 
duced into  it  without  soiling  the  neck.; 
in  this  case  it  is  called  a  tubulated 
retort.  A  receiver  is  usually  annexed 
to  it  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the 
products  of  distillation.     Fig.  1  rep- 

(J— 0 

659 


RHU 

resents  a  plain  retort  and  receiver ;  in 
Fiff.  2,  both  are  tiihulatcil. — (Bninilc.) 
KEVEllBEilATUUV  FL" KNACK 
A  funiace  witii  an  arclu.d  roof  over 
the  fire,  so  that  tiie  llaiue  and  heat 
may  be  reflected  and  a  hijjh  temper- 
ature obtained. 

REVOLIITE.     Rolled  backward. 

RHAPON'TICIN  and  11  H  E  I  N. 
Substances  obtained  from  the  roots 
of  rhubarb. 

RHEL'MATISM.  A  nervous  dis- 
ease, sometimes  attended  wiih  in- 
flammation of  the  fibrous  membranes 
and  swelUns  of  the  joints. 

RHIPIPTERANS.  An  order  of 
insects,  the  Slrepsiptcra. 

RHIZANTHS,  RHIZANTH.E.  A 
small  order  of  plants  resembUng  fun- 
gi, but  having  sexes. 

RHIZOMA.  A  root  stock  like  that 
of  the  flasT. 

RHODIUM.  A  rare  metal,  of  great 
hardness,  found  in  some  of  the  platina 
ores. 

RHODODENDRON.  A  genus  of 
handsome  flowering  shrubs  ;  they  are 
hardy,  and  prefer  a  peat  soil. 

RHUBARB.  Plants  of  the  genus 
Rheum,  hardy,  perennial,  and  large 
herbs  of  the  same  family  as  the  Docks. 
The  leaf  stalks  of  several  species, 
which  grow  two  feet  and  more  in 
length,  are  much  used  as  a  substitute 
for  gooseberries  ;  preserves  are  also 
made  of  them,  and  even  a  wine  of 
F(>.  1. 


RHU 

their  juice,  which  is  said  to  resemble 
the  best  gooseberry  wine. 

The  edit)le  kinds  are  Buck's  new 
scarlet,  of  a  deep  red  ;  the  Tobolsk, 
whicli  is  the  earliest ;  the  Goliath  and 
Admiral,  of  great  size  ;  Elfort,  giant, 
\A'ilmofs  early  red  ;  jMyatfs  Victoria, 
of  the  largest  size  ;  and  the  Austra- 
lian, which  is  of  the  flavour  of  apples 
and  yields  stems  nearly  the  wliolo 
summer.  These  are  varieties  of  the 
Rkcum  rhapo7ilicum,  u/ululntum,  and 
Einodi  {Auslrak)  (F(>.  1).  They  also 
yield  medicinal  rhubarb  when  the 
roots  are  allowed  to  remain  from  four 
lu  bcn-en  years.  But  the  species 
whi«h  produces  the  best  European 
rhubai'i  is  the  R.  palmalum  {Fig.  2). 
Fxg.  2. 


The  source  of  the  Chinese  drug  is 
unknown. 

Cultivation. — "  The  soil  best  suit- 
ed to  these  plants  is  one  that  is  light, 
rich,  deep,  and  moderately  moist.  A 
poor,  heavy,  or  shallow  soil  never 
produces  them  in  pertection. 

"  It  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings, 
but  the  mode  almost  universally  prac- 
tised is  by  seed.  This  should  he 
sown  soon  after  it  is  ripe,  in  Septem- 
ber or  October,  for  if  kept  out  of  the 
ground  until  the  spring,  it  will  often 
continue  dormant  for  twelve  months  ; 
if  the  danger  of  this,  however,  is 
risked,  it  must  be  inserted  early  in 
February  or  March.  The  seeds  are 
best  inserted  in  drills  three  feet  apart, 
and  an  inch  deep,  the  plants  to  re- 
main where  raised ;  lor  although 
thev  will  boar  removing,  yet  it  al- 


660 


RHU 


RIC 


Tvays  checks  and  somewhat  lessens 
theirgiowth.  When  they  make  their 
appearance  in  the  spring,  and  have 
been  tlioroiighly  cleared  of  weeds, 
they  may  be  thinned  to  six  or  eight 
inches  asunder,  and  the  surtace  ol" 
the  ground  about  tlieni  loosened  witii 
the  iioe.  Towards  the  conclusion  ol' 
summer,  when  it  can  be  determined 
which  are  the  strongest  plants,  they 
must  be  finally  thinned  to  three  or 
four  feet,  or  the  hybrid  to  six.  They 
nmst  be  continually  kept  clear  of 
weeds.  In  autumn,  when  the  leaves 
decay,  they  are  ren^oved,  and  the  bed 
being  gently  turned  ovf;r,  a  little  well- 
putrefied  stable  dimgadded,and  some 
of  the  earth  applied  over  the  stools. 
In  the  spring,  the  bed  may  be  again 
(lug,  previous  to  the  plants  making 
their  appearance  ;  and  as  the  stalks, 
when  blanched,  are  much  less  harsh 
in  taste,  require  less  sugar  to  be  ren- 
dered palatable,  and  are  greatly  im- 
proved in  appearance,  at  this  period 
a  trench  may  be  dug  between  the 
rows,  and  tlie  carih  from  it  laid  about 
a  foot,  thick  over  the  stool.  This 
covering  must  be  removed  when  the 
cutting  ceases,  and  the  plants  allow- 
ed to  grow  at  liberty.  As  the  earth 
in  wet  seasons  is  apt  to  induce  de- 
cay, the  covering  may  be  advanta- 
geously formed  of  coal  ashes  or  drift 
sand,  which  are  much  less  retentive 
of  moisture.  Those  plants  produce 
the  seed  in  greatest  perfection  that 
are  not  gathered  from,  but  on  no  ac- 
count must  they  be  subjected  to  the 
process  of  blanching." 

The  stems  may  be  forced  very 
readily  by  covering  them  with  barrels 
or  hand  frames,  and  surrounding  the 
outside  by  fermenting  horse  dung. 

When  the  roots  are  wanted,  the 
stalks  should  not  be  removed  to  any 
great  extent ;  the  soil  is  to  be  thor- 
oughly loosened  about  the  plants, 
once  a  year  at  least,  by  spading  or 
trenching.  They  are  taken  up  at  six 
years,  in  the  autumn,  cleaned,  scra- 
ped, and  hung  on  strings  to  dry  in  the 
sun  ;  a  hole  is  often  bored  through 
the  centre  of  the  large  roots  for  this 
purpose  ;  the  young  roots  are  reject- 
ed. They  are  also  dried,  in  part,  by 
Kk  K 


exposure  to  heat  upon  slabs  of  stone, 
and  the  large  roots  cut  into  slices. 
The  process  must  be  perfectly  ac- 
complished, and  often  requires  sev- 
eral months  ;  the  loss  by  drying  is 
four  fifths  of  the  weight. 

RHL'S.  A  genus  of  shrubs,  some 
of  which  are  ot  economical  value,  as 
the  R.  conaria,  which  yields  much 
tannin,  and  i,s  used  for  dyeing  and 
making  leather ;  the  R.  glabra,  which 
is  a  very  common  indigenous  plant, 
is  also  useful  in  tanning  ;  the  poison 
oak  [R.  loxicodcnilrou),  poison  sumach 
{R.  vcrnix),  poison  vine  {R.  rudicans 
and  R.  pumila),  are  all  remarkable 
for  their  poisonous  juice  and  exhala- 
tions.    See  Poixon  Oak. 

RIBAND  GRASS.  Canary  grass, 
and  the  striped  leafed  Phalaris ;  sown 
as  an  ornament  in  gardens. 

RIB  GRASS.  A  name  for  the 
plantain  {Flantago  major). 

RIBS.  The  curved  hones  attach- 
ed to  the  vertebraj  behind ;  those 
which  meet  at  the  chest  and  are  ar- 
ticulated to  the  sternum  are  called 
true  ribs  ;  those  whose  extremities 
are  only  furnished  with  cartilage  are 
the  false  ribs.  In  building,  curved 
timbers  ibr  roofing 

RICE.  Plants  of  the  genus  Ory- 
za,  especially  the  O. 
satiL-a  {Fig.),  or  wa- 
ter rice,  cultivated 
in  South  Carolina 
and  other  Southern 
and  Southwestern 
States.  In  India 
and  Africa  several 
mountain  or  dry  spe- 
cies are  cultivated, 
as  the  0.  mutica,  but 
they  are  much  small- 
er and  yield  less  than 
the  aquatic  kinds. 
The  cultivation  in 
South  Carolina  is 
very  successful  on 
rich  river  bottoms, 
the  yield  being  forty 
bushels  or  more  the 
acre,  and  one  hand 
managing  five  acres. 
The  process  is  well 
described  by  a  successful  planter. 
661 


RIC 


RIC 


*'  Begin  to  plant  about  the  SSth  of 
March,  trencli  sliallow  and  wide,  and 
scatter  the  seed  in  tiie  row  ;  make 
72  or  75  rows  in  a  tasit,  and  sow  two 
bushels  to  an  acre. 

"  Hoe  altdut  tlie  end  of  April  or  be- 
ginning of  May,  wiien  the  rice  is  in 
llie  fourth  leaf;  then  flood,  and  clear 
the  field  of  trash.  If  the  planting  be 
Lite,  and  yon  are  likely  to  be  in  grass, 
flood  helore  hoeing  ;  but  hoeing  first 
is  preferable.  The  best  depth  to  flood 
is  three  or  four  inches.  It  is  a  good 
mark  to  see  the  tops  of  the  rice  just 
out  of  the  water  ;  the  deep  places  are 
not  to  be  regarded  :  the  rice  will  grow 
through  in  three  or  four  days.  Ob- 
serve to  make  a  notch  on  the  frame 
of  the  trunk  when  the  water  is  at  a 
proper  depth  ;  if  the  rains  raise  the 
water  above  the  notch,  or  it  leaks 
out,  add  or  let  off  accordingly.  This 
is  done  by  putting  a  small  stick  in  the 
door  of  the  trunk,  al)out  an  inch  in 
diameter:  if  scum  or  froth  appear  in 
eight  or  ten  days,  freshen  the  water, 
take  off  the  trunk  doors,  run  off 
th©  water  with  one  ebb,  and  take  in 
the  next  flood ;  then  regulate  as  be- 
fore. Keep  the  water  on  al)Out  fif- 
teen or  seventeen  days,  according  to 
the  state  oi'  the  weather ;  that  is,  if 
a  hot  sun,  lifteen  days,  if  cool  and 
cloudy,  seventeen  days,  counting  from 
the  day  the  field  is  flooded  ;  then  leak 


I  ofC  with  a  small  stick  for  two  days  ; 
,  then  run  off  the  whole,  and  keep  the 
,  field  dry.  In  four  or  five  days  after, 
hoe  the  second  time,  stir  the  ground, 
whether  clean  or  not,  and  comb  up 
the  fallen  rice  wiih  the  fingers.  Keep 
dry  and  hoe  through  the  field.  Hoe 
the  third  time  and  pick  clean.  Tliis 
will  be  about  the  beginning  of  July. 
Then  flood  as  you  hoe.  Let  the  wa- 
ter be  tbe  same  depth  as  before.  If 
any  grass  has  escaped,  it  must  be 
picked  in  the  water  after  it  shoots 
out.  This  is  called  the  fourth  hoe- 
ing, but  the  hoe  is  never  used  except 
for  some  high  places,  or  to  clean  the 
dams.  If  the  rice  is  flaggy  and  like- 
ly to  lodge,  flood  deep  to  support  it, 
and  keep  it  on  until  fit  to  harvest." 

Most  of  the  rice  exported  is  in  the 
form  of  -paddy,  or  cleaned  ;  the  hull- 
ing is  readily  accomplished  by  grain 
cleaners. 

The  Chemical  Compositinn. — The 
grain  of  rice  has  been  examined  by 
Braconnot  and  others.  It  consists  of 
85  0  starch,  3  6  gluten,  and  013  fat 
per  cent.  From  this  composilion  we 
are  at  no  loss  to  account  for  its  infe- 
riority as  an  article  of  food  ;  indeed, 
the  parts  removed  by  cleaning  the 
chit  or  germ  are  much  the  richest 
portion.  The  ashes  of  the  grain, 
chaff,  and  straw  have  been  determin- 
ed i)y  Professor  Shephard  per  cent. : 


P!iiis|>hate  ol  liiiu!  .... 
Phospliate  of  ptjtasli  (nearly)  . 

Silica  (nearly) 

Sulphate  of  |iotash  .... 
Chloride  of  potassium  and  loss 
Carbonate  of  lime  .... 
Carbonate  of  magnesia  .  .  . 
Potash  from  tbe  silicate      .     . 


lie  clean  grail 
)-^  per  ceuL 


Cl.alC, 

13'7  per  cent. 

ash. 


7(i  20 
5-flO 

ao-oo 

traces. 


,  1-024 
trace. 
97-55 
trace. 
1-13 
029 


200 
trace. 

84-75 

2-56 
200 


RICE  WEEVIL.  Callandra  ury- 
za..  An  insect  very  similar  to  the 
grain  weevil,  and  which  produces 
much  destruction  in  crops  of  rice  and 
wheat  at  the  South :  it  is  destroyed 
by  kiln-drying  the  grain. 

RICE,  WILD,  or  WATER.  Zi- 
zanea  aqnaiica,  imlwcca,  and  fluitans. 
Indian  rice.  It  grow's  in  the  margins 
of  lakes  and  rivers  The  aqualica  is 
large  and  abundant  in  the  Middle 
Western  States,  and  was  much  used 
G62 


by  the  Indians  and  early  French  set- 
tlers, and  called  by  them  Folic  avome. 
The  Indians  collected  the  grain  by- 
first  tying  the  fruit  stems  in  bundles, 
and  when  they  became  dry,  they  pass- 
ed through  the  plants  in  canoes,  and, 
bending  over  the  heads,  beat  the 
seeds  from  them  into  a  blanket  pla- 
ced in  their  canoes. 

RICINIC  ACID.  An  oily  acid, 
produc;ed  by  distilling  castor  oil  at  a 
high  temperature. 


RIS 


ROA 


RICK.     A  stack. 

RIDDLE.  A  coarse  sieve  to  sep- 
arate grain  tVom  dust,  &c. 

RIDGE,  "riie  upper  timber  in  a 
roof,  against  which  the  rafters  pitch. 

RIDGING.  Laying  up  the  soil  in 
narrow  ridges. 

RIDGLLXG.  A  male  animal  half 
castrated.  They  are  troublesome, 
iseless  creatures. 

RIGGIL.     An  imperfect  sheep. 

RIME.     Frost. 

RI.VIOSE.  Resembling  the  broken 
ippearance  of  the  bark  of  old  trees. 

RING  BONE.  In  farriery,  a  Cal- 
ais growing  in  the  hollow  circle  of 
-belittle  pastern  of  a  horse,  just  above 
the  coronet. 

RINGING.  An  operation  in  hor- 
ticulture :  cutting  out  a  ring  of  bark 
down  to  the  new  wood,  but  not  into 
it,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  luxu- 
riant branch  fruitful.  It  arrests  the 
descent  of  the  elaborated  sap,  and 
swells  out  the  flower  buds.  It  is 
done  in  spring.  When  the  wound  is 
•nade  into  or  through  the  new  wood, 
the  tree  is  killed,  and  this  plan  is  pur- 
sued in  forests  to  kill  them  prepara- 
tory to  burnmg.  Roots  are  also  cut 
into  or  ringed  for  the  purpose  of 
throwing  out  new,  healthy  shoots. 
The  width  of  the  wound  when  fruit 
is  wanted  should  not  be  great,  and  it 
i,s  well  to  leave  a  part  of  the  bark  un- 
cut, by  which  the  place  heals  over 
more  rapidly.  Fruit  has  been  doubled 
in  size  and  much  improved  in  flavour 
by  this  process. 

RINGENT.  Grinning.  A  name 
given  to  the  personate  corolla,  as  in 
the  genus  Anlirrhinum, 

RINGS,  FAIRY.  Rings  of  green 
grass,  enclosing  a  less  fertile  spot : 
they  are  produced  by  the  growth  and 
decay  of  fungi,  the  green  grass  ap- 
pearing where  the  fungi  have  just 
died. 

RIPPLE  GRASS.  The  smaller 
plantain. 

RIPPLING  FLAX.  Separating 
the  seeds  by  beating  the  plants  against 
a  board,  or  other  contrivance. 

RISTLE  PLOUGH.  A  paring 
plough  for  cutting  turfs  and  the  roots 
of  heath  or  other  shrubs. 


RIVOSE.  A  surface  marked  with 
irregular  furrows. 

ROADS.  In  the  construction  of 
good,  durable  roads,  the  following 
points  are  to  be  attended  to  : 

''■Drainage. — All  exertion  to  con- 
struct or  repair  roads  is  considered 
unavailing  until  the  bed  of  the  road  is 
freed  from  water,  and  secured  against 
its  return.  Of  what  service  can  stone 
be  when  the  road  is  immersed  in  wa- 
ter !  To  correct  and  prevent  a  re- 
currence of  the  evil,  sub.stantial  ditch- 
es should  be  opened,  so  as  to  give  a 
slope  of  one  inch  in  twenty-four  be- 
tween the  crowns  of  the  road  and 
bottoms.  If  open  drains  cannot  be 
made  on  both  sides,  owing  to  the  de- 
clivity of  the  surface,  under  drains 
should  be  constructed,  with  outlets, 
through  the  bed  of  the  road  to  the 
lower  side  ;  and  if  springs  exist  in 
the  site  of  the  road,  their  water  must 
be  concentrated  and  conducted  off 
by  under  drains.  "When  a  particular 
piece  of  road  is  observed  to  be  con- 
tinually heavy,  and  in  a  bad  state,  it 
is  either  caused  by  spring  water,  or 
is  situated  in  a  Hat,  from  which  the 
water  cannot  escape.  These  sug- 
gestion should  not  be  lost  to  us.  A. 
principal  defect  in  our  roads  is  the 
want  of  efficient  drainage.  Wherever 
water  is  permitted  to  remain,  either 
upon  the  surtace  or  substratum,  in 
wet  seasons  there  will  be  a  slough, 
and  the  bed  of  the  road  will  be  en- 
tirely broken  up. 

"  Tke  substance  or  thickness  of  Ma- 
terials.— Without  a  sufficient  depth 
of  consolidated  materials,  there  will 
not  be  a  resistance  equal  to  the  weight 
which  a  highway  is  subject  to.  There 
must  be  weight  to  resist  weight.  If 
the  weight  of  metal  forming  the  sub- 
stance be  of  an  imperfect  quality, 
more  will  be  required  than  when 
sound  and  clean.  In  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  deleterious  matter 
contained  in  the  body  (as  earth,  small 
gravel,  soft  stone,  &c.)  must  the  thick- 
ness be  increased.  Any  matter  that 
is  not  of  a  sound  nature  has  no  pow- 
er in  road  making,  and  therefore 
the  hard  materials  alone  contained 
iu  the  roads  can  be  calculated  upon 
663 


ROA 


ROC 


as  possessinp  the  quality  to  resist 
ivoijjhts.  Exporicnce  lias  tiiimht  that 
there  can  he  no  real  security  a<^ainst 
a  road  giviu;^  way,  takiiijr  the  year 
throii^'h,  unless  l~  inches  at  least  of 
good  consolidated  materials  form  the 
body  of  a  road,  and  this  upon  a  found- 
ation rendered  sound  and  diy  by  ef- 
fectual drainaije. 

"  Sort  of  Materials. — Not  the  hard- 
est, but  the  tounlti:st  stones,  are  the 
best :  the  first  will  break,  the  latter 
bend.  The  trappean  and  basaltic 
rocks  are  therefore  preferred  ;  then 
whinstone,  dark-coloured  granite,  and 
limestones. 

"  Preparation  and,  size  of  Materials. 
— The  stone  to  he  employed  is  first 
freed  from  dirt,  and  then  broken  so 
small  as  to  pass  through  the  inch 
meshes  of  a  wire  sieve.  Some  al- 
low the  stones  to  retain  the  size  of 
two  inches,  but  none  larger.  The 
tougher  the  nature  of  the  material, 
the  smaller  the  size  should  be. 

"  Quantity  of  Materials  to  be  laid  on 
at  a  Tunc. — \\'hen  a  thick  coat  is  laid 
on,  the  destruction  of  the  material  is 
very  great  before  it  becomes  settled 
or  incorporated  with  the  road.  The 
stones  will  not  allow  each  other  to 
lie  quiet,  hut  are  continually  elbowing 
one  another,  and  driving  their  neigh- 
bours to  the  left  and  right,  above  and 
below.  This  wears  off  their  angular 
points,  produces  mud  and  dirt,  and 
reduces  the  stones  to  an  angular 
form,  and  prevents  their  uniting  and 
becoming  lirm.  If  there  be  substance 
enough  already  on  the  road,  it  will 
never  be  right  to  put  on  more  than  a 
stone's  thickness  at  a  time.  A  cubic 
yard,  nicely  prepared  and  broken,  to 
a  rod  superficial,  will  be  quite  enough 
for  a  coat,  and  will  be  found  to  last 
as  long  as  double  the  quantity  put  on 
unprepared  and  in  thick  layers.  There 
is  no  grinding  to  pieces  when  thus 
applied  ;  the  angles  are  preserved, 
and  the  materials  are  out  of  sight 
and  incorporated  in  a  very  little  time. 
Each  stone  becomes  fixed  directly, 
and  keeps  its  place,  thereby  escaping 
the  wear  and  fretting  which  occur 
when  they  are  applied  in  a  thick  stra- 
tum. On  new  roads,  the  covering 
664 


'  should  be  applied  in  tliin  coats.  As 
soon  as  one  is  imbedded,  apply  anoth- 
er, until  the  desired  power  isobiained. 
j  "To  say  nothing  of  the  saving  in 
a  course  of  years  by  the  durability 
of  a  road  formed  under  the  new  sys- 
tem, and  which  has  been  found  in 
some  cases,  even  where  the  traffic  is 
considerable,  by  the  side  of  a  large 
town,  to  last  for  seven  years  without 
an  additional  stone  being  applied  ;  to 
say  nothing  of  the  saving  to  the  public 
in  wear  and  tear  of  horses,  carts,  and 
tackle  ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  comfort 
of  travelling  a  smooth  road,  and  also  to 
say  nothing  of  employment  found  for 
the  poor,  yet  a  road  can  be  maintain- 
ed good  and  perfect  for  half  the  sum  un- 
der the  new  system,  which  under  the 
old  is  expended  without  improvement. 

"  Spreading. — Cause  the  load  to  be 
shot  down  a  short  distance  from  the 
place  upon  which  you  wish  the  ma- 
terials to  be  finally  spread,  and  direct 
the  spreader  to  cast  every  shovelful 
from  him  equally  all  over  the  sur- 
face, and  in  such  a  manner  as  he 
would  do  if  he  were  sowing  wheat 
broad  cast.  The  road  will  then  he 
not  thicker  in  one  place  than  anoth- 
er, and  a  section  will  be  produced  per- 
fect and  true. 

"  Scraping. — If  it  is  desirable  to 
keep  a  road  dry  at  the  foundation,  it 
must  be  equally  so  at  the  surface," 

ROARING.  A  disease  in  horses 
called  broken  wind.  It  is  the  result 
of  injury  to  the  cells  of  the  lungs, 
brought  on  by  too  violent  exercise, 
especially  after  meals. 

ROCHAMBOLE.  Allium  scorodo- 
prasum.  ".Spanish  garlic.  It  has  bulbs 
or  cloves  growing  in  a  cluster,  form- 
ing a  kind  of  compound  root.  The 
stem  bears  many  bulbs  at  its  sum- 
mit, which,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
root,  are  often  preferred  in  cooking 
to  garlic,  being  of  much  milder  fla- 
vour. It  is  best  propagated  by  the 
root  bulbs,  those  of  the  stem  being 
slower  in  production.  The  planta- 
tion may  be  made  either  in  March  or 
the  early  part  of  April,  as  well  as 
throughout  the  autunm.  They  may 
be  inserted  either  in  drills  or  by  the 
dibble,  in  rows  six  inches  apart  each 


ROD 

way,  and  usually  two  inches  within 
the  ground,  but  thrive  better  if  grown 
on  the  surface.  A  very  small  bed  is 
sutficient  for  the  supply  of  the  largest 
fainilv" 

ROCHELLE  SALT.  Tartrate  of 
soda  and  potassa  ;  used  as  a  gentle 
purgative. 

ROCK  CRYSTAL.  Transparent 
quartz. 

ROCK  SAI>T.  The  coarse  native 
salt,  found  in  immense  masses  in 
some  parts  of  the  globe.  It  consists 
of  salt  chiefly,  but  adulterated  with 
chloride  ofcaloium,gvpsum,  and  marl. 

ROD.  The  same  as  a  pole,  16^  feet. 
Four  of  these  make  Cunter's  chain. 

RODENTS,  RODEXTIA.  Gnaw- 
ing quadrupeds,  with  two  long  chisel 


ROL 

[  teeth  in  the  front  of  either  jaw.  Rats, 
'  rabbits,  and  squirrels  are  of  this 
!  class. 

ROE  STONE.  Oolite,  rocks  the 
structure  of  which  is  made  of  small 
rounded  particles. 

ROLLERS.  Rounded  logs,  or  cyl- 
inders of  iron  or  stone  turning  on  an 
axis,  and  capable  of  being  drawn  by 
hand  or  horses.  They  are  of  great 
service  in  levelling  the  surface  of 
fields  and  breaking  lumps.  On  loose 
soils  they  compress  the  earth  and 
render  it  more  fertile,  and  are  much 
used  to  imbed  small  seeds  and  run 
over  grass.  The  common  roller  is 
no  more  than  a  heavy  log,  but  nu- 
merous varieties  have  l)een  proposed. 
The  improved  kinds  (see  Ftg.  1)  are 


constructed  of  iron,  in  two  or  more 
pieces,  so  as  to  run  over  two  lands, 
the  horse  walking  in  the  ditch,  or 
central  furrow.     They  also  carry  a 

i6 


wooden  frame  for  rocks,  so  as  to  be 

weighted  according  to  circumstances. 

Instead  of  the  frame  for  weights, 

or  in  addition  to  it,  a  box  (a)  is  some- 


K  K  K  2 


666 


KOO 

times  attached,  for  the  purpose  of 
waterintif  or  sprinkling  fluid  inannros 
over  liie  young  plat)ls.  As  tht-y  arc 
roiled,  the  man  who  leads  the  horse 
manages  the  watering  by  a  string  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  lever  (b), 


ROO 

■which,  being  raised,  lets  the  fluid  out 
througli  the  small  holes  (c).  The 
cylinder,  or  roller,  is  also  set  with 
scarifiers  and  other  contrivances  for 
cutting  or  crushing  the  sod,  as  in  the 
clod  crusher  {Fig.  3)   In  some  imple- 


ments the  roller  is  of  a  conical  form, 
or  of  the  figure  of  two  cones,  united 
at  their  bases  for  the  purpose  of  run- 
ning between  furrows  or  ridges  ;  they 
are  also  made  of  a  series  of  separate 
rings  or  wheels  which  run  between 
drills  {drill  rollers),  and  may  be  used 
in  marking  the  ground  before  sowing 
seeds 

ROMAN  VITRIOL.  Blue  vitriol, 
sulphate  of  copper. 

ROOD.  A  square  measure,  equal  to 
40  perches  or  square  poles.  The 
fourth  part  of  an  acre. 

ROOF.  The  covering  of  a  build- 
ing. The  pitch,  or  inclination,  should 
be  much  greater  in  northern  posi- 
tions than  at  the  south,  since  snow 
and  rains  tend  to  rot  the  timbers 
more  rapidly.  Those  which  are  cov- 
ered with  shingles  must  also  be 
more  pitched  than  those  of  slate  or 
metal. 

"  A  roof,  as  respects  its  construc- 
tion,  involves    some   knowledge   of 
mathematics     Of  the  general  princi- 
ples on  which  its  proper  construction 
666 


depends,  we  shall  here  subjoin  some 
account.  The  obvious  mode  of  cov- 
ering a  building,  where  a  greater  or 
lesser  inclination  of  the  sicies  of  the 
roof  is  required  by  the  climate,  is  to 
place  two  sloping  rafters,  C  C,  upon 
the  walls,  B  B,  as  in 
the  subjoined  diagram 
{Fig-.  1),  meeting  at 
the  apex,  A ,  where  we 
will  suppose  them  so 
connected  with  a 
hinge  as  to  be  insep- 
arable, but  capable  of  f)^ 
descending  by  their  \, 
gravity,  as  shown  in  \   i 

No.  2.    The  walls  are  \| 

considered    as    solid  '•'' 

masses,  moveable  on  points.  P.  If 
the  walls  be  not  of  sufficient  \veight, 
the  thrust  that  will  be  thus  exerted 
on  them  by  the  tendency  of  the  raf- 
ters to  spread  at  their  feet  will  throw 
the  walls  out  of  an  upright,  as  in  No. 
2,  and  the  whole  assemblage  will  be 
destroyed.  By  the  laws  of  mechan- 
ics, it  is  known  that  the  horizontal 


ROO 


ROO 


thrust  thus  acting  on  the  walls  is 
proportional  to  tho  length  of  a  line, 
d,  e,  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  raf- 
ter, intersecting  a  vertical  line  drawn 
from  the  apex,  which  it  is  manifest 
must  increase  as  the  roof  becomes 
flatter.  To  counteract  the  thrust  above 
mentioned,  notlimg  more  is  necessa- 
ry than  to  tie  together  the  feet  of  the 
rafters,  as  in  the  following  diagram 
{Fig.  2),  in  which  A  B  is  the  tie  in 
Fiff.2.  question,  and  tlience 

is  called  a  tic-bcam.  If 
B  the  extent  be  not  very 
great,  the  rafters  may 
be  kept  from  spreading  by  a  minor 
tie,  as  at  a  b,  called  a  collar.  Beyond 
certain  lengths  or  spans,  however,  it 
will  occur  to  the  reader  that  a  tie- 
beam  will  itself  have  a  tendency  to 
bend,  or  sag,  as  the  workmen  call  it, 
in  the  middle  ;  and  from  this  circum- 
stance a  fresh  contrivance  becomes 
necessary,  which  will  be  seen  in  the 
annexed  diagram  {Fig.  3),  marked  c 
Fig.  3.  d :  this  is  called  a  king- 
^^i^^fi^^  ;)os^  or,  more  properly, 
f^^^u^^^  king-piece,  inasmuch  as 
II  it  does  not  perform  the 
office  of  a  post,  but  rather  of  a  tie, 
for  it  ties  up  the  beam  to  prevent  its 
bending.  If  the  rafters  be  so  long  as 
to  be  liable  to  bend,  two  pieces,  a,  a, 
called  seru/s,  are  introduced,  which, 
havmg  their  footing  against  the  sides 
of  the  king-post,  act  as  posts  to  sup- 
port or  siiui  tip  the  rafters  at  their 
weakest  point  The  piece  of  framing 
thus  contrived  is  altogether  called  a 
truss.  It  is  obvious  that  by  means  of 
the  upper  joints  of  the  struts  we  ob- 
tain more  points  of  support  (Fig.  4), 
Fig.  4.  or,  rather,  suspen- 

^^isi|p:^5^^_^  sion ;  and  that  but 
^^s^^y^^^^^^  for  the  compres- 
3  ii  sibility  of  the  tim- 

beV,  there  would  be  no  limit  to  the 
space  which  a  roof  might  be  made 
to  cover.  This  compressibility  takes 
place  at  those  points  where  the  fibres 
of  the  wood  are  pressed  at  right  an- 
gles, or  nearly  so,  with  their  direc- 
tion ;  and  many  ways  are  adopted  for 
avoiding  this  inconvenience.  There 
is  a  species  of  roof,  dependant  in  con- 
struction on  the  principles  we  have 


just  described,  which  we  jshall  here 
briefly  notice,  and  whereof  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  diagram  {/"/(T.  5).  This 
roof     has      three  Fig. 5. 

points  of  support. 
A,B,  A;  the  posts 
A  A,  A  A  are  call- 
ed queen-posts ;  the  collar,  A  B  A,  is 
here  a  slrainutg  piece,  instead  of  a 
tic,  as  it  was  in  the  example  of  ties 
first  noticed,  its  operation  being  ex- 
actly the  reverse  of  a  tie.  The  curb 
or  mansard  roof  is  one  in  which  a 
story  is  obtained,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  annexed  diagram  {Fig.  6).  Its 
principles  a~re  the  same 
as  those  already  men- 
tioned, and  do  not  here 
require  farther  notice. 
In  the  execution  of ' 
roofs  the  expense  of  trussing  every 
pair  of  rafters  would  be  unneces- 
sary, and  the  practice  would  also  load 
the  walls  with  a  far  greater  weight 
than  would  be  expedient ;  it  is  there- 
fore the  custom  to  place  these  prin- 
cipal parts  of  a  roof  at  certain  inter- 
vals, which,  however,  should  never 
exceed  ten  feet.  The  rafters  which 
are  actually  trussed  are  called  princi- 
pal rafters  ;  and  by  the  intervention 
of  the  purline.  A,  in  the  diagvam{Fig. 
7),  are   made   to  Fi^.~. 

bear  the  smaller 
or  common  raf- 
ters, which  are 
notched  down  on 
it.  These  common  rafters  are  re- 
ceived by,  or  pitch  upon  a  plate,  B, 
called  a  pole-plate ;  and  the  principal 
rafters,  which  fall  on  the  tie-beam,  are 
ultimately  borne  by  the  wall-plate,  C. 
When  beams  in  either  roofs  or  floors 
are  so  long  that  they  cannot  be  pro- 
cured in  one  piece,  two  p^^  g 
pieces,  to  form  the  requi-  . —  r^ — i 
red  length,  are  sfar/c(/ to-  '  J}^  z^ 
gether  by  indenting  them  '  i  ^  -^ 
at  their  joints,  and  bolting  them  to- 
gether, of  which  practice  two  modes 
are  here  subjoined  {Fig.  8)." 

ROOK.  Corvus  frugilegus.  The 
gregarious  crow,  almost  domesticated 
in  England  in  rookeries.  They  live, 
for  the  most  part,  on  insects.  The 
young  are  sometimes  eaten. 

667 


ROS 


ROT 


ROOT.  "  That  part  of  the  central 
axis  of  a  plant  uhifh  is  formed  l)y 
the  dt'sccniJing  (il)ros,  and  whose 
function  is  to  attract  liquid  food  from 
the  soil  in  which  it  is  mingled.  It 
differs  from  the  stem  in  not  having 
leaves  or  buds  upon  its  surface,  and 
in  its  tendency  to  burrow  under 
ground,  retreating  from  light ;  nev- 
ertheless, some  kinds  of  roots  are  ex- 
clusively formed  in  air  and  light,  as 
in  the  ivy,  and  other  such  plants." 

Roots  are  of  various  figures,  as 
fibrous  ;  spindle,  as  in  the  radisli  ; 
knotted,  &c.  The  rhizome  of  the 
flag  and  the  tuber  of  the  potato  are 
not  roots,  but  subterranean  stems. 
The  cormus  of  palms  and  aroidaj  is  a 
mere  expansion  of  tissue,  which  is 
neither  a  root  nor  stem. 

ROOT  CROPS.  Crops  of  beets, 
turnips,  carrots,  &c. 

ROOT  STOCK.  The  rhizome  of 
the  flag,  ginger,  arrow-root. 

ROSACE-E.  "A  large  and  im- 
portant natural  order  of  plants,  the 
species  of  which  are,  for  the  most 
part,  inhabitants  of  the  cooler  parts 
of  the  world.  They  are  in  some  ca- 
ses trees,  in  others  shrubs,  and  in  a 
great  number  of  instances  herba- 
ceous perennial  plants  :  scarcely  any 
are  annuals.  No  natural  orders  con- 
tain more  species  of  general  interest, 
in  the  beauty  of  their  flowers  or  their 
perfume  :  there  is  the  rose  itself,  and 
various  species  of  the  genera  liulus, 
Spiraa,  Volentilla,  Gcum,  and  Pi/rus. 
The  apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry,  peach, 
nectarine,  apricot,  raspberry,  straw- 
berry, and  similar  valuable  fruits,  are 
the  produce  of  others.  As  medicinal 
plants,  some  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Prussic  acid  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves  and  seeds  of  the  bit- 
ter almond,  peach,  plum,  and  other 
species.  This  important  assemblage 
of  plants  is  distinguished  by  havmg 
several  petals  ;  separate  carpels ;  dis- 
tinct, perigynous,  nunnerous  stamens ; 
alternate  leaves,  and  an  exogenous 
mode  of  growth.'' 

ROSE.     The  genus  Kosa,  which, 

by  cultivation,  has  been  extended  to 

upward  of  a  thousand  varieties.  They 

require  a  good  loamy  soil,  and  are 

663 


much  improved  by  judicious  pruning. 
Many  diseases  inlect  the  rose  shrubs ; 
of  these,  the  aphm  is  the  most  com- 
mon. They  are  also  attacked  with 
blight,  and  by  the  rose-bug,  a  coleop- 
terous insect,  of  the  family  of  the 
cockchaffers.  But  by  proper  clean- 
ing, and  syringing  with  water,  or 
with  toliacco  water,  the  plants  are 
easily  preserved  in  health.  Several 
varieties  are  worthy  of  cultivation  for 
the  perfume  (attar)  distilled  from  their 
petals.  The  French  rose  is  used  by 
druggists. 

ROSEBAY.  The  handsome  Rho 
dodcnilion  maximum. 

ROSE  BUG.  Insects  of  the  same 
family  as  the  cockchaffer,  infesting 
the  rose,  vine,  and  fruit-trees  during 
June  and  July.  The  perfect  insect 
issues  from  the  earth  in  June,  to 
which  the  female  retires  at  the  end 
of  July  atid  lays  her  eggs.  They 
cannot  be  destroyed  except  by  direct 
violence,  fumigations  and  washes  be- 
ing of  little  service.  The  most  usual 
means  is  to  catch  them  by  the  hand, 
or  by  shaking  the  plants  they  infest, 
and  burning  or  cruslung  them.  The 
insects  pass  througii  all  their  trans- 
formations in  one  year  in  the  soil, 
and  emerge  only  in  the  beetle  form. 

ROSEMARY.  Rosmarinus  offici- 
nalis. A  handsome  evergreen  shrub, 
cultivated  for  its  odoriferous  leaves, 
from  which  an  essential  oil  is  distill- 
ed. It  requires  a  dry  soil,  and  lasts 
many  years. 

ROSIN.  The  resin  remaining 
after  distilling  the  spirit  from  turpen- 
tine.    Colophony. 

ROSTELLUM.  The  name  given 
to  the  retractile  sucking  tube  of  ap- 
terous insects. 

ROT.  A  fatal  disease  of  stock, 
especially  Sheep,  which  see. 

ROT  "in  wood.  See  Dnj  Rot 
and  Preservation  of  Timber. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  "As 
crops  of  the  cultivated  plants  succeed 
to  each  other  upon  the  same  ground, 
a  question  to  be  determined  is  the 
order  in  which  the  different  kinds 
should  follow  each  otl>€r. 

"All  plants  which  are  cultivated, 
and  which  are  carried  from  the  ground 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

where  they  are  produced,  tend  to  ren-  this  healing  property,  and  may  be 
rier  the  soil  loss  productive,  or,  in  the  [  more  full  of  weeds,  and  no  richer 
language  of  farmers,  to  exhaust  it.  ]  when  plouglicd  up  again  after  a  time 
""But  plants  which  are  suffered  to  i  than  when  laid  down.  Under  good 
decay,  or  which  are  consumed  by  an-  '  management,  however,  the  laying 
imals  on  the  ground  on  wliicb  they  down  of  cultivated  land  to  grass  and 
grow,  do  not  e.vhaust  the  soil.  On  other  herbage  ph\nlsto  be  consumed 
the  contrary,  the  decay  of  the  stems  upon  the  ground,  is  a  means  of  rest- 
and  leaves  of  such  plants,  either  nat- 1  ingthe  soil  and  renovating  its  powers 
urallv  or  by  the  consuming  of  them  '  of  production  ;  and  this  mode  of  re- 
by  animals,  tends  to  add  those  dc-  cruiting  an  exhausted  soil  being  al- 
composing  organic  matters  to  ilie  ways  at  the  conmiand  of  the  farmer, 
sod  which  forin  one  of  the  elements  its  application  is  important  in  prac- 
of  its  fertility.     Tiiis  process  may  be    tice.     It  is  to  be  observed,  also,  that 


imperceptible  and  slow,  but  it  is  that 
which  Nature  herself  employs  to  form 
the  soil,  as  distinguished  from  what 
has  been  termed  the  subsoil. 

"  Sometimes  this  process  of  decay 
is  counteracted  by  the  singular  nat- 
ural provision  of  a  conversion  of  the 
decomposing  vegetables  into  a  sub- 
stance which  itself  resists  decompo- 
sition, peat.  But  with  this  exception, 
the  tendency  of  the  decay  of  vegeta- 


the  poorer  soils  require  this  species 
of  rest  and  renovation  more  tlian 
those  which  are  naturally  productive. 
"  The  experience  of  husbandmen, 
from  the  earliest  times,  has  shown 
that  the  same  kinds  of  plants  cannot 
be  advantageously  cultivated  in  con- 
tinued succession.  The  same  or  sim- 
ilar species  tend  to  grow  feebly,  or 
degenerate,  or  become  more  subject 
to  diseases,  when  cultivated  success- 


bles  upon  the  surface  is  to  add  to  the  I  ively   upon    the   same   ground,    and 
fertile  matters  of  the  soil.  '  hence  the  rule  which  forms  the  basis 

'•This  is  well  understood  in  the  of  a  system  of  regular  alternation  of 
practice  of  agriculturists.  When  the  j  crops  is,  that  plants  of  the  same  or 
productive  powers  of  a  soil  have  been  similar  species  shall  not  be  cultivated 
exhausted  by  cultivation  and  the  car-  in  immediate  succession  ;  and  tar- 
rying away  of  its  produce  from  the  I  ther,  the  same  rule  has  been  thus  far 
surface,  it  "is  laid  down  to  herbage,  in  j  extended,  that  the  same  species  shall 
whi(-h   state    the    future   vegetation  !  recur  at  as  distant  intervals  of  the 


which  it  produces  tends,  by  its  de- 
composition upon  the  surface,  to  ren- 
ovate the  productive  powers  of  the 
soil.  Land  in  this  state  is  said  to 
rest. 


course  as  circumstances  will  allow. 

"All  herbaceous  plants,  whose  pro- 
duce is  carried  off  the  ground  which 
produces  them,  may  be  said  to  ex- 
haust the  soil  upon  which  they  grow. 


When  land,  however,  has  been  i  But  all  such  plants  do  not  exhaust 


impoverished  by  successive  crops, 
and  has  become  full  of  weeds,  the 
laying  it  down  to  rest  in  that  state 
is  attended  with  less  beneficial  con- 
sequences than  when  the  soil  has 
been  previously  cleaned  of  injurious 
weeds,  and  fertilized  by  good  cuUure. 
In  the  former  case,  the  process  of 
renovation  is  slow,  if  perceptible  at 


the  soil  in  the  same  degree  ;  for  after 
some  species  the  soil  is  seen  to  be 
more  impoverished  than  after  others. 
"  And  not  only  do  ditferenl  species 
of  plants  exhaust  the  soil  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  than  others,  but  the 
same  species  does  so  according  to 
the  different  period  of  its  growth  at 
which  the  plant  is  removed  from  the 


all ;  the  useless  plants  increase,  and  ground, 
not  those  which  arc  beneficial,  and  "  When  an  herbaceous  plant  is  suf- 
afford  food  to  pasturing  animals,  fered  to  mature  its  seeds,  it  exhausts 
Land,  when  properly  laid  down  to  the  soil  more  than  when  it  is  removed 
grass,  therefore,  lends  to  recover  its  !  before  its  seeds  are  matured.  All 
wasted  powers  of  production.  Land  j  herbaceous  plants,  therefore,  when 
not  properly  laid  down  has  less  of  1  cut  in  their  green  state,  that  is,  be- 

669 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 


fore  thoy  have  matured  their  seeds, 
exhaust  the  soil  less  than  when  they 
remain  until  they  have  ripened  their 
seeds.  Thus  the  turnip,  when  used 
m  its  green  slate,  is  one  of  the  least 
exhnusting  in  the  agricultural  class 
of  j)lants  t()  which  it  helong.s  ;  hut  the 
turnip,  when  allowed  to  remain  upon 
the  ground  until  it  has  ripened  its 
seeds,  is  one  of  the  most  exhausting 
plants  that  is  cultivated  among  us ; 
and  so  it  is  with  the  rape  and  others. 
"  Farther,  certain  plants,  by  the 
larger  or  smaller  quantity  of  manure 
which  the  consumption  of  them  afford, 
are  more  or  less  useful  in  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  farm. 

"  When  an  herbaceous  plant  is  suf- 
fered to  mature  its  seeds,  and  when 
any  part  of  these  seeds  is  carried  ofT 
the  farm,  the  plant  affords,  when  con- 
sumed by  animals,  a  smaller  return 
of  manure  to  the  farm  than  if  the 
same  plant  had  been  cut  down  before 
it  had  matured  its  seeds,  and  been 
in  that  state  consumed  by  animals. 
Thus  it  is  with  the  turnip  plant  re- 
ferred to.  This  plant  is,  with  us, 
sown  before  midsummer.  In  the  first 
seasim  it  forms  a  napiform  root,  and 
puts  forth  a  large  system  of  leaves. 
Early  in  the  following  season  it  puts 
forth  a  long  stem,  which  bears  flow- 
ers, and  the  seeds  are  generally  ma- 
tured about  midsummer.  If  this 
plant  is  removed  in  the  first  stage  of 
its  growth,  that  is,  after  it  has  put 
forth  its  large  leaves  and  formed  its 
bulb,  and  is  then  consumed  by  ani- 
mals, it  returns  a  great  quantity  of 
manure ;  but  if  it  remains  until  the 
second  state  of  its  growth,  then  the 
consumption  of  its  stems  and  leaves 
return  scarce  any  manure.  The 
juices  of  the  root  have  apparently 
been  exhausted  in  affording  nutrition 
to  the  flower  stem,  the  flowers,  and 
seeds. 

"  It  is  beyond  a  question,  that,  in 
order  to  bring  a  plant  to  its  entire 
maturity  by  the  perfecting  of  its  seeds, 
a  larger  quantity  of  the  nutritive  mat- 
ter of  the  soil  is  sucked  up  by  it  than 
when  it  is  brought  only  to  its  less 
advanced  stages.  AVhen  crops  of 
plants,  therefore,  are  suflered  to  ar- 
670 


rive  at  maturity,  they  are  greatly 
more  exhausters  of  the  soil  on  which 
they  grow  than  when  they  are  cut 
down  while  they  arc  green  ;  and  if 
those  seeds  are  in  whole  or  in  part 
carried  off  the  farm,  the  crops  are  ex- 
hausters of  the  farm,  as  well  as  of 
the  ground  which  had  produced  them. 
Were  the  ripened  seeds  to  be  wholly 
returned  to  the  soil,  it  may  be  be- 
lieved that  they  might  give  back  to  it 
all  the  nutritive  matter  which  had 
been  derived  from  it.  But,  in  prac- 
tice, seeds  are  employed  for  many 
purposes,  and  are  generally  carried 
off  the  farm  which  produces  them. 
When  this  is  done  in  whole  or  in  part, 
the  plants  produced  are  in  an  eminent 
degree  exhausters  of  the  farm,  as  well 
as  of  the  soil  on  which  they  have 
grown. 

"  Farther,  certain  plants,  from  their 
mode  of  growth  and  cultivation,  are 
more  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
weeds  than  other  plants.  The  cereal 
grasses,  from  growing  closely  togeth- 
er, and  not  admitting,  or  admitting 
partially,  the  eradication  of  weeds, 
are  more  favourable  to  the  growth 
and  multiplication  of  weeds  than  such 
plants  as  the  turnip  and  the  potato, 
which  are  grown  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  each  other  and  admit 
of  tillage  during  their  growth,  and 
whose  broad  system  of  leaves  tend 
to  repress  the  growth  of  stranger 
plants. 

"  Having  these  principles  in  view, 

certain  rules  may  be  deduced  from 

'  them  for  the  order  in  which  the  crops 

of  plants  in  cultivation  in  a  country 

I  shall  succeed  to  each  other  on  the 

same  ground. 

I      "  1st.  Crops  consisting  of  plants  of 

I  the  same  or  similar  species  shall  not 

I  follow  in  succession,  but  shall  return 

at  as  distant  intervals  as  the  case 

will  allow. 

"  2d.  Crops  consisting  of  plants 
whose  mode  of  growth  or  cultivation 
tends  to  the  production  of  weeds, 
shall  not  follow  in  succession. 

"'3d.  Crops  whose  culture  admits 
of  the  destruction  of  weeds  shall  be 
cultivated  when  we  cultivate  plants 
which  favour  the  production  of  weeds. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 


And  farther,  crops  whose  consump- 
tion returns  to  the  soil  a  suffioienl 
quantity  of  manure,  shall  be  cultivated 
at  intervals  suflicicnt  to  mainlam  or 
increase  the  fertility  of  the  farm. 

"  And,  ilh,  when  land  is  to  be  laid 
down  to  grass,  this  shall  be  done  when 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  clean. 

■  These  rules  may  be  applied  to  the 


their  effect  upon  the  soil,  is  that,  from 
their  growth  and  the  manner  of  cul- 
tivating them,  they  arc  greatly  less 
favourable  to  the  production  of  weeds 
than  cereal  grasses.  By  their  broad- 
er system  of  leaves,  they  tend  to  stifle 
the  growth  of  weeds  more  than  the 
cereal  grasses  ;  and,  farther,  they  ad- 
mit of  tillage  during  a  great  part  of 


plants  which  form  the' subject  of  |  their  growth.  This  is  especially  the 
common  cultivation  in  the  lields.  In  |  case  with  the  bean  [and  maize], 
this  country,  the  plants  chiefly  culti- '  which  is  therefore  regarded  as  a  use- 
vated  on  the  large  scale  are,  the  ful  cleaning  crop,  and  so  is  cultivated 
cereal  grasses,  chiefly  for  the  farina]  in  rotation  with  the  cereal  grasses, 
of  their  seed.s  ;  certain  leguminous  as  a  means  of  preserving  the  land 
plants,  as  the  bean  and  the  pea  ;  plants  |  clean. 

cultivated  for  their  libres,  as  the  flax  :  '•  M.  Hemp  and  flax,  which  are 
and  hemp  ;  for  their  leaves,  roots,  I  cultivated  for  their  libres.  The  ex- 
and  tubers,  as  the  turnip,  the  cab- j  haustion  of  hemp  and  flax  is  not  great 
bage,  and  the  potato  ;  and  certain  j  when  they  produce  no  seeds.  All 
leguminous  and  other  plants  for  for-  j  plants  cultivated  for  their  oils  are  ex- 
age  or  herbage.  The  plants  of  these  i  hausters  of  the  soil.  They  are  suf- 
different  clas°ses  are  yet  to  be  descri-  ;  fered  to  form  and  ripen  their  seeds, 
bed  ;  and  they  are  now  only  referred  and  their  stems  afford  no  return  of 
to  with  relation  to  the  order  in  which  |  manure  to  the  farm, 
they  may  succeed  to  each  other  in  "The  next  class  of  plants,  from  the 
cultivation.     The  \st  class  of  these    large  return  of  manures  which  the 


plants  consist  of  the  cereal  grasses. 
These  are  chiefly  wheat,  Indian  corn, 
barley,  oats,  and,  partially,  rye.  All 
these  plants  are,  in  an  eminent  de- 


consumption  of  them  affords,  may  be 
regarded  as  enriching  or  restorative 
crops,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
others,  which   may  be   termed  ex- 


grce,  exhausters  of  the  farm.     They    hausting  crops  : 

are  all  suffered  to  mature  their  seeds,  j      "1.  The  turnip,  the  rape,  and  other 

and   are  wholly  or  partially  carried  i  plants  of  the  cabbage  genus,  cultiva- 

away  from  the  farm.     Farther,  from    ted  for  their  roots  and  leaves,  and 

the  manner  of  their  growth  and  mode  j  consumed  upon  the  farm. 

of  cultivation,  they  all  tend  to  favour  1      "2.  The   potato,  the   carrot,   the 

the  production  of  weeds.     For  these  i  parsnip,  the  beet,  and  other  plants 

reasons,  and  on  the  general  principle  1  cultivated  for  their  tubers  and  roots, 

that   plants  of  the  same   or  similar  '  and  consumed  upon  the  farm. 

kinds  should  not  follow  in  succession,  I      "3.  The    leguminous  plants,  the 

the  cereal  grasses  should  not  succeed  ,  clover,  the  tare,  the  lucern,  and  olh- 

each  other,  but  should  be  preceded    ers,  when  cut  green  for  forage,  and 

or  followed  by  some  crop  which  either    consumed  upon  the  farm. 

exhausts  the  soil  less,  or  admits  of  a  I      "  The  plants  of  the  latter  class, 

more  perfect  eradication  of  weeds,      j  namely,  tiie  leguminous,  when  mixed 

•'2d.  The  leguminous  plants  culti- 1  with  gramineous  plants,  as  the  rye 

vated  lor  their"seeds,  as  the  bean  and    grass,  are  commonly  termed  the  arti- 

the  pea,  are  all  exhausters  of  the  soil.  :  licial  grasses,  but  would  be  more  cor- 

They  ripen  their  seeds,  and  the  seeds    rectly  termed  the  cultivated  herbage 

are  for  the  most  part  carried  off  the    or  forage  plants.     They  are  often  suf- 

farm.     Some   physiologists    suppose  ,  fered  partially  to  ripen  their  seeds, 

that  they  are  less  exhausters  of  the  ;  and  are  made  into  hay ;  and  in  this 

soil  than  the  cereal  grasses.     But  the    case  they  follow  the  general  law,  ex- 

essential   difference    between   them,  !  hausting  the   soil   more   than  when 

when   considered   with   relatioa  to  ,  used  green.     Aud  when  the  hay  crop 

671 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 


is  carried  away  from  the  farm,  they 
are  to  be  refjarded  as  cxliausting 
rather  than  restorative  crops. 

"Ill  speaking  of  tiiese  ditTerent 
classes  of  plants,  the  following  terms 
may  be  employed  : 

"1.  The  cereal  grasses  may  be 
termed  corn  crops. 

'•  2.  The  leguminous  plants  culti- 
vated for  their  seeds,  pulse  crops. 

'■3.  The  turnip,  and  other  plants 
of  the  same  kind,  cultivated  for  their 
roots  and  leaves,  may,  with  reference 
to  their  mode  of  consuming  them,  be 
termed  green  crops  ;  or,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  manner  of  preparing  the 
ground  for  them,  fallow  crops. 

"4.  The  potato^  and  plants  of  oth- 
er families  cultivated  for  their  roots 
and  tubers,  may.  in  like  manner,  be 
termed  green  or  fallow  crops. 

"  5.  The  leguminous  plants  culti- 
vated for  green  food,  as  the  lucern 
and  tare,  may  be  termed  green  for- 
age crops. 

"  And,  lastly,  the  mixture  of  gra- 
mineous and  leguminous  plants  culti- 
vated for  herbage  or  green  feed  may, 
in    compliance    with    common    Ian-  j 
guage,  be  still  termed  the  sowed  or  | 
artificial  grasses. 

"Farther,  distinguishing  these  dif-  { 
ferent  classes  of  crops  according  to 
their  effects  upon  the  fertility  of  the 
farm,  they  might  be  divided  thus  :       [ 


"I.  Corn  crops — exhausting  crops, 
and  favourers  of  weeds. 

"2.  Pulse  crops  —  exhausting  or 
cleaning  crops,  or  capable  of  being 
rendered  so. 

"  3.  Green  or  fallow  crops — resto- 
rative and  cleaning  crops. 

"4.  Green  forage  crops — restora- 
tive, and  sometimes  cleaning  crops. 

"  5.  The  sowed  grasses — restora- 
tive.crops. 

"  Knowing  these  the  general  char- 
acters of  the  cultivated  plants,  we 
have,  in  devising  a  rotation,  to  cause 
the  restorative  and  cleaning  crops  so 
to  alternate  with  the  exhausting  crops 
as  that  the  land  may  be  preserved 
fertile  and  clean.  Farther,  when  we 
find  that  land  cannot  be  sufficient- 
ly cleaned  by  means  of  cleaning  crops, 
we  must  make  use  of  the  summer 
fallow  ;  and  again,  when  we  find  that 
land  requires  rest,  we  may  lay  it 
down  to  grass  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  taking  care,  when  this  is  done, 
that  the  land  shall  be  in  as  fertile  a. 
state  as  circumstances  will  allow, 
and  free  from  weeds." — {Lou-.) 

There  are  not  many  established 
rotations  in  the  United  Slates.  The 
following  is  one  which  is  found  suc- 
cessful in  Pennsylvania.  It  is,  how- 
ever, adapted  only  to  strong,  new 
soils.  The  manure  should  be  added 
to  the  Indian  corn  : 


FieW  Nn.  1. 

Field  No. -2. 

field  No.  X 

Field  No.  4. 

Field  No.  S. 

Field  No.  6. 

Field  No.  7. 

Field  No.  8. 

let  Year  .    . 

Wheat 

Kye 

Wheat 

Clover 

Com 

Wheat 

Clover 

Oats 

2d      '•       .     . 

live 

Clover 

Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Clover 

Wheat 

Wheat 

3d      •'       .     . 

Clover 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Wheat 

Wlieat 

Corn 

Clover 

Ith     "       .     . 

Wheat 

Corn 

Wheat 

Clover 

Clover 

Rye 

Oats 

Wheat 

6tli    •'      .    . 

Cnrn 

Oats 

Clover 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Clover 

Whe.at 

Rye 

6tli    "      .     . 

Oats 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Corn 

Rye 

Wheat 

Clover 

Clover 

7th    "      .    . 

Wheat 

Clover 

Rve 

Oats 

Clover 

Corn 

Wheat 

Wheat 

8th    "      .     . 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 

Wheat 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rve 

Corn 

It  is  very  defective,  as  there  are 
neither  roots  nor  pulse  crops  ;  pota- 
toes or  roots  might  be  introduced  in 
part,  after  the  leys,  which  may  be  of 
grass ;  and  beans  or  pease  can  come 
after  wheat,  with  the  manure,  or 
succeed  the  Indian  corn. 

Where  a  particular  staple  is  culti- 
vated, as  tobacco,  hemp,  sugar,  or 
cotton,  it  is  to  he  introduced  in  its 
place  according  as  it  is  a  grain  or 
green  crop.  Thus,  in  the  above  ta- 
ble, cottoa  or  hemp,  cultivated  for 

67a 


seeds,  may  come   in   the  place   of 

wheat,  and  tobacco  after  manure. 

Near  cities,  where  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  everything  raised,  the  rota- 
tion becomes  much  more  managea- 
ble, and  may  be  made  to  approach  the 
very  complicated  formulas  given  in 
Europe,  of  which  the  one  on  the  next 
page  is  a  good  specimen. 

The  cliemical  principles  of  rota- 
tions are  under  discussion,  and  can- 
not, therefore,  be  entered  upon  in  a 
practical  work.    It  may,  however,  be 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 


MR.  THOMAS  BLACKIG  S   SCHEME  OF  RO- 
TATION   UPON   A   FARM    OF    ONE    HUN- 
j  DRED    ACRES,    AS    PROPOSED    TO    THE 

I  FRENCH    GOVERNMENT. 


I  |i|    s     ?  1    -^  ills    ^    i 


o    a  H6aoi.>a      ^  o 


_o     H  d  =  a 


OS      O      K 


o    a      ^      p.>n 


?        t-  U  P3  u  J 


.w--u->-ss 


briefly  stated  that  leguminous  crops  I 
are  regarded  as  lime  crops  ;  the  corn  ^ 
crops  as  potash  and  bone-eartli  crops,  ; 
and  most  roots  and  green  crops  as 
potash  crops  ;  and  that  these  should 
severally  succeed   each   other  in  a 
well-tilled  and  prepared  soil.  j 

"  To  lie  ploughed  op  ader  seven  years,  sad  Tonowed 

by  wheat.  J 

L  L   L 


Boussingault,  who  has  taken  an- 
other view  of  rotations,  and  main- 
tains that  they  should  be  so  directed 
as  to  economize  the  nitrogen  or  am- 
monia ot"  manures,  has  entered  into 
an  extensive  series  of  researches  to 
determine  the  best  rotations.  He 
analyzed  his  crops  and  manures,  and 
calculated  the  amount  of  each  com- 
ponent they  carried  from  the  field. 
As  the  rotations  are  good,  we  have 
no  hesitation  in  presenting  them, 
with  his  results. 

"  The  measure  of  dung  in  use  at 
Bechelbronn  is  the  wagon  drawn  by 
four  horses.  After  repeated  weigh- 
ings, it  was  found  that  this  measure 
contains  nearly  1  ton.  15  cwt.,  2  qrs., 
23  lbs.  of  moist  material,  or  7  cwt., 

1  qr.,  15  lbs.,  if  that  be  computed  dry. 
The  first  course  of  the  rotation  re- 
ceives 27  loads  of  this  manure,  weigh- 
ing about  48  tons,  14  qrs.,  5  lbs., 
equivalent  to  9  tons,  19  cwt.,  0  qr., 

2  lbs.  of  dry  manure  per  hectare,  or 
20  tons  per  acre. 

"  The  preceding  analyses  show 
that  this  charge  of  manure,  which  is 
to  fertilize  the  soil  during  the  course 
of  the  rotation  (five  years),  contains, 

Carbon 8,027  lbs. 

Hydrogen 925 

Oxygen 5,767 

Azote 447 

Salts  and  earth  .     .  -.     .     .     .7,188 
22,355 

"  Such  are  the  principles  which, 
together,  form  the  organic  matter 
that  is  to  be  consumed,  and,  in  a  ma- 
jor part,  assimilated  by  the  crops 
grown.  I  say  partly,  because  I  do 
not  believe  that  the  whole  organic 
matter  necessarily  enters  into  the 
constitution  of  the  plants  which 
spring  up  during  the  rotation  ;  no 
doubt  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
manure  is  lost  through  spontaneous 
decomposition,  or  is  carried  away  by 
the  rain  ;  and  another  portion  may 
remain  a  long  time  dormant  in  the 
soil,  to  act  as  a  fertilizer  at  a  more 
or  less  distant  period  ;  just  as,  in  the 
present  rotation,  the  manure  former- 
ly introduced  co-operates  with  that 
recently  added.  One  thing  is  cer- 
tain, viz  ,  that  the  proportion  of  ma- 
nure indicated  is  essential  for  aver- 
673 


IIOTATJOX  OF  CROPS. 


age  crops ;  bydiminisliin<;  it,  the  prod- 
uce is  necessarily  lesseinHl.  Lastly, 
it  is  proved  that  after  the  rotation  the 
crops  have coiisuMiuil  the  uiamnc.and 
the  earth  will  not  yield  its  increase 
unless  a  fresh  quantity  he  added. 

"  I  now  proceed  to  consider  the  re- 
lation subsisting  between  the  quanli- 
ty  of  organic  matter  buried  in  the  soil 
as  manure  and  what  is  recovered  in 
the  crops.  In  this  way  the  respect- 
ive proportions  of  elementary  matter 
which  various  crops  derived  from  tlie 
air  and  the  soil  may  be  determined 
approximately,  and  a  knowledge  ob- 
tained of  those  rotations  which  least 
exhaust  the  land,  or,  in  other  words, 
which  obtain  from  the  atmosphere 
the  largest  amount  of  organic  matter. 

"The  rotations  set  down  in  tables 
Nos.  1  and  2  are  those  adopted  at  Be- 
chelbronn  and  throughout  the  great- 
er part  of  Alsace.  Tliese  two  rota- 
tions, which  differ  only  in  the  hoed 
crop  introduced,  potatoes  in  one, 
beet  root  in  the  other,  are  almost 
identical,  nearly  the  same  quantity  of 
dry  matter  being  produced  per  acre, 
and  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  or- 
ganic material  withdrawn  from  the 
atmosphere. 

"The  rotation  No.  3  was  introdu- 
ced by  Schwertz,  at  Hohenheim  ; 
theoretically,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
advantageous  ;  it  was  tried  at  Be- 
chelbronn,  but  abandoned,  because 
pease  and  vetches  fail  frequently. 

"  Table  Xo.  4  shows  the  triennial 
rotation  with  manured  fallow  ;  this 
is  disadvantageous  in  point  of  theory. 
The  organic  constituents  of  the  crop 
exceed  but  little  those  of  the  manure. 
Supposing  that  even  the  whole  of  the 
straw  were  converted  into  manure, 
the  farmer  would  still  be  com  [jelled 
to  procure  manure  from  abroad,  in 
compensation  for  the  outgoing  of 
wheat.  It  is  thus  obvious  why  tri- 
ennial rotation  always  requires  a 
great  deal  of  meadow  land. 

"  In  table  No.  5  the  result  of  the 

continuous  cultivation  of  Jerusalem 

artichokes  is  given.     At  Bechelbronn 

these  are  dressed  every  two  years 

674 


with  about  ten  loads  of  dung  per  acre. 
Upon  an  average,  20  tons  of  tui)ers 
and  about  two  tons  of  woody  stems 
are  gathered  in  the  course  of  two 
years.  It  will  be  perceived,  from 
perusal  of  this  table,  that  the  culture 
of  Jerusalem  artichokes  presents, 
theoretically,  considerable  advanta- 
ges. I'he  organic  matter  of  the  crop 
greatly  exceeds  that  of  the  manure. 
.Moreover,  in  Alsace,  where  it  is  very 
common,  it  is  held  to  be  most  pro- 
ductive. Still,  the  organic  matter  of 
the  stems  must  be  taken  into  account, 
which,  practically  speaking,  are  near- 
ly worthless. 

"  Table  No.  6  comprises  the  data 
relative  to  a  quadrennial  rotation 
adopted  by  M.  Crud,  and  in  which  are 
grown  successively,  1st.  Potatoes  or 
beet  root.  2d.  Wheat.  3d.  Red  clo- 
ver. 4th.  "Wheat.  The  first  sowing 
is  dressed  with  about  18  tons  of  half- 
wasted  farm-yard  dung.  The  gain  in 
organic  matter  obtained  by  this  rota- 
tion surpasses  that  of  the  preceding  ; 
but  as  the  clover  crops  are  not  very 
sure  when  repeated  every  four  years, 
M.  Crud,  for  reasons  which  may  be 
called  in  question,  follows  this  rota- 
tion with  one  of  lucern,  which  gets  a 
fresh  supply  of  manure.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  lucern  furnishes  a 
great  mass  of  fodder,  and  in  this  re- 
spect the  fertility  of  the  land  ought 
to  be  vastly  enhanced,  were  this  con- 
sumed on  the  spot ;  but  I  can  discov- 
er no  objection  to  the  renewal  of  clo- 
ver, if  the  lucern  succeeds  so  well  as 
M.  Crud  says  it  does.  From  too  fre- 
quent repetition,  farmers  have  gone 
into  the  opposite  extreme  of  culti- 
vating clover  only  every  five  or  six 
years.  This  subject  oflers  an  impor- 
tant field  for  research.  It  is  not  im- 
possible that  the  ill  success  depends 
often  on  premature  mowing  of  the 
clover  during  the  first  year,  and  be- 
fore its  roots  have  acquired  sufficient 
vigour.  This  practice  has  been  aban- 
doned with  us  for  some  years,  and 
there  is  now  everything  to  assure  us 
that  the  second  year"s  crop  is  there- 
by secured. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

ROTATION,  COURSE  NO.  1. 


Years. 

Substanies.                             per  acre. 

Crnpa 
dry. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Ojygen. 

Azote. 

Salts 

and 

earths. 

Ilw. 

Ib.i. 

lbs. 

U.S. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Ut 

117.33 

2H2!? 

1214 

164 

12154 

42 

113 

2d 

Wheat  . 

1«1 

1052 

4«5 

61 

4.57 

24 

25 

Wheat  straw 

2798 

2070 

1002 

110 

805 

8 

145 

3d 

4675 

■Jim 

1750 

185 

1396 

78 

284 

4th 

Wheat  . 

1631 

1300 

599 

75 

564 

30 

31 

Wheat  straw 

34.56 

2557 

1237 

135 

995 

10 

179 

Tucaip»  (2d  crop) 

8754 

(i5(i 

2832 

30 

278 

11 

f.0 

etb 

Oat.s 

l-2;!2 

SI  75 

494 

62 

358 

21 

39 

Oat  straw      . 

i»;50 

1170 

.59.'} 

63 

458 

r. 

60 

T.rtal       . 

371)50 

Ui:i()7 

102.10 

«91 

6575 

229 

926 

.Manure  emplojed 
Dillerence      . 



9114 

342(i 

391 

2403 

185 

2999 

Ij'.r.t) 

tiHlO 

.500 

4172 

44 

2073 

ROTATION,    COURSE    NO.   2. 

Years. 

Substances. 

Crops 
per  acre. 

Crops 
dry. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Salts 

and 

earths. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lat 

2.3*3 

2907 

1244 

157 

1262 

49 

182 

2d 

Whe.1t  . 

1086 

928 

428 

63 

403 

21 

22 

Wheat  straw 

2468 

1827 

8«3 

98 

710 

7 

128 

Sd 

11675 

3693 

1749 

185 

1396 

77 

28-1 

4th 

Wheat  . 

1520 

1.300 

699 

75 

664 

30 

31 

Wheat  straw 

3456 

2557 

1237 

.1.35 

995 

10 

179 

Turnips 
Oats 

8754 

fi.55 

-281 

36 

277 

11 

50 

6tb 

1232 

975 

495 

62 

358 

21 

.39 

Oat  straw 
Total      . 

16.50 

1176 

5.'<9 

63 

468 

5 

60 

27224 

1G018 

7505 

864 

6423 

231 

975 

Manure  employed 
Difference      . 

9314 

3426 

.391 

2403 

185 

2999 

6704 

4079 

473 

4020 

46 

2024 

ROTATION,  COURSE  NO. 


Years. 

Substances                                 1      ^'°^^ 
bubsLances.                              per  acre. 

C  rops 
dry. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Salts 

and 

earths. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lb.». 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1st 

11733 

2828 

1244 

164 

1264 

42 

113 

2d 

Wheat  . 

1231 

1054 

485 

61 

457 

24 

25 

Wheat  straw 

2798 

2070 

1002 

110 

805 

8 

145 

3d 

4675 

3693 

17.50 

185 

1396 

78 

284 

4th 

Wheat  . 

1515 

1300 

599 

75 

564 

30 

31 

3456 

2.558 

1238 

1.35 

995 

10 

179 

Turnips 

Pease  i' dunged)    . 

8754 

6.56 

2S2 

36 

278 

11 

60 

Dth 

1001 

915 

425 

66 

366 

38 

28 

2558 

2-356 

1033 

112 

803 

62 

255 

6th 

Kve        . 

1539 

1278 

5P0 

71 

665 

22 

30 

Rye  straw     . 
Total      . 

3420 

27,80 

13.87 

1,55 

1129 

8 

100 

148280 

21388 

10035 

1160 

8622 

323 

1240 

Manure  employed 
Dillerence      . 

11176 

4000 
6035 

470 

2883 

223 

3599 

.10212 

690 

5739 

100 

2359 

ROTATION,  COURSE  NO.  4. 


Years. 

Substances. 

Crops 
per  acre. 

Crops 
dry. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Oxygen. 

1    Salts 
Azote.  1     and 
1  earths. 

1st 
2d  Si.  3d 

Dun-cd  fallow 

Wheat 

Straw 

Total 

.Manure  employed        .... 

DifTerence 

lbs. 

3041 

6875 

lbs. 

2600 
6080 

lbs. 

951 
2462 

lbs. 

150 

270 

lbs. 

11-28 
1979 

lbs. 

60 

20 

lbs. 

62 
356 

9916          76,80 
3795 

3413 

1358 

420 
159 

3107 
979 

80            418 

76           1222 

3885 

2055 

.      261 

2128 

4     ,       804 

NO.   5,  CONTINUOUS 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE   CROPS. 

Years. 

Substances. 

Crops 
per  acre. 

Crops 
dry. 

Carbon. 

Hydro 
gen. 

Oxygen. 

Azote. 

Salts 

and 

earths. 

l8t  &.  2d 

Artichokes  .  .... 
Sulks    .        .                         ... 

Total 

Manure  employed        .... 

D.lTHr.-n,-e 

lbs. 
48473 
2.5&50 

lbs. 
100S3 
2-2497 

lbs. 
4366 
10289 

lbs. 

fiS5 
1215 

lbs. 
4366 
10289 

lbs. 
161 

lbs. 
605 
&30 

74323 

32580 
86-24 

14li5;5 

3087 

1800 
362 

146.55  1       251 
2-2-25  1        172 

1236 

2777 



23951';        U.'.r.K     1      1133 

12130  '         79 

1,542 

675 


ROT 


RUB 


NO.  6,   QUATRENNIAL   ROTATION    ADOPTED   BY   M. 

CRUD. 

Crops  grown. 

Crops 
per  acre. 

Crops 
dry. 

Elcineiitiir.v 

ngredien 

s  ol  the 

■rop. 

Years. 

Carbon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Oxygen. 

Aiote. 

SalU 

and 

earths. 

l8t 

3d 

Half  acre  of  potatoes  .... 
Ditto  of  heel  roots  .... 
V\lient,  15.i  bushels     .... 

Wheal  straw 

Clover,  tliree  cuttings .... 

Total 

Manure  consumed        .... 

nilVereMce 

lbs. 
Hlfi7 

:W3l 
7M3 
7333 

lbs. 
2:0.) 
2.;:!7 
2847 
6:43 
67tf3 

lbs. 
972 
957 
1312 
2.037 
2-4fi 

lbs. 
128 
130 
l«.i 
278 
290 

lbs. 
987 
970 
1235 
2040 
2190 

lbs. 
33 
38 
65 

21 
121 

Ib8 

88 
141 

68 
347 
416 

■lbW7 

8349 

29S9 

991 
350 

-    74:2 
2154 

478 
167 

1110 

2688 



9980 

Cinlia 

ti41 

.52liS 

HI 

1.078 

Dry  manure 

Dry  produce 

Gain  in  organic 

Kola  lions. 

expended  upon 

Azote  contained 
m  the  manure. 

obtained  in  one 
year  upon  one 

Azote  contained 
in  the  produce. 

matter  in  one 

year  upon  one 

acre. 

upon  one  acre. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

No.  1     . 

1862 

37 

3261 

46 

1399 

9 

No.  2     . 

1P62 

37 

3204 

46 

1342 

9 

No.  3      . 

1862 

37 

3564 

54 

1702 

17 

No.  4      . 

l2a-> 

2r 

2561 

26 

1295 

1 

Nn.  5      . 

4312 

£6 

16290 

125 

11975 

39 

No.  6     . 

20a7 

43 

45S2 

70 

2495 

23 

"  From  all  that  precedes,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  rotations  which  include 
trefoils,  red  clover,  lucern,  and  sain- 
foin are  those  that  aflbrd  considera- 
bly the  largest  proportion  of  orfraiiic 
matter;  a  fact,  indeed,  which,  if  not 
legitimately  estal)lislied,  has  still  been 
long  acted  on  in  that  system  of  crop- 
ping which  embraces  forage  plants 
as  an  element.  Lucerns,  too,  when 
they  have  taken  kindly,  yield  an  ex- 
traordinary quantity  of  forage,  as  ev- 
ery one  may  see  by  turning  to  the 
produce  of  the  piece  under  that  crop 
which,  in  the  system  of  M.  Crud,  suc- 
ceeds the  quatrennial  rotation.  At 
the  end  of  his  rotation,  M.  Crud  al- 
ways lays  on  manure  in  the  ratio  of 
18  tons  per  acre,  which  lasts  for  six 
years,  and  may  be  said  to  suffice  for 
the  succession  of  crops  in  the  ap- 


pended  table  : 

Produ 

re 

Contents 

Crops. 

per  ac 

e. 

in  azote. 

Lucern 

dry 

1st  year 

a080  lbs. 

72  1I)S. 

" 

2d  year 

9240 

215 

" 

3d  year 

IH58 

269 

« 

4th  year 

9240 

213 

" 

5th  year 

7333 

172 

Wheat, 

Gthyear 

1448 

28 

3645 

11 

980 

Dung  e 

mployed      .     . 

40233 

2(15 

Tutalg 

lin  ir 

azote  .     . 

.      775 

Gam  in  azote  per  annum  and  per  acre    130 

"  In  glancing  at  these  tables,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  azote  of  the  crop  al- 
ways exceeds  the  azote  of  the  ma- 
nure.    Generally  speaking,  I  admit 
676 


that  this  excess  of  azote  is  derived 
from  the  atmosphere  ;  but  I  do  not 
pretend  to  say  in  what  precise  man- 
ner the  assimilation  takes  place.  I 
shall  only  quote  the  conclusion  of  a 
paper  which  I  published  on  the  sub- 
ject in  the  year  1837.  Azote  may 
enter  immediately  into  the  constitu- 
tion of  vegetables,  provided  their 
green  parts  have  the  power  of  fixing 
it ;  azote  may  also  enter  vegetables 
dissolved  in  the  water  which  bathes 
their  roots,  and  which  always  con- 
tains it  in  a  certain  proportion.  Last- 
ly, it  is  possible  that  the  air  may  con- 
tain an  infinitely  minute  quantity  of 
ammoniacal  vapour,  as  some  natural 
philosophers  have  maintained,  and 
that  this,  assimilated,  decomposed, 
and  recomposed  anew  by  the  plant, 
is  the  source  of  its  azotized  constit- 
uents." 

ROTTEN  STONE.  A  soft  alu- 
minous mineral  used  in  polishing  met- 
als. 

ROUP.  A  disease  of  Poultry, 
which  see. 

ROWAN-TREE.  The  mountain 
ash  {Pyrus  auciiparia). 

ROWEL.  A  seton  ;  also  the  sharp 
wheel  of  a  spur. 

ROW^EN.  A  name  for  after-math 
hay. 

RUBEFACIENTS.  Substances 
which  produce  redness  on  the  skin 
without  blistering. 


RUT 


RYE 


RUBBLE -STONES.  Fragments 
of  brickbats,  loose  stones. 

RL:BBL\G-P0ST.  a  useful  ap- 
pcndaije  to  the  cattle-yard. 

R(:i3IG0.  Rust  in  plants.  See 
Urcdo. 

RUDDLE.  An  ochreous  clay,  red- 
dle. 

RUE.  Ruta  gravcolcns.  A  foetid 
shrub  ;  the  leaves  are  rei)Uted  of  use 
as  an  antispasmodic.  It  grows  readi- 
ly in  a  clay  soil  without  manure,  and 
is  propagated  by  slips. 

R  U  M  E  X.  The  paunch,  or  first 
stomach,  of  ruminating  (juadrupeds. 

RU.Ml.XAXTS.  Animals,  as  the 
ox,  sheep,  and  deer,  which  have  four 
stomachs  and  cloven  hoof,  and  chew 
the  cud. 

RUMINATION.  The  act  of  Chew- 
ins  the  Cud,  which  see. 

RUNCIXATE.  In  botany,  hooked 
back,  or  curved  in  a  direction  from 
the  apex  to  the  base,  as  the  lobes  of 
the  leaf  of  the  dandelion. 

RUNNER.  The  stolon,  or  run- 
ning stem,  as  in  the  strawberry : 
it  IS  a  convenient  means  of  propa- 
gation. 

R  U  N  T.  A  variety  of  common 
pigeon  ;  small  black  cattle  of  Wales 
and  Scotland  ;  decrepid  pigs. 

RUPTURE.  A  hernia  or  sinking 
of  the  bowels  through,  so  as  to  form 
a  large,  soft  tumour. 

RURAL  ECONO.MY.  The  man- 
agement of  all  things  pertaining  to 
the  farm. 

RUSHES.  The  family  of  sedges, 
called  by  botanists  Juncus  and  Scir- 
pus,  growing  in  rich  wet  lands  :  they 
are  destroyed  by  draining,  tillage, 
and  liming.  Rushes  make  excellent 
mats,  coarse  basket-work,  and  bot- 
toms of  chairs. 

R  U  S  T.  Peroxide  of  iron,  with 
some  amount  of  carbonate.  A  family 
of  parasitic  fungi  infesting  grain  and 
plants,  sometimes  called  liubtgo.  See 
Uredo. 

RUSTIC-WORK.  In  building,  a 
term  applied  to  work  jagged  out  into 
an  irregular  surface.  Work,  also, 
which  is  left  rough. 

RUT.  To  cut  a  line  on  the  soil 
with  a  spade.  The  copulation  of  deer 
L  L  I.  2 


in  the  rutting  season  ;  the  track  of  a 
cart-wheel. 

RUTA  BAGA.     See  Turnip. 

R  Y  E.  Sccale  cereale,  of  the  fam- 
ily GraminccR.  "  It  bears  naked  seeds 
on  a  flat  ear  furnished  with  awns  like 
barley.  The  straw  is  solid,  the  in- 
ternal part  being  filled  with  a  pith, 
which,  if  it  causes  it  to  be  inferior  as 
fodder,  makes  it  more  valuable  for 
litter,  and  still  more  so  for  tliatching. 
The  value  of  the  straw  is  often  near- 
ly equal  to  that  of  the  grain.  Rye 
grows  on  poor,  light  soils  which  are 
altogether  unfit  for  wheat,  and  hence 
tracts  of  light  sands  are  often  de- 
nominated rye  land.  On  these  soils 
this  grain  is  far  more  profitable  than 
wheat,  which  can  only  be  raised  there 
at  a  great  expense  of  marling  and 
manuring.  From  experiments  made 
to  ascertain  the  quantities  of  nutri- 
tious matter  in  rye  and  wheat,  Thaer 
states  their  real  comparative  value 
to  be  as  64  to  71.  If  the  soil  is  capa- 
ble of  bearing  a  moderate  crop  of 
wheat,  it  would  be  much  more  advan- 
tageous to  sow  one  portion  of  a  field 
with  rye  and  another  with  wheat; 
and  if  meslin  bread  is  desired,  the 
two  grains  may  be  mixed  in  any  re- 
quired proportion.  Excellent  bread 
is  made  of  two  parts  of  wheat  and 
one  of  rye,  ground  together.  Rye  is 
at  present  raised  in  very  sinaU  quan- 
tities in  the  United  States. 

"  Rye  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
Europe,  especially  in  the  Nether- 
lands, where  it  is  the  chief  grain  from 
which  the  spirit  called  Hollands  is 
distilled  ;  and  it  is  also  the  source  of 
whiskey.  When  malted,  it  makes 
excellent  beer,  one  bushel  of  rye  malt 
being  equal  to  at  least  one  and  a  quar- 
ter of  barley  malt.  The  cultivation 
of  rye  is  very  simple  ;  it  is  usually 
sown  after  wheat,  where  the  soil  is 
light  and  rich,  or  after  turnips  and 
potatoes,  in  those  soils  which  are 
not  strong  enough  for  wheat. 

"  It  is  mostly  sown  as  a  green 
crop,  and  when  fed  off  early  in  spring 
Willi  sheep,  the  land  is  invigorated, 
and  will  bear  excellent  potatoes  or 
other  roots  the  same  year.  This 
practice  cannot  be  sufficiently  rec- 
677 


RYE. 


ommended  ;  and  if  the  rye  is  sown 
very  oarly  in  autuiiin,  it  may  be  fed 
off  in  October  and  November,  when 
sheep  feed  is  beginnin^f  lo  fail,  with- 
out any  detriment  to  the  succeeding 
spring  |)n)diice. 

"  Winter  barley  and  winter  oats 
have  been  substituted  for  rye  as 
spring  fodders  by  some  farmers  ;  but 
on  land  of  moderate  quality  rye  is 
generally  preferred.  It  bears  the  se- 
verest winters,  which  is  not  the  case 
with  barley  or  oats.  The  rye  which 
has  been  fed  off  very  early  may  be 
allowed  to  remain  for  seed,  which  it 
will  produce  more  or  less  abundantly, 
according  as  it  has  been  fed  off  ear- 
lier or  later. 

"  The  preparation  of  the  land  for 
rye  is  the  same  as  for  wheat,  except 
that  in  very  light  soils  no  more 
ploughings  are  required  than  will 
clear  the  ground  of  weeds.  If  rye  is 
sown  after  harvest,  one  ploughing 
only  is  usually  given.  It  will  thrive 
upon  rich  wheat  soils,  as  well  as 
upon  lighter,  and,  as  it  throws  out 
numerous  stems  in  rich  land,  it  is  the 
more  profitable  as  fodder,  although 
the  crop  of  grain  might  not  be  so 
abundant  when  the  plants  are  too 
much  crowded.  To  have  as  much 
green  food  as  possible,  the  rye  is  al- 
ways sown  broad-cast,  three  bushels 
at  least  to  an  acre  ;  some  sow  a  sack, 
and  with  advantage. 

"  There  is  a  variety  of  rye  men- 
tioned by  continental  authors  by  the 
name  of  Seiglc  de  la  St.  Jean,  or  St. 
John's-day  rye,  because  it  grows  so 
rapidly  that,  if  sown  about  St.  John's 
day  (24th  of  June),  it  will  be  tit  to 
mow  green  by  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, and  in  favourable  seasons  may 
be  fed  off  again  in  November,  with- 
out preventing  its  giving  ample  feed 
in  spring,  and  a  good  crop  of  grain 
at  the  next  harvest.  It  might  be  ad- 
vantageous to  introduce  this  variety. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  there  are  va- 
rieties of  the  same  kind  of  plants 
which  have  a  much  more  vigorous 
vegetation  than  those  connnonly  cul- 
tivated, and  the  introduction  of  them 
where  they  are  not  known  is  an  im- 
portant benetii  to  agriculture.  The 
678 


celebrated  agriculturist  Du  Hamel  du 
Monceau  mentions  an  individual  who 
had  obtained,  from  one  sowing,  five 
abundant  cuts  of  green  rye  for  cattle 
in  two  years.  If  any  green  plant  is 
cut  down  before  the  fructification  is 
completed,  it  will,  in  general,  throw 
out  fresh  stems  ;  and  in  very  rich 
soils  its  blossoming  may  thus  be  con- 
tinually retarded  until  the  roots  be- 
come too  weak  to  force  successive 
stems. 

"  Although  the  value  of  rye  as  a 
green  crop  is  fully  admitted,  very  lit- 
tle is  grown  for  food  ;  yet  on  some 
poor  soils,  where  wheat  and  barley 
are  now  often  sown  with  a  very  poor 
return,  and  at  a  great  expense  of 
manure,  rye  and  buckwheat  would 
give  a  much  greater  clear  profit,  and 
would  require  much  less  manuring  : 
and  where  there  are  not  ready  means 
of  improving  the  soil  by  claying  or 
marling,  the  cultivation  of  rye  would 
be  found  most  advantageous  ;  and, 
by  means  of  sheep,  very  poor  sandy 
soils  might  thus  be  made  profitable. 
The  grains  of  rye  from  the  distilleries 
are  excellent  food  for  milch  cows  and 
hogs,  which  fatten  readily  on  them. 

"  Rye  is  subject  to  most  of  the  dis- 
eases which  attack  the  plants  of  the 
family  of  the  Grajmnect,  such  as  rust, 
mildew,  burned  ear,  and  sinut-ball. 
But  there  is  one  remarkable  disease, 
which,  although  it  is  sometimes  found 
in  wheat,  is  much  more  commonly 
observed  in  rye.  It  is  called  the 
ergot,  the  French  name  of  a  cock's 
spur,  which  the  diseased  grain  re- 
sembles in  shape.  By  some  perver- 
sion of  the  Vital  functions  of  the 
plant,  the  embryo,  or  germen,  instead 
of  growing  into  a  regular  seed  filled 
with  farina,  shoots  out  a  long  black 
fungus-like  substance,  several  times 
the  length  of  a  common  seed,  which 
rises  above  the  chaff,  and  has  the 
appearance  of  a  slender  pyramid, 
slightly  bent  on  one  side.  This  sub- 
stance is  soft  and  easily  broken  or 
cut,  and  is  uniform  in  its  internal  tex- 
ture, without  any  husk  or  skin  over 
it.  If  it  were  merely  the  loss  of  the 
grain  of  which  the  ergot  takes  the 
place,   the  mischief  occasioned  by 


SAC 


SAI 


this  disease  would  be  comparatively 
trilling  ;  but  this  fungus,  when  taken 
internally,  mixed  with  the  rye  flour 
conv^erled  into  bread,  has  a  most 
powerful  and  deleterious  effect  on 
the  animal  frame.  When  taken  in 
any  considerable  quantitj-,  it  produ- 
ces the  most  dreadful  diseases.  This 
was  first  observed  in  France,  where 
a  great  scarcity  from  the  failure  of 
the  crops,  accompanied  with  a  more 
than  usual  production  of  the  ergot  in 
rye,  obliged  the  poorer  inhabitants 
of  certain  districts  to  make  bread 
from  diseased  rye.  The  consequen- 
ces were  horrid  to  behold  ;  their 
limbs  rotted  and  separated  from  the 
trunk  before  death  relieved  them  from 
their  misery.  The  ignorant  ascri- 
bed it  to  witchcraft,  but  experiments 
made  on  animals  by  feeding  them  on 
ergotted  rye  soon  showed  the  real 
cause. 

"  The  extraordinary  effects  of  the 
ergot  of  rye  have  made  it  the  subject 
of  experiments  in  medicine,  and  it 
has  been  found  extremely  useful  in 
certain  cases  of  protracted  labour. 
It  is  consequently  become  an  article 
of  commerce  as  a  drug." 

RYE  GRASS.     See  Grasses. 


SACCHARIC  ACID.  Anuncrys- 
tallizable  acid,  produced  by  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  on  sugar.  Its  salts  are 
called  saccharates. 

SACCHAROMETER.  An  imple- 
ment for  taking  the  specific  gravity 
of  sirups  and  worts.  Baume's  hy- 
drometer is  chietly  used. 

SACCHAROULMIN  and  ULMIC 
ACID.  A  brown,  brilliant  substance 
obtained  by  digesting  sugar  for  a  long 
time  in  dilute  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid. 

SACCHOLACTIC  ACID.  Mucic 
acid,  obtained  by  treating  sugar  of 
milk  with  nitric  acid. 

SACK.  A  coarse,  large  bag ;  a 
measure  of  three  bushels. 

SAC  OF  THE  EMBRYO.  In  bot- 
any, the  small  enclosed  body  in  which 
the  embryo  is  placed  during  its 
growth. 

SACRUM.  The  lowest  portion  of 
the  spine. 


SAFFLOWER.  Tlie  Carthamus 
tinctorius,  bastard  saffron.  An  an- 
nual of  the  family  Composkcc,  the 
flowers  of  which  yield  a  rich  red  col- 
our when  treated  with  solution  of 
carbonate  of  soda.  Rouge  is  made 
from  them.  There  is  no  difficulty  in 
their  cultivation. 

SAFFRON.  Crocus  sativus.  A 
bulbous  plant  with  purple  flowers,  the 
stamens  of  which  yield  a  bright  yel- 
low colour  to  hot  water.  They  are 
used  in  medicine,  but  are  of  no  im- 
portance. The  cultivation  presents 
no  difficulties.  The  stamens,  or  in- 
ternal, thread-like  parts  of  the  flow- 
er, are  to  be  collected  when  of  the 
brightest  colour,  and  dried  loosely 
without  compression.  The  bulbs  are 
placed  in  a  fair  soil  six  inches  apart, 
in  June,  and  the  flowers  gathered  in 
September,  the  stigmas  being  pluck- 
ed out  and  dried  in  a  warm  room. 
The  first  year  the  yield  does  not  ex- 
ceed three  pounds,  but  in  the  second 
and  third  twenty-four  are  obtained. 
The  bulbs  are  taken  up  and  divided 
the  third  year. 

SAFFRON,  MEADOW.  Colchi- 
cum. 

SAGAPENUM.  A  fcetid  gum  res- 
in from  a  species  of  ferula. 

SAGE.  Salvia  officinalis.  A  well- 
known  aromatic  perennial.  The  soil 
should  be  dry,  and  tolerably  rich.  It 
is  propagated  by  splitting  the  roots, 
or  by  root  shoots. 

SAGITTATE.  Shaped  like  an  ar- 
row head. 

SAGO.  A  starchy  farina  from  the 
pith  of  several  palm-trees,  as  the  Sa- 
gus  farinifera,  Rhumphii,  &c.  It  is  a 
good,  wholesome  food,  and  much  es- 
teemed for  puddings  and  gruel.  In 
England  a  gruel  of  sago  is  often  giv- 
en to  horses  after  a  hard  run.  The 
Florida  arrow-root  is  a  kind  of  sago 
obtained  from  the  pith  of  the  Zamia 
integrifolia  and  pumila,  indigenous 
plants. 

SAINFOIN.  Hcdi/sarum  onohri- 
chis{Fig.),  esparcette.  A  long-rooted, 
perennial,  leguminous  plant  with  red 
flowers.  It  is  native  in  calcareous 
soils. 

"  There  are  few  plants  which  have 
679 


SAINFOIN. 


more  rapidly  improved  the  value  of 
poor,  thin,  calcareous  soils  tliaii  sain- 


foin ;  and  in  the  richer  kinds  of  loam, 
which  contain  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  calcareous  matter,  its  value 
surpasses  even  that  of  broad  clover, 
giving  fully  as  great  a  return,  with  a 
much  smaller  expenditure  of  manure. 
The  plant  has  a  strong,  woody,  and 
fibrous  root,  which  insinuates  itself 
into  the  fissures  of  calcareous  rocks, 
and  finds  moisture  in  the  dryest  sea- 
sons, while  its  spreading  fibres  keep 
the  earth  from  being  washed  down 
the  steep  slopes  of  the  hills.  In  fa- 
vourable situations,  it  may  be  made 
into  hay  twice  in  the  year,  or  cut  oft- 
ener  as  green  food.  In  the  most  arid 
and  exposed  situations  it  gives  at 
least  one  good  crop  of  hay.  The 
plant  grows  about  two  feet  high,  and 
the  stem  branches  out  into  many 
compound  leaves.  After  it  has  been 
mown,  it  shoots  out  rapidly  again, 
and  may  be  advantageously  depas- 
tured by  every  kind  of  cattle  or  sheep. 
There  are  varieties  of  the  plant  which 
differ  in  the  rapidity  of  their  growth; 
the  best  is  called,  in  France,  esparcetle, 
or  sainfoin  a  deux  coupes.  From 
France  it  has  been  introduced  into 
England.  The  duration  of  sainfoin 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and 
the  state  it  was  in  v\ith  respect  to 
weeds  when  it  was  sown.  A  cold, 
wet  subsoil  soon  destroys  the  roots, 
whereas  a  free  and  dry  one,  whether 
680 


rocky  or  gravelly,  gives  them  vigour. 
Grass  and  weeds,  which  choke  the 
crown  of  the  plant,  soon  cause  it  to 
decay,  as  is  the  case  with  lucern. 
With  every  advantage,  it  may  last  in 
vigour  ten  years,  especially  if  it  is  oc- 
casionally invigorated  with  a  top- 
dressing  of  manure  or  ashes,  or,  which 
is  best  of  all,  with  diluted  urine,  or 
the  drainings  from  dunghills.  Du- 
ring that  time  it  may  be  cut  twice  for 
hay  every  year,  taking  care  to  cut  it 
before  the  liower  is  faded  or  the  seed 
formed  ;  and  if  sheep  are  folded  on 
it  after  the  second  cutting,  the  next 
crop  will  well  repay  the  trouble.  It 
is  usually  sown  in  spring  in  a  crop  of 
barley  or  oats,  which  should  be  sown 
thin  in  order  that  the  sainfoin  may 
not  be  smothered.  The  land  should 
have  been  prepared  by  a  cleansing 
crop.  From  three  to  four  bushels  of 
seed  may  be  sown,  harrowed  in,  and 
rolled.  It  is  not  often  drilled,  al- 
though this  method,  by  allowing  the 
use  of  the  hoe  between  the  rows, 
would  much  strengthen  the  young 
plants,  and  protect  them  against 
coarse  grasses,  which  are  their  great- 
est enemies.  In  the  first  year  the 
sainfoin  should  not  be  fed  off  by 
sheep  ;  and  if  it  is  mown,  it  should 
not  be  mown  too  close  to  the  ground. 
The  crown  of  the  root  in  the  young 
plant  rises  a  little  above  the  ground, 
and  if  this  be  bit  off,  or  cut  with  the 
scythe,  the  plant  dies.  It  is  useful  to 
harrow  the  ground  lightly,  to  draw 
the  earth  round  the  roots,  and  to  de- 
stroy seed  weeds  soon  after  the  bar- 
ley or  oats  are  reaped.  The  sainfoin 
does  not  produce  a  large  crop  the 
first  year,  for  some  of  the  seeds  will 
lie  a  twelvemonth  in  the  ground  be- 
fore they  spring  up.  It  is  in  perfec- 
tion after  the  second  year,  when  a 
'  portion  may  be  reserved  for  seed. 
j  Sainfoin  hay  is  extremely  nourishing 
j  for  every  kind  of  cattle,  especially  if 
'  it  has  been  made  without  rain.  Al- 
I  though  it  is  not  apt  to  heat  in  the 
stack,  it  must  be  put  up  in  a  very  dry 
:  state ;  and  if  it  has  suffered  from  rain, 
too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  thor- 
oughly to  dry  it ;  for  the  water  insin- 
;  uates   itself  by  capillary   attraction 


SAINFOIN. 


into  the  hollow  stems,  and  is  long  in 
evaporating,  so  that  when  it  feels 
quite  dry  it  may  yet  eoiitain  nuicli 
water.  The  mode  of  diseovei/ng  this 
is  to  twist  it  strongly  in  tlic  liands 
into  a  rope,  when  the  moist iiro.  if 
t^iere  is  any,  will  ooze  out.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  let  it  dry  thoroughly,  than,  by 
carrying  it  in  a  hurry,  to  run  the  risk 
of  its  becoming  mouldy  within.  In 
very  precarious  seasons  it  may  be 
carried  in  a  green  state,  provided 
there  be  no  moisture  in  it  from  dews 
or  showers,  and  stacked  in  alternate 
layers  with  good  straw.  It  will  im- 
part some  of  its  fragrance  to  the 
straw,  and  lose  none  of  its  nutritive 
qualities.  The  same  may  be  done 
with  lucern  or  clover.  The  most  ad- 
vantageous use  of  sainfoin,  however, 
is  to  cut  it  green  and  give  it  immedi- 
ately to  the  cattle.  There  is  no  dan- 
ger of  their  being  hoven  by  it,  for  it 
ferments  very  slowly,  owing  to  the 
fibrous  nature  of  the  stem.  If  the 
situation  of  the  field  admits  of  occa- 
sional irrigation,  without  danger  of 
the  water  stagnating,  the  produce  of 
the  sainfoin  will  be  greatly  increased ; 
and  it  may  then  be  cut  four  or  even 
five  times  in  a  season  without  fear 
of  exhausting  its  strength.  When  it 
begins  to  appear  thin  on  the  ground, 
and  other  plants  seem  to  get  the  bet- 
ter of  the  sainfoin,  it  is  time  to  break 
it  up.  The  land  will  be  found  much 
improved  in  fertility  by  the  sainfoin. 
A  poor  chalk  or  gravel,  which  before 
would  scarcely  repay  the  seed  sown 
in  it,  will  now,  by  the  gradual  decay 
of  the  roots  and  fibres  of  the  sain- 
foin, produce  several  good  crops  with- 
out any  other  manure.  The  prudent 
farmer,  however,  will  not  entirely  de- 
stroy, by  repeated  crops  of  grain,  that 
cohesion  of  the  soil  which  is  produ- 
ced by  the  roots  of  the  sainfoin  ;  but 
by  a  judicious  course  and  proper  ap- 
plication of  the  mannre,  wiiich  the 
sainfom  enabled  him  to  make,  he  will 
keep  up  the  newly-acquired  fertility 
until,  in  the  course  of  ten  or  twelve 
years,  he  can  again  sow  sainfoin  seed 
in  it  with  the  prospect  of  a  crop  more 
abundant  than  the  first.  Many  a  poor, 
barren  tract  of  calcareous  rock  and 


gravel  has  been  fertilized  and  raised 
in  value  by  the  sole  effect  of  the  sain- 
foin, without  which  it  must  have  re- 
mained in  its  unproductive  state. 

".Mthough  a  chalky  soil  is  best 
adapted  to  tiie  growth  of  sainfoin,  it 
may  be  sown  with  advantage  in  all 
light  loams,  provided  the  substratum 
be  sound  and  dry.  On  very  rich,  deep 
moulds  lucern  is  a  more  profitable 
crop ;  but  sainfoin  will  tiirive  where 
lucern  would  fail ;  and  it  is  particu- 
larly adajjtcd  for  poor,  dry  soils. 

"There  is  nothing  peculiar  in  the 
manner  in  which  sainfoin  is  made 
into  hay.  It  should  not  be  shaken 
about  too  much,  for  fear  of  injuring 
the  dower  and  breaking  ofTthe  leaves. 
The  swarth  should  be  merely  turned 
over,  when  dry  on  one  side,  and  then, 
as  soon  as  it  is  dry  through,  it  should 
be  put  into  small  cocks,  occasionally 
spread  out  in  tlie  sun,  when  the  dew 
is  off  the  ground,  and  carried  to  the 
stack  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  made. 
It  should  take  a  good  heat  in  order  to 
make  it  compact,  but  without  acqui- 
ring too  dari<  a  colour.  Experience 
alone  can  teach  the  exact  time  when 
it  should  be  stacked.  When  it  is  left 
for  seed,  it  should  be  examined  care- 
fully after  the  blossom  fades.  The 
lower  pods  will  be  filled  with  ripe 
seed  before  the  blossoms  at  the  top 
of  the  spike  of  flowers  are  withered 
or  the  seed  formed  in  them.  If  the 
sainfoin  were  left  standing  till  these 
seeds  were  ripe,  the  lowest  would  be 
shed  ;  but  by  cutting  it  at  a  proper 
time  these  may  be  preserved,  while 
most  of  the  latter  will  ripen  in  the 
straw  sufficiently  to  vegetate  when 
sown.  Rainy  weather  is  very  inju- 
rious to  the  seed  crop  ;  a  fine  time 
should  therefore  be  selected,  if  pos- 
sible, even  at  the  risk  of  a  smaller 
crop.  The  seed  is  only  gathered  for 
sowing  ;  but  in  case  there  should  be 
more  than  is  required  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  no  ready  sale,  it  is  excel- 
lent food  for  horses.  The  produce 
varies  from  three  to  five  or  even  six 
sacks  per  acre.  It  is  easily  thrashed 
out,  and  this  operation  is  often  done 
on  a  cloth  in  the  field,  when  the  weath- 
er permits.  It  is  readily  done  by  a 
CSl 


SAL 


SAL 


thrashing  machino,  and  winnowed 
hl\e  corn.  On  the  whole,  tlieie  are 
few  plants  the  ciihivatioii  ol'  wliich  is 
so  advantageous  as  tiiai  of  sainiuin 
on  tlie  soils  on  which  it  thrives  best." 

SAINT  JOHN'S  WORT.  John's 
wort. 

SALAL  BERRY.  A  fruit  from 
the  Columhia,  of  a  dark  colour,  sweet 
taste,  and  the  size  of  a  grape. 

SAL  AiNLMOMAC.  Muriate  of 
ammonia.  A  common  salt  of  am- 
monia much  used  in  the  arts.  It  is 
very  soluble  in  water,  and  has  been 
used  as  a  steep  by  .Mr.  Campbell ;  one 
pound,  being  added  to  one  gallon  and 
a  half  of  water,  is  sufficient  for  one 
bushel  of  seed.  A  small  amount  of 
it  exists  in  putrescent  fluids.  The 
expense  of  this  preparation  will  prob- 
ably hinder  an  extensive  use. 

SALEP.  The  farinaceous  product 
of  the  roots  of  the  Orchis  niascvla. 

SALICIN.  A  neutral  crystalline 
body  existing  in  willow  bark. 

SALICYL.  An  hypothetical  com- 
pound radical,  C14  H5  ©4,  existing  in 
salicylous  acid,  (Sec.,  bodies  derived 
from  salicin. 

SALIFEROUS.  Containing  salt ; 
a  name  given  to  the  new  red  sand- 
stone formation. 

SALIFIABLE  BASE.  A  sub- 
stance which  combines  with  acids  to 
form  salts. 

SALIVA.  The  spittle  :  it  is  pre- 
pared by  the  parotid  and  other  glands, 
and  mixed  with  the  food  during  mas- 
tication :  its  office  is  important.  Ac- 
cording to  Liebig,  it  is  a  means  of 
introducing  oxygen  into  the  stomach 
to  accomplish  the  lirst  step  in  diges- 
tion. Its  loss  is  always  injurious  to 
animals. 

SALIVATION.  An  excessive  dis- 
charge of  saliva,  slobbering  ;  change 
of  food,  with  salt,  are  preventives  in 
cattle. 

SALLOWS.  Willows  which  grow 
in  marshy  lands,  and  produce  tough, 
strong  branches,  are  so  called. 

SALLOW  THORN.  Hippophai 
rhamnoides.  An  ornamental  shrub 
five  feet  in  height.  ! 

SALSIFY.    Tragopogonporrifolms. 
Vegetable  oyster.    A  biennial  com-  ' 
6S3 


posite  plant,  the  root  of  which  grows 
to  ilu^  si'/.e  of  a  small  carrot,  is  white, 
and  an  excellent  vegetable  ;  the 
young  spring  shoots  of  the  second 
year  are  also  eaten  as  asparagus. 
Sow  the  seed  in  April  or  May,  in 
drills,  twelve  inches  apart,  thin  to  six 
inches,  and  work  when  wanted  ;  the 
roots  are  taken  up  l)efore  late  frosts, 
and  kept  in  a  moist  cellar.  For  seeds, 
set  out  some  thrilty  plants  in  spring, 
or  some  may  be  leit  in  the  ground. 

SALSILLA.  An  herbaceous  i)lant 
of  Peru,  of  the  genus  Alslrcemciia, 
cultivated  for  its  edible  roots. 

SALT,  CO.MMON.  Chloride  of 
sodium.  It  requires  three  times  its 
weight  of  water  lor  solution,  and  is 
composed  of  one  equivalent  sodium 
(23  31)  and  one  chlorine  (3.')  47). 

It  is  a  substance  of  great  impor- 
tance in  agriculture  :  in  thepurestale, 
as  a  means  of  preserving  butter  and 
meats,  or  supplying  cattle  with  a 
wholesome  and  necessary  food,  and, 
in  the  impure  state,  as  a  manure  and 
steep  for  seeds. 

As  a  Sleep. — A  strong  solution,  or 
ordinary  brine,  is  an  admirable  prep- 
arative for  wheat,  oats,  and  grains  ; 
it  destroys  the  seeds  of  smut  and 
other  parasites,  as  well  as  the  eggs 
of  insects,  and  also  enables  us  to  sep- 
arate the  plump,  heavy  kernels  from 
the  light  and  motheaten.  It  has 
proved  a  certain  remedy,  even  when 
the  grain  was  known  to  be  smutted. 

In  doses  of  fifteen  to  thirty  bushels 
to  the  acre,  it  is  used  in  Cheshire  on 
a  clean  fallow  to  destroy  insects  in 
the  ground,  couch  grass,  and  other 
noxious  weeds  ;  the  land  is  left  un- 
sown for  three  to  six  months  after; 
as  a  manuring,  in  quantities  of  three 
to  five  bushels,  on  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
potatoes,  turnips,  and  other  crops,  it 
has  often  produced  the  best  results. 
It  is  not  indicated  on  those  soils 
which  are  within  reach  of  the  sea  air, 
as  they  receive  a  sufficiency. 

Plants  absorb  weak  solutions  of 
salt,  but  are  injured  by  a  strong  dose ; 
they  also  possess  the  power  of  de- 
composing it,  and  appropriating  its 
soda.  There  are  failures  when  salt 
is  used  indiscriminately  ;  but  all  the 


I 


SAL 

plants  which  require  much  soda,  or 
alkali,  and  grow  distant  from  the  sea, 
are  undoulitedly  benefited  thereby. 

Salt  is  of  great  use  in  composts 
with  lime,  vegetable  matter,  and 
earth.  If  these  be  kept  moist,  but 
sheltered,  there  is  gradually  formed 
the  carbonate  of  soda  and  chloride  of 
calcium,  both  of  which  are  excellent 
manures.  The  heap  should  l)c  stir- 
red often,  and  contain  as  much  lime 
as  salt,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
vegetable  matter  and  earth  to  keep 
the  whole  moist.  Or  the  heap,  in- 
stead of  containing  salt,  may  be  wa- 
tered with  salt  water,  or  made  up 
with  sea-weeds  or  salt  muck. 

Salt,  in  small  quantities,  is  also  a 
desirable  addition  to  the  farm-yard 
manure,  and  all  vegetable  composts. 

SALTING  MACHINF.  "  The  in- 
strument resembles  a  common  syr- 
inge of  more  than  ordinary  dimen- 
sions, and,  although  not  quite  so  sim- 
ple in  its  con.strucaon,  it  is  intended 
to  be  userf  in  the  same  way  as  the 
syringe,  provided  the  point  or  tube 
be  rot  exposed  to  the  air.  The  ad- 
vantages to  be  derived  from  the  use 
of  the  instrument  arc  explained  by 
the  fact  that  a  joint  of  meat  may,  in 
the  simplest  manner,  l)e  properly 
salted  in  less  than  ten  minutes.  The 
brine  is  made  of  the  usual  ingredients, 
and  after  the  salt  and  other  substan- 
ces are  completely  dissolved,  the  li- 
quid is  poured  into  the  machine,  and 
the  nipple,  or  tube  (the  circumfer- 
ence of  which  is  perforated  with 
three  small  holes),  is  inserted  into  the 
most  solid  part  of  a  joint  of  meat, 
and  the  contents  are,  by  a  very  strong 
pressure,  forced  through  the  fibres 
until  the  brine  is  seen  to  escape  on 
the  surface.  For  this  purpose,  a 
smaller  quantity  of  pickle  is  used 
than  is  employed  in  the  ordinary 
method  of  curing  meat,  and  the  bone 
(if  there  be  any)  in  the  centre  be- 
comes thoroughly  impregnated  with 
the  fluid.  By  the  present  mode  of 
salting  meat,  it  is  a  matter  of  some 
difficulty  to  inject  the  brine  into 
the  iimermost  part  of  a  large  joint, 
whereas  by  the  process  which  is 
adopted  in  the  use  of  the  instrument, 


SAP 

the  size  or  substance  of  the  meat 
presents  no  additional  trouble  to  the 
o])crator." 

SALT  MARSHES.  Marshes 
washed  by  sea  water .-  the  herbage 
is  coarse,  but  often  very  nutritious, 
and  preferred  by  cattle. 

SALT  OF  LEMONS.  Binoxalate 
of  potash,  used  in  removing  iron 
mould  from  linen. 

S A LTPETi;  E.     See  Nitre. 

SALT,  SPIRIT  OF.  Muriatic 
acid. 

SALTS.  Chemical  compounds, 
wiiich  are  usually  (oxysalts)  formed 
of  a  base  and  acid,  and  possess  nei- 
ther acidity  nor  alkaline  action.  Ha- 
loid salts  are  those  which  are  binary, 
containing  a  metal  in  combination 
with  an  electro-negative  element 

SALTWORT.  The  genus  Sali- 
cornia,  which  grows  on  salt  marshes  : 
the  ashes  yield  barilla. 

SALVE.     An  ointment. 

SALVER- SHAPED.  Hypocra- 
teriform.  A  monopetalous  corolla, 
with  a  long  tube  and  spreading  limb 
at  the  top. 

SALVING  SHEEP.  Anointing 
them  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and  but- 
ter or  lard.     See  Skccp. 

SAL  VOL.\TILE.  Sesquicarbon- 
ate  of  ammonia,  or  smelling  salts. 

SA.MARA.  An  indehiscent,  few- 
celled  seed,  with  an  expansion  of  tis- 
sue resembling  wings,  as  the  pods  of 
the  ash  and  alanthus. 

SAND.  Divided  silicious  matter: 
it  is  extremely  permeable  to  water, 
retains  heat  well,  but  is  infertile. 
Sand  is  much  used  to  improve  the 
texture  of  stifT  clays,  but  vegetable 
matter  does  this  better,  while  it  en- 
riches the  soil. 

SANDAL  WOOD.  Pterocarpus 
santalhius.  Red  saunders,  a  dye 
wood,  but  giving  fugitive  reds. 

SAND  BATH.  A  quantity  of  sand 
heated  by  a  flue,  and  used  in  the  lab- 
oratory. 

SAND  CRACKS.  Fissures  in  the 
hoofs  of  horses,  from  which  matter 
exudes  ;  it  is  customary  to  fire  the 
edges  of  the  wound,  dress  with  hot 
pitch,  and  bandage.  They  produce 
much  lameness. 

683 


SAU 

SANDSTONE.  A  rock  made  of 
sand  cemented  together,  or  merely 
compressed  together. 

SANDWORT.  Plants  of  the  ge- 
nus Areiiaria :  thcy  are  succulent  and 
harmless. 

SANICLE,  SANICULA.  A  genus 
of  umbelliferous  weeds. 

SANIES.  A  thin,  foetid  discharge 
from  sores. 

SAP.  The  fluid  of  vegetables  and 
trees.  That  absorbed  from  the  soil 
is  called  the  asccndmg  sap  ;  it  passes 
to  the  leaves  along  the  cellular  tissue 
of  herbs,  and  along  the  new  wood 
{alburnum)  of  trees.  In  the  leaf,  by 
the  action  of  light,  it  is  converted 
into  a  mucilaginous  fluid,  the  elabo- 
rated sap,  which,  moving  from  the 
leaf,  is  diffused  to  all  parts  of  the 
plant  along  the  space  between  the 
bark  and  new  wood  ;  out  of  this  sap, 
new  roots,  buds,  flowers,  seeds,  and 
partially  the  fruit  is  formed. 

SAPAN  WOOD.  A  dye  wood  re- 
sembling Brazil  wood. 

SAP  WOOD.  The  alburnum,  or 
new  wood. 

S  A  P  S  A  G  O.  A  Swiss  cheese, 
flavoured  with  mellilot. 

SAPHENA.  The  large  vein  of 
the  thigh. 

SAPROPHAGANS.  A  tribe  of 
coleopterans,  many  of  which  feed  on 
decaying  matters. 

SARCOCELE.  A  tumefaction  of 
the  testes. 

SARCOCARP.  The  fleshy  sub- 
stance of  fruits. 

SARCOCOLLA.     A  kind  of  gum. 

SARMENTUM.  A  runner,  such 
as  that  of  the  strawberry. 

SARSAPARILLA.  The  roots  of 
several  species  of  Smilax  growing  in 
tropical  America  ;  the  decoction  is 
much  used  as  an  alterative. 

SASH.  In  building,  a  piece  of 
framing  for  holding  the  squares  of 
glass  in  a  window.  It  is  of  two  sorts, 
viz.,  that  called  the  French  sash, 
which  is  hung  like  a  door  to  the  sash- 
frame  ;  and  that  in  which  it  moves 
vertically,  from  being  balanced  by  a 
weight  on  each  side,  to  which  it  is 
attached  by  lines  running  over  pul- 
leys at  the  top  of  the  sash-frame. 
684 


SCA 

When,  in  a  window,  both  the  upper 
and  lower  sashes  are  moveable,  the 
sashes  arc  said  to  be  double  hung, 
and  single  hung  when  only  one  of 
them  moves. 

SASSAFRAS.  Laurus  sassafras. 
A  well-known  tree,  the  wood  and 
roots  of  which  arc  highly  aromatic  ; 
in  poor,  worn  lands  it  is  little  more 
than  a  shrub,  but  on  the  borders  of 
Southern  swamps  sometimes  attains 
fifty  to  seventy  feet.  The  wood  is 
tough  and  very  durable,  resisting 
worms  :  it  is  but  little  known.  A 
beer  is  made  of  the  bark  of  the  young 
shoots,  boiled  with  sugar  or  molasses, 
and  fermented. 

SATURATION.  A  chemical  ex- 
pression, signifying  either  that  no 
more  of  a  given  substance,  or  salt, 
can  be  disiolved  ;  or  that,  in  a  com- 
pound, the  combination  of  its  parts 
IS  complete  or  saturated. 

SAUER  KRAUT.     See  Callage. 

SAURIANS.  The  Rubdivision  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  including  the 
crocodiles,  lizards,  <Scc.  ;  they  have 
four  legs,  and  are  covered  with  a  sca- 
ly epidermis. 

SAVANNAHS.  Extensive  allu- 
vial flats  ;  the  prairies. 

S  A  V  I  N.  Juiiiperus  salina,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  a  powerful  drug. 
In  the  United  States,  tlie  red  cedar  is 
often  called  savin. 

SAWDUST.  When  rotted  in  the 
compost  heap,  or  with  lime  and  earth, 
it  forms  a  good  manure  for  improving 
the  texture  of  soils. 

SAW  FLIES.  An  extensive  fam- 
ily of  hymenopterous  insects,  of  the 
genera  Cimbcx,  Tcnthredo,  Sclandria, 
&.C.  The  perfect  insects,  resembling 
bees  and  wasps,  are  seen  in  summer 
hovering  over  the  plants  they  feed 
on.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a 
slit  made  in  the  young  stem,  or  in 
leaves  ;  the  larvae,  which  are  called 
false  caterpillars,  feed  on  leaves  and 
buds,  and  are  extremely  voracious. 
In  some  eight  weeks,  they  descend 
to  the  ground  and  form  a  web  either 
among  the  dead  leaves,  in  the  bark, 
or  under  ground  :  the  grub  remains 
eight  months  before  changing  to  the 
fly.  They  are  very  destructive:  whale- 


SCA 


SCO 


oil  soap  water,  tobacco  water,  and 
lime  are  used  to  destroy  them. 

SAW,  PRUNING.  This  is  a  small 
saw,  set  in  a  long  handle,  and  used 
to  prune  trees. 

SAVORY.  The  summer  savory 
{Satumja  hortevsis)  is  an  annual,  and 
propagated  by  seed  ;  the  wmlcr  (S. 
vwntaiia)  is  perennial,  and  manaj^ed 
in  the  same  way  as  sage,  wiiifii  it 
greatly  resembles.  They  are  labiate 
plants. 

SAXIFRAGE.  Flowering  plants 
of  the  genus  Saxifras^a. 

SAXON  BLUE.  A  solution  of  in- 
digo in  sulphuric  acid,  used  as  a  dye. 

SCAB.     A  disease  of  sheep. 

SCABIOUS.  Weeds  of  the  genus 
Scakiosa,  at  one  time  celebrated  for 
curing  the  itch. 

SCABROUS.  Rough,  from  minute 
inequalities. 

SCAFFOLDING.  The  temporary 
frame-work  put  up  in  building. 

SCALDED  CREAM.  Clotted 
cream  ;  cream  raised  from  milk  by 
heating. 

S  CALL  I  ON.  Akindof  0/iiOH, 
which  see. 

SCALPEL.  A  small  knife,  con- 
venient for  dissections  or  surgical  op- 
erations. 

S(]AM.MONY.  The  gum  resin  of 
the  CoiiEoli-idus  scaminonca,  an  East- 
ern plant.   It  closely  resembles  jalap. 

SCANDENT,  SCANDENS. 
Climbing  branches. 

SCANSORIALS,  SCANSORES. 
Climbmg  birds,  as  the  woodpeckers  : 
they  have  two  toes  before  and  two 
behind  on  each  foot. 

SC.\NTLING.  "  In  building,  the 
measures  of  breadth  and  thickness 
of  a  piece  of  timber  or  other  mate- 
rial. It  is  also  the  name  of  a  piece 
of  timber  when  under  five  inches 
square." 

SCAPE.  A  flower  stem  or  pedun- 
cle rising  from  the  ground,  as  in  the 
hyacinth,  flag. 

SCAPULA.     The  shoulder-blade. 

SCAPULARS.  The  shoulder 
feathers  which  cover  the  sides  of  the 
back  in  birds. 

SCAPUS.  The  stem  of  a  feather. 
In  architecture,  a  shaft. 

M  M  M 


SCARAB.EIDANS.  A  family  of 
lamellicorn  beetles. 

SCA RC EM  I'^NT.  A  rebate  or  set 
back  in  a  wall,  or  bank  of  eartii. 

SCARFING.  The  union  of  two 
timbers,  to  answer  as  one  :  they  are 
made  fast  by  bolts. 

SCARFSKIN.  The  epidermis,  a 
delicate  covering  of  the  true  skin. 

SCARIFICATOR.  A  cupping  in- 
strument. 

S(;ARIFIER.  An  implement  be- 
tween the  harrow  and  cultivator  for 
pulverizing  the  soil.     See  Cultivator. 

SCARLET  DYE.  Prcparatton.— 
For  each  pound  of  cloth  take  14 
drachms  of  cream  of  tartar ;  when 
the  water  boils  and  tiie  tartar  is  all 
dissolved,  pour  in  14  drachms  of  so- 
lution of  tin,  and  let  the  whole  boil 
a  few  minutes  :  introduce  tiie  cloth, 
boil  two  hours,  let  it  drain  and  cool. 

For  the  Colour  Bath. — For  each 
pound  of  cloth  take  two  drachms  of 
cream  of  tartar  ;  when  the  bath  be- 
gins to  boil,  add  one  ounce  of  fine 
cochineal  powder,  stir  well  with  a 
willow  switch,  and  let  it  boil  for  a  few 
minutes ;  pour  in  gradually  one  ounce 
of  solution  of  tin,  stirring  continual- 
ly. Introduce  the  prepared  clotli  and 
dye  as  quickly  as  possible  :  it  will  be 
a  beautiful  scarlet.  In  the  colour 
bath,  two  ounces  of  solution  of  tin 
may  be  taken,  and  no  cream  of  tartar. 

SCELIDES.  The  posterior  or  low- 
er extremities. 

SCHAPHOID.  Shaped  like  a  lit- 
tle i)oat. 

SCHEELES  GREEN.  Mineral 
green,  arsemte  of  copper. 

SCHIST.     A  coarse  slate. 

SCIATIC.  Relating  to  the  hip 
joint,  as  the  sciatic  nerve. 

SCIRRUS.  An  indurated  gland  ; 
it  becomes  a  cancer  when  suppura- 
tion occurs. 

SCIURINES.  The  squirrel  family. 

SCLEROTICA.  The  white  mem- 
brane of  the  eve. 

SCOLOPENDR.E.  The  genus  of 
centi[)edes. 

SCOPIPEDS.  A  tribe  of  mellif- 
erous insects,  some  of  which  have 
the  posterior  feet  furnished  willi  a 
scopa,  or  little  tuft  of  hair. 

6S5 


SCY 


SCY 


SCORE.     20  pieces,  or  20  pounds. 

SCORL'E.  Cinders,  especially  of 
the  forge. 

SCORZONERA.  ScoizoJicra  His- 
panica.  "  This  plant  has  long  been 
raised  in  British  gardens  for  culinary 
purposes,  and  especially  as  an  ingre- 
dient in  soups,  on  account  of  its  pal- 
atable and  nourishing  roots.  Some 
boil  and  cat  them  l:ke  carrots,  &c., 
in  which  case  they  should  be  depri- 
ved of  their  rind,  and  immersed  in 
cold  water  for  half  an  hour,  or  they 
will  be  bitter.  They  are  raised  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  manner  as  salsify. 
If  the  seeds  be  sown  in  April,  in  a 
good  deep  soil,  the  roots  will  attain 
perfection  in  autumn,  and  continue 
good  all  the  winter.  They  last  from 
three  to  four  years,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  earth  and  the  care  be- 
stowed upon  them  ;  but  it  is  better 
to  raise  a  few  from  seed  every  year." 
— (  Bridsrcman. ) 

SCOURING.  Excessive  purging. 
See  Ox,  Sheep,  &c. 

SCRAPER.  An  implement  to 
scrape  roads,  like  the  mouldcbeart. 

SCREEDS.  Wooden  rules  for 
running  mouldings. 

SCREENING.  Sifting  by  pass- 
ing through  a  screen  such  as  masons 
use. 

SCROFULA.  A  disease  of  the 
glands  about  the  neck,  followed  by 
debility  and  skin  diseases. 

SCRUPLE.  Twenty  grains  ;  the 
third  of  a  drachm. 

SCUFFLER.  A  light  scarifier,  or 
horse  hoe. 

SCUTATE.  Protected  by  large 
scales. 

SCUTELLIFORM.  Of  the  figure 
of  a  shield ;  leaves  having  the  foot- 
stalk terminating  in  the  centre  of  the 
lamina. 

SCURVY  GRASS.  Cochleana  of- 
ficinalis. A  plant  belonging  to  the 
same  genus  as  the  horseradish,  and 
sometimes  cultivated  for  its  leaves. 
It  is  propagated  by  seed,  and  prefers 
a  moist  soil. 

SCUTCHING.  Breaking  flax  or 
hemp.     See  Flax. 

Sc;YTHE.  "  The  common  scythe 
is  an  instrument  too  well  known  to 
6S6 


require  a  minute  description,  but  as 
nmch  of  its  utility  in  agriculture  de- 
pends on  a  correct  adjustment  of  its 
parts,  wo  shall  briefly  advcMt  to  them. 
The  blade  of  tin;  scythe,  whicli  is  al- 
ways curved,  with  the  cutting  edge 
on  the  concave  side,  is  fixed  to  the 
handle  at  an  angle  both  to  the  plane 
of  the  blade,  and  to  the  tangent  to 
the  curve.  It  is  on  the  nice  adjust- 
ment of  these  angles  that  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  instrument  depends.  A 
scythe  must  cut  the  corn  or  grass, 
especially  the  latter,  as  near  to  the 
ground  as  possible,  and  where  the 
land  lies  flat  and  the  stones  have  been 
removed  from  the  surface,  a  good 
scythe,  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  mow- 
er, will  cut  the  grass  so  near  to  the 
ground  that  little  or  no  .stubble  is  lelt. 
Every  farmer  knows  well  that  an  inch 
of  the  grass  near  the  ground  adds 
more  to  the  weight  of  the  hay  than 
several  inches  higher  up,  and  that  a 
skilful  mower,  with  a  good  scythe, 
can  easily  add  much  more  to  the  value 
of  the  crop  than  his  earnings  amount 
to,  however  liberally  he  may  be  paid, 
and  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance that  none  but  the  best  mowers 
be  intrusted  with  the  work,  and  that 
attention  be  paid  to  the  form  of  their 
scythes,  and  to  their  being  frequently 
whetted. 

"  In  some  countries  the  handle  of 
the  scythe  is  nearly  straight,  and  the 
end  of  it  passes  over  the  upper  part 
of  the  left  arm.  The  position  of  the 
mower  is  then  nearly  erect,  and  his 
body  turns  as  on  a  pivot,  carrying  the 
blade  of  the  scythe  parallel  to  the 
ground,  and  cutting  a  portion  of  a 
considerable  circle.  The  |;osition  of 
the  handle  in  this  case  must  be  such 
that  when  the  scythe  is  in  tiie  middle 
of  its  swing,  and  the  blade  parallel  to 
the  ground,  it  rests  naturally  on  the 
left  arm  above  the  elbow,  while  the 
mower  is  nearly  in  an  erect  position. 
By  turning  his  body  to  the  right,  and 
stooping  towards  that  side,  he  begins 
his  cut,  and  by  raising  himself  up,  the 
muscles  of  his  back  greatly  assist  in 
swinging  the  scythe  round. 

"  The  blades  of  the  scythes  on  the 
Continent  are  mostly  made  of  soft 


SCY 


SEA 


steel,  and  they  are  so  soft  that  the  in  Belgium,  where  it  was  first  no- 
edge  can  be  hammered  to  sharpen  it  ticed.  It  is  commonly  used  in  dif- 
and  keep  it  thin.  In  England  the  ferent  parts  of  the  Continent.  The 
scythes  are  forged  thin  and  well  tem-  Hainault  scythe  is  swung  by  the  pow- 
pered,  and  to  prevent  their  bending  er  of  the  wrist  principally.  It  does 
they  have  a  rim  of  iron  along  Die  not  cut  the  straw  by  so  oblique  a 
baclv  to  witiiin  a  few  inches  of  the  stroke  as  the  common  scythe,  but 
point.  Tills  saves  much  time  in  rather  as  a  bill-hook  or  axe  would  do, 
sharpening,  and  they  very  seldom  re-  meeting  the  straw  nearly  at  right 
quire  the  grindstone.  !  angles.     The  hook  collects  a  small 

"Most scythes  iiavetwo  projecting  bundle,  which  is  severed  at  a  stroke, 
handles  fixed  to  tSe  principal  handle,  and  the  left  foot  assists  in  holding 
by  which  they  are  held,  and  these  are  what  is  cut  and  rolled  together  with 
variously  put  on,  according  to  the  the  hook,  in  the  hollow  of  the  blade, 
fashion  of  the  district.  The  real  line  It  is  thus  laid  aside,  and  fit  to  be  tied 
of  the  handle  is  that  which  passes  up.  This  instrument  is  a  great  im- 
through  both  the  hands  and  ends  at  provement  on  the  English  fagging- 
the  head  of  the  blade.  This  may  be  hook,  which  is  used  in  the  same  man- 
a  straight  line  or  a  crooked  one,  gen-  ner,  the  left  arm  of  the  reaper  acting 
erally  tlie  latter,  and  by  moving  these  the  part  of  the  hook  ;  but  as  the  ban- 
handles  up  or  down  the  main  handle,  die  is  inserted  in  the  plane  of  the 
each  mower  can  place  them  so  as  blade,  it  causes  the  reaper  to  stoop 
best  suits  the  natural  size  and  posi-  ^  low,  which  is  fatiguing  to  the  loins, 
tion  of  his  body.  Hence  it  is  that  one  |  especially  of  elderly  people,  who  can 
man  can  seldom  mow  well  with  an-  [  more  readily  reap  with  the  Hainault 
other  man's  scythe.  scythe. 

"  In  mowing  grain  when  ripe,  which  I  "The  scythe  is  an  instrument 
is  the  best  mode  of  reaping,  the  scythe  which  should  be  more  generally  in- 
need  not  have  so  great  a  sweep,  nor  !  troduced  in  harvest,  and  experience 
is  it  necessary  to  cut  the  straw  so  I  has  proved  that  it  has  many  advauta- 
near  to  the  ground.  The  great  diffi- 1  ges  over  the  sickle  or  reaping-hook." 
o.ully  here  is  to  lay  the  cut  grain  even-  See  Harvest. 
ly,  so  that  the  binders  can  readily  j  SEA-KALE.  See  Kale,  Sea. 
collect  it  and  tie  it  into  sheaves.  1  SEA.M.  In  geology,  a  thin  layer 
When  the  grain  is  only  slightly  bent    ofa  given  rock  between  large  masses. 


down,  a  scythe  with  an  addition  ofa 
cradle  collects  the  slanting  straw 
more  easily.  The  cradle  is  a  species 
of  comb,  with  three  or  four  long  teeth 
parallel  to  the  back  of  the  blade,  and 
fixed  in  the  handle.     This  inserts  it-  j 


Also,  a  measure  of  eight  bushels,  or 
a  horse-load  of  wood. 

SEA  MUD.  The  muck,  or  mire,  of 
salt  marsiies. 

SEA  WARE.     See  Weeds. 

SEA  WATER.      This   has  been 


self  behind  the  straw  to  be  cut,  raises  used  as  a  manure  near  the  shore,  oc- 
it  up,  and,  by  a  peculiar  twist  of  the  casionally  with  good  effect.  It  is 
scythe  after  the  stroke,  it  is  left  so  useful  to  apply  it  over  compost  heaps 
as  to  be  easily  collected.  Those  who  '  containing  lime,  as  the  whole  is  much 
are  accustomed  to  use  the  cradle-  improved  in  fertilizing  power, 
scythe  do  the  work  rapidly  and  well.  !  SEA- WEEDS.  They  are  used  as 
"••  W  hen  the  grain  is  much  laid  and  manure  in  the  fresh  state,  being  turn- 
entangled,  it  is  impossible  to  use  the  ed  into  the  soil  as  soon  as  spread.  As 
common  scythe,  even  with  a  cradle,  they  contain  nearly  ninety  per  cent. 
This  has  probably  suggested  a  scythe  water,  the  quantity  to  be  applied  is 
to  be  used  with  one  hand,  while  a  very  great.  Some  farmers  waste 
hook  in  the  other  gathers  the  strag-  them  by  allowing  the  weeds  to  dry. 
gling  grain.  The  most  perfect  of  l  It  is  more  common  and  better  to 
these  scythes  is  called  the  Hainault  put  them  into  composts  and  farm-yard 
scythe,  from  a  province  of  that  name  i  manure  ;   the  pig-pen  is  a  favourite 

687 


SEC 


SEE 


place  to  cast  sea-wccd  into.     They  i 
decompose  rapidly,  and  will  even  act  i 
as  a  ferment  to  peat,  and  are  fertili- 
zing from  ilie  large  amount  of  salt 
and  nitrogen  they  contain. 

SEBACEOUS  GLANDS.  The 
minute  glands  of  the  skin,  which  ex- 
crete a  fatty  matter. 

SEBACIC  ACID.  An  acid  produ- 
ced during  the  destructive  distillation 
of  fats. 

SECALE.     Ergot.     See  Rye. 
SECHIUM.     A  new  vegetable 
fruit,  resembling  a  small  squash  in  ' 
size,  but  different  in  flavour  and  struc- 
ture, said  to  be  from  the  Scchium  edu-  [ 
Us,  a  South  American  plant. 

SECONDARY  ROCKS.  The  for-  { 
mations  lying  above  the  coal  and  be-  i 
tween  it  and  the  tertiary  series.  \ 
They  are  fossiliferous  and  stratified,  i 

SECRETION.  The  separation 
from  the  blood  or  sap  of  certain  prod- 
ucts, by  a  glandular  or  other  appara- 
tus ;  the  perspiration,  urine,  bile,  sal- 
iva, &c.,  are  secretions.  They  per- 
form important  offices  in  the  econo- 
my, and  cannot  be  arrested  without 
the  occurrence  of  disease. 

SECUNDINE.  The  second  en- 
velope of  the  ovule  in  plants.  The 
word  sccundincs  also  means  the  mem- 
branes which  cover  the  animal  foetus. 
SECURIFERS,  SECURIFERI 
(from  securis,  a  htUchet,  and  fcro,  I 
bear).  The  name  of  a  tribe  of  Tcrc- 
biantia,  or  boring  hymenopterous  in- 
sects, comprising  those  in  which  the 
females  have  a  saw-shaped  or  hatch- 
et-shaped terrebra  or  appendage  to 
the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen, 
for  the  purpose  of  preparing  a  place 


to  receive  the  eggs,  and  of  depositing 
them  therein. 

SECIJRIPALPS,  SECURIPALPI 
(from  securis,  a  huUhcl).  'i'lie  name 
of  a  family  of  coleopterous  insects, 
comprehending  those  in  which  the 
maxillary  palps  terminate  in  a  joint 
which  is  elongated  and  hatchet-sha- 
ped. 

SEDATIVES.  Medicines  which 
produce  sleep  and  diminish  pain,  as 
henbane,  camphor,  morphia. 

SEDGES.  Plants  of  the  genus 
Carex,  perennial,  coarse  false  grass- 
es, inhabiting  marshes  and  wet  pla- 
ces for  the  most  part. 

SEED.  The  reproductive  part  of 
the  plant.  It  is  usually  enclosed 
within  a  carpel  or  ovarium,  except  in 
pines,  which  are  gymnospermous,  or 
have  the  seeds  placed  in  an  open 
carpel.  Seeds  consist  of  an  external 
coat  or  testa,  an  embryo,  and  one  or 
two  seed  lobes  (coii/kdons).  They 
reproduce  the  species,  and  not  the 
variety  of  the  plant,  and  in  this  re- 
spect differ  from  buds  and  bulbs. 
The  finest  plants  should  be  selected 
for  seed,  and  only  the  principal  grain 
stems  allowed  to  remain,  tlie  small 
side  branches  being  pruned  off". 

The  seed  is  a  reservoir  of  the  most 
nutritious  parts  of  the  vegetable,  con- 
taining often  ten  times  more  nourish- 
ment than  any  other  part.  In  sowing, 
sound,  plump,  and  well-matured  seeds 
only  should  be  selected,  and  this  is 
done  by  screening  and  then  steeping 
in  a  brine  sufficiently  strong  to  float 
an  egg,  rejecting  the  grains  that  float. 
The  vegetative  power  of  seeds  kept  in 
the  usual  way  is  often  much  impaired 


Broad-casl. 


Wheat 

Oals 

Barley 

Rye 

Beans 

Pease 

Buckwheat  .  .  .  . 
Clover,  Red  .  .  .  . 
_—    White  ^^ij^^,l 

Red  Clover       J 

Rye  Grass 

Turnips 

Mangel-wurzel  .  .  . 
Potatoes 


September  to  November 

March  and  April 

March  to  May 

September 

March  and  April 

March  and  April 

April 

March  and  April 


May  to  Aujjust 
April  and  .May 
March  to  June 


2jt  to  34  bush. 
4  to  6  " 
3  to  4  " 
2Jto3J  " 
3  to  4  " 
34  to  4i     " 

2  to  2.^  " 
12  to  16  lbs. 

3  to  4  " 
2  " 
2  ** 

1  peck 

2  to  3  lbs. 


Drill. 


2  to  3  bush. 
H  to  4J  " 
2.^  to  3J  " 

2  to  3  " 
2.\  to  3i  " 

3  to  4  " 
2  " 
10  to  14  lbs. 


1 1 4  to  2  bush. 
2|to3     " 


2  to  3 
3 


li  to2  lbs. 
20  t  1  2.)  bush 


688 


SEN 

in  two  or  three  years,  but  if  kept  ab- 
solutely dry,  or  out  of  the  contact 
of  air,  some  retain  their  vitality  for 
ages. 

Manuring  the  seed  by  steeps,  and 
rolling  them  in  mixtures  of  blood  and 
lime,  <&c.,  has  of  late  been  practised 
with  great  success  ;  at  all  events,  it 
seems  to  destroy  rust  and  many  in- 
sects. 

The  preceding  table  shows  the 
quantities  of  seed  usually  sown  in 
England  per  acre.  They  exceed  our 
applications,  but  their  harvests  are 
verv  superior. 

SEED  LIP,     A  sowing  basket. 

SEED  LOBES.  The  fleshy  sub- 
stance of  the  seed,  the  cotyledons  : 
there  are  two  in  dkotijlcdonous  or 
exogenous  plants,  but  one  in  endo- 
gens,  such  as  grasses,  cerealia,  palms. 

SEEL.     A  season. 

SEGMENT.  A  slice,  a  portion 
cut  from  a  solid  by  a  line  or  plane. 

S  E  L  E  N  I  T  E.  Crystallized  sul- 
phate of  lime. 

SELENIUM.  An  elementary  body 
closely  resembling  sulphur.  Selenic 
acid  is  isomorphous  with  sulphuric 
acid  :  it  is  very  rare. 

SELLENDERS.  A  skin  disease 
of  the  bend  of  the  hock  in  horses, 
produced  by  want  of  cleanliness  :  the 
part  is  to  be  kept  clean. 

SEMEIOTIC.  Relating  to  the 
signs  or  symptoms  of  diseases. 

SENEGA  ROOT,  SENECA 
S N  A  K E  R  0  O T.  Polygala  senega. 
A  perennial-rooted,  common  plant, 
especially  in  the  South,  the  roots  of 
which  are  used  as  an  expectorant  : 
it  is  not  to  be  trusted  as  a  remedy 
for  snake  bites. 

SENNA.  Cassia  {acufifolia,  oho- 
vata,  &c.,)  senna.  A  small  legumin- 
ous shrub  of  Africa  and  Arabia,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  much  employed 
in  decoction  as  a  purge.  The  Mary- 
land senna  (C.  Marylandka)  is  of  the 
same  genus,  but  a  perennial  herb  ;  it 
grows  irom  four  to  six  feet  high  :  the 
leaves  should  be  collected  in  August 
and  carcfullv  dried. 

SENSIBLE  FROG.  The  part  of 
a  horse's  hoof  immediately  above  the 
bony  covering  ;  the  fleshy  sole. 

M  M  M  2 


SER 

SENSITIVE  PLANTS.  Plants 
or  slirubs  of  the  genus  Mimosa,  wliose 
leaves  fold  when  touched,  or  shaded 
from  the  sun. 

SEPALS.  The  leaflets  of  the  calyx. 

SEPTUM,  SEPTA.  A  partition, 
especially  in  a  seed  vessel. 

SEPTARIA.  Large  nodules  or 
masses  of  a  marly  clay  found  in  some 
geological  formations  ;  when  burned, 
they  form  Roman  cement,  which  has 
the  property  of  hardening  under 
water. 

SEPTEMBER.  This  is  the  month 
for  sowing  wheat ;  corn  is  gathered, 
and  preparations  are  made  to  fatten 
off  the  stock  for  sale  ;  pre[)are  for  ma- 
king cider,  and  let  the  root  crops  be 
hoed  and  kept  in  good  ordei',  for  they 
grow  much  this  month  :  potatoes  are 
to  be  taken  up  as  soon  as  the  vines 
die. 

In  the  garden,  fall  crops  are  to  be 
attended  to ;  budding  can  also  be 
practised  on  some  trees.  In  the 
South,  tobacco  is  ripenmg,  cotton  is 
to  be  picked,  and  preparations  for  the 
sugar  harvest  are  to  be  made  at  the 
end  of  the  month.  Wheat,  rye,  and 
winter  barley  are  to  be  sowed. 

SEPTIC.  Substances  or  causes 
hastening  putrefaction. 

SERICEUS.  Silky,  covered  with 
short,  soft  hairs. 

SERICIC  or  MYRISTIC  ACID. 
An  oily  acid  obtained  from  the  butter 
of  nutmegs. 

SERON.  A  buffalo's  hide  used 
for  packing  drugs. 

SEROSITY,  SEROUS  FLUID. 
See  Serum. 

SERPENTINE.  An  injected 
rock  of  a  greenish  colour,  consisting 
of  a  silicate  of  magnesia  (43  percent.), 
with  various  proportions  of  iron  and 
alumina. 

SERRATE.  Having  an  edge  cut 
into  sharp  teeth,  like  a  saw^ 

SERRICORNS.  A  coleopterous 
family,  many  of  which  have  serrated 
antenna:>. 

SERL'.M.  The  fluid  portion  of  the 
blood  ;  it  consists  of  a  solution  of  al- 
bumen in  soda,  with  salts,  and  con- 
tains 7  per  cent,  solid  matter :  in  the 
form  of  a  secretion  from  membranes, 
6S9 


SUA 


SHE 


it  is  called  scrosity,  or  serous  fluid, 
'i'ho  whey  of  milk. 

S1']RV1CE.  I'ljrus  lorminalis.  A 
small  tree  of  the  apple  gemi.s,  tiie  fruit 
of  which,  when  half  decayed,  is  eaten, 
and  closely  resembles  the  medlar : 
they  are  small.  The  P.  domeslica 
yields  a  better  fruit  of  the  same  kind. 

SESAMfJlD  (from  aijaauij,  a  seed). 
Small  bones  not  larger  than  a  pea, 
found  at  the  joints  of  the  toes  and 
fingers. 

SESASUM.     See  Bene. 

SESQUI.  One  and  a  half. .  Sesgm- 
oxide.  An  oxide  containing  three 
equivalents  of  oxygen,  and  two  of 
metal. 

SESSILE.  ^Vithout  stalk,  sitting 
on  the  stem. 

SETA.  A  term  used  by  botanists 
in  various  senses.  It  is  the  stalk 
that  supports  the  theca,  capsule,  or 
sporangium  of  mosses  ;  the  awn  or 
beard  of  grasses,  when  it  proceeds 
from  the  extreme  point  of  a  palea  or 
glume  ;  sometimes  the  glandular  acu- 
leus  of  roses,  and  also  the  abortive 
stamens  or  rudimentary  perianth  of 
cyperaceous  plants. 

SETACEOUS.  Bristle-like,  ^c- 
tose,  bristlv. 

S  E  T  6  N.  An  artificial  ulcer, 
made  by  passing  a  skein  of  silk  or  a 
piece  of  riband  under  a  portion  of  the 
skin  by  means  of  an  instrument  call- 
ed a  seton  needle,  which  is  a  flat 
blade  with  a  needle  eye  ;  the  thread 
is  occasionally  anointed  with  irrita- 
ting substances,  in  order  to  keep  up 
a  discharge  from  the  sore. 

SETS.  The  pieces  of  potato  used 
in  planting  :  when  the  whole  is  plant- 
ed, it  is  called  a  whole  set. 

SETTING.  In  building,  the  act 
of  solidifying,  as  in  mortar. 

SETT  OFF.  The  projecting  part 
of  a  wall  that  is  built  thinner  above 
than  below. 

SEXES.  In  plants,  the  stamens 
and  pistils  ;  the  former  being  called 
the  male,  and  the  latter  the  female 
organs,  from  a  fanciful  analogy. 

SHAB.     The  scab  of  sheep. 

SHADDOCK.     An  inferior  but 
very  large  orange  ;  the  fruit  of  the 
Citrus  decumaria. 
690 


SHAFT.  The  trunk  of  a  column  ; 
the  entrance  or  downward  excava- 
tion of  a  mine  ;  a  handle. 

SHAKES  IN  TREES.  Fissures, 
clefts,  rents,  or  black  and  rough  pla- 
ces in  trees  or  timber. 

S  H  A  L  E.  A  loose,  rotten,  or 
crumbling  slate. 

SILVLLOT.  Alium  esealonicum. 
It  is  stronger  than  the  onion,  but  has 
a  better  flavour.  The  offsets  for 
propagation  are  set  in  rows,  12  inches 
apart,  5  inches  in  the  row,  in  August 
and  September,  and  taken  up  in  May. 

SHANK  BONE.     The  femur. 

SHARE  OF  A  PLOUGH.  The 
point. 

SHEARING.  "  When  the  sheep 
are  to  be  shorn,  they  are  driven  to  a 
pen  or  other  enclosed  space,  and 
lirought  one  by  one  to  the  shearers. 
Tlie  sheep  to  be  shorn  is  first  placed 
upon  his  rump,  and  the  shearer,  with 
the  shears,  beginning  at  the  neck, 
clips  in  a  circular  direction  down  the 
belly  towards  the  back.  The  animal 
is  then  laid  on  his  side,  and  kept 
down  by  the  leg  of  the  shearer,  who 
clips  the  fleece  all  round  to  the  back. 
Turning  the  animal  on  the  other  side, 
he  clips,  in  like  manner,  round  to  the 
back ;  then  raising  the  sheep,  he  clips 
the  part  of  the  fleece  not  yet  cut 
away,  and  so  lets  the  animal  go,  ta- 
king care  that  it  shall  not  entangle 
itself  with  the  fleece.  The  fleece,  as 
soon  as  it  is  shorn,  is  taken  away  by 
an  attendant,  spread  out,  neatly  roll- 
ed up  with  the  inner  surface  outmost, 
and  then  deposited  in  some  dry  place 
until  it  is  packed  in  the  wool  sheets." 

SHEARING  RIVERS.  "The 
mowing  of  weeds  in  rivers  and  ponds 
is  done  in  the  usual  way  from  a  boat, 
in  which  the  operator  stands,  and  is 
rowed  forward  by  another  as  requi- 
red. Sometimes  scythe-blades  are 
tied  or  riveted  together,  and  worked 
by  means  of  ropes  like  a  saw  from 
one  shore  to  the  other,  called  shear- 
ing ;  but  the  first  mode  is  generally 
reckoned  the  best,  and  is  imquestion- 
ably  so  in  agriculture.'' 

SHEARLING.  A  sheep  once 
shorn. 

SHEARS.     A  large  kind  of  scis- 


SHEEP. 


sors  used  in  clippinff  hedges  and  pru- 
ninij  yoiHiR  l)raiiclu>s  ;  tliey  are  oCtcn 
worked  hy  a  rope  at  the  end  of  a 
long  handle.  Slieep-shears  are  well 
known  :  they  have  been  unimproved 
in  ages. 

SHEEP.  Ovisaries.  The  follow- 
ing is  principally  from  Mr.  Youatt 
and  Mr.  Spooner,  the  two  best  wri- 
ters on  sheep ; 

"  The  sheep  belongs  to  the  class 
mammalia,  to  the  order  ruminantia, 
with  four  stomachs,  and  the  organs 
of  digestion  disposed  for  chewing  the 
cud  ;  to  the  tribe  capridm,  with  horns 
persistent,  and  placed  on  an  osseous 
nucleus  ;  and  to  the  g(?nus  ovis,  with 
or  without  horns,  but  these,  when 
present,  uniformly  taking,  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  a  lateral  and  spiral 
direction.  The  forehead  of  the  sheep 
is  arched,  and  protruded  before  the 
base  of  the  horns  ;  there  are  no  lach- 
rymal ducts  ;  the  nostrils  are  length- 
ened and  oblique,  and  terminate  with- 
out a  muzzle  ;  there  is  no  beard  prop- 
erly so  called  ;  the  ears  are  small,  and 
the  legs  slender.  The  hair  is  of  two 
kinds,  one  hard  and  close,  and  the 
other  woolly,  the  wool  prepondera- 
ting in  proportion  as  the  animal  is 
domesticated. 

"  There  is  a  breed  of  sheep  now 
extending  over  the  north  and  south 
of  Asia,  and  Palestine,  and  Russia, 
and  of  which  the  flocks  of  the  Cal- 
nuicks  and  Tartars  of  the  present 
day  are  almost  entirely  composed. 
They  are  distinguished  by  two  mass- 
es of  fat  commencing  at  the  loins, 
gradually  swelling  into  a  considera- 
ble mass  towards  the  rump,  and  pre- 
senting behind  two  enlargements  of 
a  more  or  less  globular  form.  The 
owners  of  the  modern  improved 
breeds  would  find  great  fault  with 
some  points  about  them ;  but  many 
of  their  defects  have  doubtless  been 
the  result  of  neglect. 

"  Some  naturalists  have  traced  the 
origin  of  the  sheep  to  the  Argali  or 
the  Mouflon.  The  Argali  is  a  spe- 
cies of  mountain-sheep,  found  in  small 
flocks  on  the  high  grounds  of  A.sia, 
extending  from  the  precipices  of 
Khamtschatka  in  the  north,  to  those 


j  of  Mongolia  in   the  centre,  and  of 

I  Caucasus    in    W(\stern   Asia.      The 

I  Mouflon  is  an  inhabitant  of  Southern 

I  Europe,  Corsica,  (Jrete,  and  the  isl- 

j  ands    of   the    Grecian    Archipelago. 

They  congregate  in  large  groups,  and 

possess  all  the  wildness  of  the  Argah. 

Neither  of  these,  however,  has  the 

slightest  claim  to  being  the  original 

I  parent  of  the  sheep.     They  are  de- 

I  scendants  of  those  who  liave  escaped 

[  from  the  dominion  of  man,  and  are 

retreating  from  desert  to  desert,  in 

proportion  as  the  pojjulatiou  of  the 

country  increases. 

"  It  will  be  most  satisfactory  to  the 
reader  to  commence  with  the  history 
of  the  British  sheep,  and  then  com- 
pare with  them  the  breeds  and  man- 
agement in  other  countries. 

"  Different  names  are  given  to  the 
sheep,  according  to  its  sex  and  age. 
The  male  is  called  a  ram  or  tup. 
After  weaning,  he  is  said  to  be  a  hog, 
a  hotfgct,  or  hoggcrd,  a  lamb  hng,  or 
tup  hog,  or  teg;  and  if  castrated,  a 
wether  hog.  After  shearing,  and  when 
he  is  probably  a  year  or  a  year  and  a 
half  old,  he  is  called  a  shear  hog, 
shearling,  dinmont,  or  tup ;  and  when 
castrated,  a  shearing  wether.  After 
the  second  shearing,  he  is  a  tu-o-shcar 
ram,  tup,  tcethcr.  At  the  expiration 
of  another  year,  he  is  a  three-shear 
ram. 

"  The  female  is  a  ewe  or  gimmer 
lamb  until  weaned,  and  thena  gim- 
mer or  ewe  hog,  or  teg.  After  being 
shorn,  she  is  a  shearing  ewe,  gimmer, 
theavc,  or  double-toothed  ewe  ;  and 
after  that,  a  two,  or  three,  or  four,  or 
shear  ewe,  or  theave.  The  age  of  the 
sheep  is  reckoned,  not  from  the  pe- 
riod of  their  being  dropped,  but  from 
the  first  shearing. 

'•  The  teeth  give  certain  indications 
as  to  the  age.  The  sheep  has  no 
incisor  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw ;  but 
there  is  a  dense  elastic  cushion  or 
pad,  and  the  herbage,  firmly  held  be- 
tween the  front  teeth  in  the  lower 
ja\V  and  this  cu.shion,  is  partly  bitten 
and  partly  torn  a.-^uiulcr.  The  sheep 
has  the  whole  of  the  iucisor  teeth  by 
the  time  that  he  is  a  month  old,  and 
he  retains  them  until  the  fourteenth 
691 


SHEEP. 


or  sixteenth  month.  They  then  be- 
gin to  (liniiiiisli  in  size,  and  are  dis- 
phiced.  The  two  central  ones  are 
first  shed,  and  the  permanent  ones 
supply  their  place,  and  attain  their 
full  growth  when  the  animal  is  two 
years  old.  Between  two  and  three, 
the  next  pair  are  chaiifjed  ;  the  third 
at  three  years  old  ;  and  at  four,  the 
mouth  is  complete.  After  this  there 
is  no  certain  rule,  until,  two  years 
more  having  passed,  the  teeth  one  by 
one  become  loosened  and  are  lost. 
At  six  or  seven  years  of  age  the 
mouths  of  the  ewes  should  l)e  occa- 
sionally examined,  and  the  loose  teeth 
removed,  and  then,  by  good  pasture 
and  good  nursing  in  the  winter,  they 
may  produce  lambs  until  they  have 
reached  the  ninth  or  tenth  year,  when 
they  begin  rapidly  to  decline.  Some 
favourites  have  lingered  on  to  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year  ;  but  the 
usual  and  the  most  profitable  method 
is  to  fatten  and  dispose  of  the  ewes 
when  they  are  five  or  six  years  old, 
and  to  supply  their  places  by  some 
of  the  best  shearing  ewes. 

"  The  rings  at  the  base  of  the  horns 
afford  very  imperfect  indications  of 
the  age  of  the  sheep. 

"  The  history  of  the  sheep  will  be 
most  naturally  divided  according  to 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  wool 
of  the  different  breeds,  the  uses  of 
the  skin,  and  the  quantity  and  quali- 
ty of  the  flesh.  Tlie  covering  of  tlie 
original  sheep  consisted  of  a  mixture 
of  liair  and  wool,  the  wool  being 
short  and  fine,  and  forming  an  inner 
coat,  and  the  hair  of  greater  length, 
projecting  through  the  wool,  and 
constituting  an  external  covering. 
"When  the  sheep  are  neglected,  or 
exposed  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
cold,  this  degeneracy  is  easily  tra 
ced  On  the  Devonshire  moors,  the 
mountains  of  Wales,  and  the  high- 
lands of  Scotland,  the  wool  is  deteri- 
orated by  a  considerable  admi.Kture 
of  hair.  Even  among  the  South 
Downs,  the  Leicesters,  and  the  Rye- 
lands,  too  many  kanps  occasionally 
lessen  the  value  of  the  fleece.  It  is 
only  by  diligent  cultivation  that  the 


diminished,  and  that  of  wool  increas- 
ed in  our  best  breeds. 

"  Wool. — The  filaments  of  wool  ta- 
ken from  a  healthy  sheep  present  a 
beautifully  polished  and  even  glitter- 
ing appearance.  That  of  the  neglect- 
ed or  half-starved  animal  exhibits  a 
paler  hue.  This  is  one  valuable  in- 
dication by  which  the  wool-stapler  is 
enabled  to  form  an  accurate  opinion 
of  the  value  of  the  fleece.  The  mi.x- 
ture  of  hair  in  the  wool  can  often  be 
detected,  by  close  examination,  with 
the  naked  eye,  but  most  readily  by 
the  assistance  of  a  microscope. 

"Among  the  qualities  which  influ- 
ence the  value  of  the  wool  ?kxe  fine- 
ness, and  the  uniformity  of  that  fine- 
ness in  the  single  fibre  and  in  the  col- 
lected fleece.  This  fineness,  howev- 
er, differs  materially  in  different  parts 
of  the  fleece.  It  prevails  on  the  neck, 
the  shoulders,  the  ribs,  and  the  back. 
It  IS  less  on  the  legs,  thighs,  and 
haunch,  and  still  coarser  on  the  neck, 
the  breast,  the  belly,  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  legs.  The  fineness  of  the 
wool  is  considerably  influenced  by  the 
temjjerature. 

'•  The  fineness  of  the  fleece  is  also 
much  influenced  by  the  kind  of  food. 
An  abundance  of  nutriment  will  in- 
crease both  the  length  and  the  bulk 
of  the  wool.  This  is  an  important 
consideration  with  the  sheep-breed- 
er. Let  the  cold  of  winter  come — 
let  it  continue  for  a  considerable  pe- 
riod, yet  if  the  sheep  is  well  kept,  al- 
though the  fleece  may  lose  a  little 
weight,  this  will  be  more  than  com- 
pensated by  its  fineness  and  increase 
of  value.  If  the  sheep,  however,  be 
half  starved  while  exposed  to  unu- 
sual cold,  the  fibres  of  the  wool,  al- 
though perhaps  somewhat  finer,  will 
be  deficient  in  weight,  and  strength, 
and  usefulness. 

"That  which  is  called  trucness  of 
staple,  or  the  fibres  being  of  an  equal 
size,  is  of  much  importance  in  the 
manufacture  of  wool  ;  for  whenever 
the  wool  assuines  an  irregular  and 
shagged,  or  hrcachy  appearance,  there 
is  a  weakness  in  the  fibre,  and  will 
be  an  irregularity  in  the  manufacture, 


quantity  of  hair  has  been  generally  I  especially  if  the  fleece  is  submitted  to 
692 


SHEEP. 


the  operation  of  the  comb.  Connect- 
ed with  this,  and  a  most  important 
quality,  is  the  elasticity  of  the  woolly 
fibre — the  disposition  to  yield,  or  sub- 
mit to  some  eloiisjation  of  substance, 
some  alteration  of  form,  when  it  is 
distended  or  pressed  upon,  and  the 
energy  by  means  of  which  the  origi- 
nal form  is  resumed  as  soon  as  the 
external  force  is  removed. 

"  Referrible  to  this  elasticity  or 
yielding  character  of  the  wool  is  its 
pliu/iiliti/  and  softness,  and  without 
which  no  manufacture  of  it  can  be 
carried  to  any  degree  of  perfection. 
The  last  quality  which  it  is  necessary 
to  mention  is  its  fcliinsr  property — 
that  quality  by  which  it  may  be  beat- 
en or  pressed  together  and  worked 
into  a  sol't  and  pliable  substance  of 
almost  any  size  and  form.  It  would 
seem  that  the  process  of  felting  is  of 
far  older  date  than  that  of  weaving  ; 
and  it  is  still  continued,  not  only  by 
the  nomadic  tribes  of  Southeastern 
Europe  and  of  Asia,  but  it  is  made 
occasionally  to  vie  with  the  finest 
productions  of  the  loom. 

"  Some  late  microscopic  observa- 
tions have  unravelled  the  whole  mys- 
tery of  felting,  and  of  the  employ- 
ment of  wool  in  almost  every  form. 
The  fibre,  examined  under  a  power- 
ful microscope,  appears  like  a  con- 
tinuous vegetable  growth,  from  which 
there  are  sprouting,  and  all  tending 
one  way,  from  the  root  to  the  other 
extremity,  numerous  leaves,  assu- 
ming the  appearance  of  calices  or 
cups,  and  each  terminating  in  a  sharp 
point.  It  is  easy  to  conceive  how 
readily  one  of  tliese  fibres  will  move 
in  a  direction  from  the  root  to  the 
point,  while  its  retraction  must  be 
exceedingly  difficult,  if  not  impossi- 
ble. It  was  a  fibre  of  Merino  wool 
that  was  first  submitted  to  microscop- 
ic observation,  and  the  number  of 
these  serrations  or  projections  count- 
ed. There  were  2400  in  the  space 
of  an  inch.  A  fibre  of  Saxon  wool, 
finer  than  that  of  the  Merino,  and  of 
acknowledged  superior  felting  quali- 
ty, was  substituted.  There  were 
2720  serrations.  A  fibre  of  South 
Down  wool,  ia  its  felting  power  well 


known  to  be  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Saxony  and  the  Merino,  was  i)laced 
in  the  fiidd  of  vision.  There  were 
only  2080  serrations  in  the  space  of 
an  inch,  or  640  less  than  the  Saxony 
exhibited.  The  Leicester  wool  is 
acknowledged  to  ])ossess  a  less  filt- 
ing  property  than  the  South  Down. 
There  were  only  I860  in  the  space 
of  an  inch. 

"  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
structure  of  the  woolly  fibre.  It  con- 
sists of  a  central  stem  or  stalk,  from 
which  ttiere  spring,  at  different  dis- 
tances, circles  of  leaf-shaped  projec- 
tions, possessing  a  certain  degree  of 
resistance  or  of  entanglement  with 
other  fibres,  in  proportion  as  these 
circlets  arc  multiplied  and  tliey  pro- 
ject from  the  stalk.  They  are  sharp- 
er and  more  numerous  in  the  felting 
wools,  and  in  proportion  as  the  felt- 
ing property  exists.  They  are  con- 
nected with,  or,  it  may  be  confidently 
asserted,  they  give  to  the  wool  the 
power  of  felting,  and  regulate  the 
degree  in  which  that  power  is  pos- 
sessed. 

"  Skins. — The  skin  of  the  sheep  is 
often  partially  tanned,  and  then  used 
in  the  common  sorts  of  book-binding; 
or  it  is  manufactured  into  parchment, 
and  becomes  exceedingly  valuable  on 
account  of  its  durability.  Immense 
numbers  of  lamb  skins  are  dressed  in 
a  peculiar  way,  and  converted  into 
gloves  with  the  wool  remaining  on 
them,  or  used,  in  some  countries,  for 
the  linings  of  valuable  garments.  It 
is  scarcely  credible  to  what  degree 
vanity  and  cruelty  are  sometimes  car- 
ried. The  ewe  is  slaughtered  a  little 
before  the  time  when  her  pregnancy 
would  have  expired,  and  the  lamb  is 
taken  from  the  womb  and  immediate- 
ly destroyed.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
fur  nearest  to  the  skin  is  more  beau- 
tiful than  could  have  been  obtained 
from  the  same  animal  after  birth. 

"  Varieties. — It  will  now  be  proper 
to  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  diflerent 
breeds  of  sheep,  commencing  with 
the  South  Downs.  The  South  Downs 
and  the  Hampshire  and  ^Vlltshlre 
breeds  were  formerly,  according  to 
Mr.  EUman,  of  'a  very  small  size, 
693 


SHEEP. 


and  far  from  possessing  a  good  shape, 
beirig  long  and  lliiii  in  the  neck,  high 
on  tiie  shoulders,  low  beliind,  low  on 
the  loins  and  on  the  rumps,  the  tail 
set  very  low,  perpendicular  from  tlie 
hip-bones,  sharp  on  the  hack,  the  ribs 
flat,  but  good  m  the  leg,  although 
having  big  bones.' 

"  It  is  pleasing  to  compare  this  with 
the  account  given  by  the  same  breed- 
er of  the  8outh  Downs  {F^s-  1)  of  the 
present  day,  the  change  being  effect- 
ed by  him  and  a  few  spirited  individ- 
uals :  '  The  head  small  and  hornless ; 


Fifr.  1. 


the  face  speckled  or  gray,  and  nei- 
ther too  long  nor  too  short  ;  the  lips 
thin,  and  the  spaces  between  the 
nose  and  tiie  eyes  narrow  ;  the  un- 
der jaw  fine  and  thin  ;  the  ears  tol- 
erably wide,  and  well  covered  with 
wool ;  the  forehead  also,  and  the 
whole  space  between  the  ears,  well 
protected  by  it,  as  a  defence  against 
the  fly. 

" '  The  eyes  full  and  bright,  but 
not  prominent ;  the  portion  of  the 
frontal  bone  arching  the  eye  not  too 
prominent,  that  it  may  not  form  a  fa- 
tal obstacle  in  lambing. 

"  '  The  neck  of  a  medium  length, 
thin  towards  the  head,  but  enlarging 
towards  the  shoulders,  where  it 
should  be  broad  and  high,  and  straight 
in  its  whole  course  above  and  below; 
the  chest  wide,  deep,  and  projecting 
between  the  fore  legs,  indicating  a 
good  constitution  and  a  disposition 
to  thrive  ;  the  shoulders  on  a  level 
with  the  back,  and  not  too  wide  above, 
but  bowing  outward  from  the  top  to 
the  breast,  leaving  room  for  the 
springing  rib  behind. 

"  '  The  ribs  coming  out  horizontal- 
ly from  the  spine,  extending  far  back- 
694 


I  ward,  and  the  last  rib  projecting  more 
1  than  the  others.  The  back  flat  from 
I  the  :5lioulders  to  the  setting  on  of  the 
1  tail ;  the  lom  broad  and  flat ;  the 
rump  long  and  broad,  and  the  tail  set 
on  high,  and  nearly  on  a  level  with 
the  spine  ;  the  hips  wide  ;  the  space 
between  them  and  the  last  rib  on  ei- 
ther side  as  narrow  as  possible,  and 
the  ribs  presenting  a  circular  form, 
like  a  barrel 

" '  The  belly  as  straight  as  the  back. 

" '  The  legs  neither  too  long  nor 
too  short ;  the  fore  legs  straight  from 
the  breast  to  the  foot,  not  bending  in- 
ward at  the  knee,  and  standing  far 
apart  both  before  and  behind  ;  the 
hocks  having  a  direction  outward, 
and  the  meeting  of  the  thighs  being 
particularly  full ;  the  bones  fine,  but 
having  no  appearance  of  weakness  ; 
and  the  legs  ofaspeckled,  dark  colour. 

"  '  The  belly  well  defended  with 
wool,  and  the  wool  coming  down,  be- 
fore and  behind,  to  the  knee  and  to 
the  hock  ;  the  wool  short,  close,  curl- 
ed, and  free  from  spiry,  projecting 
hairs. 

"  'The  South  Down  is  adapted  to 
almost  any  situation  in  the  northern 
and  middle  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  has  a  patience  of  occasional  short 
keep  and  an  endurance  of  hard  stock- 
ing equal  to  any  other  sheep  ;  an  ear- 
ly maturity  scarcely  inferior  to  the 
Leicesters,  and  the  flesh  finely  grain- 
ed and  of  good  flavour.' 

"  According  to  Mr.  Ellman,  the  ar- 
tificial food  resorted  to  at  the  begin- 
ning of  spring,  and  soon  alter  lamb- 
ing, is  green  rye  ;  but  it  must  be  very 
cautiously  given,  on  account  of  its 
occasionally  producing  diarrhoea  or 
dysentery.  This  bad  effect,  howev- 
er, may  be  prevented  by  removing 
the  ewes,  once  in  the  day,  to  old  pas- 
ture ground. 

"  The  rye  being  fed  off  or  running 
to  seed,  the  ground  is  ploughed  in 
May  for  turnips  or  rape.  Rye  grass 
succeeds  to  the  rye  until  the  latter 
end  of  June,  when  clover,  lucern,  or 
sainfoin  will  come  in.  One  crop 
should  follow  another  in  proportion 
as  it  is  wanted. 

"  Tares,  clover,  or  rape  next  take 


SHEEP. 


their  turn ;  the  tares,  perhaps,  are 
somcwliat  inferior  to  the  others.  As 
a  winter  food,  the  nita  baga  or  beets 
come  ill  until  lambing  tmie,  but  not 
after  that,  lest  it  should  produce  pur- 
ging id  the  hunbs. 

"About  the  middle  of  October  the 
rams  are  admitted  to  the  ewes,  and 
a  plentiful  allowance  of  nutritious  and 
stimulating  food  will  have  considera- 
ble influence  in  increasing  tlu;  num- 
ber of  lambs.  Much  to  the  credit  of 
the  breeder,  great  care  is  taken  of 
the  sheep  during  the  lambing  time. 
The  ewes  are  either  driven  home,  or 
there  are  sheltered  places  construct- 
ed in  the  fields. 

"  The  average  dead  weight  of  the 
South  Down  wether  varies  from  eight 
to  eleven  stones  ;  but  at  the  Christ- 
mas show  there  are  usually  some 
pens  in  which  the  weight  is  double 
that.  The  average  weight  of  the 
fleece  used  to  be  two  pounds ;  but, 
from  the  altered  system  of  manage- 
ment, it  is  now  at  least  three  pounds 
in  the  hill  sheep,  and  nearly  four 
pounds  in  the  lowland  sheep.  This 
wool  has  likewise  changed  its  char- 
acter. It  has  become  a  combing  in- 
stead of  a  carding  wool.  Formerly 
devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  ser- 
vants' clothing,  or  being  sparingly 
mixed  witli  other  wool,  it  is  now  used 
for  flannels,  and  baizes,  and  worsted 
goods  of  ahnost  every  description  ; 
tlius  becoming  of  considerably  in- 
creased value.  The  hogget  wool  is 
particularly  improved  ;  it  is  finer  than 
the  other  long  wools,  and  is  applica- 
ble to  many  new  and  valuable  pur- 
poses. 

"  The  South  Down  sheep  have  suc- 
ceeded admirably  in  all  the  southern 
districts  of  the  kingdom ;  but  the 
northern  hills  have  occasionally  been 
too  cold  for  them.  Crosses  between 
the  South  Down  and  almost  every 
breed  of  middle-wool  sheep  have  an- 
swered well ;  while  in  counties  where 
it  could  have  been  least  expected,  the 
old  breed  is,  in  a  great  measure,  su- 
perseded by  the  Soulli  Downs. 

'•  In  Kent  many  South  Downs  are 
kept,  and  much  prized  ;  but  on  the 
marshes    and    their    neighbourhood 


they  have  given  way  to  the  Romney 
Marsh  sheep. 

"  The  South  Down  dill'er  material- 
ly in  the  different  districts  of  Surrey. 
In  some  of  the  lofty  and  barren  heaths 
a  small  and  jfrolitable  sheep,  distin- 
guished by  tlie  name  of  the  Bagshot, 
still  prevails.  The  old  Wilishire 
sheep  are  occasionally  seen  here, 
while  the  Dorsets  have  possessed 
themselves  of  many  extensive  dis- 
tricts, and  are  employed  in  supplying 
the  London  iiuuk(;t  with  early  lambs. 
Still,  however,  the  South  Downs  are 
numerous,  and  vie  with  any  of  the 
others  in  excellence  and  profit. 

"  The  old  Wiltshire  breed  of  sheep, 
the  largest  and  the  heaviest  of  the  fine- 
woolled  sheep,  has  gradually  pass- 
ed away.  They  were  crossed  by  the 
South  Downs  until  every  trace  of  the 
old  breed  had  vanished,  and  a  useful 
variety  remained,  which  would  have 
been  called  true  Sussex  sheep,  only 
they  were  of  a  somewhat  larger  size 
and  lighter  colour,  and  a  lighter,  finer 
fleece.  Tliis  breed  is  now  rapidly 
yielding  to  the  true  South  Downs. 
In  the  lower  land  pastures  of  Wilts 
a  breed  is  found  evidently  derived 
from  the  South  Downs,  but  larger  in 
size,  and  with  a  heavier  fleece. 

"  In  Dorsetshire  we  find  a  very  dif- 
ferent and  valuable  breed  of  sheep  ; 
they  are  white,  the  face  long  and 
broad,  with  a  tuft  of  wool  on  the 
forehead  ;  the  shoulders  low  but 
broad  ;  the  chest  deep  ;  the  loins 
broad,  and  the  bone  small :  a  hardy 
and  useful  sheep.  Their  chief  pecu- 
liarity IS  the  forwardness  of  the  ewes, 
which  supply  the  market  with  lamb 
when  it  produces  the  highest  price. 
If  tliey  have  plenty  of  nutritious  food, 
the  ewes  will  be  in  lamb  as  early  as 
April,  so  that  the  young  one  will  drop 
in  September,  and  be  ready  for  the 
market  at  Christmas. 

"  The  Ryelands. — They  are  small, 
polled,  with  white  faces,  the  wool 
growing  close  to  and  almost  covering 
the  eyes,  the  carcass  round  and  com- 
pact, the  animal  quickly  fattening, 
and  the  superabundant  fat  accumu- 
lating within  ;  they  are  hardy,  and 
peculiarly  free  from  disease  ;  they 
695 


SHEEP. 


are  particularly  distinguished  by  the 
lituMU'ss  of  their  wool.  'I'iie  miiTil)er 
and  tlie  nature  of  tlie  serration.s  place 
it  precisely  where  the  maiuilaclure 
had  long  done.  It  is  decidedly  supe- 
rior in  lineness  and  in  fulness  to  the 
South  Down,  but  yields  in  both  of 
these  qualities  to  the  jMerino  wool. 
It  was  attempted  to  cross  the  Rye- 
land  sheej)  with  the  Merino,  in  order 
to  increase  the  value  of  the  wool. 
To  a  certain  extent  this  was  accom- 
plished, but  It  was  at  the  expense  of 
the  carcass.  The  Merinos  were  then 
crossed  by  the  Ryelands,  with  a  view 
to  the  improvement  of  form,  and 
greater  tendency  to  fatten,  but  this 
also  failed.  W'liiie  these  experiments 
were  proceeding,  arrived  the  period 
when  the  lleece  of  the  sliort-woolled 
sheep,  both  the  South  Down  and  the 
Ryeland,  was  materially  changed  by 
the  altered  system  of  sheep-husband- 
ry that  was  introduced,  and  the  wool 
of  both  was  rejected  by  the  manu- 
facturer for  the  purposes  to  which  it 
had  hitherto  been  applied. 

"  The  Delamere  sheep  is  the  only 
short-wooUed  breed  deserving  of  no- 
tice in  Cheshire.  The  wool  is  short 
and  fine,  and  still  used  by  some  man- 
ufacturers, but  it  is  no  longer  used 
for  any  of  the  fine  cloths. 

"  The  different  districts  of  South 
Wales  afford  a  small  and  valuable 
breed  of  sheep,  principally  used  for 
the  supply  of  the  London  market, 
where  tlie  Welsh  mutton  is  in  con- 
sideral}le  request.  These  sheep  seem 
scarcely  to  have  changed  their  char- 
acter for  many  centuries,  but  some 
crosses  of  t  he  South  Downs  have  been 
lately  introduced,  and  even  some 
flocks  of  this  sheep  have  begun,  and 
with  much  prospect  of  advantage,  to 
spread  over  the  lower  part  of  the 
country. 

"  In  North  Wales,  and  particularly 
in  Anglesea,  the  old  South  Down  re- 
appears, or  a  sheep  wlujse  likeness 
to  the  unimproved  South  Down  is 
too  striking  to  escape  observation. 
The  purest  and  best  blood  that  the 
mountains  of  Wales  are  now  suppo- 
sed to  be  capalde  of  producing  is 
found  at  the  loot  or  on  the  declivi- 


ties of  Cader  Idris.  All  the  hills  of 
North  Wales  are  covered  with  sheep, 
which  are  sent  in  the  spring  from  all 
parts  of  the  low  country.  The  strong- 
est wethers  remain  on  the  mountains 
during  the  winter,  and  without  tlie 
slightest  artificial  provision  for  their 
sujiport ;  the  others  are  brought  down 
to  the  low  ground  about  Michaelmas, 
to  be  returned  in  the  spring. 

"  The  Chcviois  extend  from  West- 
moreland far  into  Scotland  ;  their 
birthplace,  or  where  they  were  origi- 
nally observed,  and  are  still  found  in 
their  greatest  purity,  is  the  Cheviot 
Hills  in  Nortiiumberland.  They  dif- 
fer essentially  from  both  the  black 
and  the  dun-faced  breeds  by  which 
they  are  surrounded  ;  but  neither 
history  nor  tradition  has  given  the 
slightest  clew  to  their  origin.  The 
following  is  a  descrii)tion  of  the  pure 
breed,  thirty  years  ago,  before  they 
began  to  be  crossed  by  the  Leices- 
ters  :  '  The  head  polled,  bare  and 
clean,  with  jaw  bone  ofa  good  length  ; 
ears  not  too  short,  and  countenance 
of  not  too  dark  a  colour ;  neck  full, 
round,  and  not  too  long,  well  covered 
with  wool,  but  without  any  coarse 
wool  depending  tieneath  ;  shoulders 
deep,  full,  and  wide  ;  chest  full  and 
open ;  chine  long,  but  not  too  much 
so  ;  straight,  broad,  and  wide  across 
the  fillets  ;  horns  round  and  full ;  the 
body  in  general  round  and  full,  and 
not  too  deep  or  fiat  either  in  the  ribs 
or  fianks  ;  the  lleece  fine,  close,  short, 
and  thickset,  of  a  medium  length  of 
pile,  without  hairs  at  the  bottom,  and 
not  curled  on  the  shoulders,  and  with 
very  little  coarse  wool  on  the  hips, 
tail,  or  belly.' 

"  Sir  John  Sinclair  adds  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  them :  '  Perhaps 
there  is  no  part  of  the  whole  island 
where,  at  first  sight,  a  line-woolled 
breed  of  sheep  is  less  to  be  expected 
than  among  the  Cheviot  Hills.  Many 
parts  of  the  sheep  walks  consist  of 
nothing  but  peat  bogs  and  deep  mo- 
rasses. During  winter  the  hills  are 
covered  with  snow  during  two,  three, 
or  even  four  months,  and  they  have 
an  ample  proportion  of  bad  weather 
.  during  the  other  seasons  of  the  year, 


SHEEP. 


and  yet  a  sheep  is  to  be  found  that 
will  thrive  even  in  the  wildest  part 
of  it.  Their  shape  is  excellent,  and 
their  fore  quarters,  in  particular,  are 
di.-itiniiuished  by  such  justness  of  pro- 
portion, as  to  1)0  equal  in  height  to 
ilie  hinder  ones,  which  enables  iheni 
to  i)ass  over  bogs  and  snows  through 
which  a  shorter-legged  animal  could 
not  penetrate.  They  have  a  closer 
fleece  than  the  Tweeddale  and  Lei- 
cester breeds,  which  keeps  them 
warmer  in  cold  weather,  and  pre- 
vents cither  rain  or  snow  from  in- 
conmioding  theiii.  They  are  excel- 
lent siiow-travcllers,  and  are  accus- 
tomed to  procure  their  food  by  scra- 
ping the  snow  off  the  ground  with 
their  feet.  They  have  never  any 
oilier  food  but  the  grass  and  natural 
hay  of  their  own  fields,  except  when 
it  is  proposed  to  fatten  them.  They 
weigh  from  12  to  18  pounds  per  quar- 
ter, and  their  meat  is  fully  equal  to 
any  that  the  Highlands  can  produce.' 

"  The  wool  is  inferior  to  that  of 
the  South  Downs.  It  is  not  so  fine 
as  before  the  attempted  improvement 
of  the  carcass  ;  and  the  use  of  it  is 
abandoned  in  the  manufacture  of  fine 
cloth. 

"  There  are  many  flocks  of  pure 
Cheviots,  but  in  the  majority  of  the 
flocks  there  is  a  cross  of  Leicester 
blood. 

"  The  other  breed  of  short-woolled 
sheep  which  contend  with  the  Che- 
viots in  number  and  value  is  the  black- 
faccd  Scots ;  they  extend  from  Lan- 
cashire to  the  very  north  of  Scotland. 
The  males  are  mostly  horned,  the 
horns  of  a  spiral  form,  but  the  fe- 
males are  frequently  without  horns. 
The  faces  and  legs  are  always  black 
or  mottled ;  they  are  covered  with 
wool  about  the  forehead  and  lower 
jaw  ;  the  fleece  is  long  and  some- 
what coarse.  The  carcass  is  pecu- 
liarly compact ;  so  much  so,  that  on 
account  of  the  shortness,  roundness, 
firmness,  and  handsomeness  of  the 
carcass,  it  is  called  the  short  sheep, 
in  opposition  to  the  Cheviots,  or  long 
sheep.  The  weight  of  the  carcass 
does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of 
the  Cheviot,  and  the  fleece  weighs 

N  N  -N 


about  three  pounds  after  it  is  washed. 
These  sheep  have  been  improved  by 
selection,  but  have  derived  little  ad- 
vantage from  any  of  the  crosses  that 
have  been  tried. 

"As  these  are  the  prevailing  breeds 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
if  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  short 
horns  and  the  Leicesters,  yet,  being 
far  more  numerous  than  they,  it  may 
not  be  uninteresting  to  institute  a 
brief  comparison  of  their  respective 
merits.  The  three  important  points 
with  respect  to  sheep  in  such  locali- 
ties are  the  weight  and  value  of  the 
wool,  the  carcass,  and  the  degree  of 
hardihood. 

"  As  to  the  wool  there  can  be  no 
question.  The  weight  of  the  indi- 
vidual fleece  may  be  somewhat,  but 
not  a  great  deal,  in  favour  of  the 
black-faced  breed  ;  but  in  point  of 
value  and  the  price  which  the  wool 
will  obtain,  the  advantage  is  most 
decidedly  in  favour  of  the  Cheviots. 
As  to  the  carcass,  the  Cheviot  is 
ready  for  market  a  full  twelvemonth 
before  the  other.  If  so  many  sheep 
cannot  be  kept  on  the  same  quantity 
of  ground,  the  quantity  of  meat  that 
can  be  produced  is  greater,  and  con- 
sequently the  profit  of  the  farmer  is 
greater ;  and  as  to  hardihood,  they 
are  both  of  them  excellent  breeds, 
and  it  might  be  difficult  to  decide 
which  wool  would  most  successfully 
endure  the  hardships  of  a  Highland 
winter.  The  adjudication,  on  the 
whole,  is  most  decidedly  in  favour  of 
the  Cheviot  breed,  with  this  excep- 
tion, perhaps,  that  on  the  wildest  of 
the  Grampian,  or  other  similar  hills, 
the  black-faced  mountain  sheep  may 
have  the  best  chance  of  doing  well ; 
and  the  acknowledged  fact  is,  that  in 
almost  every  northern  district  the 
Cheviots  are  rapidly  superseding  the 
native  black-faced  sheep. 

"  Long-u-oolled  Sheep. — There  is 
much  more  similarity  between  the 
varieties  of  the  long-woolled  sheep 
than  those  of  shorter  fibre.  The  de- 
ficiency of  horns,  the  form  of  the 
head,  the  expression  of  the  counte- 
nance, and  the  white  faces  and  legs, 
show  tiiat  they  had  one  common 
G97 


SlIEKP 


origin  ;  while  the  colour  and  wciKhi, 
and  uses  of  the  wool,  speak  their  com- 
mon origin. 

"The  following  description  of  the 
new  Leicester  {Ftg.  2),  by  Mr.  CuUey, 
Fig.  2. 


will,  to  a  very  considerable  degree, 
serve  for  all  the  varieties  of  the  long- 
woolled  sheep.  The  head  should  be 
hornless,  long,  small,  tapering  to- 
wards the  muzzle,  and  projecting  hor- 
izontally forward.  The  eyes  promi- 
nent, but  with  a  quiet  expression. 
The  ears  thin,  rather  long,  and  di- 
rected backward  ;  the  neck  full  and 
broad  at  its  base,  but  gradually  taper- 
ing towards  the  head,  and  particular- 
ly tine  at  the  junction  of  the  head  and 
neck.  The  neck  seeming  to  project 
straight  from  the  chest,  so  that  there 
is,  with  the  slightest  possible  devia- 
tion, one  continued  horizontal  line 
from  the  rump  to  the  poll.  The 
breast  broad  and  full ;  shoulders  also 
broad  and  round,  and  no  uneven  or 
angular  formation  where  the  shoul- 
ders join  either  the  neck  or  the  back, 
particularly  no  rising  of  the  withers, 
or  hollow  behind  the  situation  of 
those  bones.  The  arm  fleshy  through 
its  whole  extent,  and  even  down  to 
the  knee.  The  bones  of  the  legs 
small,  standing  wide  apart,  no  loose- 
ness of  the  skin  about  them,  and  com- 
paratively bare  of  wool.  The  chest 
and  barrel  are  at  once  deep  and  round 
in  the  ribs,  forming  a  considerable 
arch  from  the  spine,  so  as  in  some 
cases,  and  especially  when  the  ani- 
mal is  in  good  condition,  to  make  the 
apparent  width  of  the  chest  even 
greater  than  the  depth.  Tiie  barrel 
ribbed  well  home.  No  irregularities 
of  line  on  the  back  or  the  belly  ;  but 
on  the  sides  the  carcass  very  gradu- 
698 


ally  diminisiiing  in  width  towards  the 
rump.  The  quarters  long  and  full, 
and  as  wide  as  the  fore  legs.  The 
muscles  extending  do\\n  to  the  back, 
the  thighs  also  wide  and  full.  The 
legs  of  a  moderate  length  ;  the  pelt 
also  moderately  thin,  but  soft  and 
elastic,  and  covered  with  a  good  quan- 
tity of  white  wool,  not  so  long  as  in 
some  breeds,  but  considerably  finer. 
"  Such  is  the  l.eicester  sheep  as 
Bakevvell  made  him.  He  found  him  as 
different  an  animal  as  it  was  possible 
to  conceive — fiat-sided,  large-boned, 
coarse-woolk'd,  slow  to  fatten,  and  his 
flesli  of  liille  value.  Were  there  room 
for  its  insertion,  a  detailed  history  of 
the  different  steps  of  the  changes 
would  be  most  interesting  to  the  read- 
er. The  means  were  simple,  and  the 
effect  was  almost  magical.  The  prin- 
ciple was,  that  '  like  produces  like  ;' 
and  therefore  he  selected  a  few  sheep 
with  aptitude  to  fatten,  with  a  dispo- 
sition to  produce  an  unusual  quantity 
of  valuable  meat,  with  little  bone  and 
offal,  and  with  quietness  of  temper ; 
and  from  these  he  exclusively  bred. 
He  cared  not  about  near  or  distant 
affinities  ;  but  his  object  was  to  in- 
crease every  good  point,  and  gradu- 
ally to  get  rid  of  every  bad  one.  They 
were  not  different  sorts  of  sheep  that 
he  selected,  but  the  best  of  the  breed 
to  which  he  had  been  accustomed. 

"  Such  was  the  origin  and  the 
eventual  triumph  of  the  new  Lei- 
cester breed  of  sheep.  They  have 
spread  themselves  to  every  part  of 
the  kingdom.  There  are  ffew  other 
varieties  of  long-woolled  sheep  which 
do  not  owe  much  of  their  excellence 
to  the  new  Leicesters,  and  even  some 
of  the  short-woolled  flocks  are  deep- 
ly indebted  to  the  breed  introduced 
by  Bakevvell.  There  is  no  other  spe- 
cies of  sheep  that  possesses  so  deci- 
ded a  propensity  to  fatten,  or  that  is 
prepared  for  the  butcher  at  so  early 
an  age.  It  will  not,  however,  thrive 
on  a  poor  soil,  nor  if  it  is  compelled 
to  travel  far  in  order  to  procure  its 
food  ;  but  on  soils  of  a  moderate 
quality  there  is  no  other  sheep  so 
profitable.  Other  breeds,  as  the 
Teeswater  and  the  Lincoln,  may  be 


SHEEP. 


superior  in  size,  but  it  is  at  an  ex- 
pense of  time  and  of  food,  and,  event- 
ually, a  palpable  deterioration  of  flesh 
and  di(ninution  of  profit.  The  new 
Lciresters,  on  fair  keep,  will  yield  a 
greater  (piantity  of  meat,  for  the  same 
quantity  of  food,  than  any  other  breed 
of  sheep.  The  meat  is  of  a  peculiar 
character.  It  is  disliked  by  some  on 
account  of  a  supposed  insipidness. 
The  fatty  matter  is  too  much  intro- 
duced between  the  muscular  fibres, 
and  there  may  be  the  appearance  and 
the  taste  of  a  mass  of  fat.  This,  how- 
ever, is  the  fault  of  the  breeder,  and 
not  of  the  animal :  it  marks  the  point 
to  which  the  fatteninij  process  should 
he  carried,  and  where  it  should  stop. 
It  is  the  fault  of  th(?  grazier  if  he  con- 
verts that  which  is  an  excellence  into 
a  fault. 

"  There  are  accounts  of  the  Lei- 
cester sheep  attaining  a  very  great 
weight.  Two  prime  wethers  exhib- 
ited by  Mr.  Painter  at  the  Smithfield 
cattle  show,  in  1835,  weighed  165 
and  155  pounds.  It  should,  howev- 
er, be  remarked  that  the  new  Leices- 
ter sheep  has  a  smaller  quantity  of 
bone,  in  proportion  to  its  weight,  than 
any  other  sheep. 

"  The  deficiency  of  the  fleece  was 
formerly  objected  to  in  the  new  Lei- 
cester sheep.  The  truth  of  the  mat- 
ter was,  that  with  the  early  breeders 
the  fleece  was  a  perfectly  secondary 
consideration,  and  comparatively  dis- 
regarded. There  is  now  little  cause 
for  complaint  on  this  head.  The  wool 
has  considerably  increased  in  length, 
and  it  has  improved  both  in  lineness 
and  strength  of  fibre.  It  averages 
from  six  to  seven  pounds  the  fleece, 
and  the  fibre  varies  from  five  to  more 
than  twelve  inches  in  length.  Like 
all  other  British  wools,  it  is  applied 
to  a  purpose  different  from  that  to 
which  it  was  formerly  devoted,  and 
is  mostly  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
serges  and  carpets. 

"  The  chief  value  of  the  new  Lei- 
cester breed  consists  in  the  improve- 
ment which  it  has  eflfected  in  almost 
every  variety  of  sheep  with  which  it 
has  been  crossed.  Most  of  the  breed- 
ers of  the  South  Downs  were  at  first 


averse  to  admit  a  cross  with  the  Lei- 
cesters  ;  but  when  tiie  wool  of  the 
South  Downs  bei;an  to  be  applied  to 
purposes  very  different  from  those  to 
which  it  had  been  formerly  devoted, 
a  cross  with  the  Leicesters  was  reluc- 
tantly attempted.  A  sheep  was  pro- 
duced, probably  not  so  hardy,  but 
coming  earlier  to  the  market,  yicUl- 
ing  a  longer  and  a  finer  fleece,  of 
nearly  double  the  weight,  and  with  a 
combing  wool  adapted  for  many  val- 
uable purposes. 

"  A  short  account  must  be  given 
of  the  other  breeds  of  long-woolled 
sheep,  although  some  of  them  are 
rapidly  passing  away.     The  Teeswa- 
tcr,  inhabiting  the  southern  districts 
of  Durham  and  the  north  of  York- 
shire, was  once  in  considerable  re- 
quest on  account  of  the  weight  of  its 
carcass,  the  goodness  of  its  flesh, 
and  the  remarkable  degree  in  which 
the  ewes  were  prolific.     Its  greatest 
fault  was  that  it  was  too  heavy  for 
the  lowlands  in  which  it  was  placed, 
and  th€  pasture  was  trodden  down 
and  destroyed.    Some  of  the  Leices- 
ters found  their  way  to  the  banks  of 
the   Tees,  and   the   old   breed   was 
crossed   by  them.    The  carcass  be- 
came somewhat  smaller,  but  it  was 
more  compact  and  profitable.     More 
mutton  was  produced  on  the  same 
quantity  of  land  ;  and,  after  a  consid- 
erable time,  for  the  improvement  was 
always  slower  with  regard  to  the  wool 
than  the  flesh,  the  fleece  became  finer 
and  closer.    The  old  breed  gradually 
diminished  and  almost  disappeared. 
j      "The  largest  and  most  ungainly 
I  breed   of  sheep   was   the    Lincolns, 
\  '  hornless,  with  long,  thin,  and  weak 
carcasses,  large  bones,  weighing  from 
I  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  a  quarter ; 
the   wool    averaging   from   eight   to 
I  twelve  pounds  the  fleece  ;  the  sheep 
[  a  slow  feeder,  and  the  flesh  coarse- 
I  grained.'     This  is  the  account  given 
I  of  them  by  a  good  but  a  prejudiced 
j  observer,  Mr.  (JuUey.     In  fact,  while 
I  Bakewell  and  his  admirers  were  al- 
1  most  neglecting  the  fleece,  the  Lin- 
I  colnshire  farmer  was  quite  as  inat- 
tentive with  regard  to  the  carcass. 
j  Both  parties  were  wrong.     The  old 
699 


SHEEP. 


Lincolnshire  sheep  yielded  a  wool 
which  in  qu.intiiy  and  in  quahty  was 
unrivalled,  wiiilc  the  Lcicesters  could 
boast  of  a  disposition  to  fatten  which 
the  other  could  never  equal.  At  length 
the  attempt  was  honestly  made  to 
amalgamate  the  valuable  qualities  of 
the  two  breeds.  In  consequence  of 
the  cross,  the  wether  attained  its 
maturity  a  full  year  sooner  than  it 
was  accustomed  to  do,  and  the  fleece 
became  finer  and  improved  in  colour, 
but  it  was  shorter  and  more  brittle, 
and  not  fitted  for  some  of  its  former 
purposes.  On  the  whole,  a  great  im- 
provement has  been  effected  botli  in 
the  carcass  and  the  fleece ;  and  so 
satisfactory  did  this  prove,  that  it  is 
now  difficult  to  find  any  sheep  in  Lin- 
colnshire that  have  not  been  crossed 
with  the  Leicesters.  This  cross  is 
deeper  on  the  wolds  than  in  the  marsh 
lands,  which  may  serve  to  account 
for  the  difference  of  the  fleece  in  the 
two.  The  breed  of  these  sheep  gen- 
erally has  been  greatly  increased 
since  the  introduction  of  the  turnip 
system. 

"  Among  the  long-wooUed  sheep 
that  have  been  improved  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  the  old  and  new  long- 
woolled  breeds  and  the  altered  sys- 
tem of  husbandry,  the  Romncy  Marsh 
must  not  be  forgotten.  From  time 
immemorial  the  produce  in  wool  and 
thethickness  in  stockingwere  scarce- 
ly equalled  in  any  other  breed  or  sit- 
uation. The  Kentish  men  obstinate- 
ly resisted  every  encroachment  on 
their  favourite  breed,  and  predicted 
disappointment  and  loss  in  every  pos- 
sible form.  For  a  while  it  seemed 
as  if  tliey  had  reason  on  their  side, 
for  the  size  of  the  sheep  was  consid- 
erably lessened,  and  the  wool  was 
not  so  valuable,  nor  yielded  in  its  for- 
mer quantity.  By  degrees,  however, 
it  began  to  be  found  that  these  small- 
er, deeper,  closer,  and  more  compact 
sheep  weighed  heavier  than  the  old 
long-legged  and  long-bodied  ones ; 
that  they  did  not  consume  so  much 
food,  that  the  hard  stocking  of  former 
days  might  be  increased,  that  they 
were  ready  a  full  year  sooner  for  the 
market,  and  therefore  became  far 
700 


more  profitable.  That  the  fat  form- 
rd  more  on  the  exterior  of  the  an- 
imal, where  it  was  advantageously 
placed  for  the  farmer  and  the  consu- 
mer, and  did  not  accumulate  within 
for  the  profit  of  the  butcher  alone  : 
and  that,  by  careful  selection,  al- 
though the  wool  was  somewhat  short- 
er and  lighter,  it  was  improved  in 
firmness  and  colour  and  felling  prop- 
erty. 

"  Some  valuable  breeds  of  long- 
woolled  sheep  are  found  in  the  South 
Hams  in  Devonshire,  extending  from 
Axminster  to  Dartmoor,  and  lYom 
the  north  of  Devon  to  the  vale  of 
Taunton,  under  the  name  of  the 
Bampton  sheep,  and  also,  but  small- 
er in  number  and  size,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Exmoor. 

"  The  Cotswold  sheep  {Fig.  3),  so 
Fig.  3. 


called  from  the  cots  or  sheds  in  which 
they  were  housed,  formerly  inhabited 
the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Hereford, 
and  Worcester.  They  were  a  long- 
woolled  breed,  yielding,  formerly,  a 
description  of  wool  much  valued  on 
account  of  the  fabrics  in  the  con- 
struction of  which  it  was  employed. 
Even  they,  like  the  rest,  have  amal- 
gamated themselves  with  and  been, 
in  a  manner,  lost  among  the  Leices- 
ters. They  were  taller  than  the  pres- 
ent sheep,  flat-sided,  deficient  in  the 
fore  quarter,  but  full  in  the  hind  quar- 
ter, not  fattening  so  early,  but  yield- 
ing a  long  and  heavy  fleece.  Many 
of  these  good  qualities  have  been  pre- 
served, and  to  them  have  been  added 
that  which  is  of  so  much  importance 
to  the  farmer,  the  capability  of  rear- 
ing and  fattening  so  many  more  sheep 
on  the  same  quantity  of  land,  and  of 


SHEEP. 


hringring'  them  so  much  earlier  to  the 
rnarkct. 

"  Spanish  Sheep.— The  English  wool 
bcin<j,  from  the  increased  coarseness 
of  the  fibre,  rejected  hy  the  manufac- 
turer in  the  eonstrution  of  fine  cloths, 
recourse  was  had  to  foreign  wools, 
and  to  those  chiefly  that  were  de- 
rived from  the  Merino  sheep  {Fig.  4). 

Fig.  4. 


As  early  as  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  wool  of  the  Spanish 
sheep  was  in  great  request  for  the 
production  of  the  most  costly  dresses. 
In  less  than  half  a  century  afterward 
we  find  Columella  busily  employed 
Ih  improving  the  Spanish  sheep,  and 
the  effect  of  his  labours  remained 
during  the  long  dark  ages  that  suc- 
ceeded. The  Merino  flocks  with- 
stood the  baneful  influence  of  almost 
total  neglect,  and  continued,  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  to  furnish  the 
finest  and  the  choicest  wool. 

"  By  degrees  the  Merino  sheep 
found  its  way  to  almost  every  part 
of  the  European  continent,  and  by 
careful  management  its  fleece  rapidly 
increased  in  fineness  and  in  useful- 
ness. In  1834,  the  prime  wool  pro- 
duced in  Spain  readdy  found  a  sale  at 
from  3*.  6(1.  to  45.  per  lb.  In  Saxony 
it  reached  to  5s.  3d.  per  lb.,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Hungary  to  5s.  Qd.  In  Aus- 
tralia the  cultivation  of  the  Merino 
sheep  and  its  fleece  has  proceeded 
most  rapidly  and  prosperously. 

"  The  Merino  sheep  are  small  in 
size,  with  flat  sides,  narrow  chests, 
and  long  legs.  The  wool  is  usually 
white,  but  darker  on  the  legs,  and 
face,  and  ears,  and  a  tuft  of  coarse 
wool  is  found  on  the  forehead  ;  the 
Nn  n3 


skin  is  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  there 
is  a  looseness  of  the  skin  under  the 
throat,  wiiich  is  considered  favoura- 
ble, as  indicative  of  good  fleece.  The 
males  have  large  spiral  horns,  but  the 
females  are  without  any.  \\'iih  these 
peculiarities,  it  must  be  evident  that, 
as  regards  the  carcass,  the  Merino  is 
by  no  means  a  profitable  animal,  and 
to  this  nmst  be  added,  that  they  are 
bad  nurses,  so  that  one  hundred  ewes 
will  not  bring  up  more  than  fifty 
lambs  ;  they  are  also  by  no  means 
hardy,  and  the  flesh  is  inferior.  To 
atone  for  these  bad  qualities,  the  wool 
is  superior  to  every  other  kind,  and 
forms,  indeed,  the  principal  source 
of  profit ;  the  fleece  is  close,  short, 
and  abounding  in  yolk,  weighing 
hi^avy,  and  is  superior  to  all  others 
m  its  felling  properties. 

"  It  is  computed  that  not  less  than 
ten  millions,  or  a  moiety  of  the  whole 
number  of  sheep  kept  in  Spain,  are 
migratory,  and  occupy  no  less  than  a 
quarter  of  the  year  in  going  and  re- 
turning to  their  summer  and  winter 
pastures.  These  Transhumantes,  as 
they  are  termed,  leave  their  winter 
quarters  in  the  south  about  the  mid- 
dle of  April,  and  proceed  slowly  on 
their  six  weeks'  journey.  One  divis- 
ion travels  towards  the  east,  and  the 
other  in  a  more  westerly  direction. 
During  their  journey  they  are  shorn 
in  large  buildings,  built  expressly  for 
the  purpose,  which  are  divided  into 
two  large  compartments,  with  a  small- 
er one  adjoining.  Those  sheep  which 
are  to  be  sheared  first  are  driven  into 
the  small  hut  as  closely  as  possible, 
and  there  remain  throughout  the 
night,  so  as  to  occasion  a  consider- 
able sweat,  which  softens  the  unctu- 
ous matter,  and  renders  the  shearing 
easier.  No  previous  washing  is  em- 
ployed, but  in  this  manner  a  thousand 
are  shorn  in  a  day,  there  being  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  shearers  in  attend- 
ance for  the  purpose.  This  singular 
custom,  which  has  existed  for  cen- 
turies, is  protected  by  certain  laws, 
which  give  to  these  sheep  the  right 
of  pasturage  on  the  common  lands  on 
their  passage,  and  regulate  other 
matters  relating  to  it.  The  wool  is 
701 


SHEEP. 


divided  into  three  different  parcels,  as 
it  is  taken  from  tiie  back,  riiinp,  and 
tliijilis,  and  shoulders,  or  liead,  belly, 
and  hocks,  and  these  are  respectively 
valued  as  supertine.  tine,  and  waste. 
The  wool  is  washed  first  in  water  at 
120^  Fahrenheit,  and  afterward  in 
running  brooks.  It  is  stated  that 
there  are  no  less  than  fifty  thousand 
shepherds  employed  in  tending  these 
sheep,  which  are  generally  divided 
into  flocks  of  a  thousand  each.  These 
shepherds  are  a  singular  race  of  men, 
sleeping  on  the  ground  while  on  their 
journey,  and  living  in  huts  during  the 
rest  of  the  year,  and  existing  on  a 
spare  diet,  varied  occasionally  with 
some  mutton  from  their  flocks,  which 
accident  or  disease  may  have  afford- 
ed them. 

"  The  sheep  remain  in  their  sum- 
mer quarters  till  September,  when 
they  set  out  for  their  return.  The 
rams  are  put  to  the  ewes  in  July,  so 
that  tlie  lambs  are  dropped  soon  after 
the  fiock  arrives  at  their  winter 
quarters. 

"  In  these  long  and  tiresome  jour- 
neys, it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  ex- 
pected that  great  loss  should  be  ex- 
perienced from  casualties  and  dis- 
ease. A  great  mortality  takes  place, 
and  no  less  than  half  the  lambs  are 
destroyed,  in  order  that  the  others 
should  have  the  advantage  of  a  double 
number  of  nurses.  Tlie  migratory 
system  is  more  ancient  than  advan- 
tageous. It  would,  indeed,  be  far 
more  profitable  if  the  sheep  were 
stationary,  and  the  breed  varied  so 
as  each  to  be  bred  on  the  most  suit- 
able pastures. 

"  The  stationary  sheep  are  termed 
Estantes,  and  consist  partly  of  large 
sheep,  and  partly  of  .^Terinos,  besides 
the  mixed  breeds ;  and  it  is  found  that 
the  stationary  Merinos  do  better  than 
the  migratory  ones  in  every  respect. 

"  For  many  centuries  the  Merino 
sheep  were  confined  to  Spain,  and 
preserved  with  jealous  care.  Sweden 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  country 
which  succeeded  in  procuring  them  ; 
and  in  1723  a  small  flock  was  im- 
ported from  Spain,  and  there  are  now 
about  seven  hundred  thousand  in 
702 


Sweden,  but  they  are  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  the  original  breed.  In 
I'Vance  many  attempts  have  be(>n 
made  to  cultivate  them  during  the 
last  century,  but  altogether  with  but 
little  success.  In  Germany,  how- 
ever, the  experiment  has  been  emi- 
nently successful.  The  Elector  of 
Saxony  introduced  the  first  flock  in 
17G5,  and  about  ten  years  afterward 
another  small  flock  was  brought  to 
Austria;  and  in  1786  and  1802  they 
were  introduced  to  the  imperial  do- 
mains of  Holditch  in  Hungary,  and 
Maunersdorf  in  Austria.  Such  is  the 
origin  of  the  German  Merino,  which 
has  now  spread  so  extensively  over 
these  vast  countries.  There  appear 
to  be  now  two  distinct  breeds,  differ- 
ing from  each  other  both  in  appear- 
ance and  the  quality  of  the  wool. 
First,  the  Infantado,  or  Negretti,  hav-^ 
ing  shorter  legs  and  a  stouter  body 
than  the  others,  and  the  head  and 
neck  comparatively  short  and  broad  ; 
the  nose  short  and  somewhat  turned 
up,  and  the  body  round.  The  wool, 
observes  Mr.  Carr,  is  often  matted 
upon  the  neck,  back,  and  thighs,  and 
grows  upon  the  head  to  the  eyes,  and 
upon  the  legs  to  the  very  feet.  The 
grease  in  its  fleece  is  almost  pitchy, 
so  as  to  render  the  washing  ditlicult. 
This  breed  is  descended  from  the 
sheep  imported  directly  from  Spain 
into  Austria,  while  the  other  breed, 
called  Escurial,  are  those  which  were 
first  imported  into  Saxony.  They 
have  longer  legs,  with  a  long,  spare 
neck  and  head,  with  very  little  wool 
on  the  latter ;  and  a  finer,  shorter, 
and  softer  character  in  its  fleece,  but 
less  in  quantity  than  the  other  breed 
The  fleece,  in  the  Escurial,  averages 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  in 
ewes,  and  two  to  three  pounds  in 
rams  and  wethers  ;  while  in  the  In- 
fantados  it  is  from  two  and  a  quarter 
to  three  and  a  quarter  in  ewes,  and 
from  four  to  six  pounds  in  rams  and 
wethers. 

"  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  amalgamate  these  breeds,  but 
without  success  ;  the  advantages  ol 
each  can  only  be  retained  by  pre- 
serving them  pure. 


SHEEP. 


"  '  These  sheep,'  observes  Mr. 
Carr,  a  large  owner  in  Germany, 
•  cannot  thrive  in  a  damp  climate, 
and  it  is  qnite  necessar}'  that  they 
should  have  a  wide  range  of  dry  and 
hilly  pasture  of  short  and  not  over 
nutritious  herbage.  If  allowed  to 
feed  on  swampy  or  marshy  ground, 
even  once  or  twice,  in  autumn,  thcij 
arc  sure  to  die  of  liver  complaint  in  the 
folloicing  spring.  If  they  are  per- 
mitted to  eat  wet  grass,  or  exposed 
frequently  to  rain,  they  disappear  by 
hundreds  with  consumption.  In  these 
countries  it  is  found  that  the  higher 
bred  the  sheep  is,  especially  the  Es- 
curial,  the  more  tender.  They  are 
always  housed  at  night,  even  in  sum- 
mer, except  in  the  very  finest  weath- 
er, when  they  are  sometimes  folded 
in  the  distant  fallows,  but  never  taken 
to  pasture  tilt  the  dew  is  off  the  grass. 
In  the  winter  they  are  kept  within 
doors  altogether,  and  are  fed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  sound  hay,  and  ev- 
ery variety  of  straw,  which  has  not 
suffered  from  wet,  and  which  is  vari- 
ed at  each  feed  ;  they  pick  it  over 
carefully,  eating  the  finer  parts,  and 
any  grain  that  may  have  been  left  by 
the  thrashers.  Abundance  of  good 
uater  to  drink,  and  rock-salt  in  their 
cribs,  are  indispensables.'  By  these 
means  the  Saxon  sheep  has  been 
formed,  which  is  more  valuable  in 
the  fleece  than  the  Merinos. 

"  Our  notice  of  the  sheep  in  other 
countries  must  be  exceedingly  brief 
Alsng  the  western  coast  of  France 
the  traveller  continually  meets  with 
the  semblance  of  those  noble  ani- 
mals which  Edward  IV.  permitted 
to  be  annually  sent  to  improve  the 
breed  of  foreign  sheep  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Channel.  The  wool  is 
now  about  the  same  in  value  as  that 
ot'  our  inferior  Lincoln  or  Keptish. 
In  Normandy  is  a  larger  and  a  coars- 
er variety  of  the  same  breed.  In  the 
old  province  of  Maine  succeeds  the 
old,  unimproved,  long,  and  thin-car- 
cassed native  French  breed.  In  Bre- 
tagne  and  Gascony  will  be  recognised 
the  native  short-wools,  some  of  them 
exceedingly  valuable  ;  in  Navarre,  a 
mountain  breed,  with  its  kempy  fleece ; 


in  the  Lower  and  the  Higher  Pyre- 
nees, the  two  essentially  different 
breeds  which  countries  so  ditlcrent, 
yet  so  near  to  each  other,  produce. 
On  entering  Rousillon  some  migrato- 
ry breeds  scarcely  inferior  to  the 
Merinos  are  found,  and  also  in  Lan- 
guedoc  and  Aries.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  sheep  in  France  is  calculated 
at  about  30,000,000.  The  royal  Me- 
rinos are  called  Rambouillcts. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  accounts 
given  by  some  authors  of  the  Italian 
sheep,  and  of  the  care  bestowed  on 
them,  there  are  \'e\v  deserving  of  no- 
tice except  some  Merinos.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  of  the  valleys, 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Swiss, 
and  also  of  the  Savoy  sheep,  but  in 
Piedmont  there  has  been  from  time 
immemorial  a  breed  of  sheep  inferi- 
or only  to  the  Merinos.  In  most  of 
the  German  States,  the  Merino,  the 
Saxon  breed,  is  almost  the  only  sheep 
that  is  cultivated.  It  is  the  same  in 
Prussia,  except  that  the  sheep  are 
somewhat  diminished  in  size,  while 
the  wool  retains  all  its  value.  The 
chief  wealth  of  Hungary  is  derived 
from  the  cultivation  of  the  Merino 
sheep.  Of  the  two  Hanoverian  breeds, 
the  larger  one  has  almost  disap- 
peared ;  the  smaller  has  been  cross- 
ed with  the  Merinos,  and  yields  a 
wool  of  some  value  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. The  Dutch  and  Flemish  breeds 
are  of  English  origin,  although  some 
of  them  have  considerable  resem- 
blance to  the  Irish  long-woolled  breed. 
Their  wool  is  used  for  the  production 
of  the  coarser  kinds  of  goods." 

The  following  answers  to  queries 
are  by  Judge  Buel,  and  peculiarly 
adapted  to  this  season  : 

"  What  sheep  are  the  most  profit- 
able !  The  Saxon  and  Spanish  Me- 
rino for  fleece  ;  the  South  Down 
and  new  Leicester  for  mutton.  The 
fleece  would  probably  be  the  most  de- 
sirable object  in  Tennessee  and  the 
West. 

"  What  is  the  best  time  to  move 
them'!     In  September. 

"  What  pasture  bests  suits  them, 
andhowmanycanbe  kept  on  an  acrel  • 
Sheep  want  a  dry  pasture,  and  if  hilly 
703 


SHEEP. 


and  stony,  the  better.  Although  they 
will  thrive  best  upon  good  herbage, 
such  as  other  farm  slock  like,  they 
will  live  where  other  animals  will 
starve.  They  bite  close.  An  acre  of 
good  pasture  will  summer  six  sheep. 

"  How  many  should  be  kept  togeth- 
er ]  what  shelter  do  they  require,  and 
what  food,  in  winter  1  The  number 
in  small  enclosures,  or  in  a  yard,  or 
in  a  shed,  should  not  exceed  100  : 
when  in  large  pastures,  it  may  ex- 
ceed 100 ;  sheds  are  only  neces- 
sary to  protect  them  from  storms, 
and  to  keep  them  dry  in  winter. 
They  want  air  and  exercise.  Sheep 
are  kept  upon  hay  and  straw  in  win- 
ter ;  some  add  oats,  or  corn,  or  roots, 
either  of  which  is  serviceable  in 
keeping  them  in  good  plight.  One 
quart  of  grain  may  be  given  to  a  doz- 
en sheep  per  day,  beginning  to  feed 
with  a  less  quantity.  In  Tennessee 
sheep  will  get  much  from  the  pas- 
tures in  winter,  where  they  should  be 
permitted  to  range  in  dry  weather. 

"  How  is  wool  managed  for  expor- 
tation, the  time  of  shearing,  &c.1 
The  wool  is  carefully  rolled  up,  each 
fleece  separate,  and  tied,  and  sent  to 
market  in  bales  like  those  used  for 
cotton.  Shearing  is  generally  per- 
formed here  in  June,  after  the  cold 
rains  have  subsided.  It  is  consider- 
ed bad  policy  to  shear  lambs  the  first 
season,  as  they  want  their  fleece  to 
protect  them  during  our  cold  winters, 
and  it  is  found  that  nothing  is  gained 
by  early  shearing.  It  is  advisable 
to  tag  ewes  in  spring  and  autumn. 
Sheep  enrich  the  land  on  which  they 
run.  A  good  shepherd  and  his  dog 
can  take  care  of  1000  to  1500  sheep, 
or  more,  and  feed  them  in  winter." 

"  This  will  be  the  proper  place  to 
speak  of  the  shearing  of  the  sheep,  or 
the  separation  of  the  fleece  from  the 
animal.  The  time  for  this  operation 
will  vary  much  with  the  state  of  the 
animal,  and  of  the  season.  After  a 
cold  winter,  and  the  animal  having 
been  neglected,  the  sheep  will  be 
ready  at  an  early  period,  for  the  old 
coat  will  be  loosened  and  easily  re- 
moved. The  operation  should  never 
be  commenced  until  the  old  wool  has 
704 


separated  from  the  skin,  and  a  new 
coat  of  wool  is  sprouting  up.  The 
coldness  or  warmth  of  the  spring  will 
also  make  a  great  difference.  The 
usual  time  for  shearing  is  about  the 
middle  of  May,  and  the  sheep-master 
will  in  a  moment  perceive  when  the 
fitting  time  is  come.  It  is  a  bad  prac- 
tice to  delay  the  shearing,  for  the  old 
fleece  will  probably  have  separated, 
and  the  fly  will  have  longer  time  to 
do  mischief,  and  the  growth  of  the 
new  fleece  will  have  been  stinted,  or 
a  portion  of  it  will  be  cut  away  by 
the  shears. 

"  Cu  stom  has  very  properly  required 
that  the  old  fleece  shall  be  cleansed 
before  its  removal,  by  washing  the 
animal  in  some  running  stream.  Two 
or  three  days  are  then  allowed  for 
the  drying  of  the  wool  previous  to  its 
being  shorn,  the  sheep  being  turned 
into  a  clean  rick-yard,  or  field,  or  dry 
pasture,  and  remaining  there  until 
the  fleece  is  dried,  and  that  the  new 
yolk,  which  is  rapidly  secreted,  may 
penetrate  through  it,  giving  it  a  little 
additional  weight  and  a  peculiar  soft- 
ness. As  soon  as  the  sheep  is  shorn, 
the  mark  of  the  owner  is  placed  upon 
it,  consisting  of  lamp-black  and  tal- 
low, with  a  small  portion  of  tar,  melt- 
ed together.  This  will  not  be  wash- 
ed away  by  any  rain,  but  may  be  re- 
moved by  the  application  of  soap  and 
water. 

"  On  the  score  of  humanity,  one 
custom  must  be  decidedly  protested 
against — the  shearing  of  a  flock  of 
sheep  before  they  are  driven  to  the 
market  in  an  early  part  of  the  spring. 
The  farmer  thinks  that  he  shall  get 
nearly  or  quite  the  same  price  for  the 
sheep  whether  the  wool  is  off  or  on. 
But  does  he  find  this  to  be  the  case  1 
When  the  poor  animals  are  shivering 
under  the  influence  of  the  cold  air,  do 
they  look  so  attractive!  Do  they 
handle  well  1  Is  there  not  an  ap- 
pearance of  disease  about  them  1 
Does  not  the  rheum  that  hangs  about 
the  nostrils  indicate  the  actual  com- 
mencement of  diseased 

"  Few  rules  can  be  laid  down  with 
regard  to  the  rearing  and  feeding  of 
sheep  that  will  admit  of  anything  like 


SHEEP. 


general  application.  A  great  deal 
depends  on  the  kind  of  sheep,  and 
the  nature  of  the  pasture  and  the 
food. 

"Suppose  the  larger  kind  of  sheep, 
and  on  arable  ground.  The  ewes  are 
generally  ready  to  receive  the  ram 
at  the  beginning  of  October,  and  the 
duration  of  pregnancy  is  from  about 
twenty-one  to  twenty-three  weeks, 
bringing  the  period  of  parturition  to 
nearly  the  beginning  of  .March,  at 
which  time  most  of  the  lambs  will  be 
dropped.  It  is  best  to  postpone  the 
tu[)ping  till  November,  so  that  the 
lambs  may  be  dropped  in  April,  when 
there  is  grass.  The  ewes  should  be 
fed  rather  better  than  usual  a  short 
time  previous  to  the  male  being  in- 
troduced. Rams  are  fit  to  propagate 
their  species  in  October  and  Novem- 
ber of  the  second  year,  and  that  is 
also  the  proper  period  for  the  im- 
pregnation of  the  ewes.  Tiie  ewe  is, 
after  impregnation,  suffered  to  graze 
on  the  usual  pasture,  being  supplied,  | 
as  occasion  may  require,  with  extra 
food,  and  especially  in  cases  of  snow, 
until  within  five  or  six  weeks  of 
lambing,  when  turnips  or  roots  are 
given  to  her,  and  continued  from  that 
time  until  the  spring  of  grass  renders 
them  no  longer  necessary.  The  tur- 
nips are  laid  out  for  the  ewes  in  the 
grass  fields  in  certain  quantities  each 
day,  but  by  no  means  so  many  as 
they  would  consume  if  permitted  to 
feed  without  restriction,  as  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  most  important  that 
they  should  not  be  too  fat  when  the 
lambing  season  approaches.  The 
hogs  and  the  fattening  sheep  of  the 
previous  year,  now  one  year  and  a 
half  old,  are  put  upon  the  turnips 
wlienever  the  pastures  cease  to  im- 
prove their  condition.  The  turnips 
required  for  the  cattle,  or  the  ewe 
flock,  are  then  drawn  off  in  alternate 
rows,  in  the  proportion  of  one  half, 
one  third,  or  one  fourth,  as  the  con- 
venience of  the  situation,  the  good- 
ness of  the  crop,  or  the  quality  of  the 
land  may  dictate.  The  remainder  are 
consumed  on  the  ground  by  the  oth- 
er sheep. 

"As  the  period  of  parturition  ap- 


proaches, the  attention  of  the  shep- 
herd should  increase.  There  should 
be  no  dogirin^r  then,  but  the  ewes 
j  should  be  driven  to  some  sheltered 
enclosure,  and  there  left  as  much  as 
possible  undisturbed.  Siiould  abor- 
tion take  place  with  regard  to  any  of 
them,  although  it  does  not  spread 
through  the  flock  as  in  cattle,  yet  the 
ewe  should  be  immediately  removed 
to  another  enclosure,  and  small  doses 
of  Epsom  salts,  with  gentian  and  gin- 
ger, administered  to  her,  no  great 
(}uantity  of  nutritive  food  being  al- 
lowed. 

"  The  ewes  should  now  be  moved 
as  near  home  as  convenience  will 
permit,  in  order  that  they  may  be  un- 
der the  immediate  observation  of  the 
lamber.  The  operation  of  clalting 
(tagging),  or  the  removal  of  the  hair 
from  under  the  tail  and  around  the 
udder,  should  be  effected  on  every 
long-woolled  ewe,  otherwise  the  lamb 
may  be  prevented  from  sucking  by 
means  of  the  dirt  which  often  accu- 
mulates there,  and  the  lamber  may 
not  be  able  at  all  times  to  ascertain 
what  ewes  have  actually  lambed.  The 
clattmg  before  the  approach  of  win- 
ter is  a  useless,  cruel,  and  danger- 
ous operation. 

"  The  period  of  lambing  having  ac- 
tually commenced,  the  shepherd  must 
be  on  the  alert,  yet  not  unnecessari- 
ly worrying  or  disturbing  the  ewes. 
The  process  of  nature  should  be  per- 
mitted quietly  to  take  its  course,  un- 
less the  sufferings  of  the  mother  are 
unusually  great,  or  the  progress  of 
the  labour  has  been  arrested  during 
several  hours,  or  eighteen  or  twenty 
hours  or  more  have  passed  since  the 
labour  commenced." 

"  The  following  very  useful  obser- 
vations, from  an  essay  by  Mr.  Cleeve, 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  '  Journal  ot 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England,'  are  worthy  of  much  con- 
sideration :  '  The  shepherd  must  not 
be  led,  by  the  appearance  of  uneasi 
ness  and  pain,  to  interfere  premature 
ly  ;  he  must  watch  the  ewe  closely, 
and  so  long  as  she  rises  at  his  ap- 
proach, he  may  be  assured  that,  what 
ever  uneasiness  she  may  exhibit,  aH 
705 


SHEEP. 


is  well.  Much  uneasiness  is  poner- 
ally  apparent  ;  she  will  r('|)oato(ily  lie 
down,  and  rise  ai,'ain  with  seeining 
distress.  ICthisoeetirs  wi)en  driving 
her  to  fold,  he  must  he  very  cautious 
and  gentle  in  urging  her.  These 
symptoms  ought  to  be  continued  for 
two  or  three  hours,  or  even  more,  he- 
fore  he  feels  imperatively  called  on 
to  interfere,  except  the  lainh  is  in 
such  a  position  as  to  warrant  fears 
of  losing  it.  In  cold  weather  partic- 
ularly, the  labour  is  likely  to  be  pro- 
tracted. Sliould  the  ewe  ajipear  ex- 
hausted, and  gradually  sinking  under 
iier  labour,  it  will  be  right  to  give 
her  some  oatmeal  gruel,  with  a  little 
linseed,  in  the  proportion  of  a  spoon- 
ful of  the  latter  to  two  of  tiie  former. 
When  the  ewe  feels  tliat  she  is  una- 
ble of  herself  to  expel  the  lamb,  she 
will  quietly  submit  to  the  shepherd's 
assistance.  In  giving  her  this  assist- 
ance, his  first  duty  is  to  ascertain 
whether  the  presentation  is  natural. 
The  natural  presentation  is  with  the 
muzzle  foremost,  and  a  foot  on  each 
side  of  it.  Should  all  be  right  in  this 
respect,  he  must  proceed  to  disen- 
gage the  lamb,  first  very  gently  draw- 
ing down  the  legs,  and  with  all  pos- 
sible tenderness  sinoothing  and  facil- 
itating the  passing  of  tiie  head  with 
his  fingers,  rather  than  forcibly  ex- 
tricating it,  the  particular  attention 
of  the  shepherd  being  given  to  these 
points.  This  may  be  effected  by  pass- 
ing the  finger  up  the  rectum,  until 
he  feels  the  back  of  the  lamb's  head, 
and  then  urging  it  forward  at  the 
same  time  that  he  gently  pulls  the 
legs.  Sometimes  the  head  is  suf- 
ficieritly  advanced,  but  the  legs  are 
too  backward.  In  this  case  the  head 
must  be  gently  pushed  back,  and  the 
hand  being  well  oiled,  must  be  intro- 
duced into  the  vagina,  and  applied  to 
the  legs  so  as  to  place  them  in  their 
natural  position,  equal  with  the  head. 
Should  the  fore  feet,  on  the  other 
hand,  protrude,  they  must  in  like 
manner  be  returned,  and  the  same 
assistance  given  to  advance  the  head. 
If  the  hinder  quarters  present  them- 
selves first,  the  hand  must  be  ap- 
plied to  get  hold  of  both  the  hind  legs 
706 


together,  and  draw  them  gently  hut 
firmly  :  the  laml)  may  often  be  easily 
removed  in  this  po.sition.  It  is  no 
unconunon  occurrence  to  find  the 
head  of  the  lamb  protruding,  and  much 
swollen  ;  but  still,  by  patience  and 
gentle  irianipulalion.  it  may  often  be 
gradually  brought  forward  ;  or  even 
nature,  not  unduly  interfered  with, 
will  complete  her  work  if  the  pelvis 
is  not  very  much  deformed.  Sliould, 
however,  the  strength  of  the  mother 
be  rapidly  wasting,  the  head  may  be 
taken  away  ;  and  then,  the  operator 
pushing  back  the  lamb,  may  intro- 
duce his  hand,  and  laying  hold  of  the 
fore  legs,  effect  the  delivery.  It  also 
often  happens  that  the  legs  are  thrust 
out  to  the  shoulder,  and  from  the 
throes  of  the  ewe,  it  is  not  possible 
to  replace  them  so  as  to  get  up  the 
head  of  the  lamb.  By  partially  skin- 
ning the  legs,  you  may  disunite  them 
t>om  the  shoulder-joint;  there  will 
then  be  room  for  the  introduction  of 
the  hand,  and  by  laying  hold  of  the 
head  you  can  deliver  the  ewe.  A 
single  season  of  practice  will  do  more 
than  voluiTies  of  writing  to  prepare 
the  farmer  for  the  precedmg  and  some 
other  cases  of  difficult  labour.  Bu'; 
let  hiiTi  bear  in  mind  that,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  foetus  should,  if  possible, 
he  placed  in  its  natural  position  pre- 
viously to  any  attempt  to  extricate 
it  by  force.  When  force  must  be 
used,  it  should  be  as  gentle  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  object  of  delivery. 
I  need  scarcely  observe  that  the  ewe 
must  be  the  object  of  careful  nursing 
and  care,  until  she  is  completely  re- 
stored.' 

"  Abortion. — Though  not  so  com- 
mon as  in  cows,  this  disease,  as  it 
may  be  termed,  sometimes  occurs 
very  extensively,  and  becomes  of  se- 
rious consequence  to  the  sheep-own- 
er, disarranging  all  his  plans,  as  well 
as  occasioning  a  severe  pecuniary 
loss.  It  may  occur  at  all  periods  of 
pregnancy,  but  is  most  frequent  when 
the  ewe  is  about  half  gone.  The 
causes  of  abortion  are  various:  sud- 
den fright,  jumping  over  hedges  or 
ditches,  being  worried  with  dogs,  and 
the  too  free  use  of  salt,  have  all  been 


SHEEP. 


known  to  produce  it ;  but  that  which  [turnips  ;  they  should  have  instead 
causes  it  more  than  anything  else  is  |  some  dry  pasture,  and  be  well  sup- 
the  unlimited  use  ot"  turnips  and  sue-  plied  with  hay.  If  feed  is  short,  the 
culent  food.  .Many  farmers  may  have,  turnips  may  be  drawn  and  given  them 
doubtless,  been  in  the  habit  of  per- |  on  the  ground  in  moderate  (piantities, 
niitting  this  with  impunity,  and  would  !  or,  wliicli  is  better,  cut  up  and  mi.\ed 
therefore  be  disposed  to  doubt  the    with  chaff,  or  bruised  corn  in  troughs. 


evil  consequences  of  the  practice  ; 
but  it  is  not  in  every  season  that  it  is 
attended  with  the  danger ;  but  when 
vegetation  has  been  abundant  in  the 
autumn,  and  the  winter  has  been 
unusually  wet,  there  is  considerable 
probability  of  the  ewes  casting  their 
iambs.  Such  was  the  case  during 
the  past  spring  in  numerous  instan- 
ces in  this  locality,  and  several  of 
which  came  under  my  own  particu- 
lar attention.  One  farmer  had  near- 
ly a  hundred  aborted,  and  lost  a  good 
many  of  the  ewes.  They  had  been 
turned  on  a  fine  field  of  turnips,  and 
subsisted  entirely  on  them  and  wa- 
ter-meadow hay  for  some  time  pre- 
vious to  the  commencement  of  the 
mischief,  which  began  soon  after 
Christmas,  and  continued  for  several 
weeks.  Though  the  greater  number 
of  ewes  recovered,  yet  they  suffered 
much,  and  some  died  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  womb,  and  others  became 
paralyzed 


It  is  better  that  the  condition  of  tlie 
ewes  be  in  some  degree  impaired, 
than  that  so  great  a  danger  as  abor- 
tion should  be  incurred.  If  this  pre- 
caution has  not  been  observed,  and 
abortion  should  appear,  what  then  is 
to  be  done  !  The  flock  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  turnips  to  a  dry  pas- 
ture, and  supplied  with  the  best  hay 
on  the  farm  ;  the  aborted  parts  should 
be  carefully  buried,  and  the  ewe  re- 
moved from  the  rest  ;  and,  if  possi- 
ble, the  same  man  that  attends  the 
flock  should  not  touch  or  go  near  the 
abortion,  for  there  is  very  consider- 
able danger  from  infection.  The  ewe 
should  be  placed  in  a  sheltered  situa- 
tion, but  allowed  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
and  the  following  medicine  may  ba 
given  with  some  nourishing  gruel  • 

Epsom  salts 4  ounce. 

Tincture  of  opium  .     .     .     1  drachm. 
Powdered  camphor      .     ■     i       " 

"  The  two  latter  medicines  maybe 
repeated  the  following  day,  but  not 


The   symptoms  first   manifested  |  the  salts,  unless  the  bowels  are  con- 
are  dulness  and  refusal  to  feed  ;  the    fined 


ewe  will  be  seen  moping  at  a  corner 
of  the  fold,  and  will  be  heard  to  bleat 
more  than  usual.  To  these  succeed 
restlessness,  and  often  trembling,  with 


The  immediate  cause  of  death  in 
fatal  cases  is  inflammation  of  the 
uterus  or  womb." 

If  any  of  the  newly-dropped  lambs 


slight  labour  pains,  and  in  the  course  ■  are  weak,  or  scarcely  able  to  stand, 
of  twelve  hours  abortion  will  have  he  must  give  them  a  little  of  the  milk, 
taken  place.  Sometimes  the  parts  which  at  these  times  he  should  al- 
will  be  so  relaxed,  that  the  uterus  or  \  ways  carry  about  him.  or  he  must 
vat^ina  will  become  inverted,  and  the  p.'ace  them  m  some  sheltered,  warm 
expulsion  of  the  placenta  will  precede  ,'  place  ;  in  the  course  of  a  little  while, 
that  of  the  foetus.  In  the  flock  be- !  the  young  one  wdl  probably  be  able 
fore  alluded  to  the  lamb  was  almost '  to  join  its  dam.  The  lambmg  field 
universally  dead,  and  often  exceed-  often  presents  at  this  period  a  strange 
iniilv  offensive,  and  the  abdomen  was  spectacle.  'Some  of  the  younger 
distended  with  a  bloody,  watery  fluid,  j  ewes,  in  the  pain,  and  confusion,  and 
pointin'T  out  pretty  clearly  the  nature  i  fright  of  their  first  parturition,  aban- 
and  source  of  the  disease.  I  don  their  lambs.  Many  of  them,  when 

"  The  treatment  to  be  adopted  is  of  the  udder  begins  to  fill,  will  search 
two  kinds,"prcventive  and  curative  :  !  out  their  offspring  with  unerring  pre- 
the  former,  however,  is  the  most  im-  ;  cision  ;  others  will  search  in  vain  for 
portant.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  iin-  •  it  in  every  part  of  the  field  with  in- 
prudent  to  turn  ewes  in  lamb  into  \  cessant  and  piteous  bleating ;  others, 
I  I  I  2  707 


SHEEP. 


afrain,  will  hano;  over  their  dead  ofT- 
spriiiR,  from  which  nolhinfT  oan  sep- 
arate them,  while  a  few,  strangely 
forgetting  tliat  they  are  mothers,  will 
graze  unconcernedly  with  the  rest  of 
the  flock.' 

"  The  shepherd  will  often  have  not 
a  little  to  do  in  order  to  reconcile 
some  of  the  mothers  to  their  twin 
offspring.  The  ewe  will  occasionally 
refuse  to  acknowledge  one  of  the 
lambs.  The  shepherd  will  have  to 
reconcile  the  little  one  to  its  unnatu- 
ral parent,  or  to  find  a  better  mother 
for  it.  If  the  mothers  obstinately 
refuse  to  do  their  duty,  they  must  be 
folded  by  themselves  until  they  are 
better  disposed  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  little  one  is  weak  and 
perverse,  he  must  be  repeatedly  for- 
ced to  swallow  a  portion  of  her  milk 
until  he  acknowledges  the  food  which 
nature  designed  for  him." 

It  is  said  that  placifig  salt  on  the 
back  of  the  lamb,  and  inducing  the 
ewe  to  lick  it,  is  a  certain  method 
of  causing  them  to  recognise  their 
young. 

Castration. — The  following  method 
is  by  Mr.  Spooner  : 

"  The  earlier  this  operation  is  per- 
formed, the  less  likely  is  it  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  injurious  effects.  A  fa- 
vourable day  should  be  selected,  dry, 
but  neither  hot  nor  cold ;  and  if  the 
flock  is  considerable,  it  will  be  better 
to  operate  upon  the  lambs  at  differ- 
ent periods,  by  which  they  can  all  be 
operated  on  at  pretty  nearly  the  same 
age,  than  to  wait  and  perform  tlie 
whole  at  the  same  time  :  a  fortnight 
is  a  very  good  age.  It  will  also  save 
trouble,  and  be  quite  as  well,  to  doek 
them  at  the  same  time.  There  are 
different  methods  of  performing  the 
operation,  but  the  following,  which 
we  have  generally  practised,  is  as 
expeditious,  convenient,  little  painful, 
and  satisfactory  as  any  : 

"The  operator  sits  astride  on  a 
long  stool,  with  one  of  the  lamb's 
hind  legs  under  each  thigh,  the  fore 
legs  and  head  being  held  by  an  as- 
sistant. With  the  finger  and  thumb 
of  the  left  hand,  he  draws  up  the  low- 
er part  of  the  scrotum  or  bag,  and 
708 


cuts  off  a  portion  of  the  skin  A'ith  a 
sharpscalpcl  or  knife,  lie  then  grasps 
tiie  U[)[)cr  part  of  the  scrotum,  which 
forces  the  testicles  forward,  and  with 
one  incision  separates  the  part  which 
divides  the  testicles,  sufliciently  to 
cause  them  both  to  escape  from  the 
bag.  He  then  places  the  iron  clams 
on  the  cords  above  the  testicles,  and 
with  a  hot  iron  divides  the  cords,  and 
the  operation  is  completed.  By  re- 
moving a  portion  of  the  skin,  though 
the  wound  is  rather  longer  healing, 
there  is  less  likelihood  of  matter  col- 
lecting within  the  bag.  A  little  lard 
may  be  smeared  on  the  parts  after- 
ward, to  keep  off  the  fleas,  &c.  Before 
the  operation  is  performed  the  bag 
should  be  examined,  in  order  to  find 
whether  any  rupture  exists,  in  which 
case  some  of  the  intestines  will  have 
escaped  into  the  scrotum.  In  such 
case,  the  operation  must  be  perfornr- 
ed  in  a  more  careful  and  difficult  man- 
ner. Four  small  slips  of  wood,  about 
four  inches  in  length,  must  first  be 
provided.  Two  sticks  of  elder  cut  in 
half  will  be  most  suitable ;  and  it 
will  be  better  if  the  pith  is  removed 
and  the  vacancy  filled  with  some 
caustic.  One  end  of  each  pair  must 
be  fastened  together  with  waxed 
thread.  The  intestines  should  be 
gently  forced  up  into  the  abdomen,  at 
any  rate  as  high  as  possible.  An  in- 
cision should  then  be  carefully  made 
over  each  testicle,  and  through  the 
skin  alone  :  the  testicle,  with  its  cov- 
erings, should  then  be  pressed  through 
the  opening  in  the  skin,  which,  being 
held  back,  the  elder-sticks  should  be 
placed  on  the  cord  above  the  testicle  ; 
and  one  end  having  been  previously 
united,  the  other  should  be  brought 
together,  and  firmly  tied  by  an  assist- 
ant with  waxed  thread.  The  other 
testicle  may  then  be  operated  on  in  a 
similar  manner.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  neither  the  skin  nor  any  portion 
of  the  intestine  be  included  m  the 
wooden  clams,  and  they  must  be 
pressed  together  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible. 

"  In  the  course  of  three  or  four 
days  the  lamb  should  be  examined  ; 
and  if  the  testicle  has  fallen  off,  or 


SHEEP. 


can  be  removed  by  the  hand,  the 
thread  may  be  cut  and  the  clams  re- 
moved. 

"  In  castrating  full-grown  lambs,  it 
is  bettor  to  take  out  each  testicle 
separately,  through  an  incision  made 
into  each  compartment  of  the  scro- 
tum, and  the  same  method  may  be 
adopted  as  is  practised  with  the  horse. 

"  Dockintf. — Tliis  simple  ojjeration 
is  performed  on  most  lambs  at  an 
early  age,  generally,  and  very  prop- 
erly, at  tlie  period  of  castration.  In 
the  Dorset  and  Somei"set  horned 
sheep,  and  a  few  others,  it  is,  how- 
ever, customary  to  leave  the  tails ; 
but  if  diarrhcea  should  attack  the 
lamb,  a.s  it  is  likely  to  do  in  some  de- 
gree, the  long  tails  harbour  tilth,  and 
sometimes  cause  sores,  on  which  the 
fly  will  deposite  its  eggs. 

"  The  best  method  of  performing 
the  operation  is  to  place  the  tail  on  a 
block  of  wood,  and  excise  it  with  a 
sharp  iron  red  hot,  about  four  inches 
from  tlie  root.  It  may,  however,  be 
cut  off  without  any  bad  efTect." 

"  Unless  the  pasture  on  which  the 
ewes  are  placed  is  very  good,  it  will 
be  advisable  to  continue  the  use  of 
the  turnips  or  roots.  A  moderate 
quantity  may  be  given  twice  in  the 
day,  care  being  taken  that  the  whole 
of  one  quantity  shall  be  eaten  before 
any  more  is  placed  before  them. 
This  is  a  better  practice  than  hurdling 
off  certain  portions  of  the  tield  for 
the  sheep,  unless  the  land  is  perfect- 
ly dry. 

"  A  little  hay  will  always  be  ser- 
viceable while  the  flock  is  fed  on  tur- 
nips. It  corrects  the  occasional  wa- 
tery quality  of  the  turnips,  and  the 
sheep  usually  thrive  better  than  if 
they  are  fed  either  on  hay  or  turnips 
alone.  Bran  and  oats,  with  oil-cake, 
have  been  recommended  for  the  ewes 
before  weaning  time  ;  but  this  is  an 
expensive  measure,  and  its  cost  can 
hardly  be  repaid  either  by  the  ewe  or 
the  lamb. 

"  By  the  end  of  March  or  the  be- 
ginning of  April  the  turnips  are  gen- 
erally nearly  consumed,  and  the  farm- 
er is  occasionally  a  little  puzzled  to 
lind  sufficient  food  lor  his  Hock.  He 
0  o  0 


should  have  had  some  plots  of  rye  to 
support  them  for  a  while.  Rye  grass 
and  clover  are  very  serviceable.  Swe- 
dish turnips  that  have  been  carefully 
stacked  on  dry  straw  will  be  most 
useful,  for  the  .Swedes,  properly  pre- 
pared and  housed,  will  retain  their 
nutritive  quality  until  the  flock  can 
be  conveniently  supplied  with  other 
food.  Ruta  baga  are  always  useful 
for  spring  food.  The  after-grass  like- 
wise furnishes  plentiful  and  whole- 
some food  for  the  lambs. 

"  At  length  comes  the  time  for 
weaning.  In  a  poor  country  it  takes 
place  before  the  lambs  are  much  more 
than  three  months  old.  In  a  more 
plentiful  one  the  lambs  may  be  left 
until  the  fourth  month  is  nearly  or 
quite  expired.  If  the  pasture  is  good, 
and  it  is  intended  to  sell  the  lambs  in 
store  condition,  the  weaning  may  be 
delayed  until  six  months.  Which- 
ever time  is  selected,  it  is  of  essential 
consequeuce  that  the  mothers  and 
the  dams  should  be  placed  so  far 
apart  that  they  cannot  hear  the  bleat- 
ings  of  each  other.  The  ewes  should 
be  somewhat  carefully  looked  after, 
and  if  any  of  them  refuse  to  eat,  they 
should  be  caught,  the  state  of  the  ud- 
der ascertained,  and  proper  measures 
adopted. 

"  The  lambs  should  not  be  put  on 
too  stimulating  food.  The  pasture 
should  be  fresh  and  sweet,  but  not 
luxuriant.  It  should  be  sufficient  to 
maintain  and  somewhat  increase  their 
condition,  but  not  to  produce  any  dan- 
gerous determination  of  blood  to  any 
part.  In  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
States  it  will  be  advisable  to  house 
sheep  in  large  barns  during  winter. 

"  The  Diseases  of  Sheep. — The  rap- 
id progress  which  the  veterinary  art 
has  lately  made  has  thrown  great 
light  on  the  maladies  to  which  the 
sheep  is  liable,  and  the  mode  of  pre- 
venting or  removing  them. 

"  Commencing  with  the  muzzle 
and  head,  there  is  a  disease,  or  rath- 
er annoyance,  to  which  sheep  are  ex- 
posed by  the  persecution  of  a  fly,  the 
Oistrus  ovis,  or  <sadjhj  of  ti:e  sheep. 
.\t  a  period  between  May  and  July 
this  fly  is  perseveringly  endeavouring 
709 


SHEEP. 


to  lay  its  eggs  on  the  inner  margin  of 
the  nostril  of  tlie  sheep,  whence, 
hatched  by  tlie  warmth  ami  moisture 
of  the  situation,  and  assiiminL;  its  lar- 
va form,  it  crawls  into  the  nostril  in 
order  to  reach  the  frontal  sitms,  or 
cavities  in  the  skull  bone.  Instinct- 
ively alarmed  by  the  buzzing  of  the 
fly,  or  the  motions  of  the  larva;,  the 
sheep  congregate  with  their  heads  in 
the  centre,  pawing  continually  with 
their  feet,  and  expressing  their  dislike 
and  fear  in  every  possible  way.  It  re- 
mains in  the  sinus  a  certain  period, 
until  it  has  attained  its  full  growth, 
when  it  endeavours  to  escape,  in  or- 
der to  undergo  another  transforma- 
tion. It  escapes  from  the  nostril, 
burrows  in  the  earth  for  a  while,  as- 
sumes its  pupa  state,  undergoes  its 
final  change,  and  assimies  the  form 
ofafly,  and  then  becoming  impregna- 
ted, seeks  again  the  nostril  of  the 
sheep.  All  that  can  be  done  with  re- 
gard to  this  nuisance  is  to  destroy  the 
flies,  which  are  generally  to  be  seen 
on  the  walls  or  pales  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  flock,  and  which  the 
shepherd,  or  shepherd's  boy,  should 
be  taught  to  recognise. 

"Another  parasite  is  a  species  of 
hydatid,  the  Ccennrus,  or  Hydatis 
folyccphahts  ccrchrulis.  It  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  bladder,  sometimes 
filled  with  pellucid  water,  or,  occa- 
sionally, with  myriads  of  minute 
worms,  or  smaller  hydatids.  Its  res- 
idence is  the  brain,  either  beneath 
the  inner  membrane  of  the  brain,  or 
in  the  fissure  between  its  two  hemi- 
spheres. The  origin  of  it  is  not  clear, 
except  that  it  is  connected  with  bad 
management,  being  scarcely  known  in 
upland  pastures,  or  in  grounds  that 
have  been  well  drained.  As  the  par- 
asite grows,  it  presses  upon  the 
neighbouring  substance  of  the  brain, 
and  interferes  with  the  discharge  of 
its  functions.  There  is  an  aberration 
of  intellect ;  the  sheep  is  frightened 
at  any  trifling  or  imaginary  object ;  he 
separates  himself  from  his  compan- 
ions ;  he  commences  a  strange  rotato- 
ry motion  even  while  he  grazes,  with 
the  head  always  turned  towards  the 
same  side.  This  is  the  characteris- 
710 


tic  symptom,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  per- 
ceived the  animal  should  be  destroy- 
ed, for  there  is  no  certain  cure,  and 
many  of  the  operations  that  some 
persons  have  flescribed  are  cruel  and 
ineflicient.  The  duty  of  the  farmer 
is  to  destroy  the  slurdicd  sheep  as  soon 
as  the  disease  is  ascertained,  howev- 
er poor  it  may  be  in  condition." 

It  may  be  well  to  remark,  that 
when  the  hydatid  is  situated  near  the 
bone,  and  especially  in  the  forehead, 
between  and  above  the  eyes,  the  skull 
becomes  soft  at  the  place,  and  this 
being  discovered,  a  cure  has  some- 
times been  effected  by  cutting  down- 
ward through  the  soft  bone,  so  as  to 
reach  the  hydatid ;  if  this  is  cut 
through,  it  frequently  dries ;  and 
should  there  be  no  more,  a  cure  oc- 
curs. The  puncture  should  not  reach 
to  the  brain  ;  half  an  inch  is  enough. 

"  A  somewhat  similar  disease,  but 
with  which  the  hydatid  has  nothing 
to  do,  is  Hi/drorcphalus,  or  v:atcr  in  the 
head,  generally  indicated  by  a  little 
enlargement  of  the.  skull,  a  disincli- 
nation to  move,  a  slight  staggering 
in  the  walk,  a  stupidity  of  look,  and 
a  rapid  loss  of  condition.  This  dis- 
ease seldom  admits  of  cure  or  pallia- 
tion. If  any  amendment  can  be  ef- 
fected, it  will  be  by  the  administration 
of  good  food,  tonic  medicine,  and  gen- 
tle aperients.  When  water  in  the 
head  is  an  occasional  visitant  in  a 
flock  of  sheep,  there  is  something 
wrong  in  the  land,  or  its  management, 
or  in  the  nature  of  the  food,  or  the 
character  of  the  sheep. 

"Another  species  of  pressure  on 
the  brain  is  of  too  frequent  occur- 
rence— Apoplexy.  A  flock  of  sheep 
shall  be  in  apparently  as  good  and 
fine  condition  as  the  farmer  can  de- 
sire. They  have  for  a  considerable 
period  grazed  on  the  most  luxuriant 
pasture,  and  are  apparently  in  the 
highest  state  of  health.  By  and  by, 
one  or  more  of  them  is,  without  any 
previously  observed  change,  sudden- 
ly taken  ill.  He  staggers,  is  uncon- 
scious, falls,  and  dies,  and  perhaps 
within  a  quarter  of  an  hour  from  the 
first  attack.  With  regard  to  how 
many  over-fattened  sheep  is  this  the 


SHEEP. 


case?  The  owners,  taking  them  to 
some  cattle-sliow,  say  that  they  died 
of  inflammation.  Inflammation  had 
nothing  to  do  with  it.  The  sheep  had 
heen  brought  to  the  liighest  and  most 
dangerous  state  ofoondition.  Every 
vessel  was  overloaded  with  blood, 
and  then  some  trifling  exertion  being 
required,  or  the  animal  being  a  little 
disturbed,  the  nervous  functions  were 
suspended,  and  the  vital  current  sud- 
denly arrested.  Very  few  persons 
have  gone  into  a  cattle-show  without 
being  painfully  struck  with  the  evi- 
dent distress  exhibited  by  some  of 
the  over-gorged  animals. 

"  If  there  is  time  for  resorting  to 
curative  means,  the  jugular  vein 
should  be  opened,  and  aperient  medi- 
cine administered. 

"  Inflammalion  of  the  Brain  is  a  fre- 
quent consequence  of  this  strange 
over-feeding.  It  is  ushered  in  by 
dulness  and  disinclination  to  move  ; 
but  presently  the  eye  brightens,  and 
the  animal  attacks  everything  with- 
in his  reach.  If  it  can  be  managed, 
the  same  treatment  must  be  adopted 
— bleeding,  phasic,  and  low  feeding. 

"  Locked  Jaw  is  not  an  unfrequent 
disease  among  sheep.  It  commences 
with  an  involuntary  spasiriodic  mo- 
tion of  the  head,  accoinpanied  by 
grinding  of  the  teeth  ;  but  the  latter 
symptom  is  presently  succeeded  by 
fixedness  of  the  jaws.  The  disease 
often  runs  its  course  in  a  little  more 
than  twelve  hours.  The  principal 
cause  is  cold  and  wet.  After  an  un- 
usually cold  night,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  find  many  ewes  that  have 
lately  lambed,  and  many  lambs  re- 
cently dropped,  dead  and  stiffened. 
It  sotnetimes  occurs  after  castration, 
and  at  weaning  time.  Bleeding,  ape- 
rient medicine,  an  opiate  given  an 
hour  after  the  physic,  and  also  a  warm 
bath,  are  among  the  most  likely  means 
of  cure. 

"  Epilepsy  is  a  not  unfrequent  dis- 
ease among  young  sheej)  which  are 
exposed  too  much  to  cold,  or  dismiss- 
ed from  the  fold  too  soon  in  the  morn- 
ing. Care  and  nursing  will  some- 
times recover  them,  or  a  little  exer- 
cise forced  upon  the  patient. 


"  Palsy. — The  appearance  of  this 
disease  is  mostly  confined  to  the  ewe 
and  lamb  at  weaning  time,  or  when 
they  are  left  at  night  in  a  bleak  and 
exposed  situation.  The  vital  heat  is 
abstracted  by  the  cold  bed  on  which 
they  lie,  and  the  cold  air  around  them, 
and  there  follows  a  compound  of 
rheumatism  and  palsy,  the  latter  pre- 
dominant and  most  obstinate.  In  the 
majority  of  cases  they  will  never  re- 
gain tiieir  former  condition  or  value, 
but  continue  a  disgraceful  exhibition 
of  the  carelessness  and  inhumanity 
of  the  owner.  It  is  dreadful  to  think 
how  many  animals  in  some  districts 
are  thus  destroyed.  No  little  art  and 
kind  treatment  are  in  some  cases  re- 
quisite in  order  to  recover  these  neg- 
lected and  abused  creatures.  Warm 
gruel  or  milk,  and  a  moderate  degree 
of  warmth,  are  the  chief  restoratives 
that  can  at  first  with  safety  be  appli- 
ed. A  little  ginger  and  spirit  of  ni- 
trous ffilher  may  be  added  to  the  gruel 
when  the  patient  begins  to  recover. 

"  Rabies. — The  rabid  dog  seems  to 
have  an  irresistible  propensity  to 
worry  sheep,  and  the  poison  is  as  fa- 
tal in  this  as  in  any  other  animal. 
There  are  cases  on  record  in  which 
from  twenty  to  thirty  have  been  bit- 
ten by  the  same  dog,  and  all  have 
died.  If  it  can  be  proved  that  the 
flock  has  been  attacked  by  a  mad  dog, 
every  sheep  should  be  most  carefully 
examined,  and  if  the  slightest  wound 
is  found  upon  him,  he  should  be  de- 
stroyed. When  the  disease  has  bro- 
ken out  in  the  flock,  no  sheep  that 
has  exhibited  the  slightest  trace  of  it 
should  be  used  for  human  food. 

"There  is  no  cure  for  rabies,  and 
he  will  incur  fruitless  expense  who 
has  recourse  to  any  pretended  nos- 
trum for  this  purpose. 

"  Ophthalmia  is  a  very  frequent  dis- 
ease among  sheep.  The  old  people 
used  to  say  that  the  animal  had  dis- 
turbed a  lark's  nest,  and  that  the  lark 
had  spurred  him  blind.  If  any  in- 
flammation of  the  eye  is  detected, 
that  organ  should  be  frequently  bath- 
ed with  a  weak  solution  of  Gouland's 
lotion,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  lauda- 
num have  been  added.  It  is  some- 
711 


SHEEP. 


times  difficult  to  get  rid  of  this  affec- 
tion, and  cataract  and  permanent 
l)lindness  will  ensue.  'I'lie  Ettrick 
shepherd  says  that  '  a  iViend  will  |L;en- 
erally  attach  itself  to  the  sufferer, 
waiting  on  it  with  the  most  tender 
assiduity,  and  by  its  bleating  calling 
it  from  danger  and  from  going  astray.' 

"  Huovc  is  a  morbid  distention  of 
the  paunch  with  food,  and  the  extri- 
cation of  gas  from  that  food.  An  ac- 
ccunt  has  been  given  of  this  disorder 
in  tlie  article  Ox,  so  that  every  pur- 
pose will  be  answered  by  referring 
to  it.  The  same  may  be  said  of  all ' 
the  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs. 
Their  structure  is  the  same  in  cattle 
and  in  sheep  ;  and  the  causes  and  ap- 
pearances and  treatment  of  the  dis- 
eases are  the  same. 

"  There  is,  however,  a  disease  of 
the  liver — the  Rut — far  more  frequent- 
ly occurring  in  sheep  than  in  cattle, 
and  bearing  a  peculiar  and  more  de- 
structive character. 

"  In  the  very  earliest  stage  alone 
does  it  admit  of  cure.  The  decisive 
symptom,  at  that  time,  is  a  yellow 
colour  of  the  eye,  that  surrounds  the 
pupil  and  the  small  veins  of  it,  and 
particularly  the  corner  of  the  eye, 
which  is  fdled  with  a  yellow  serous 
fluid,  and  not  with  blood.  There  is 
no  other  apparent  nrorbid  appearance 
until  it  is  too  late  to  struggle  with 
the  malady ;  on  the  contrary,  the 
sheep,  although  perhaps  a  little  duller 
than  usual,  has  an  evident  propensity 
to  fatten. 

"  The  rot  is  a  disease  of  the  liver, 
attended  by  inflammation  of  that  or- 
gan, and  the  vessels  of  it  contain 
fasciolaj  {flukes).  The  flukes  are 
probably  more  the  efiect  than  the 
cause  of  the  disease.  They  aggra- 
vate the  disease  by  perpetuating  a 
state  of  irritability  and  disorganiza- 
tion. The  rot  is  evidently  connected 
with  the  state  of  the  pasture.  It  is 
precisely  the  same  as  marsh  fever  in 
men,  originating  from  the  poisonous 
vapours  of  marshes.  It  is  conlined 
either  to  wet  seasons  or  to  the  feed- 
ing on  ground  that  is  moist  and 
marshy.  In  the  same  farm  there  are 
fields  on  which  no  sheep  can  be  turn- 
Tig 


ed  without  getting  the  rot,  and  there 
are  others  that  never  give  the  rot. 
After  long-continued  rains  it  is  almost 
sure  to  appear.  The  disease  may  be 
conmnunicatcd  with  extraordinary  ra- 
pidity. A  flock  of  sheep  was  halted 
by  the  side  of  a  pond  for  the  purpose 
of  drinking  ;  the  time  which  they  re- 
mained there  was  not  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  yet  two  hundred 
of  them  eventually  died  rotten.  In 
the  treatment  of  the  rot  little  that  is 
satisfactory  can  be  done.  Some  sheep 
have  recovered,  but  the  decided  ma- 
jority perish  in  despite  of  every  ef- 
fort. The  patients,  however,  may, 
as  giving  them  a  little  chance,  be 
moved  to  the  driest  and  soundest 
pastures  ;  tliey  may  undergo  a  regu- 
lar course  of  aperient  medicine.  Mer- 
curial friction  may  also  be  used,  but, 
above  all,  plenty  of  salt  should  be 
placed  within  the  animals'  reach,  and 
given  to  them  in  the  way  of  medicine. 
Doses  of  calomel  may  be  given  in  the 
early  stages. 

"  In  the  way  of  prevention,  the 
farmer  may  do  much  :  he  may  drain 
the  most  suspicious  parts  of  his  farm. 
No  money  would  be  more  profitably 
expended  than  in  accomplishing  this. 
Som.e  of  the  little  swampy  spots 
which  disgrace  the  appearance  of  his 
farm,  possibly  he  at  the  root  of  the 
evil. 

"  Red-water,  or  the  effusion  of  a 
bloody  serous  fluid  in  the  cavity  of 
the  abdomen,  is  a  frequent  and  very 
fatal  disease  among  sheep.  The 
cause  of  it  is  a  sudden  change  from 
one  pasture  to  another  of  almost  op- 
posite quality,  or  the  moving  of  the 
flock  from  a  dry  and  warm  to  a  damp 
and  cold  situation.  It  is  most  de- 
structive to  lambs  if  exposed  to  a 
hard  frost,  or  suffered  to  lie  on  a  damp 
and  cold  soil.  The  sheep  will  separ- 
ate himself  from  the  rest  of  the  flock ; 
he  will  evince  a  great  deal  of  pain,  by 
rolling  about  and  frequently  lying 
down,  and  immediately  getting  up 
again  ;  and  sometimes  he  dies  in  less 
than  twenty-four  hours  from  the  first 
attack.  The  belly  will  be  found  swell- 
ed and  filled  with  the  red  water,  or 
serous  fluid  tinged  with  blood,  from 


SHEEP. 


which  the  disease  derives  its  name.  '  extended  and  labouring  for  breath. 
The  treatment  should  consist  of  mild  If  his  general  health  does  not  seem 
aperients,  with  gentian  and  ginger,  to  be  atTccted,  this  nasal  glut  will  all 
and  a  liberal  allowance  of  hay  and  pass  away  as  the  spring  approaches, 
corn.  Inflammation  of  the  coals  of  If,  however,  any  of  the  flock  should 
the  intestines  (enteritis)  would  not  now  appear  to  be  losing  flesh  and 
always  be  readily  distinguished  from  strength,  it  is  too  probable  that  cun- 
the  last  disease,  except  that  there  is  {  4-!tmp<(07i  is  at  hand.  The  only  chance 
more  stamping  on  the  ground  and  i  of  saving  or  doing  them  any  good  will 
striking  the  belly  with  the  hind  legs,  |  be  to  place  them  in  some  comfortable 
and  occasional  lying  on  the  back.  |  pasture,  letting  them  have  salt  within 
The  principal  causes  of  enteritis  are  their  reach,  and  giving  them  the  hy- 
improper  food,  or  an  excess  of  that  ^  driodate  of  potash,  in  doses  gradual- 
which  is  healthful,  or  exposure  to  ly  increasing  from  three  grains  to 
cold  and  wet.  Here,  also,  bleeding  '  twelve,  morning  and  night, 
is  imperatively  required,  but  the  pur-  i  "  Lambs,  when  too  early  and  too 
gative  should  not  consist  of  anything  I  much  exposed,  are  subject  to  diseas- 
strongerthan  sulphur.  Dtarrhma  is  a  i  es  of  the  upper  air  passages  {laryngi- 
very  prevalent  disease  among  lambs,  |  tis  and  hronchUis),  the  one  attended 
and  especially  after  a  change  of  diet    by  a  ringing  cough,  and  the  other  by 


or  of  situation.  When  it  is  not  vio 
lent,  and  does  not  seem  to  be  at- 
tended by  colic,  a  little  absorbent 
and  astringent  medicine,  with  a  few 
grains  of  opium,  may  be  administered. 
The  diarrhoja  of  sheep  may  be  simi- 
larly treated  ;  but  when  the  disease  is 
assuming  the  character  of  dysentery, 
when  the  discharge  is  more  frequent 
and  copious,  and  mingled  with  mucus, 
a  larger  quantity  of  this  medicine 
should  be  given,  and  some  blood  ab- 
stracted if  there  is  any  degree  of  fe- 
ver." 

Costiveness,  or  stretches,  is  attend- 
ed with  loss  of  appetite.  The  animal 
also  frequently  lies  down  and  stretch- 
es itself:  two  tqi)le-spoonfuls  of  cas- 
tor oil  or  one  ounce  of  salts  will  rem- 
edy it.  The  disease  is  said  to  arise 
from  want  of  green  food.  Braxy  ap- 
pears to  be  an  inflammation  of  the 
stomach ;  the  sheep  refuses  food,  is 
costive,  drinks  often,  mouth  parched, 
eyes  red,  belly  swollen  and  tender. 
Bleed,  and  give  febrifuge  medicines  ; 
place  in  the  house,  and,  after  a  few 
days,  give  aperient  medicines. 

"  The  diseases  of  the  respiratory 
organs  are  often  of  a  serious  charac- 
ter. During  the  greater  part  of  the 
winter  the  nostrils  will  sometimes 


one  of  a  more  wheezing  sound. 
Bleeding  will  always  be  necessary 
for  the  first,  with  aperient  medicine. 
A  mild  purgative  will  usually  suffice 
for  the  second,  or,  possibly,  an  ounce 
or  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  common 
salt  may  be  given  dissolved  in  six 
ounces  of  lime-water. 

"  Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  recog- 
nised by  difficulty  of  breathing,  heav- 
ing at  the  flanks,  and  distressing 
cough,  is  a  disease  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  sheep.  It  speedily  runs  its 
course,  and  the  lungs  are  found  to  be 
one  disorganized  mass.  Bleeding  and 
purging  are  indispensable  ;  but  as 
soon  as  the  violent  symptoms  .seem 
to  remit,  tonics,  composed  of  gentian 
and  spirit  of  nitrous  aether,  must  fol- 
low. 

"  Epidemics. — Sheep  are  not  so  lia- 
ble to  the  attack  of  these  diseases  as 
horses  and  cattle.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, sheep  suffer  from  epidemic  dis- 
eases very  seriously.  They  have 
cough,  and  discharge  from  the  nose 
and  eyes.  Tiie  appetite  ceases. 
Those  that  are  affected  by  the  dis- 
ease separate  themselves  from  the 
rest  of  the  flock  ;  they  continually  lie 
down,  and  many  of  them  die.  They 
exhibit,    after    death,    inflammation 


be  tilled  with  mucus,  and  the  sheep  through  all  the  contents  of  the  chest 
is  compelled  to  stop  for  a  moment  at  and  abdomen,  with  effusion  into  the 
every  second  or  third  bite,  and  snort  cavities  of  both.  The  disease  is  most 
violently,  and  stand  with  his  muzzle  i  rapid  in  its  course.  The  shepherd 
O  o  0  3  713 


SHEEP. 


may  leave  his  flock  in  tlie  morning, 
free,  apparently,  from  any  imiiicdiaie 
danger,  and  when  he  reiurns  in  tlie 
afternoon  he  will  find  two  or  throe  of 
them  dead.  Epsom  salts  with  nitre 
may  be  given.  Blood  should  be  ab- 
stracted if  the  case  seems  to  require 
it;  and  the  medicine  should  be  re- 
peated sufficiently  often  to  keep  the 
bowels  gently  open.  If  the  purging 
becomes  considerable,  a  little  starch, 
with  chalk  and  cinnamon,  may  be  ser- 
viceable. Those  that  will  eat  should 
be  foddered  with  good  hay,  and  the 
others  forced  with  gruel,  being  kept 
dry  and  comfortable,  with  plenty  of 
clean  straw  under  them.  The  de- 
tached horn  should  be  pared  from  the 
feet  where  there  was  any  separation, 
and  the  parts  washed  with  a  solution 
of  blue  vitriol,  and  then  smeared  over 
with  melted  tar.  The  mouth  and 
tongue,  on  which  there  are  generally 
some  ulcers,  should  be  dressed  with 
a  strong  solution  of  alum  in  water. 
Under  this  treatment  most  of  the  pa- 
tients will  probably  recover. 

"  Garget. — Inflammation  of  the  ud- 
der is  more  frequent  in  the  ewe  than 
in  the  cow.  'Ihe  udder  should  be 
well  fomented  with  warm  w  ater,  and 
then,  if  there  are  no  large  knots  or 
kernels,  she  should  be  returned  to 
her  lamb,  whose  knocking  about  of 
the  udder  will  generally  be  produc- 
tive of  good  rather  than  harm.  If, 
liowever,  she  refuses  the  lamb,  a 
drachm  of  camphor  and  mercurial 
ointment  may  be  well  incorporated 
with  an  ounce  of  elder  ointment,  and  a 
little  of  it  well  rubbed  into  the  udder 
every  morning  and  night.  If  the  ud- 
der should  still  continue  to  enlarge, 
a  free  incision  must  be  made  into 
that  part  where  the  swellings  are 
largest.  A  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime  should  then  be  applied,  and 
when  the  putrid  smell  is  gone,  the 
friar's  balsam  should  be  used.  In  a 
few  days  the  wound  will  generally  be 
healed,  and  the  lamb  may  be  return- 
ed to  its  mother. 

"  Diseases  of  the  Feet. — There  is  a 

small  opening  at  the  bifurcation  of 

the  pasterns,  which  leads  to  a  canal 

running  down  the  inner  face  of  each 

714 


to  the  commencement  of  the  hoot. 

The  function  of  this  canal  is  a  matter 
of  doubt ;  but  dirt  or  gravel,  or  other 
foreign  bodies,  sometimes  get  into 
these  canals,  and  produce  considera- 
ble pain,  inflammation,  and  ulcera- 
tion. The  treatment  consists  in  the 
extraction  of  any  of  those  e.vtraneous 
substances  that  can  be  got  at,  and  the 
fomenting  and  poulticing,  or  scarify- 
ing the  parts,  or  efTecling  incisions 
into  the  canal,  and  applying  a  caustic 
or  a  balsam,  as  the  case  may  re- 
quire." 

Foot-rot  arises  from  wet  pastures. 
It  first  produces  lameness,  origina- 
ting in  the  softening  of  the  crust 
of  the  foot ;  ulcerations  appear,  and, 
finally,  the  animal  is  unable  to  move, 
and  dies. 

"  The  treatment  of  foot-rot  essen- 
tially consists  in  paring  away  all  loose 
and  detached  horn.  This  is  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  skilful  and  successful 
practice.  All  fungous  granulations 
must  either  be  cut  away,  or  de- 
stroyed by  the  muriate  of  antimo- 
ny, and  the  foot  well  washed  with 
a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime.  The 
muriate  of  antimony  must  then  be 
lightly  applied  over  the  whole  of  the 
denuded  surface  This  must  be  re- 
peated daily,  until  the  whole  of  the 
foot  is  covered  with  new  horn.  The 
diseased  sheep  must  not  be  permitted 
to  join  his  companions  until  the  cure 
is  complete;  for  it  is  a  sadly  infec- 
tious disease,  and  may  easily  spread 
through  the  whole  flock." 

Fouls  is  an  irritation  and  suppura- 
tion of  the  gland  in  the  cleft  of  the 
hoof.  It  is  easily  remedied  by  apply- 
ing warm  tar.     It  is  not  contagious. 

"  The  Scab  is  a  very  troublesome 
disease,  common  in  the  spring  and 
summer.  The  sheep  is  continually 
scratching  himself  with  his  feet,  tear- 
ing offthe  wool,  and  violently  rubbing 
himself  against  every  protruding  sub- 
stance. The  disease  first  appears  in 
the  form  of  minute  pustules  ;  but  sev- 
eral of  these  unite,  and  form  a  scan. 
The  health  of  the  sheep  becomes  rap- 
idly affected  under  this  disease,  and 
some  of  them  p'ne  away  and  die.  It 
is  a  very  infectious  disease  ;  for  ev- 


SHE 


SHE 


ery  place  against  which  the  sheep  can 
rub  hiiiiself  becomes  tainted  with  the 
poison.  The  sheep  must  he  housed, 
and  shorn  as  closely  as  possible,  and 
tlien  well  washed  with  warm  water. 
An  ointment  composed  of  one  part  of 
mercurial  ointment  and  seven  of  lard, 
or  sulphur  and  lard,  mu.st  then  be  pro- 
cured, and  such  a  quantity  of  it  as  the 
diseased  parts  seem  to  require  rubbed 
in  on  every  second  day.  Every  place 
in  the  field  and  in  the  fold  against 
which  he  can  possibly  have  rubbed 
himself  must  be  well  cleaned  and 
painted  before  he  is  permitted  to  re- 
turn. The  cause  of  scab  consists  in 
the  presence  of  a  minute  insect  or 
tick  (Acarus),  which  may  be  convey- 
ed from  one  sheep  to  another  when 
an  infected  sheep  comes  in  contact 
with  a  sound  one  ;  or  it  may  be  left 
on  the  rubbing-post,  and  entangled 
in  the  wool  of  the  next  animal  that 
comes  in  contact  with  it  ;  or  it  may 
be  the  product,  and  is  too  often  so, 
of  disease  of  the  part.  It  is  of  spon- 
taneous origin,  as  well  as  the  product 
of  contagion,  and  is  called  into  exist- 
ence by  the  derangements  which  our 
neglect,  or  accident,  or  disease  has 
made  in  the  skin.  This  is  a  view  of 
the  case  that  should  never  be  forgot- 
ten by  the  sheep-owner. 

"  Lice  and  Ticks  will  be  best  got 
rid  of  by  the  application  of  the  mer- 
curial ointment  just  recommended, 
or  dipping  the  sheep  in  a  decoction 
of  tobacco. 

"  The  Fly. — Several  species  of  fly 
frequently  deposite  their  ova  on  the 
wool  of  the  sheep.  If  there  are  any 
sore  places,  they  are  selected  for  the 
habitation  of  the  larvae.  The  head, 
as  the  most  exposed  part,  is  the  one 
oftenest  attacked,  and  the  sheep  are 
sadly  tormented  by  the  fly  and  the 
larvae.  The  best  preservative  or  cure 
is  the  application  of  a  plaster  compo- 
sed of  a  pound  of  pitch  and  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce  of  bees'  wax,  spread  on 
soft  leather  or  linen.  The  attack 
may,  however,  be  generally  prevent- 
ed by  the  application  of  a  small 
quantity  of  spirit  of  tar  to  the  head, 
or  any  bare  or  sore  part.  Two  or 
three  applications  of  this  will  be  suf- 


ficient for  the  whole  of  the  summer, 
and  not  a  fly  will  approach  a  siiecp 
thus  guarded." 

For  medicines  and  their  doses,  see 
Pharmacopaeia. 

SHEEP-FOLD.  A  yard  for  sheep 
to  be  gathered  into  in  cold  weather 
or  during  nigiit.  It  should  be  well 
littered,  and  in  a  dry  situation.  Sheds 
of  slabs  may  be  placed  around,  or 
facing  the  south,  so  as  to  atlbrd 
them  shelter  from  cold.  Shelter  and 
warmth  during  winter  effect  a  great 
saving,  even  as  much  as  one  half  of 
the  food. 

SPIEEP-PENS.  Enclosures  made 
by  hurdles.  They  should  be  situated 
on  dry  places.  They  are  convenient 
for  sorting  and  examining  the  ani- 
mals, separating  the  sickly  and  lamb- 
ing, &c. 

SHEEP,  PERUVIAN.  The  al- 
paca, or  llama.     See  Alpaca. 

SHEEP'S  SORREL.  Rumex  acc- 
tosclla.  A  small  acid  weed,  growing 
in  thin,  poor  soils. 

SHELLER,  CORN.  A  machine 
for  removing  the  grain  from  the  cob. 
There  are  innumerable  patents  for 
corn  shellers.  The  machines  are  of 
two  classes,  either  for  slielling  one 
or  two  ears,  or  acting  on  a  large  quan- 
tity. The  form.er  usually  consists  of 
a  wheel  of  cast  iron,  roughened  over 
the  whole  surface  by  knobs,  which  is 
rotated  against  the  ear  placed  in  a 
spring  case  ;  by  this  means,  theknobs, 
grating  against  the  ear,  tear  off  the 
seeds,  and  the  cob  is  gradually  push- 
ed out  of  the  case  below  :  the  case  is 
connected  with  a  hopper.  For  larger 
purposes,  a  cylinder  is  roughened  and 
made  to  rasp  against  the  ears.  F.  N. 
Smith's  corn  sheller  seems  to  be  the 
most  eflective  of  the  latter"  kind  ;  it 
is  made  by  Hanna  and  Peaslee,  Va- 
latie,  New-York  :  they  will  shell  and 
separate  the  cobs  of  upward  of  100 
bushels  in  the  hour.     Price  $40. 

SHELL  LIME.  Lime  procured 
from  burning  shells.  If  well  made, 
it  is  excellent  for  agricultural  purpo- 
ses, as  it  contains  nearly  two  per 
cent,  of  bone  earth,  and  is  free  from 
caustic  magnesia.  The  term  lime 
shells  is  used  by  many  writers,  from 
715 


SHI 


SIA 


tlie  lumps  of  fresh-burned  lime  before 
slacking. 

SHELL  MARL.  This  is  very  rich 
in  the  remains  of  shells  :  it  is  the 
best  kind,  and  may  often  be  profitably 
burned  for  lime. 

SHELL  S.  When  burned,  they 
form  the  best  lime.  In  the  ponnded 
state  they  resemble  the  best  marls, 
but  the  shells  of  crabs,  lobsters,  and 
animals  of  that  kind  {Crustaceans) 
are  rich  in  animal  matter  and  hone 
earth,  containing  I'rom  30  to  40  per 
cent,  of  the  former,  and  12  to  14  of 
the  hitter,  the  remainder  being  car- 
bonate of  lime  ;  it  would  be  a  great 
loss  to  burn  them :  but  oyster,  and 
other  similar  shells,  contain  very  lit- 
tle animal  matter. 

SHELL  SAND.  The  shelly  sand 
of  the  seashore,  or  ancient  sea  beach- 
es, is  extensively  employed  in  France 
and  Ireland  as  a  manure,  or,  rather, 
amendment :  fifty  or  more  loads  are 
put  to  the  acre  of  stiffish  soil.  It  is 
identical  with  sandy  marl  in  its  ef- 
fects, but  somewhat  superior,  inas- 
mnch  as  it  often  contains  a  small 
amount  of  animal  and  saline  matters. 
Its  value  is,  like  that  of  all  marls, 
measured  by  the  proportion  of  shells 
it  contains. 

SHEPHERD.  The  man  who  tends 
sheep  ;  he  should  be  of  a  kind  dispo- 
sition, as  sheep  are  wayward  and  ob- 
stinate ;  he  should  be  well  acquamt- 
ed  with  their  diseases,  and  take  an 
interest  in  his  charge.  Many  diseas- 
es of  sheep  are  so  sudden  and  fatal, 
that  unless  they  are  constantly  under 
the  eye  of  a  well-informed  and  kind 
person,  numbers  will  die  annually. 

SHERDS.  Fragments  of  garden 
pots,  used  to  under-drain  the  soil  of 
boxes,  pots,  &c. 

SHIELDS.  "  In  botany,  little  col- 
oured cups  or  lines  witli  a  hard  disk, 
surrounded  by  a  rim,  and  containing 
the  sporules,  or  seeds  of  lichens." 

SHIFT  OF  CROPS.     Rotations. 

SHIM.  "  A  tool  of  the  tillage  kind, 
used  in  breaking  down  and  reducing 
the  more  stiff  and  heavy  sorts  of 
land,  as  well  as  cutting  up  and  clear- 
ing tiicm  from  weeds.  They  are  made 
of  different  forms  and  constructions, 
716 


to  suit  different  purposes." — {John' 
son.) 

SHINGLE.  A  coarse,  sea-shore 
gravel. 

SHINGLES.  "  In  architecture, 
small  slabs  of  wood,  or  quartered 
boards,  used  instead  of  slates  or  tiles 
for  covering  roofs.  They  are  sawn 
to  a  certain  scantling,  or,  ratiier, 
cleft  to  about  an  inch  thick  at  one 
end,  and  shaped  like  wedges  by  ma- 
chines or  the  drawing-knife,  four  or 
five  inches  broad  and  eight  or  nin<; 
inches  long."  The  cedar  yields  the 
finest  shingles.  Shingle  roofs  should 
always  have  a  very  considerable  pitch 
to  let  off  water. 

SHOCKS.  Stocks,  or  hattocks, 
horse-heads ;  assemblages  of  sheaves, 
from  six  to  twelve,  independently  of 
the  two  or  four  hood,  or  roof  sheaves. 
Also,  an  accumulation  of  hay  of  100 
to  300  pounds. 

SHORE.  A  piece  of  timber  which 
props  up  a  wall. 

SHORT  HORNS.  The  breed  of 
cattle  with  short  horns,  considerably 
improved,  and  now  much  celebrated 
in  the  United  States  under  the  nauio 
of  Durhams. 

SHOVEL.  The  wide  curved  spade 
for  casting  earth,  and  not  digging. 

SHREW.  SoricidcB.  A  family  of 
small,  insectivorous,  rodent  quadru- 
peds :  they  resemble  the  moles,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  mice,  and  live,  for 
the  most  part,  in  excavations  made 
in  the  soil. 

SHRUB.  "A  small,  low,  dwarf- 
ish tree,  v.hich,  instead  of  one  single 
stem,  puts  forth  from  the  same  root 
several  sets  or  stems."  A  collection 
of  these,  tastefully  arranged,  is  a 
shrubbery. 

SHUCK.  The  husk,  or  collection 
of  involucra  about  the  corn  ear. 
Shucks  are  much  esteemed  for  fod- 
der, being  very  superior  to  straw  and 
corn  fodder.  When  cut  into  shreds, 
they  make  a  good  material  for  mat- 
trasses.  This  word  is  also  used  for 
shuck. 

SHY.  Starting  aside,  in  horses  : 
the  result  of  fear,  produced  by  strange 
objects. 

SIALAGOGES.  Drugs  which  pro- 


SIL 

(luce  salivation,  or  an  increased  flow 
of  saliva. 

SICKLE.  The  reaping  hook.  See 
Ha  rvest. 

S  r  E  N  I T  E,  SYENITE.  A  gray 
granite  ;  Boston  granite  :  it  contains 
honiblcnd  in  the  place  of  mica. 

SI  LEX.  SILICIC  ACID.  Pare 
sand,  rock  crystal.  This  familiar  body 
is  an  acid,  and  consists  of  I  equiva- 
lent of  silicium  (22-22),  a  body  resem- 
bling in  appearance  charcoal,  and  3 
equivalents  of  oxygen,  4G  22.  In  the 
cold  it  is  inactive,  but  at  a  white  heat 
it  forms  an  exceedingly  active  acid, 
combining  with  bases,  and  displacing 
most  other  acids,  except  the  phos- 
phoric a!i<l  i)()racic.  The  silicates  are 
nearly  all  insoluble  in  pure  water  ; 
glass  and  conmion  earthen-ware  are 
specimens  of  silicates,  but  they  grad- 
ually decay  in  the  presence  of  acids, 
and  of  carbonic  acid  and  water.  But 
the  compounds  of  silicic  acid,  with 
two  or  three  times  its  weight  of  car- 
bonate of  potash  or  soda,  are  soluble 
silicates,  and  have  been  recommend- 
ed as  manures  for  the  cerealia,  which 
always  contain  a  large  amount  of  si- 
licic acid  in  their  stems,  leaves,  and 
husks.  Most  of  the  minerals  and 
rocks  of  the  earth  are  silicates,  this 
acid  forming  from  one  quarter  to  one 
third  of  its  entire  solid  mass. 

Soluble  and  other  silicates  are 
formed  by  fusing  together  sand  and 
the  desired  chemical  body,  usually  in 
the  state  of  carbonate,  in  a  black-lead 
crucible,  at  a  full  red  heat. 

The  stores  of  potash,  soda,  lime, 
and  magnesia  in  the  soil  which  sup- 
ply plants  with  saline  matters,  are 


SIL 

often  in  the  form  of  silicates  ;  these 
are  slowly  decomposed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 
air,  or  from  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, which  converts  them  into  soluble 
carbonates,  whereby  they  gain  ac- 
cess to  the  plant. 

SILICATES.  Salts  containing  si- 
licic acid  ;  they  are  usually  flinty  and 
insoluble  :  slate,  feldspar,  and  granite 
are  specimens. 

SILICULA.  "  A  fruit  exactly  sim- 
ilar to  that  called  a  siliqua,  except 
that  it  is  shorter,  and  contains  fewer 
seeds.  It  is  never  more  than  four 
times  as  long  as  broad,  and  usually 
much  shorter." 

SILIQUA,  SILIQUE.  "  A  one  or 
two  celled,  many-seeded,  linear  fruit, 
dehiscent  by  two  valves  separating 
from  a  septum ;  the  seeds  are  at- 
tached to  two  placentce  adhering  to 
the  septum,  and  opposite  to  the  lobes 
of  the  stigma.  The  fruit  of  the  mus- 
tard is  an  example." 

SILIQUOSE  PL.-VNTS.  Improper- 
ly applied  to  leguminous  plants,  but 
properly  to  the  cruciferous  family. 

SILK.  On  this  subject  much  has 
been  written  and  said  of  late  ;  there 
i-s  no  question  that  by  judicious  man- 
agement a  good  profit  can  be  made 
by  raising  the  worms. 

The  silk  worm  is  the  larva  or  cat- 
erpillar of  the  Phalana  hombyx  {Bom- 
hjx  mori,  Lin.) ;  a  represents  the  male, 
and  b  the  female  moths  ;  c,  the  grub, 
or  chrysalis.  The  eggs  are  hatch- 
ed in  April  or  May,  but  may  be  kept 
back  until  the  end  of  May  by  placing 
them  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  The  eggs 
should  be  hatched  in  parcels,  and  not 


SILK. 


altogcllier,  as  by  tins  means  the  la- 
bour is  increased,  and  casualties,  as 
frost,  may  deprive  the  grower  of  his 
whole  crop.  The  natural  food  is  the 
mulberry  leaf,  which  should  be  fed 
so  as  to  suit  the  age  of  the  worm, 
the  youngest  worms  receiving  the 
young  leaves,  and  the  full  leaves 
being  fed  to  the  large  worms.  In  the 
beginning,  if  mulberry  leaves  are 
scarce,  lettuces  will  answer ;  but  tliese 
do  not  answer  for  the  whole  season, 
but  only  at  first.  Mulberry  leaves  of 
the  previous  year,  carefully  dried  of 
a  green  colour,  and  moistened  for 
use,  will  also  answer  for  the  early 
crop  of  worms.  The  worms  grow 
about  six  weeks,  but  this  depends  on 
the  variety  and  state  of  the  weather: 
they  moult,  or  change  their  skin,  four 
times  in  the  season.  Having  com- 
pleted their  growth  {Fig.,  d),  they  be- 
come restless,  and  retire  to  crannies, 
branches,  or  the  corners  of  their 
apartments  to  spin  a  cocoon ;  here 
the  worm  is  changed  into  a  grub,  or 
chrysalis  ;  this,  in  some  15  days,  be- 
comes changed  to  a  moth,  which  eats 
its  way  through  the  cocoon.  The  per- 
fect insects  live  but  two  or  three 
days,  the  eggs  being  laid  in  this  time  : 
the  eggs  are  received  on  paper  or 
cloth,  and  dried  before  being  put 
away. 

The  silk  grower  proceeds  to  obtain 
the  silk  libi^e  from  the  cocoon  before 
these  changes  are  completed,  and  de- 
stroys the  grub  by  alcohol,  or  boiling 
water.  The  cocoons  are  plunged  m 
hot  water,  and  examined  to  find  the 
end  of  the  silk  fibre ;  twelve  or  more 
of  these  are  now  brought  together, 
and  made  fast  to  the  reeling  arrange- 
ment. The  best  reel  is  called  the 
Piedmont  reel,  but  this  is  to  be  tended 
by  experienced  persons,  and  is  best 
set  up  at  proper  filatures,  of  which 
there  are  many,  especially  at  the 
manufactories.  Mr.  Vati  Epps  has 
established  one  in  New- York,  and  is- 
sued the  following  judicious  sugges- 
tions to  silk  growers : 

"  The  nursery  for  worms  should  be 

furnished  with  a  stove  for  raising  the 

temperature  in  damp,  cold  weather. 

Artificial  heat  may  frequently  be  ena- 

718 


ployed  to  advantage  (particularly  in 
New-England),  previously  to  the  third 
moulting,  while  the  worms  require 
but  little  space  and  air. 

"  We  would  here  caution  growers 
against  noise  ;  every  preparation  re- 
quiring pounding  or  jarring  should 
be  attended  to  before  the  worms  aro 
hatched,  Uiat  everything  in  and  around 
the  building  may  be  pefeetly  quiet 
throughout  the  whole  feeding. 

"  The  feeding  frames  which  we 
use,  and  prefer  to  any  other  fixtures 
we  have  seen,  are  very  simple,  com- 
bining all  the  advantages  of  '  Gill's 
ventilating  cradle,'  with  none  of  its 
disadvantages,  saving  much  time  and 
some  expense  in  their  construction, 
besides  being  a  sure  defence  against 
mice,  rats,  ants,  and  other  enemies 
of  the  silk-worm.  Should  any  of  our 
readers  be  disposed  to  adopt  our 
plans,  the  following  description  will 
be  sufficient : 

"  In  the  first  place,  attach  the  pie- 
ces of  timber  designed  for  suspend- 
ing the  frames  to  the  rafters,  allow- 
ing them  to  come  down  to  within  two 
leet  of  the  ground.  These  should  be 
about  seven  or  eight  feet  apart  at 
the  top,  and  four  or  five  at  the  bot- 
tom, which  will  cause  the  frame  to 
enlarge  in  nearly  the  same  proportion 
with  the  worms,  and  thus  prevent 
their  becoming  too  much  crowded  : 
this  is  the  chief  excellence  (we  think) 
of  Gill's  cradle.  Cross  pieces  should 
be  fastened  at  the  lower  ends  of  the 
upright  timbers,  on  which  to  lay 
boards  to  receive  the  worms  from 
the  nursery.  About  two  inches  above 
these  boards  should  be  placed  sticks, 
one  inch  square,  resting  on  pieces 
running  lengthwise  at  the  sides ; 
these,  at  first,  should  be  six  inches 
apart  (after  a  few  days'  feeding,  one 
half  can  be  drawn  out),  and  in  feed- 
ing, the  branches  sliould  be  laid  be- 
tween them,  until  they  are  filled  up 
to  the  top,  when  they  should  be  laid 
across.  After  two  or  three  days' 
feeding,  the  boards  and  dry  branches 
should  be  removed  from  under  the 
worms,  and  they  left  to  feed  on  the 
branches  above.  If  care  is  taken  to 
feed  no   more   than   is  needed,  the 


SILK. 


brush  will  remain  very  open,  allow-  [ 
ing  all  the  pieces  of  leaves  and  the 
excrements  from  tiie  worms  to  fall 
directly  through  to  the  ground,  from 
whicii  they  should  he  often  swept 
out,  furnisliing  a  free  circulation  of 
air  from  beneath.  At  the  sides  and 
ends  of  these  frames  it  is  necessary 
to  have  something  to  keep  the  branch- 
es in  order,  and  prevent  the  worms 
from  faUing  ofT;  these  may  be  made 
of  narrow  boards  or  lath  ;  between  ■ 
these  and  the  brush  most  of  the  co-  j 
coons  will  be  placed,  as  it  secures 
the  worms  from  the  light,  and  fur- 
nishes them  with  places  for  fasten- 
ing their  floss  whenever  they  have 
finished  eating  and  are  ready  to  spin. 
Tliese  directions,  of  course,  are  ap- 
plicable only  where  branch  feeding  is 
practised.  Cocoons  should  not  be 
gathered  until  dried,  that  is,  in  six  or 
seven  days  from  the  time  the  worms 
began  to  spin.  Those  designed  for 
eggs  should  be  selected  first,  taking 
such  as  have  been  spun  by  the  most 
healthy  worms.  These  should  be 
closely  flossed,  and  spread  out  thin 
on  the  shelves  in  the  nursery. 

"  We  now  come  to  the  destruction 
of  the  chrysalis,  and  the  curing  of 
the  cocoons,  upon  which  the  value  of 
tlve  silk  must  depend.  "We  cannot 
dwell  upon  this  point  with  too  much 
care.  We  have  received  at  our  fila- 
ture cocoons  that  had  been  almost 
ruined  by  the  means  used  for  stifling 
the  chrysalis.  Our  standing  offer  is 
from  $2  50  to  S3  .50  per  bushel ;  yet 
we  have  had  cocoons  sent  us  which 
would  not  pay  the  expenses  of  reel- 
ing and  transportation.  Among  the 
many  means  resorted  to  for  this  pur- 
pose, alcohol  is  doubtless  the  best,  as 
it  not  only  destroys  the  chrysalis,  but 
leaves  the  fibre  of  the  cocoon  in  fine 
order  for  reeling,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  actually  to  add  to  its  original 
beauty.  Not  more  than  half  a  pint 
(some  use  only  a  gill,  others  a  pint) 
is  needed  for  a  bushel  of  cocoons. 
They  should  be  placed  for  this  pur- 
pose in  a  tiglit  box ;  first  a  laj'er  of 
cocoons  (very  thin),  then  a  slight 
sprinkling  with  alcohol,  and  so  on  till 
the  box  IS  filled,  which  should  then 


be  nailed  up  tight.  After  remaining 
in  the  box  ai)out  24  hours,  tliey  should 
be  removed  and  spread  out  for  dry- 
ing, which  will  take  several  days, 
even  in  very  warm  weather.  If  tiie 
chrysales  arc  not  entirely  dry,  they 
undergo  a  putrefaction,  which  fre- 
quently injures  the  silk,  and  renders 
them  very  offensive  to  the  reeler. 
Persons  designing  to  send  their  co- 
coons to  our  filature  are  re(iuested  to 
adopt  the  above  method,  and  as  soon 
as  dried  the  cocoons  should  be  for- 
warded, as  it  is  exceedingly  hazard- 
ous purchasing  when  they  have  been 
lying  for  some  months  and  become 
very  dry." 

The  following  important  facts  are 
gleaned  from  the  correspondence  of 
various  silk  conventions  : 

1st.  That  of  the  varieties  of  mul- 
berry, the  Canton  is  the  most  val- 
uable, then  the  multicaulis ;  the  broo- 
sa  is  as  early,  and  larger  leaved  than 
the  white.  The  worms  are  fed  with 
small  branches. 

2d.  It  is  best  to  feed  in  open  sheds, 
which  may  be  of  tarred  canvass,  and 
temporary.  The  cradles  of  Mr.  Gill, 
or  those  just  described  by  Mr.  Van 
Epps,  are  the  best  places  to  feed 
them  on  :  shelves  should  not  be  set 
up.  The  greatest  attention  should 
be  had  to  cleanliness. 

3d.  There  should  be  no  attempt  to 
raise  two  crops  the  same  year.  Early 
hatching  is  altogether  to  be  preferred 
to  late. 

4th.  The  best  varieties  are  the  pea- 
nuts ;  they  are  hardiest,  mature  ear- 
ly, and  produce  a  cocoon  that  reels 
well :  the  sulphur  and  white  are  also 
esteemed  kinds.  The  eggs  are  hatch- 
ed from  the  papers  on  which  they 
were  laid  in  seven  to  ten  days  after 
being  brought  out,  and  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  70^  Fahrenheit:  the  rooms 
should  be  kept  at  that  heat. 

5th.  It  is  best  to  sell  the  cocoons 
at  .S3  or  §^3  50  the  bushel  than  to  at- 
tempt reeling  without  experience. 

6th.  On  an  average,  3500  worms 
will  yield  a  bushel  of  cocoons,  which 
reels  into  from  one  pound  to  20  oun- 
ces, and  sells  at  upward  of  §5  the 
pound.  The  cost  of  raising  is  §2. 
719 


SILK. 


Acconlini^  to  Dr.  Smith,  each  worm 
coiLsunics  an  ouncn  of  leaf;  1~0  re- 
males  yield  an  ounce  of  eggs,  con- 
taining 39,000  eggs. 

7th.  Tlic  nature  and  quality  of  the 
staple  obtained  are  thus  described  by 
an  able  weaver  and  judge  of  silk  from 
Spitalfields  : 

"  I  am  qualified  to  affirm,  from  va- 
rious ex[)erimcnts  I  have  tried,  that 
the  silk  is  superior  to  any  I  have  seen 
from  Italy,  China,  France,  Piedmont, 
or  V^alencia,  where  the  worms  are 
fed  upon  niulticaulis,  or  Italian  ;  its 
brilliancy,  strength,  and  scent  are  su- 
perior. I  am  aware  that  an  exposure 
to  the  saline  air,  in  the  passage  across 
the  ocean,  may  be  the  cau-se  of  the 
loss  of  fragrance  to  imported  silk  ; 
but  the  bnllianry  is  peculiar  to  Amer- 
ican silk,  if  reeled  in  a  proper  man- 
ner, with  cleanliness. 

"  I  am  confident  that  the  mammoth 
sulphur  worm  is  the  pure  Fossam 
brown.  To  try  this,  I  had  about 
three  pounds  of  silk  reeled,  and  en- 
closed it  in  an  air-tight  box  for  three 
weeks.  \Mien  I  took  it  out  it  had 
the  fragrance  of  the  Fossam  brown 
stronger  tlian  any  that  I  eversmelled 
in  England,  which  convinced  me  that 
the  mammoth  sulphur  is  the  identical 
silk  which  is  always  from  five  to  eight 
shilhngs  per  pound  higher  than  ordi- 
nary silk.  The  mainnioth  white  and 
the  pea-nut  white  are  Novi,  and  su- 
perior to  any  I  have  seen  in  England. 
The  yellow,  or  orange,  I  cannot,  sat- 
isfactorily to  my  own  mind,  yet  de- 
fine, but  am  trying  experiments  in 
order  to  ascertain.  I  am  strongly 
persuaded  it  is  a  Bergam ;  should 
tliis  be  the  case,  it  will  prove  a  great 
acquisition  to  manufacturers  of  silk 
velvet.  Some  have  supposed  the 
pea-nut  while  is  the  Piedmont,  but 
they  are  mistaken  ;  the  Piedmont 
cocoon  is  lily-white,  very  diminutive, 
with  a  sharp  point." 

Mr.  Young,  a  dyer  of  Detroit,  also 
remarks,  concerning  the  cleansing  of 
silk:  "Most  people  clean  the  silk 
with  soft  soap,  destroying  the  native 
gloss  in  freeing  it  of  its  gum,  owing 
to  the  vegetable  alkali  the  soap  con- 
tains, the  silk  being  animal  substance ; 
720 


it  will  completely  dissolve  wool,  if 
ajiplied  strongenough,  forming  a  soap 
of  itself  Many  dyers  use  nothing 
but  the  best  white  soap  ;  being  made 
from  mineral  alkali,  soda  acts  gently 
on  animal  substances  ;  nor  does  it 
give  that  yellow  tinge  the  vegeta- 
ble alkali  produces.  It  is  even  ne- 
cessary to  bleach  silk  for  certain 
shades,  to  give  them  a  clear  bloom. 
About  25  pounds  good  white  soap, 
dissolved  in  sufficient  clean,  soft  wa- 
ter, for  100  pounds  silk  ;  put  the  silk 
loosely  in  their  bags ;  boil  gently, 
say  2^  hours;  cool  and  wash  well  in 
a  running  stream  :  beat  occasionally, 
to  free  it  from  all  impurity.  This  I 
know  by  practice." 

We  shall  conclude  by  offering  sev- 
eral letters  from  the  ablest  raisers  of 
silk,  addressed  to  the  convention  held 
at  the  American  Institute  in  1843 : 

Mr.  GilVs  Letter. 

"  Mt.  Pleasant,  Jefferson  Co.,  Ohio. 

"  1.  I  have  fed  worms  for  five  years 
past :  results  various,  owing  to  the  va- 
rious fixtures  used,  and  experiments 
tried,  attention  or  neglect  of  the  feed- 
er. I  never  had  a  lot  of  icorms  diseas- 
ed, or  die,  if  from  a  healthy  stock  of 
well-kept  eggs,  icitkout  being  able  to 
trace  the  cause,  which  was  always  local, 
and  easily  remedied. 

"2.  I  have  used  both  one  and  two 
story  buildings,  built  of  brick  and  of 
wood  ;  have  used  stoves,  and  also 
fireplaces  with  chimneys:  prefer  fire- 
places on  account  of  their  drawing 
ofT  impure  air.  I  think  artificial  heat 
beneficial  in  cold,  damp  weather,  es- 
pecially when  worms  are  spinning. 
My  cocooneries  are  ventilated  by 
openings,  with  shutters  near  the  floor, 
with  ventilators  from  each  story 
through  the  roof 

"  3.  I  have  fed  in  open  sheds  and 
tents  with  complete  snccess.  I  fed  this 
year  four  several  successive  lots, 
and  gathered  the  cocoons  from  the 
same  cradles.  The  first  was  fed  in 
June,  the  last  in  September,  both  per- 
fectly healthy  :  they  made  superior 
cocoons. 

"4.  The  salmon  pea-nut  is  the  best ; 
white  pea-nut  next ;  gold  pea-nut  3d  ; 


SILK. 


Piedmont  4th.  Mammoth  varieties 
are  also  good.  I  have  no  faith  in  any 
two-crop  varieties  whatever,  after 
five  years'  experimenting  with  all 
kinds  recommended  ;  but  would  ob- 
serve, that  those  who  wish  eggs  to 
hatch,  must  select  the  pure  white  co- 
coons from  the  first  lot  fed,  to  get 
millers  to  lay  eggs  for  the  second  lot. 

"5.  White  mulberry  and  multicau- 
lis  are  best.  I  cultivate  them  as  I  do 
corn,  and  replant  the  multicaulis  ev- 
ery three  years. 

"  6.  In  previous  years,  my  first  lot 
of  worms  were  fed  early  in  the  sea- 
son :  they  have  always  been  the  best. 

"  The  Causes  of  Disease. — 1st  cause 
is,  eggs  saved  from  unhealthy  stock ; 
2d.  Eggs  being  improperly  preserved ; 
3d.  Irregular  feeding  and  unwhole- 
some food  ;  4th.  Changing  the  worms 
while  moulting ;  5th,  and  most  fre- 
quent cause,  want  of  pure  air,  and 
neglect  to  remove  the  excrements 
immediately  from  the  worms  ;  6th. 
Letting  the  mice  eat  them  during 
their  last  age,  and  while  they  are 
winding  their  cocoons. 

"  I  have  been  successful  beyond 
my  most  sanguine  expectations  in 
feeding  in  the  shed  and  ventilating 
cradles.  Have  gathered  four  lots 
from  each,  averaging  seven  bushels 
per  cradle,  or  near  two  bushels  at 
each  gathering  per  cradle. 

"  I  think  our  cocoons  will  average 
twenty  ounces  of  silk  per  bushel.  The 
cost  to  me  this  year  for  producing 
them  will  not  exceed  two  dollars  per 
bushel. 

"  I  am  completely  satisfied  that  my 
system  of  shed,  or  tent  and  cradle, 
and  branch  feeding,  is  a  system  for 
general  adoption,  and  will  produce 
more  cocoons  than  any  other  method 
yet  introduced,  at  half  the  usual  ex- 
pense, during  three  to  four  months 
each  feeding  season  Cold  weather, 
in  early  and  late  feeding,  may  retard 
the  worms  in  eating,  and  lengthen 
their  time  a  little  in  spinning,  caus- 
ing, however,  no  other  injury  ;  and 
for  warm,  sultry  weather  nothing  can 
supersede  them.  Many  others  have 
used  them,  and  advised  me  of  their 
complete  success." 
P  p  p 


I  "  Dr.  Daniel  Stebbins,  JS'orthamjh- 
ton,  Massachusetts. — I  give  the  fol- 
lowing answers  to  your  several  ques- 
tions : 

,  "  I  have  fed  worms  for  seven  or 
eight  years,  with  the  sole  view  of 

I  showing  that  it  could  be  done.  This 
year   I   made   twenty-five   to  thirty 

I  pounds  of  silk. 

"  This  season  T  erected  a  new  co- 
coonery in  the  midst  of  a  mulberry 

,  patch,    forty-two    by    twenty,    posts 

i  eight  feet  out  of  ground.  Roof  cov- 
ered with  boards  and  battened,  the 
sides  and  ends  covered  with  slats 
three  inches  wide,  and  half  an  inch 
apart,  extending  from  the  eaves  to 
the  ground.     Floor  of  earth. 

"  Adjoining  the   above  is   a  tent 

\  wholly  covered  with  bass  matting, 
through  which  the  rains  had  a  free 

'  passage.     The  success   of  the  tent 

I  was  superior  even  to  the  cocoonery. 

I  •'  I  have  fed  for  several  years  in 
an  open  shed,  in  the  barn-yard,  but 

;  nothing  to  exclude  birds  and  fowls  ; 
in  other  respects  the  experiment  was 

i  successful. 

j      "  For  making  silk,  the  pea-nut  va- 

'  riety  has  the  preference,  being  less  en- 
cumbered with  floss,  less  gurn,  more 
length,  lustre,  and  strength  of  fibre 
than  other  varieties,  as  testified  by  a 
skilful  silk-dyer. 

"  Having  the  black,  white.  Canton, 
Asiatic,  Broosn,  muliicaulis,  and  some 
other  varieties.  I  have  not  found  any 
to  excel  the  Canton  for  its  foliage, 
and  the  Asiatic  for  its  abundant 
branches.  The  foliage  of  the  Canton 
continues  to  the  latest  season  in 
greater  perfection  than  any  other. 

"  An  early  crop  of  worms  is  pref- 
erable to  a  late  crop.  Tlie  foliage 
becomes  abundant  the  latter  part  of 
the  season,  but  is  very  unfit  for  the 
worms,  being  too  hard,  or  deprived 
of  its  richness  by  drenching  or  long- 
continued  rains. 

"  It  was  my  expectation  and  in- 
tention to  test  the  use  of  the  mulber- 
ry foliage,  both  in  its  green  and  dry 
state,  for  making  paper,  and  for  that 
purpose  had  sent  a  quantity  to  the 
paper-mill,  hut  cannot  have  the  ex- 
periment fully  tried  at  present." 
721 


SILK. 


"  Mr.  H.  p.  Byr.am,  Brandcnhiir;:, 
Ky. — \\\i\\  pleasTire  I  rosiiond  to  ll)c 
questions  contained  in  tiio  '  Silk  Cir- 
cular' of  the  Aniorican  In.stitule. 

'*  I  have  fed  silk- worms  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  the  State  of  Ken- 
tucky, every  season  except  one,  since 
the  year  1837  inclusive,  and  generally 
with  good  success,  loss  by  disease  in 
no  lot  exceeding  fifteen  percent.,  and 
often  not  over  three  per  cent. 

"  I  have  fed  in  enclosed  buildings, 
ventilated  by  doors,  windows,  and 
openings  under  the  latter,  and  heat- 
ed by  a  stove  when  necessary. 

"  The  present  season  I  fed  in  an 
ojicn  shed  with  decidedly  good  suc- 
cess :  worms  healthy  :  they  wound 
large,  fair  cocoons. 

"  1  have  fed  every  variety  of  worms 
that  I  could  procure,  and  give  the 
preference  to  those  called  the  Chinese 
Imperial,  and  a  variety  represented 
to  me  as  the  pea-nut. 

"  I  feed  from  the  multicaulis  in  the 
first  stages,  and  in  the  last  stage  use 
all  the  white  and  Canton  that  I  can 
procure. 

"  The  multicaulis  should  be  cut  off 
near  the  ground  every  three  years, 
one  third  of  the  field  each  year.  The 
other  varieties  I  head  dou-n  every 
year.  I  feed  branches  in  the  last 
stages. 

"  I  have  hatched  and  fed  worms  in 
every  month  from  April  to  August, 
the  earliest  fed  always  producing  the 
heaviest  cocoons.  The  latter  equally 
healthy  when  the  eggs  have  been 
properly  kept  and  managed.  But  few 
persons  have  succeeded  in  late  feed- 
ing, from  the  want  of  proper  care  of 
the  eggs. 

"  The  causes  of  bad  success  that 
have  come  to  my  knowledge  have 
been  owing  either  to  bad  eggSj  bad 
management,  or  the  want  of  free  cir- 
culation of  air  in  the  apartment. 

"The  hatching  of  eggs  can  be  per- 
fectly retarded  by  being  placed  in  a 
tin  box,  enclosed  in  a  wooden  one,  and 
suspended  in  the  body  of  the  ice  jiear 
the  bottom  of  the  ice-house.  This  is 
done  by  introducing  a  long  box,  cut 
in  three  lengths  and  placed  on  end, 
soon  after  the  first  portions  of  ice  arc 
722 


thrown  into  the  house.  The  top  joints 
can  be  removed  as  the  ice  settles  : 
the  eggs  at  no  time  to  be  above  the 
body  ol  the  ice.  They  should  be  pla- 
ced in  the  ice  in  February  or  early  io 
March." 

"Mr.  B.\ubour,  Oxford,  Mass. — It 
is  fifteen  years  since  J  began  to  ex- 
amine the  silk  business. 

"  The  results  of  my  own  labours 
are  decidedly  in  favour  of  early  feed- 
ing. Out  of  all  the  crops  that  I  have 
carried  through  by  the  middle  of 
August,  I  have  never  lost  by  disease 
five  per  cent,  in  any  case.  Not  so 
with  later  crops  generally,  although 
this  year  my  later  crops  were  healthy, 
and  made  first-rate  cocoons. 

"  As  to  buildings,  I  have  fed  in  a 
large,  open  garret,  in  a  corn-house 
and  a  carpenter's  shop.  In  1840  I 
built  a  regular  cocooner}%  thirty  by 
twenty  feet,  two  stories  high,  with  ten 
windows  in  each  story,  and  warmed 
by  a  hot-air  chamber  in  the  cellar. 
In  1842,  fed  a  lot  also  in  an  open  shed, 
and  this  year  in  a  lent,  with  cradles, 
on  Mr.  Gill's  plan.  The  result  of  the 
whole  is,  in  my  judgment,  the  more 
air  the  better,  only  guarding  against 
sudden  gusts  of  wind,  that  will  dis- 
turb your  leaves  or  bushes. 

"  As  to  ordinary  turns  of  cold  weath- 
er, in  our  summer  months,  their  ef- 
fect is  to  render  the  worms  torpid. 
Of  course  they  will  not,  in  this  state, 
eat  and  grow,  and  there  is  a  loss  of 
time  in  getting  them  through  ;  and 
this  is  the  only  loss  to  be  apprehend- 
ed. Upon  returning  warmth  they  re- 
vive, and  go  on  with  their  labours, 
apparently  uninjured. 

''Trees. — My  first  movement  (1837) 
was  wrong.  I  bought  a  lot  of  mul- 
berry seed  as  '  genuine  Chinese  Mul- 
berry Seed,'  which  proved  to  be  an  in- 
ferior variety  of  the  white  :  lost  two 
seasons  in  getting  started,  and  some 
patience  withal.  In  1839.  planted 
one  hundred  dollars  worth  Alpine  cut- 
tings. According  to  the  '  books,'  I 
was  not  to  lose  one  in  fifty :  in  the 
result,  did  not  get  one  in  fifty.  I 
should  almost  as  soon  recommend 
the  propagation  of  oak  bushes  by  cut- 


SIL 


SIL 


tings  as  the  Alpine  or  other  hardy 
varictirs  of  the  mulberry.  Same 
year,  planted  Canton  and  nuilticaulis. 
They  vegetated  very  \V(>11,  but  made 
a  small  growth.  1  had  been  taught 
to  believe  that  the  mulberry -tree 
would  flourish  where  nothing  cl.se 
would  grow — quite  a  mistake.  I  took 
my  trees  up  too  early,  and  lost  many 
the  ensuing  winter. 

"  Thus  far  I  had  been  operating 
upon  rented  lands.  In  1840,  began  on 
the  farm  wiiere  I  now  live— lands  all 
sadly  exhausted  ;  not  an  acre  on  the 
farm  that  would  give  lialf  a  ton  of 
)iay.  I  planted  two  acres,  chiefly 
with  multicauiis  and  Cantons,  by  lay- 
ing the  trees  whole  length  in  the  fur- 
row, manuring  them  with  a  cheap 
compost,  made  principally  of  peat 
mud  properly  prepared.  They  did 
well,  and  made  an  average  growth 
of  three  feet.  Let  them  stand  as 
they  grew,  and  they  all  wintered  safe- 
ly. In  1841,  planted  three  acres  more 
in  like  manner  ;  season  dry,  average 
growth  two  feet :  left  all  out  as  be- 
fore. 

"  But  the  winter  of  1841-42  was 
very  open  :  no  snow,  frequent  and 
heavy  rains,  with  constant  freezing 
and  thawing.  My  ground  is  a  plain, 
very  level,  and  the  water  stood  and 
froze  in  many  places :  trees  not  ridged 
up  with  the  plough  in  summer  culti- 
vation, as  they  should  have  been  on 
such  land,  to  guard  against  this  dan- 
ger. The  result  w'as,  that  I  lost  the 
whole  of  the  three-acre  lot,  and  at 
least  three  fourths  of  the  other. 

"  To  me  this  was  a  sad  disappoint- 
ment, and  for  a  few  days  in  March. 
1842,  for  the  first  and  the  last  time,  I 
had  feelings  of  unconquerable  discour- 
agement. In  this  state,  my  first  move- 
ment was  to  despatch  some  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  letters  of  inquiry  to  silk- 
growers  in  New-England.  The  mails 
in  due  time  brought  me  this  return, 
that  the  injuries  of  the  winter,  severe 
as  it  was,  had  been  confined  to  trees 
planted,  as  mine  were,  whole  and  hori- 
zontalhj,  on  flat  ground,  without  being 
ridged  up,  and  those  of  small  growth. 
I  was  greatly  relieved  to  learn  that,  in 
all  cases  where  they  had  been  set 


deep,  one  root  in  a  place,  on  dry,  slo- 
ping land  (or  ridged,  if  flat),  rich 
enough  to  make  good  extended  roots 
the  first  season,  they  had  gone  through 
the  winter  safely,  pre-eminently  bad 
as  it  had  been. 

"  Feeling,  therefore,  that  I  then 
knew  the  loorst  of  the  case,  I  went  di- 
rectly to  work,  with  augmented  confi- 
dence, to  repair  my  loss.  I  ploughed 
up  all  my  lands,  saving  every  live 
tree,  sent  thirty-five  to  forty  miles 
and  bought  others,  so  as  to  plant 
seven  to  eight  acres,  and  thus  bcfran 
the  silk  business  anew,  in  1842,  and  be- 
gan right. 

"  As  to  trees,  I  prefer  the  multi- 
cauiis, the  large-leaf  Canton,  and  the 
Asiatic.  Managed  as  indicated  in  the 
above  details,  they  are  essentially  safe 
from  the  perils  of  winter  anywhere  be- 
tween Canada  and  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico. If  not  thus  managed,  they  are 
in  danger  anywhere  and  everywhere, 
where  it  is  cold  enough  for  ice  to  form 
and  the  ground  to  freeze.  It  is  not  the 
degree  of  cold  that  does  the  injury  in 
this  and  similar  cases,  but  freezing 
and  thawing.  Everybody  knows  that 
a  peach-tree  is  more  safe  on  the  north 
than  on  the  south  side  of  the  wall,  and 
for  the  reasons  here  stated.  I  would 
not,  therefore,  give  a  dollar  for  a  full 
ensurance  on  all  my  trees  if  the  ther- 
mometer, in  December,  will  drop 
down  to  twenty  degrees  below  zero, 
and  slay  there  until  the  last  of  March. 

"  As  to  the  feasibility  of  the  silk 
business  in  this  country,  I  have  no 
doubt.  I  must  unlearn  all  that  I  have 
learned  upon  the  subject  for  fifteen 
years,  undo  all  that  I  have  done,  and 
unsay  all  that  I  have  said — unhinge 
and  upset  all  the  abiding  and  fixed 
impressions  upon  my  own  mind  be- 
fore I  can  begin  to  doubt." 

SILK- WEED.  The  A.^clepias  seri- 
aca,  the  seed  vessels  of  which  con- 
tain a  long,  silky  down,  sometimes 
wrought  into  fabrics  by  private  per- 
sons. 

SILL.  The  horizontal  and  lower 
piece  of  a  window  or  other  framing  : 
also,  the  shafts  of  a  cart. 

SILT.  The  loose  sandy  matters 
that  accumulate  in  rivers. 

723 


SKI. 


SLO 


SILURIAN  ROCKS  or  SYSTEM. 
The  iii)|)cr  portion  of  tlic  transition 
rocks  lound  below  the  old  red  sand- 
stone. 

SILVER.  A  well-known  metal : 
it  is  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  the  salt 
{7iitratc  of  silver)  being  used  as  a  caus- 
tic in  farriery,  and  in  the  laboratory 
as  a  test  for  chlorine,  with  which  it 
produces  a  while,  curdy  compound 
{chloride  of  silver)  that  is  soluble  in 
ammonia,  and  blackens  by  exposure 
to  light.    Equivalent  108-3,  svmb.  Ag. 

SILVER  GRAIN,  IN  WOODS 
The  bright  markings  ;  the  medullary 
ravs. 

SILVER-WEED.  Potcntilla  an- 
serina.  A  perennial  running  weed 
with  yellow  (lowers,  and  five-parted, 
silvery  leaves,  growing  on  poor  soils. 

SINAPISM.  A  mustard  poultice 
or  other  preparation. 

SINCIPUT.     The  forehead. 

SINUS.  A  cavity :  the  veins  of 
the  brain  are  so  called. 

SINUOUS.  Full  of  cavities,  tor- 
tuous. 

SIT-FAST.  "In  farriery,  an  ul- 
cerated sore  in  which  a  part  of  the 
skin  has  turned  horny  ;  if  it  cannot 
be  dissolved  and  softened  by  rubbing 
with  mercurial  ointment,  it  must  have 
a  mild  blister  applied,  which  will 
cause  it  to  separate.  It  generally 
proceeds  from  a  warble  or  little  tu- 
mour resulting  from  the  pressure  of 
the  saddle." 

SIZE.  A  thin  glue  made  from 
skins. 

SKEGS.  The  Avcna  stipiformis. 
A  kind  of  oat  cultivated  in  Notting- 
hamshire, England. 

SKELETOxNf.  The  bony  frame  on 
which  the  muscles  and  soft  parts  are 
placed. 

SKID.     A  drag  chain. 

SKIM  COULTER.     See  Plough. 

SKIN.  The  external  coat  of  ani- 
mals. It  consists  of  a  scarfskin,  or 
epidermis,  a  rcte  mucosum,  which  is 
thin  and  coloured,  and  the  culis  vera, 
which  forms  the  substance,  and  from 
which  hairs,  &c.,  proceed. 

SKIRTING.     In  building,  the  nar- 
row, horizontal  board  running  along 
the  walls  of  a  room  at  the  floor. 
724 


SKIRRET.  Sium  sisaricm.  Cher- 
vis.  "This  plant  is  first  cultivated 
by  seed,  and  afterward  by  offsets 
taken  from  the  old  roots,  and  planted 
very  early  in  the  spring,  before  they 
begin  to  shoot ;  but  it  is  best  to  raise 
a  small  bed  from  seed  every  year,  as 
the  roots  grow  longer  than  those 
raised  from  slips,  and  are  less  liable 
to  be  sticky.  The  seed  may  be  sown 
in  drills  the  latter  part  of  March,  or 
early  in  April,  and  managed  the  same 
as  salsify,  parsnip,  &c.  In  autumn, 
when  the  leaves  begin  to  decay,  the 
roots  are  fit  to  use,  and  continue  so 
till  they  begin  to  shoot  in  the  spring. 

"  Skirrets  should  be  planted  in  a 
light,  moist  soil,  for  in  dry  land  the 
roots  are  generally  small,  unless  the 
season  proves  wet. 

"  The  root  of  the  skirret  is  compo- 
sed of  several  fleshy  tubers  as  large 
as  a  man's  finger,  and  joined  together 
at  the  top.  They  are  eaten  boiled, 
and  stewed  with  butter,  pepper,  and 
salt,  or  rolled  in  flour  and  fried,  or 
else  cold,  with  oil  and  vinegar,  being 
first  boiled.  They  have  much  of  the 
taste  and  flavour  of  a  parsnip,  and 
are  by  some  considered  a  great  deal 
more  palatable." — {Bndgcman). 

SKUNK  CABBAGE.  Spnphcar- 
pusfatida.  Marsh  cabbage.  A  large- 
leaved  plant  of  the  family  Aroida, 
growing  in  wet  places  at  the  north ; 
it  has  a  vile  odour,  and  is  reputed  an- 
tispasmodic. 

SL.VTE.  Any  rock  which  has  a 
close  texture  and  is  readily  split  into 
slabs.  The  term  is  more  particularly 
applied  to  the  fine  aluminous  slates 
used  in  roofing  and  for  writing  upon. 

SLEEPER.  Timbers  on  which 
are  laid  the  ground  joists  of  a  build- 
ing or  railway. 

SLEET.  A  cold  rain  mixed  with 
snow. 

SLIPS.  Twigs  or  small  branches 
torn  from  a  tree  or  bush  for  the  pur- 
pose of  propagation.  Spring  or  au- 
tumn is  the  time  to  do  this.  They 
should  be  set  in  a  rich  spot  and  kej)t 
moist.  Flower  slips  are  commonly  set 
in  pots  in  the  green-house  :  charcoal 
forms  a  good  soil  to  strike  them  in. 

SLOE.     In  Europe,  this  name  is 


SMU 


SNE 


given  to  a  small  wild  plum,  the  Pru- 
vus  spinosa,  which  is  used  as  a  dwarf 
stock  for  grafting  phinis.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  given  to  tlic  Pru- 
nus  pi/gmcEu,  and  also  the  Viburnum 
frunifolmm. 

SLOUGH.  A  name  given  to 
decayed  matters  separating  from  a 
wound  :  proud  flesh  ;  a  muddy  hole. 
It  may  he  remedied  in  a  road  hy  sin]<- 
ing  pebbles  and  small  stones  into  it. 

SLUGS.  Naked  moluscous  ani- 
mals. See  Insects.  Tliis  name  is 
also  given  to  the  larvae  of  some  saw- 
flies  which  infest  pear,  ciierry,  and 
other  trees.  They  are  all  destroyed 
by  salt,  lime,  or  whale-oil  soap  solu- 
tion. 

SLUICE.  A  frame  of  timber, 
stone,  or  other  solid  substance,  serv- 
ing to  retain  and  raise  the  water  of  a 
river  or  canal,  and,  when  necessary, 
to  give  it  vent.     See  Irrigation. 

S  M  U  T.  For  an  account  of  the 
various  diseases  known  under  this 
name,  see  Burned  Ear  and  Urcdo. 
The  best  preventives  known  are  to 
keep  the  lands  occasionally  limed  or 
salted,  never  using  too  much  rank 
stable  manure  without  some  saline 
matters  ;  and,  secondly,  steeping  the 
seeds  before  sowing  in  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol).  One 
ounce  and  a  (juarter  of  the  salt  is  used 
to  a  bushel  of  wheat :  it  is  dissolv- 
ed in  just  enough  water  to  wet  the 
grain,  which  is  steeped  for  three 
quarters  of  an  hour,  and  dried  by  be- 
ing spread  out.  A  strong  brine  and 
milk  of  lime  are  also  used  witii  good 
success ;  but  the  copper  solution  is 
very  superior. 

SMUT  MACHINES,  or  GRAIN 
CLEANERS.  These  are  of  service 
to  the  miller  chiefly.  They  consist 
of  interior  brushes  revolving  in  a 
roughened  cylinder,  usually  set  in  an 
inclined  direction.  The  brushes  rub 
the  grain  against  the  rough  surface, 
and  by  this  means  rub  off  the  smut, 
or  break  open  the  injured  kernels. 
A  fan  is  added  for  the  purpose  of 
driving  a  current  of  air  through  the 
cylinder,  which  carries  off  the  smut 
balls  and  other  light  rubbish  out 
above,  and  allows  the  perfect  grains 
r  p  p  2 


to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 

and  pass  out.  There  arc  a  great 
number  of  patents  :  tho.sc  of  .Messrs. 
Young,  Henry  A.  Buck.  George  D. 
Waldo,  and  Wm.  C.  Grimes  are  in 
great  esteem.  The  figure  represents 
Messrs.  Bird  and  Weld's  machine  ; 
it  possesses  decided  advantages,  hav- 
ing separate  pulleys,  d  and  c,  to  drive 


the  fan  and  beating  cylinder  at  dif- 
ferent velocities,  by  which  arrange- 
ment buckwheat  and  other  tender 
grains  may  be  cleansed  without 
breaking,  by  reducing  the  speed  of 
the  beating  cylinder,  while  a  full  cur- 
rent of  wind  may  be  kept  up  with  the 
fan,  running  at  any  required  speed 
for  that  purpose.  When  in  use,  a 
pipe  is  added  to  a,  to  increase  the 
draught,  and  a  sieve  at  b,  to  separ- 
ate the  grain  :  c  is  tlie  hopper. 

SNAILS.     HclicidiE.     See  Insects. 

SNAKEROOT,  THE  VIRGIN- 
IAN. Aristolochia  scrpcntaria.  A 
perennial-rooted  plant,  growing  wild 
in  woodlands,  the  root  of  which  is 
collected  for  the  druggists,  and  used 
as  a  bitter  and  tonic. 

SNE  AD,  or  SNATHE.  The  han- 
dle of  the  scythe  :  it  should  be  of  ash, 
light,  but  not  flexible, 

725 


SOA 


SOA 


SNOW.  Congealed  moisture  :  it 
is  produced  whenever  a  cold  wind 
below  32°  Fahrenheit  acts  upon  the 
moisture  of  wanner  clouds.  It  is  an 
excellent  covering  for  winter  crops, 
protecting  them  from  the  winds  and 
sudden  changes  of  winter  ;  it  also 
protects  roots  and  the  bark  of  trees 
from  mice. 

SOAP.  "This  useful  compound 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  alkaline 
upon  oily  substances.  There  arc, 
accordingly,  a  great  variety  of  soaps  ; 
but  tliose  commonly  employed  may 
be  considered  under  the  heads  of,  1. 
Fine  white  soaps,  scented  soap,  &c.  ; 
2.  Coarse  household  soaps  ;  3.  Soft 
soaps.  The  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  white  soaps  are  gen- 
erally olive  oil  and  carbonate  of  soda  : 
the  latter  is  rendered  caustic  by  the 
operation  of  quicklime,  and  the  solu- 
tion thus  obtained  is  called  soap  lye. 
The  oil  and  a  weak  lye  are  first  boil- 
ed together,  and  portions  of  stronger 
lye  are  gradually  added  till  the  soap, 
produced  by  the  mutual  action  of  the 
oil  and  alkali,  begins  to  become  tena- 
cious and  to  separate  from  the  water  ; 
some  common  salt  is  then  generally 
added  to  promote  the  granulation  and 
perfect  separation  of  the  soap :  the 
fire  is  then  drawn,  and  the  contents 
of  the  boiler  allowed  to  remain  for 
some  hours  at  rest,  so  that  the  soap 
may  more  completely  collect.  When 
it  is  perfect  it  is  put  into  wooden 
frames  or  moulds  ;  and  when  stiff 
enough  to  be  handled,  it  is  cut  into 
oblong  slices  and  dried  in  an  airy 
room.  Perfumes  are  occasionally 
added,  or  various  colouring  matters 
stirred  in  while  the  soap  is  semiflu- 
id, to  give  it  a  mottled  appearance. 
The  Spanish  soap  is  marbled  by  stir- 
ring into  it  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron,  which  is  decomposed  by  the 
soap,  and  black  oxide  of  iron  separ- 
ated in  streaks  and  patches  through 
the  mass.  The  action  of  the  air  con- 
verts the  exterior  into  red  oxide, 
while  the  interior  long  retains  its 
black  colour  ;  hence  a  slice  of  this 
soap  presents  a  black  mottled  centre, 
surrounded  by  a  reddened  external 
layer. 
726 


"  Common  household  soaps  are 
made  chiefly  of  soda  ash  and  tal- 
low ;  or  if  potash  is  used,  a  large  ad- 
dition of  common  salt  is  made  to 
harden  the  soap,  which  it  probably 
effects  by  the  transference  of  soda. 
Yellow  soap  has  a  portion  of  rosin 
added  to  it.  Soft  soaps  are  generally 
made  with  potash,  instead  of  soda, 
and  fish  oil.  The  common  soft  soap 
is  a  compound  of  this  kind  ;  it  has  a 
tenacious  consistence,  and  appears 
granulated.  Soap  is  soluble  in  pure 
water  and  in  alcohol ;  the  latter  so- 
lution jellies  when  concentrated,  and 
is  medicinally  known  under  the  name 
of  opodeldoc.  When  carefully  evap- 
orated the  soap  remains  in  a  gelati- 
nous state,  which  forms,  when  dry, 
the  article  sold  under  the  name  of 
tratisparent  soap. 

"  The  earths  and  common  metallic 
oxides  form  insoluble  soaps ;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, these  are  precipitated  when 
earthy  and  metallic  salts  are  added 
to  solution  of  soap.  It  is  the  sul- 
phate of  lime  and  carbonate  of  lime 
in  common  spring  water  which  thus 
render  it  unfit  for  washing,  and  give 
it  what  is  termed  hardness  ;  and,  upon 
this  principle,  a  spirituous  solution 
of  soap  is  a  simple  and  valuable  test 
of  the  fitness  of  any  river  or  spring 
water  for  the  purposes  of  the  laundry. 
If  it  merely  renders  tl-.e  water  slight- 
ly opalescent,  as  is  the  case  with 
rain  and  other  soft  waters,  it  may  be 
used  for  washing  ;  but  if  it  become 
milky,  it  is  usually  too  hard  to  be 
conveniently  employed ;  and  when 
we  wash  or  shave  with  hard  water, 
the  separation  of  the  insoluble  cal- 
careous soap  is  extremely  disagree- 
able ;  it  adheres  to  the  skin,  and  soils 
instead  of  cleansing  it. 

"  The  chemical  nature  of  soap  has 
been  laboriously  examined  by  Chev- 
reul,  who  has  shown  that  the  alkali 
in  the  process  of  saponification  con- 
verts the  oil  into  peculiar  acids,  as  he 
terms  them ;  the  elain  of  the  oil  form- 
ing oleic  acid,  and  the  stearin  margar- 
ic  acid :  so  that  soluble  soaps  are  ule- 
ates  and  margarates  of  soda  and  pot- 
ash. He  has  enumerated  several 
other  fatty  acids  similarly  produced. 


SOD 


SOI 


"  All  new  soaps  contain  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  adhering  water,  a 
ijieat  part  of  which  they  lose  when 
kcjjt  in  a  dry  place  ;  hence  the  econ- 
omy and  excellence  of  old  soap  ;  and 
lience  the  dealers  in  soap  generally 
keep  it  in  a  damp  cellar,  that  it  may 
not  lose  weight  by  evaporation ;  or, 
as  it  is  said,  sometimes  immerse  it  in 
brine,  which  does  not  dissolve  it,  but 
keeps  it  ia  its  utmost  state  of  hu- 
midity." 

SOAPER'S  WASTE.  The  refuse 
of  the  soap-works  has  been  much 
used  as  a  manure.  The  nature  of 
the  manure  depends  on  the  use  of 
ashes  or  soda  ash  in  the  manufac- 
ture :  in  the  tirst  case,  it  is  a  very 
vahiable  amendment ;  in  the  latter, 
considerably  less  so.  The  first  con- 
tains a  large  quantity  of  ash,  tlie 
chloride  of  potassium  ;  the  second 
contains  but  little  soda  salts,  and 
when  barilla  is  employed,  the  ash  is 
merely  calcareous  matter  :  of  the  lat- 
ter ashes,  in  the  fresh  state,  from  60 
to  200  bushels  have  been  used  on 
grass  lands  with  great  effect.  If 
ashes  and  common  salt  have  been 
used,  10  to  20  bushels  of  refuse  will 
be  enough.  The  gelatinous  substance 
remaining  after  the  separation  of  the 
soap  is  called  glycerine,  and  does  not 
contain  nitrogen  ;  it  is  not,  therefore, 
of  much  moment  alone. 

SOAPSTO.NE,  STEATITE.  A 
gray,  soft  mineral,  consisting  of  sili- 
cate of  magnesia,  coloured  by  two 
and  a  half  per  cent,  of  iron. 

SOBOLE.  An  underground  creep- 
ing stem. 

SOD.  A  turf  of  grass. 
SODA,  PROTOXIDE  OF  SODI- 
UM. An  alkali  very  analagous  and 
isomorphous  with  potash.  Equiva- 
lent, 31  31,  or  2331  sodium  and  8 
oxygen  ;  symbol,  Na  O.  It  is  con- 
stantly found,  in  the  ashes  of  plants 
performing  the  same  function  as  pot- 
ash ;  but  m  the  vine  and  some  other 
plants  it  is  not  equally  serviceable. 
In  the  mineral  kingdom  it  is  abun- 
dant as  a  silicate,  but  especially  in 
the  form  oi  chloride  of  sodium,  or  sea 
salt  (see  Sail) ;  the  nitrate,  which 
is    an    important    manure,   is    also 


abundant  in  certain  places  (see  Ni- 
trates). 

Kelp,  barilla,  and  soda  ash  all  owe 
their  value  to  the  carbonate  of  soda, 
which  is  used  in  making  hard  soaps. 
The  carbonate  of  soda  resembles 
pearlash  very  closely  in  its  properties, 
but  is  less  active. 

SOIL.  "The  nature  and  compo- 
sition of  soil,  and,  consequently,  its 
greater  or  less  aptitude  to  the  growth 
and  maturity  of  vegetable  produc- 
tions, depend  chiedy  on  the  propor- 
tion and  mechanical  structure  of  the 
various  substances  of  which  it  con- 
sists. When  the  soil  is  favourable 
to  the  chemical  action  by  which  the 
elements  are  combined  to  form  ve- 
getable substances,  and  admits  that 
quantity  of  air  and  moisture  without 
which  this  chemical  action  cannot 
take  place  in  any  given  climate  or 
temperature,  vegetation  goes  on  rap- 
idly, and  all  the  plants  which  are  suit- 
ed to  the  climate  grow  in  the  great- 
est perfection  and  bear  abundant 
fruits. 

"  It  is  not,  however,  very  frequent- 
ly the  case  that  a  soil  possesses  all 
those  qualities  on  which  great  fertil- 
ity depends.  So  many  circumstan- 
ces must  concur  to  make  a  soil  high- 
ly fertde,  that  the  great  majority  of 
soils  can  only  be  made  to  produce 
abundantly  by  being  improved  by  art 
both  in  their  texture  and  composi- 
tion. Hence  the  practice  and  sci- 
ence of  agriculture,  which  is  founded 
on  experience,  but  to  which  every 
progress  in  science  also  affords  great 
assistance,  by  the  additional  light 
which  every  new  discovery  throws 
on  the  true  theory  of  vegetation. 

"  There  are  various  modes  of  dis- 
tinguishing soils,  without  here  enter- 
ing into  a  minute  analysis  (see  Aiml- 
y«;*)  of  their  component  parts.  The 
simplest  and  most  natural  is  to  com- 
pare their  texture,  the  size  and  form 
of  the  visible  particles  of  which  they 
are  composed,  and  to  trace  the  ])rob- 
able  source  of  their  original  formation 
from  the  minerals  which  are  found 
around  or  below  them,  or  the  rocks 
from  which  they  may  have  been  slow- 
ly separated  by  the  action  of  the  el- 
727 


SOIL. 


ements.  The  science  of  geology, 
which  teaches  the  relative  position 
and  nature  of  tiie  minerals  of  which 
the  outer  crust  of  the  earth  is  formed, 
is  consequently  of  the  greatest  util- 
ity in  aiding  us  to  compare  different 
soils,  and  ascertaining  their  compo- 
sition. 

"  The  knowledge  which  geology 
imparts  is,  however,  not  sufficient 
for  the  minuter  classification  of  soils ; 
for  it  is  found  by  experience  that  the 
soils  which  lie  over  or  near  the  dif- 
ferent strata,  as  they  appear  near  the 
surface,  vary  greatly,  although  they 
retain  some  general  character  which 
distinguishes  them  from  others.  The 
streams  which  descend  from  the  hills, 
and  flow  towards  the  valleys,  and 
through  them  to  the  sea,  carry  to  a 
great  distance  the  minuter  portions 
of  the  minerals  which  they  flow  over 
in  their  course,  while  the  larger  and 
heavier  are  deposited  much  sooner. 
Hence  the  heterogeneous  mixture  of 
various  earths  and  stones,  and  their 
stratification  in  thin  layers,  as  is  oft- 
en found  when  a  soil  is  examined 
which  has  never  been  disturbed  by 
cultivation.  A  sudden  flood,  rising 
rapidly,  carries  stones  and  fragments 
of  rocks  in  its  course,  while  a  gentler 
stream  deposites  fine  sand  or  clay 
over  these,  and  forms  every  variety 
of  sandy,  gravelly,  or  clayey  soil. 
If  chalky  hills  are  near,  carbonate  of 
lime  abounds  in  almost  every  propor- 
tion, with  its  usual  concomitant,  ir- 
regular flints.  If  the  waters  have 
accumulated  in  a  basin,  and  formed 
a  temporary  lake,  the  soil  will  con- 
sist of  all  the  finest  portions  of  the 
minerals,  which,  from  their  minute 
size,  have  remained  long  suspended 
in  the  still  waters,  and  slowly  depos- 
ited in  the  form  of  mud.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  shallowness  of  the  lake, 
vegetable  matter  will  have  been  pro- 
duced, and  intimately  mixed  with  the 
minerals  ;  and,  where  vegetation  has 
gone  on  rapidly,  peat  and  soft  bogs 
are  formed. 

"  It  is  not  sufficient  to  class  soils 
according  to  the  substance  which  pre- 
dominates, as  has  been  usually  done, 
such  as  sandy,  gravelly,  chalky,  or 
728 


clay  soils  ;  for  this  gives  very  imper- 
fect information  respecting  their  na- 
ture or  fertility ;  neither  is  it  alto- 
gether sufficient  to  class  them  ac- 
cording to  any  particular  geological 
formation.  It  is  important  to  enter 
into  a  more  minute  examination  of 
their  component  parts.  But  as  the 
geological  investigation  of  the  differ- 
ent strata  is  a  great  help  in  the  ex- 
amination of  soils,  we  will  in  the  first 
place  give  a  short  description  of  those 
which  have  the  most  distinct  charac- 
ters, from  their  connexion  with  dif- 
ferent geological  formations. 

"  The  soils  which  are  immediately 
derived  from  those  rocks  in  which  no 
traces  of  organic  remains  are  to  be 
found  consist  either  of  visible  frag- 
ments of  quartz  and  other  hard  min- 
erals, which  are  not  affected  by  ex- 
posure to  air  or  water,  and  are  only 
ground  and  commmuted  by  being  rub- 
bed against  each  other  in  floods  and 
torrents,  or  of  minuter  particles  of 
the  same,  of  which  the  shape  is  not 
readily  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eye.  When  they  are  altogether  com- 
posed of  visible  particles  and  stones, 
the  water  readily  passes  through 
them  ;  and  unless  they  are  kept  con- 
tinually moist  by  a  regular  irrigation, 
without  any  stagnation  of  the  water, 
they  are  absolutely  incapable  of  sus- 
taining vegetation,  or  of  bringing 
fruits  to  maturity.  It  is  seldom, 
however,  that  any  gravel  or  sand 
does  not  contain  some  portion  of 
earth  or  other  matter,  of  which  the 
particles  become  invisible  when  dif- 
fused through  water,  and  to  which, 
for  the  sake  of  perspicuity,  and  to 
prevent  confusion,  we  will  here  give 
the  general  name  of  impalpable  sub- 
stance. A  certain  portion  of  this  finer 
part  of  the  soil,  and  its  due  admix- 
ture with  the  coarser,  especially 
where  there  is  some  regular  grada- 
tion in  size,  and  no  stones  of  too  large 
dimensions  to  obstruct  the  instru- 
ments of  tillage,  may  be  considered 
as  essential  to  fertility.  The  chem- 
ical composition  of  the  impalpable 
substance,  no  doubt,  greatly  affects 
the  degree  of  fertility  ;  but  the  gen- 
eral texture  must  be  considered  as 


SOIL. 


by  far  the  most  important  circum- 
stance. To  improve  this  texture 
permanently  is  the  great  object  of 
all  the  labours  of  the  husbandman. 
For  this  purpose,  he  carries  various 
earths  from  one  spot  to  another ; 
clays  one  field,  and  limes  or  chalks 
another  ;  brings  peat  upon  sands  and 
clays,  and  carries  gravel  and  lime  on 
his  peat  bogs.  Without  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  the  composition  and 
texture  of  a  soil,  it  is  impossible  to 
make  permanent  improvements  with 
any  certainty,  or  without  incurring 
the  risk  of  failure  or  of  useless  outlay. 

"  The  soils  which  have  been  form- 
ed from  the  disintegration  and  de- 
composition of  the  primitive  rocks, 
such  as  granite,  basalt,  schist,  or 
limestone,  and  especially  those  which 
contain  all  these  minerals,  minutely 
divided  and  intimately  mixed,  are  al- 
ways naturally  fertile,  and  soon  en- 
riched by  cultivation.  The  hard  par- 
ticles of  quartz  maintain  a  certain 
porosity  in  the  soil,  which  allows  air 
and  moisture  to  circulate,  while  the 
alumina  prevents  its  too  rapid  evap- 
oration or  filtration.  The  silicate  of 
potash  also  seems  highly  favourable 
to  the  vegetation  and  growth  of  those 
plants  which  contain  silica  in  their 
stems,  such  as  the  graminea?,  espe- 
cially wheat,  of  all  plants  the  most 
important  to  the  husbandman  in  our 
northern  climates.  If  organic  mat- 
ter be  an  essential  ingredient  in  a 
fertile  soil,  it  is  soon  produced  by 
cultivation,  or  added  by  judicious 
manuring. 

""Where  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
impalpable  matter,  and  the  fragments 
of  the  rocks  of  which  the  soil  is  com- 
posed are  large,  and  lie  loosely,  it  is 
in  vam  to  expect  vegetation,  except 
along  gently  flowing  streams,  which 
supply  the  roots  with  moisture,  and 
thus  form  a  bed  of  vegetable  matter  ; 
but  in  a  climate  suited  to  the  vine, 
and  in  a  good  exposure,  these  loose 
soils  often  produce  excellent  wine, 
as  maybe  seen  along  the  steep  banks 
of  the  Rhine  and  other  rivers.  The 
roots  of  the  vine  run  deep  into  the  fis- 
sures of  the  rocks  below,  and  there  find 
nourishment  suited  to  their  nature 


"The  primitive  limestone,  which 

is  very  hard,  is  yet  gradually  decom- 
posed by  the  action  of  air  and  water, 
being,  in  a  very  small  degree,  soluble 
in  the  latter.  The  water  which  flows 
through  these  rocks  is  soon  satura- 
ted ;  but  when  it  springs  out  and 
comes  to  the  light,  the  carbonate  of 
lime  is  deposited  by  the  evaporation 
of  the  water  ;  and  if  this  meets  with 
the  clay  which  results  from  the  de- 
composition of  the  slate,  it  forms  a 
marl,  which,  naturally  or  artificially 
added  to  silicious  sand,  forms  the  ba- 
sis of  a  very  good  soil,  particularly 
well  adapted  to  pasture. 

"The  soils  which  have  been  evi- 
dently formed  from  the  rocks  which 
are  supposed  to  be  of  secondary  for- 
mation are  fertile  according  to  the 
proportion  of  the  earths  of  these  rocks 
which  they  contain.  It  is  of  these 
chiefly  that  those  loose,  sandy  soils 
are  formed  of  which  the  particles  ap- 
pear as  distinct  crystals,  easily  dis- 
tinguishable with  the  aid  of  a  lens,  or 
even  by  the  naked  eye.  Air  and  wa- 
ter have  been  the  chief  agents  in  the 
decomposition  of  those  secondary 
rocks  called  sandstones,  and  agita- 
tion in  water  has  washed  from  them 
the  finer  portions,  which  have  remain- 
ed suspended.  The  immense  sandy 
plains  which  are  either  barren,  or 
have  been  fertilized  with  great  trou- 
ble and  expense,  have  probably  once 
been  the  sliores  of  the  sea,  from  which 
the  waves  have  washed  all  that  por- 
tion which  was  impalpable  and  easily 
suspended  in  water,  depositing  this 
in  the  depths,  which,  by  some  con- 
vulsion of  nature,  may  some  time  or 
other  be  raised  above  the  level  of  the 
waters,  and  form  hills  or  plains  of 
clay,  such  as  are  often  found  in  ex- 
tensive basins  of  great  depth. 

"  Argillaceous  earth  exists  in  some 
proportion  in  almost  every  rock. 
Some  of  the  hardest  gems  are  chief- 
ly composed  of  alumina.  It  has  the 
property,  when  mixed  with  other  sub- 
stances, as  silica  or  lime,  of  fusing 
into  a  stone  of  great  hardness  and 
insolubility.  In  this  state  its  effect 
on  the  soil  is  not  to  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  silica ;  and  by  burning 
729 


SOIL. 


common  clay,  or  clay  mixed  wiih  car- 
bonate of  lime,  a  sandy  substance  is 
produced  rescnil)ling  l)urncd  bnck, 
which  tends  greatly  to  iniiirove  the 
texture  of  those  clays  wliich  contain 
little  or  no  sand  in  their  composition. 
It  nnist  be  renienil)crcd  that  tlie  stifl- 
est  clays  contain  a  large  portion  of 
Bilica  in  an  inii)alpable  state  ;  but 
this,  instead  of  correcting  their  im- 
permcal)le  and  |)lastic  nature,  rather 
adds  to  it.  It  is  only  palpal)le  sand 
which,  vvitii  clay,  forms  what  is  C(jm- 
monly  called  loam,  and  which,  when 
the  sand  is  in  due  proportion  with  a 
mixture  of  organic  matter,  forms  the 
richest  and  most  easily  cultivated 
Boils.  Some  of  the  rocks  of  second- 
ary formation  contain  a  considerable 
portion  of  alumina  and  lime  ;  and 
when  these  earths  meet  with  crys- 
tallized saud,  a  compound,  or,  rather, 
a  mixture  is  formed,  which  has  all  the 
requisite  qualities,  as  to  texture,  to 
produce  the  most  fertile  loams.  The 
only  deficiency  is  that  of  organic  mat- 
ter ;  but  this  is  so  readily  accumula- 
ted wherever  vegetation  is  establish- 
ed, or  can  be  so  easily  added  artifi- 
cially, that  these  loams  may  always 
be  looked  upon  as  the  most  favoura- 
ble soils  for  the  usual  agricultural  op- 
erations :  and  if  a  considerable  depth 
of  loam  is  found  which  neither  re- 
tains water  too  long  nor  allows  it  to 
percolate  too  rapidly,  it  may  be  look- 
ed upon  as  a  soil  eminently  capable 
of  the  highest  degree  of  cultivation, 
and  on  which  no  judicious  outlay  of 
labour  will  ever  cause  loss  or  disap- 
pointment to  the  farmer. 

"  The  alluvial  soils  formed  by  the 
deposite  of  a  variety  of  earths  in  a 
state  of  great  division,  and  mixed 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  organ- 
ic matter,  form  by  far  the  most  pro- 
ductive lands.  They  will  bear  crop 
after  crop  with  little  or  no  additional 
manure,  and  with  a  very  slight  culti- 
vation. These  soils  are  found  along 
the  course  of  rivers  which  traverse 
extensive  plains,  and  which  have 
such  a  current  as  to  keep  very  fine 
earth  suspended  by  a  gentle  but  con- 
stant agitation,  but  not  sufficiently 
rapid  to  carry  along  with  it  coarse 
730 


gravel  or  sand.  Wherever  there  is 
an  obstruction  to  the  current  and  an 
eddy  is  formed,  there  tlie  soil  is  de- 
posited in  tii(>  form  of  nmd,  and  grad- 
ually accunnilaliiig,  forms  those  allu- 
vial soils  whieh  are  so  remarkable  for 
their  fertility  when  carefully  protect- 
ed from  the  inroads  of  the  water.- 
In  these  soils  the  impalpable  matte 
greatly  predominates;  but  the  inti- 
mate mixture  of  the  earths  witli  or- 
ganic matter,  in  that  state  in  wliich 
it  has  been  called  humus,  prevents 
their  consolidating  into  a  slid"  clay; 
and  the  gases  which  are  continually 
evolved  from  the  organic  matter  keep 
the  pores  open,  and  give  scope  to  the 
growth  as  well  as  the  nourishment  of 
the  roots.  It  is  in  the  alluvial  soils 
princijjally  that  an  accurate  analysis 
is  useful ;  because  the  proportion  of 
their  constituent  parts  varies  in  in- 
numerable degrees.  It  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  most 
fertile  of  these  sods  are  those  in 
which  the  primitive  earths  are  nearly 
in  equal  proportions,  silica  being  the 
most  ai)undant,  with  about  ten  per 
ccnt.  of  organic  matter ;  a  greater 
proportion  of  this  last  would  form  too 
loose  and  spongy  a  soil  to  bear  good 
crops  of  corn,  especially  of  wheat. 
But  four  per  cent,  of  hunms,  with  a 
good  mixture  of  earths,  and  some 
phosphate  of  lime  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  bones  and  marine  shells, 
produces  a  very  good  wheat  soil. 
The  rich  warp-lands  along  the  Hum- 
ber  are  artificial  alluvial  soils,  and 
although  they  contain  but  a  small 
proportion  of  humus,  are  highly  fer- 
tile after  their  first  deposition,  but  it 
is  observed  that  they  gradually  be- 
come more  tenacious  and  difficult  of 
cultivation  as  this  humus  is  carried 
off  by  the  crops,  and  that  it  is  soon 
necessary  to  add  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble manures  to  supply  its  deficiency. 
"  Organic  matter  is  no  doubt  essen- 
tial to  great  fertility  in  a  soil,  but 
some  soils  require  more  of  it  than 
others.  Humus,  which  is  the  form 
which  organic  matter  naturally  comes 
to  by  slow  decomposition  in  the 
earth,  gives  out  certain  elements 
which  the  roots  can  take  up  in  their 


SOIL. 


nascent  state,  and  from  wliich  tliey 
obtain  the  carbon  which  is  so  abun- 
dant in  all  vegetable  productions. 
But  organic  matter,  in  every  stage  of 
its  spontaneous  decomposition,  keeps 
the  pores  of  the  soil  open,  and  ad- 
mits, if  it  does  not  even  attract,  air 
and  moisture  to  the  fibres  of  the 
roots.  In  all  rich  soils  which  have 
been  long  cultivated,  especially  in 
gardens,  there  are  particles  of  a  dark 
colour  and  fibrous  texture,  which,  in 
the  microscope,  appear  like  minute 
logs  of  charred  wood.  Ihese  keep 
the  soil  open,  and  supply  carbonic 
acid,  when  the  air  reaches  them,  or 
they  are  slowly  transformed  into  hu- 
mus, which  remains  inert  as  long  as 
it  cannot  imbibe  oxygen  and  form 
carbonic  acid  by  a  species  of  slow 
combustion.  Humus  is  no  doubt  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  fertility,  but 
its  presence  does  not  appear  to  be 
so  indispensable  as  has  been  ima- 
gined. A  proper  texture  seems  a 
much  more  indispensable  condition. 
Humus  can  undoubtedly  be  formed 
from  the  elements  of  water  and  of 
the  atmosphere.  Whether  it  be  di- 
rectly, or  by  the  slow  process  of  ve- 
getation and  subsequent  decomposi- 
tion, does  not  so  readily  appear,  but 
it  is  certain  that  there  are  soils  which 
are  higiily  fertile  in  which  scarcely  a 
trace  of  humus  can  be  discovered, 
and  which,  from  their  igneous  forma- 
tion, cannot  well  contain  organic 
matter;  such  are  the  soils  which  are 
produced  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  lava  which  has  run  in  a  hquid 
state  from  the  craters  of  volcanoes. 
This  is  composed  of  different  miner- 
als, which  have  been  fused  by  the  ac- 
tion of  heat,  but  in  which  the  mixture 
of  the  earths  and  salts  has  not  been 
in  such  proportions  as  to  form  a  per- 
fect glass.  When  exposed  for  a  time 
to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
lava  crumbles  into  an  earth,  which  is 
neither  so  loose  as  silicious  sand,  nor 
so  plastic  as  clay,  and  which  has  such 
a  porosity  as  suits  the  growth  of  the 
roots  of  vegetables.  By  tlie  effect 
of  a  warm  climate  and  frequent  rains, 
vegetation  goes  on  rapidly,  and  by 
cultivation  humus  is  soon  formed  and 


accumulated,  so  that  it  is  only  in  the 
more  recently  cultivated  kivas  that  it 
can  he  said  tliat  vegetation  goes  on 
without  any  supply  of  organic  matter ; 
and  tiie  addition  of  humus  greatly  in- 
creases the  fertility  of  these  soils. 
It  is  much  easier  to  sup[)ly  the  defi- 
ciency of  humus,  which  at  best  forms 
but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  soil, 
than  of  silica  or  alumina,  which  should 
enter  into  its  composition  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  half  or  a  third  of  the 
whole.  It  is  practicable  to  carry  lime 
or  chalk  upon  soils  which  do  not  con- 
tain calcareous  matter  ;  clay  may  also 
be  carried  upon  loose,  sandy  soils, 
where  it  can  be  found  below  the  sur- 
face, or  at  a  moderate  distance  ;  but 
if  a  soil  is  very  deficient  in  silica,  it 
requires  so  large  a  proportion  of  tliis 
earth  to  give  porosity  to  stiff  clay, 
that  it  very  seldom  can  repay  the 
trouble  and  expense.  Hence  the  dif- 
ficulty of  bringing  poor,  wet,  clay 
soils  into  a  fertile  state,  except  where 
an  abundance  of  chalk  and  vegetable 
manures  can  be  easily  procured.  In 
this  case,  the  perfect  draining  of  the 
land,  and  exposure  of  the  ploughed 
surface  to  the  frosts  of  winter,  with 
the  addition  of  chalk  and  manure, 
produces  such  an  alteration  in  the 
texture  of  the  clay,  that,  by  contin- 
uing the  improving  process,  it  is  en- 
tirely changed  into  a  mellow  and  fer- 
tile loam.  The  burning  of  a  portion 
of  the  retentive  subsoil  into  a  brick- 
like earth  gives  it  a  porosity  which 
renders  it  mechanically  similar  to  si- 
licious sand,  and  converting  the  iron 
which  all  these  clays  contain  into  a 
peroxide,  the  soil  is  thereby  greatly 
improved  in  fertility ;  for  it  seems 
that  iron,  in  a  state  of  slight  oxida- 
tion, or  combined  with  any  acid,  is 
hurtful  to  vegetation,  whereas  the  red 
peroxide  ks  not  only  innocuous,  but 
seems  to  have  fertilizing  properties. 
"  The  comparison  of  the  different 
fertile  soils  leads,  therefore,  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  texture  or  porosity 
arising  from  the  admixture  of  parti- 
cles of  various  dimensions  is  the  most 
important  object  of  examination  ;  and 
subordinate  to  this  is  the  chemical 
constitution  of  the  earths  and  other 
731 


SOIL. 


substances  of  uhich  it  is  composed. 
In  the  examination  and  analysis  of 
soils  for  the  pur|)0se  of  ascertaining 
their  power  of  production,  we  must, 
therefore,  first  examine  them  mechan- 
ically, and  afterward  chemically,  and 
on  this  principle  has  been  proposed 
the  mode  of  analyting  soils,  in  a  pa- 
per which  obtained  one  of  the  first 
prizes  given  by  the  Royal  English 
Agricultural  Society,  and  published 
in  the  first  number  of  its  journal. 
M'e  will  here  insert  a  short  account 
of  the  process,  with  such  alterations 
and  additions  as  more  extensive  prac- 
tice has  suggested. 

"  There  are  two  easy  methods  of 
ascertaining  the  size  of  the  particles  of 
a  soil.  The  first  and  simplest  is  by 
drying  the  portion  under  examination, 
gently  triturating  it  with  a  wooden 
pestle  in  a  mortar,  so  as  not  to  pro- 
duce a  grinding  of  the  more  solid 
portions,  and  then  separating  the 
coarser  from  the  finer  parts  by  means 
of  several  metallic  sieves  of  different 
fineness.  A  simple  ins-trument  is  rec- 
ommended for  this  pur- 
pose, which  is  very  porta- 
ble, and  consists  of  three 
or  four  sieves  fitting  into 
each  other  ;  the  coarsest 
sieve  being  uppermost  and 
covered  with  a  lid  ;  the  fi- 
nest fitting  into  a  recipient, 
and  the  whole  forming  a 
cylinder  three  or  four  inch- 
es in  diameter,  and  from 
six  to  eight  in  height.  The 
coarsest  sieve  has  threads 
at  the  distance  of  -jV  of  an  inch,  the 
second  has  80  in  an  inch,  the  third 
120,  and  the  lourth  is  the  finest  me- 
tallic tissue  which  can  be  made. 
What  remains  in  the  first  two  is  ea- 
sily examined  by  the  eye,  or  with  the 
help  of  a  lens.  The  third  and  fourth 
require  a  microscope  to  see  whether 
any  crystallized  particles  remain  in 
the  impalpable  dust  which  has  gone 
through  all  the  sieves.  By  carefully 
weighing  these  different  earths  their 
proportion  is  known,  and  by  taking 
the  specific  gravity  of  each  their  na- 
ture can  be  guessed  at  with  tolerable 
accuracy. 
732 


"As  this  analysis  is  not  intended 
for  experienced  chemists,  the  sim- 
plest methods  are  preferred  to  the 
more  accurate.  There  is  a  mode  of 
taking  the  specific  gravities  of  sub- 
stances which  are  in  the  form  of  pow- 
der insoluble  in  water,  so  easy  and 
so  little  liable  to  error,  that  any  per- 
son, however  unaccustomed  to  exper- 
iments, can  soon  become  sufficiently 
expert  to  have  full  confidence  in  the 
result.  It  is  as  follows  :  a  small, 
pear-shaped  vial  is  blown  of  thin 
glass,  and  the  neck  cut  and  ground 


smooth.  The  size  is  such  as  to  con- 
tain 300  grains  of  water,  more  or 
less  ;  the  exact  quantity  is  not  essen- 
tiah  It  is  now  filled  with  pure  water 
at  60°  of  Fahrenheit's  scale,  and  ac- 
curately poised  in  a  delicate  balance  : 
100  grains  weight  are  then  placed  in 
the  same  scale  with  this  vial,  and, 
by  means  of  a  very  fine  tube,  water 
is  gradually  sucked  out  of  the  vial 
till  the  equilibrium  is  restored  ;  that 
is,  exactly  one  hundred  grains  of  wa- 
ter have  been  taken  out.  A  counter- 
poise is  now  made  of  lead  or  brass, 
when  the  100  grains  weight  has  been 
removed,  and  this  serves  for  all  fu- 
ture experiments.  "When  the  specif- 
ic gravity  of  any  substance  is  requi- 
red, the  vial,  partly  filled  with  wa- 
ter, is  placed  in  one  scale,  and  the 
counterpoise,  made  as  above  descri- 
bed, is  placed  in  the  other ;  water  is 
added  or  taken  from  the  vial  till  an 
equilibrium  is  obtained.  The  sub- 
stance to  be  tried  is  slowly  and  care- 
fully poured  into  the  vial,  until  the 
water  rises  to  the  ground  surface  of 
the  neck  and  stands  quite  level,  which 
is  easily  seen  by  observing  the  reflec- 
tion of  the  light  from  the  surface.  It 
is  then  carefully  replaced  in  the  scale, 
and  grain  weights  are  added  to  the 
other  scale  to  restore  the  equilibrium. 


SOIL. 


The  number  of  these  grains  at  once 
indicates  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
substance  ;  for  tlie  space  above  the 
water  was  that  of  100  grains  of  water, 
and  this  space  is  now  tilled  up  by  the 
earth  examined.  Its  weight,  there- 
fore, denotes  its  specific  gravity  com- 
pared to  water  as  100  ;  and  as  a  del- 
icate balance  readily  turns  with  a 
decimal  of  a  grain,  the  decimals  give 
the  specific  gravity  to  the  third  fig- 
ure. Thus,  if  the  grains  are  256 
and  the  decimals  4,  the  specific  grav- 
ity is  accurately  3564,  water  being 
1000. 

"  By  taking  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  pure  earths,  it  is  found  that  sili- 
ca is  the  heaviest,  the   next  is  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  the  lightest  is 
alumina,  while  organic  matter  is  much 
lighter  than  any  earth.     Thus,  a  tol- 
erable guess  can  be  made  of  the  com- 
position of  that  impalpable  portion  of 
the  soil  which  generally  contains  all 
the  salts  and  organic  matter.     To 
separate   these   chemically   requires 
more  experience  and  a  more  exten- 
sive apparatus  ;  but  the  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  lime  in  any  soil  which 
effervesces  with  acids,  when  its  pres- 
ence is  thus  ascertained,  can  be  cal- 
culated by  a  simple  process,  almost 
as  easily  as  the  specific  gravity  ;  for 
this  purpose,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  balance  with   a  somewhat  larger 
scale,  in  which  can  be  conveniently 
placed  a  small  glass  cup  and  a  vial. 
The  cup  is  placed  in  the  scale  with 
100  grains  weight  in  it ;  and  the  vial, 
also   containing  200  or  300  grains, 
more  or  less,  of  very  dilute  muriatic 
acid.   The  whole  is  accurately  poised 
Fine  dry  sand  is  the  most  convenient 
counterpoise  when  the  exact  weight 
is  not  required.     The  100  grains  are 
now  taken  out  and  replaced  by  the 
dried  soil  to   be   examined.     When 
the  equilibrium  is  restored,  the  dilu- 
ted muriatic  acid  is  poured  carefully 
and  gently  on  the  earth  in  the  cup 
as  long  as  it  continues  to  effervesce  ; 
it  is  then  left  for  a  while,  and  a  little 
more  of  the  acid  added.     If  no  bub- 
bles appear,  then  all  the  carbonic  acid 
has  been  expelled,  and  the  opposite 
scale  preponderates.    The  grains  and 

Q  Q  Q 


decimals  of  grains  required  to  restore 
the  equilibrium  give  the  weight  of  the 
carbonic  acid  expelled,  which  will 
sometimes  be  considerable.  Since 
100  grains  of  carbonate  of  lime  con- 
tain 44  grains  of  carbonic  acid,  we 
have  only  to  take  the  proportion  as 
follows  :  let  a  denote  the  grains  of 
carbonic  acid  indicated  in  the  experi- 

lOOrt      , 
ment ;  then,  44  :  100  :  :  a  :  — — =the 

44 

quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the 
soil ;  that  is,  multiply  the  grains  add- 
ed to  the  scale  by  100,  and  divide  by 
44.  This  experiment,  repeated  with 
a  very  accurate  balance,  will  surprise 
by  its  correctness  ;  and  no  chemical 
analysis  could  give  it  with  equal  cer- 
tainty, especially  in  the  hands  of  an 
inexperienced  person.  When  the 
weights  are  ascertained  by  substitu- 
tion, the  accuracy  of  the  balance  is  of 
less  consequence  ;  all  that  is  required 
is  that  it  be  sensitive,  or  turn  read- 
ily by  the  addition  of  very  minute 
weights.  Thus,  by  two  simple  and 
easy  experiments,  some  of  the  most 
important  qualities  of  the  impalpable 
portions  of  a  soil  may  be  accurately 
ascertained,  viz.,  its  specific  gravity, 
and  the  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime 
which  it  contains. 

"  It  is  more  difficult  to  separate  the 
fine  silica  from  the  alumina,  and  this 
is  of  less  importance  than  might  be 
supposed  ;  for  silica,  when  extremely 
divided,  so  as  to  remain  long  sus- 
pended in  water,  and  mixed  with  alu- 
mina, becomes  as  impervious  to  wa- 
ter as  alumina  itself,  and  therefore  its 
mechanical  effect  on  the  soil  is  the 
same.  For  farther  information,  see 
art.  Analysis. 

"  The  coarser  portions  of  the  soil, 
which  have  been  separated  in  the 
sifting,  are  easily  examined  by  the 
eye.  If  repeated  washing  carries  off 
nothing  from  them,  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  so  many  crystals,  which 
have  no  other  effect  in  the  soil  than 
to  keep  it  open.  If  some  of  these 
are  of  a  calcareous  nature,  they  will 
dissolve  with  effervescence  in  mu- 
riatic acid,  and  their  proportion  can 
be  ascertained  by  the  process  abovt 
described  ;  if  not,  they  may  be  ? 
733 


SOIL 


considered  as  mere  silicious  sand  or 
gravel 

"  A  good  soil  is  composed  of  one 
third  coarse  sand,  one  tliinl  very  fine 
sand,  and  one  liiird  niipalpaljle  mat- 
ter, in  which  there  is  sihca  in  the 
greatest  quantity,  alumina  and  lime 
in  a  smaller,  and  from  four  to  ten  per 
cent,  of  organic  matter,  without  any 
appearance  of  tannin,  which  is  readi- 
ly discovered  by  pouring  into  tlie  wa- 
ter which  has  liltered  through  it  a 
weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  ;  if 
a  blackness  appears,  the  gallic  acid 
is  present,  and  in  proportion  to  its 
quantity  the  soil  is  less  fertile.  In 
this  case  quicklime  is  the  best  correc- 
tive. 

"In  ascertaining  the  value  of  a 
soil  for  the  purposes  of  agriculture, 
two  circumstances  should  be  care- 
fully noticed  :  the  first  is  the  permea- 
bility of  the  soil  to  water  ;  and  the 
second  is  its  power  of  absorbing  moist- 
ure from  the  atmosphere.  To  ascer- 
tain the  first,  it  is  only  required  to 
place  an  equal  weight  of  different 
soils  in  glass  tubes  of  equal  diameter, 
pressing  them  so  that  they  shall  oc- 
cupy equal  spaces,  but  not  filling  the 
tubes  ;  then  pour  an  equal  quantity 
of  water  over  each  soil,  and  place 
them  upright  with  cups  under  them. 
Examine  which  has  the  surface  first 
dry,  and  how  much  water  runs  through 
each  in  a  given  time.  That  which 
presents  a  dry  surface,  while  it  holds 
most  water  in  its  pores,  is  probably 
the  t)est.  To  ascertain  the  compara- 
tive absorption  of  moisture,  the  soils 
are  dried  in  pairs  on  a  plate  of  metal 
heated  by  steam,  or  at  a  heat  of  212°, 
to  expel  the  water  ;  they  are  then 
placed  in  equal  quantities  in  similar 
flat  cups  or  dishes,  and  placed  in  op- 
posite scales  of  a  balance,  and  poised. 
The  apparatus  is  exposed  to  a  moist 
atmosphere  out  of  doors,  or  in  a  cel- 
lar, and  occasionally  examined.  That 
which  is  heaviest  is,  in  general,  the 
most  fertile,  and  contains  most  hu- 
mus. If  there  are  more  than  two 
soils,  they  are  compared  with  each 
other,  and  with  a  third  as  a  stand- 
ard. 

"  By  these  simple  means  any  per- 
734 


son,  however  ignorant  of  chemistry, 
or  unaccustomed  to  make  accurate 
experiiiienls,  may  soon  satisfy  him- 
self as  to  the  comparative  value  of 
diflerent  soils  which  have  never  yet 
been  cultivated  ;  how  they  may  be 
improved,  and  what  crops  are  bust 
suited  to  them  :  tilings  of  the  great- 
est importance  to  tliose  who  go  to 
distant  colonies  in  the  hopes  of  ob- 
taining good  land  at  a  moderate  price, 
and  cultivating  it  to  advantage. 

"  But  we  have  intimated  that  there 
were  other  means  of  ascertaining  the 
mechanical  texture  of  soils  than  by 
sifting  them  ;  tliis  is  by  washing  with 
pure  water.  For  this  purpose,  no- 
thing is  required  but  a  few  flat  plates 
and  large  cups.  Some  of  the  soil  is 
formed  into  a  very  thin  mud  by  stir- 
ring it  in  a  cup  nearly  full  of  water. 
The  finer  particles  are  successively 
poured  off  from  the  sand  or  grit, 
which  at  last  remains  pure,  so  that 
the  water  added  to  it  is  no  longer 
discoloured  :  this  being  dried  and 
weighed,  gives  the  coarse  sand.  The 
water  and  earth  poured  off  are  al- 
lowed to  settle :  a  common  soup- 
plate  is  found  a  very  convenient  ves- 
sel for  this  purpose.  On  the  surface 
of  the  deposited  earth  will  be  found 
all  the  undecomposed  vegetable  mat- 
ter, which,  with  a  little  care,  is  easily 
taken  off,  dried,  and  weighed.  The 
finer  portions  of  the  earth  can  be 
poured  off  successively  by  shaking 
the  whole  moderately  till  nothing  but 
very  fine  sand  remains.  The  alumi- 
na and  impalpable  silica  will  remain 
long  suspended  in  the  water,  and  al- 
low any  sand  yet  remaining  to  be  de- 
posited. They  may  be  rapidly  sep- 
arated from  the  water  by  filtration 
through  stout  blotting  paper  ;  but  it 
is  preferable  to  pour  them  into  a  glass 
tube  about  one  inch  in  internal  di- 
ameter, with  a  cork  fitted  into  the 
lower  end.  In  this  tube  the  earths 
slowly  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  any 
variety  in  the  size  of  the  particles 
causes  a  line  more  or  less  distinct, 
which  can  be  observed  through  the 
glass ;  and  thus  a  very  good  idea 
may  be  obtained  of  the  proportion  of 
the  different  earths  as  far  as  regards 


SOI 


SOI 


the  size  of  their  particles.  For  their 
chemical  diflerenc-es,  the  preceding 
process  must  be  adopted. 

•'  It  is  often  useful  to  ascertain 
nearly  the  composition  of  a  soil  with- 
out having  time  or  opportunity  to 
make  accurate  experiments.  A  grad- 
uated glass  tube  which  can  be  carried 
in  the  pocket,  and  a  small  vial  with  a 
ground  stopper,  containing  diluted 
muriatic  acid,  and  secured  in  a  wood- 
en case  for  fear  of  accident,  are  all  the 
apparatus  required.  A  little  of  the 
soil  is  taken  and  moistened  with  wa- 
ter ;  a  few  drops  of  the  acid  are  pour- 
ed on  ;  and  by  the  greater  or  less  dis- 
engagement of  bubbles  the  proportion 
of  calcareous  matter  is  guessed  at, 
and  Its  presence  proved.  The  soil, 
mixed  with  water,  is  poured  into  the 
glass  tube  and  well  shaken.  In  a  few 
minutes  the  coarse  sand  is  deposited, 
shortly  after  the  finer  sand,  and,  last- 
ly, the  clay  and  impalpable  matter,  of 
which  the  lightest  remains  longest 
suspended.  Distinct  rings  can-be  ob- 
served in  the  deposites,  and  the  grad- 
uated tube  shows  their  proportion. 
A  person  accustomed  to  this  method  I 
will  guess  with  great  precision  the 
general  qualities  of  the  soil ;  and 
when  the  geological  structure  of  the 
neighbourhood  and  the  nature  of  the  i 
subsoil  are  taken  into  consideration,  I 
the  value  of  the  land  for  pasture  or 
cultivation  is  guessed  with  little  dan- 
ger of  making  very  glaring  mistakes. 
To  surveyors  and  valuers  this  meth- 
od is  of  very  great  help,  when  other 
means  are  not  at  hand. 

"  In  practice,  soils  are  usually  di- 
vided into  light,  mellow,  and  stiff; 
but  this  gives  very  little  information, 
there  being  every  imaginable  variety 
in  each  of  these.  In  the  article  Ara- 
ble Land,  we  have  given  a  more  par- 
ticular classification  from  Thaer,  but 
this  is  found  chiefly  applicable  to  al- 
luvial soils.  There  are  still  minute 
circumstances  which  produce  great 
fertility  or  the  reverse,  and  which  it 
is  difficult  to  investigate.  An  accu- 
rate chemical  analysis,  joined  to  a 
careful  mechanical  examination,  and 
very  correct  accounts  of  the  average 
produce  under  different  systems  of 


cultivation,  can  alone  give  us  a  scale 
according  to  which  the  natural  fertility 
of  different  soils  can  be  classed  ;  and 
this  must  be  the  work  of  time  and  in- 
dustry joined  to  science  and  practical 
knowledge.  We  shall  therefore  con- 
clude this  article  by  recommending  to 
every  lover  of  agriculture  to  observe 
and  note  the  peculiarities  of  the  soils 
with  which  he  is  best  acquainted  ;  to 
analyze  them  frequently  and  under 
various  circumstances,  and  thus  en- 
deavour to  find  to  what  peculiar  sub- 
stance or  condition  is  to  be  ascribed 
a  greater  or  less  degree  of  fertility  ; 
so  as  to  lead  to  the  simplest  and  ea- 
siest mode  of  rendering  indifferent 
soils  fertile,  and  increasing  the  pro- 
ductive power  even  of  the  best." — 
{Rham.)  '. 

SOILING.  "  This  is  the  name  giv- 
en in  agriculture  to  the  mode  of  feed- 
ing horses  and  cattle  in  the  stable  or 
yards  with  food  brought  to  them  as 
it  is  cut  in  the  meadows  or  fields. 
The  great  advantage  of  soiling  cattle 
is  the  increase  of  manure  of  the  best 
quality  which  is  thereby  produced  ; 
and  this  circumstance  alone  can  coun- 
terbalance the  great  trouble  and  ex- 
pense incurred  in  cutting  and  carry- 
ing all  the  green  food  from  a  distance 
to  the  farm-yard. 

"  The  system  of  soiling  is  not  very 
generally  adopted,  it  being  so  much 
easier  to  allow  the  cattle  to  crop  their 
food  in  the  pastures  ;  but  in  those 
countries  where  property  in  land  is 
greatly  subdivided,  and  where  farms 
are  small  and  good  pastures  scarce, 
as  in  Flanders,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land, especially  where  the  vineyards 
render  manure  scarce  and  dear  by 
taking  a  considerable  portion  of  it 
and  returning  none,  there  the  soiling 
of  cattle  is  almost  a  matter  of  neces- 
sity. A  cow  or  ox  requires  from  two 
to  three  acres  of  pasture  or  meadow 
to  feed  it  all  the  year  round,  allowing 
a  portion  for  hay;  but  by  raising  clo- 
ver, lucern,  sainfoin,  tares,  and  otlier 
green  crops,  three  cows  or  more  can 
be  fed  with  the  produce  of  one  acre, 
especially  if  a  portion  is  in  turnips  or 
other  succulent  roots.  Thus  the 
straw  of  the  white  crops  is  converted^ 
735 


SOILING. 


into  excellent  manure,  and  the  land 
kept  in  a  state  of  fertility. 

"  In  proportion  as  a  farm  is  larger 
in  extent,  so  the  expense  of  soilmg 
increast^s,  both  from  the  distance  of 
the  fields  where  the  green  crops 
grow,  and  from  the  same  distance 
to  wliicii  the  dung  is  to  be  carted. 
There  is  a  limit,  therefore,  to  the 
soiling  system,  unless  there  be  many 
yards  or  stables  in  different  parts  of 
a  farm,  so  as  to  subdivide  it,  and 
make  each  yard  the  centre  of  a  dis- 
tinct system  of  soiling,  with  fields 
near  at  hand  for  the  green  crops.  In 
almost  every  experiment  on  a  large 
scale,  it  has  been  found  that  soiling 
was  only  a  certain  mode  of  purchasing 
dung,  and  that  it  often  was  more  ex- 
pensive to  procure  it  in  this  way  than 
to  send  to  a  considerable  distance  to 
purchase  it  in  towns.  Where  it  can- 
not be  purchased  at  all,  there  are  no 
other  means,  in  many  situations,  of 
producing  a  sufficient  quantity  ;  and 
the  trouble  and  expense  of  soiling 
must  be  submitted  to.  In  almost  ev- 
ery case  where  sheep  can  be  folded 
to  feed  ofT  the  crops,  the  soiling  of 
cattle  is  a  loss,  because  the  sheep  pay 
something  for  their  food  -,  the  cattle 
in  the  stall  seldom  do. 

"  But  there  are  animals  which 
must  be  fed  for  the  work  of  the  farm, 
such  as  horses  or  oxen  ;  and  these 
are  much  more  profitably  and  eco- 
nomically fed  by  soiling  than  by  any 
other  means.  A  horse  or  ox,  if  he 
works  eight  or  ten  hours,  has  no  time 
for  rest  if  he  has  to  crop  his  food 
from  a  short  pasture,  however  sweet ; 
whereas  an  abundant  supply  of  clo- 
ver, lucern,  or  tares  enables  him  to 
take  a  hearty  meal  and  lie  down  to 
rest.  He  wants  no  corn  with  this 
food,  and  does  his  work  without  los- 
ing flesh  or  activity. 

"  There  is  nothing  easier  in  a  mild 
climate,  and  especially  a  moist  one 
like  Britain  or  Ireland,  than  to  have 
a  succession  of  green  food  from  the 
beginning  of  spring  to  the  end  of  au- 
tumn. Rye  and  winter  barley,  sown 
early  in  autumn,  will  be  ready  to  cut 
as  soon  as  the  mild  weather  of  spring 
commences ;  some  sown  later  with 
739 


winter  tares,  and  the  young  clover, 
which  has  not  been  cropped  in  au- 
tumn, will  succeed.  After  this  come 
artificial  grasses,  as  Italian  rye  grass 
and  the  grass  of  water  meadows 
mown  early  ;  although  this  last  is  not 
so  hearty  food  for  working  cattle  ; 
but  when  joined  to  a  mixture  of  oats 
and  cut  straw,  their  watery  nature  is 
corrected.  Clover  and  spring  tares 
(when  these  can  be  raised  at  proper 
intervals),  lucern  and  sainfoin  (if  the 
soil  is  suited  to  them),  will  afford  a 
C(mstant  and  abundant  supply  to  the 
scythe  which  cuts  the  daily  allowance. 
It  is  prudent  to  provide  against  fail- 
ure, and  have  more  land  in  these  crops 
than  is  absolutely  necessary,  because 
the  surplus  can  always  be  made  into 
hay,  or  reserved  to  ripen  its  seed ; 
and  these  green  crops,  valuable  as 
they  are,  far  from,  deteriorating  the 
soil,  clear  it  of  weeds,  and  render  it 
more  fit  to  bear  corn  afterward.  In 
this  case,  soiling  is  profitable  and 
economical. 

"  It  is  generally  thought  in  those 
countries  where  the  soiling  system  is 
most  universally  adopted,  that  it  is 
best  to  allow  the  green  food  to  re- 
main twelve  or  twenty-four  hours  af- 
ter it  is  cut  before  it  is  given  to  cat- 
tle. This  may  be  prudent  with  cows 
and  oxen,  wiio  are  apt  to  eat  vora- 
ciously, and  are  subject  to  be  hoven 
from  the  fermentations  of  the  green 
food  in  the  paunch  or  rumen  ;  but  for 
horses  there  is  little  danger  ;  and  if 
the  food  is  not  wet  with  dew  or  rain, 
the  fresher  it  is  eaten  the  better  it 
will  nourish  the  animal,  and  the  more 
he  will  relish  it. 

"  If  any  one  is  desirous  of  calcula- 
ting the  expense  of  soiling  any  num- 
ber of  beasts,  he  has  only  to  reckon 
what  time  of  men  and  horses  it  will 
take  to  cut  the  food  and  carry  it  to 
the  cattle,  from  the  average  distance 
of  the  fields  in  \\hich  it  can  be  raised 
in  succession.  .Much  of  their  time  is 
lost  in  the  morning  and  evening  in 
going  backward  and  forward  from  the 
field  to  the  yard  ;  for  there  can  scarce- 
ly be  an  establishment  so  large  as  to 
keep  them  employed  a  whole  day ; 
and  if  there  was,  the  fields  must  be 


soo 


so  large  and  so  distant  as  to  greatly  | 
increase   the    expense    of  carriage.  ; 
Not  to  enter  into  muuite  calculations, 
it  is  fully  proved  that,  to  a  certain  ex-  j 
tent,  soiling  is  protitablc  and  econom- 
ical, when  it  can  be  done  before  and 
after  the  usual  hours  of  labour  ;  but 
that,  when  undertaken   on  a  large 
scale  in  anv  one  locality,  it  is  usually 
attended  with  loss,  the  manure  pro- 
duced being  purchased  at  too  great  a 
price." 

SOLANACE.E.  a  natural  order 
of  herbaceous  or  shrubby  exogcns, 
inhabiting  all  parts  of  tlie  world  ex- 
cepting the  arctic  regions.  This  or- 
der contains  nightshade,  henbane, 
mandrake,  tobacco,  stramonium,  the 
potato,  and  the  tomato,  the  leaves  of 
all  which  arc  narcotic  and  excitnig,  but 
in  different  degrees,  from  Atropa  bel- 
ladonna, which  causes  vertigo,  convul- 
sions, and  vomiting  ;  tobacco,  which 
will  frequently  produce  the  first  and 
last  of  these  symptoms  ;  henbane  and 
stramonium,  down  to  some  of  the  so- 
lanum  tribes,  the  leaves  of  which  are 
so  inert  as  to  be  used  as  kitchen  herbs. 
Even  in  the  potato  plant,  the  narcotic 
acrid  principle  is  I'ound  in  the  stem 
and  leaves,  and  even  in  the  rind  of 
the  tuber.  But  the  principal  part  of 
the  latter  consists  of  starcli  ;  and  the 
small  quantity  of  deleterious  matter 
being  volatile  and  near  the  surface, 
is  readdy  drivea  off  by  the  heat  used 
in  cookmg. 

SOLIDUNGULATES.  Ani- 
mals with  an  undivided  hoof,  as  the 
horse. 

SOLUTION.  The  diffusion  in  wa- 
ter or  other  menstrua  of  the  particles 
of  a  solid  or  other  body.  The  amount 
dissolved  is  definite  at  the  same  tem- 
perature, and  is  usually  increased  by 
heat.  A  Uuid  already  holding  in  so- 
lution a  given  substance  will  not  dis- 
solve so  inuch  of  a  tliird  as  if  pure, 
and  sometimes  none  at  all. 

SOOT.  "  Soot  is  a  complicated  and 
variable  mixture  of  substances  pro- 
duced during  the  combustion  of  coal. 
Its  composition,  and  consequently  its 
effects  as  a  manure,  vary  with  the 
quality  of  the  coal,  with  the  way  in 
which  the  coal  is  burned,  and  with 

Q  Q  Q  2 


SOO 

the  height  of  the  chimney  in  which 
it  is  collected. 

"  Soot  has  not  been  analyzed  since 
the  year  183G,  when  a  variety  exam- 
ined'by  Braconnot  was  found  by  him 
to  consist,  in  a  thousand  parts,  of 

Ulniic  acid?    (a   substance    resemblin[,0 

that  portion  of  the  vegetable  matter  I  305.0 
of  the  soil  which  is  soluble  111  caustic  | 
]>otash)         .         .         •         •         •         --^ 

A  ledilish  brown  soluble  substance,  con-  1 
taiuin?  nitrogen,  and  yielding  ammo-  > 
nia  when  heated  .         .         •         •  ' 

Asboline 

Carbonaleof  lime,  with  a  trace  of  mag- 
nesia (probably  derived  in  part  from 
the  sides  of  the  chimney)   . 

Acetate  of  lime 

Sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum)     . 

Acetate  of  maonesia      .         .         .        • 

Phosphate  of  lime,  with  a  trace  of  iron 

Chloride  of  potassium    .         .         .         ■ 

Acetate  of  potash  .... 

Acetate  of  ammonia       .... 

Silica  (sand) 

Charcoal  powder •"''^ 

Water 125-0 


2000 

50 

146  6 

56-5 
5e-0 

5-3 
150 

3fi 
410 

20 

9-. 


lUOO-0 

"  The  earthy  substances  which  the 
soot  contains  are  chiefly  derived  from 
the  walls  of  the  chimney,  and  from 
the  ash  of  the  coal,  part  of  which  is 
carried  up  the  chimney  by  the  draught. 
These,  therefore,  must  be  variable, 
being  largest  in  quantity  where  the 
draught  is  strongest,  and  where  the 
earthy  matter  or  ash  in  the  coal  is  the 
greatest.      The  quantity  of  gypsum 
present   depends    upon   the   sulphur 
contained  in  the  coal :  that  which  is 
freest  from  sulphur  will  give  a  soot 
containing  the  least  gypsum.     The 
ammonia  and  the  soluble  substance 
containing   nitrogen  will  vary   with 
the  quantity  of  nitrogen  contained  in 
the  coal  and  with  certain  other  caus- 
es, so  that  the  composition  of  differ- 
ent samples  of  soot  may  be  very  un- 
like, and  their  influence  upon  vegeta- 
tion  therefore    very  unequal.      The 
consecjuence  of  this  must  be,  that  the 
results  obtained  in  one  spot,  or  upon 
one  crop,  are   not   to   be  depended 
upon  as  indicative  of  the  precise  effect 
whicli  another  specimen  of  soot  will 
produce  in  another  locality,  and  upon 
another  crop  even  of  the  same  kind  ; 
and  thus  it  happens  that  the  use  of 
soot  is  more  general,  and  is  attended 
with  more  bcnelieial  effects  in  some 
districts  than  in  others. 

737 


soo 


SOR 


"  In  general,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  where  ammonia  or  its  salts  will 
benefit  the  crop,  soot  also  will  be  of 
use,  and  hence  its  successful  appli- 
cation to  grass  lands.  From  its  con- 
taining gypsum,  it  should  also  espe- 
cially benefit  the  clover  crops ;  yet 
Dr.  Anderson  says,  '  I  have  used  soot 
as  a  top-dressing  for  clover  and  rye 
grass  in  all  proportions,  from  one 
hundred  bushels  per  acre  to  six  hun- 
dred, and  I  cannot  say  that  I  ever 
could  perceive  the  clover  in  the  least 
degree  more  luxuriant  than  in  the 
places  where  no  soot  had  been  ap- 
plied ;  but  upon  rye  grass  its  efTects 
are  amazing,  and  increase  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity,  so  far  as  my  tri- 
als have  gone  ;'  and  his  general  con- 
clusion is,  that  soot  does  not  effect  the 
growth  of  clover  in  any  icay,  while  it 
wonderfully  promotes  that  of  rye  grass. 

"  The  presence  of  ammonia  in  soot 
causes  it,  when  laid  in  heaps,  to  de- 
stroy all  the  plants  upon  the  spot. 

"  This  ammonia  also  causes  soot 
to  injure  and  diminish  the  crop  in 
very  dry  seasons.  Thus  the  produce 
of  a  crop  of  beans,  after  oats,  in  1842, 
upon  an 

Unmiiiiured  part  of  the  field  was  .  .  29i  bush. 
Dressed  with  fourbushels  uf  soot  .  .  28       " 

"  It  also  diminished,  in  a  small  de- 
gree, the  potato. 

With  manure  alone,  the  pro- 
duce was      .         .         .        .11  tons  17  cwt. 

With  thirty  bushels  of  soot 
sprinkled  over  the  dung       .   11     "      4     " 

"  Like  rape-dust  and  saline  sub- 
stances, therefore,  soot  seems  to  re- 
quire moist  weather,  or  a  naturally 
moist  soil,  to  bring  out  all  its  virtues. 

"  Yet  even  in  the  dry  season  of 
1842,  its  effect  upon  wheat  and  oats 
in  the  same  locality  (Erskine)  was 
very  beneficial.  Thus  the  compara- 
tive produce  of  these  crops,  when  un- 
dressed and  when  top-dressed  with 
ten  bushels  of  soot  per  acre,  was  as 
follows :  j 

Unmanured  .         .         .  Wheat  44        Oats  49 
Top-dressed  with  soot  .        "       54  "     55 

"  But  the  dressed  wheat  was  infe- 
rior in  quality  to  the  undressed,  the 
former  weighing  only  58,  the  latter 
62  pounds  a  bushel.  In  the  oats  there 
was  no  difference.  Are  we  to  infer 
738 


'  from  these  results  that,  even  in  dry 
seasons,  soot  may  be  safely  applied 
to  crops  of  corn,  while  to  pulse  and 
roots  it  is  sure  to  do  no  good  !  Far- 
ther precise  observations,  no  doubt, 
!  are  still  necessary,  and  the  more  es- 
pecially, as  the  experiments  upon  oats 
and  wheat  made  in  a  drier  locality 
gave  a  decrease  in  the  produce  of 
grain,  while  in  Mr.  Fleming's  exper- 
iments upon  turnips,  50  bushels  of 
soot,  applied  alone,  gave  an  increase 
of  four  tons  in  the  crop. 

"Another  experiment  enables  us 
to  judge  of  ti»e  efficacy  of  soot  in  a 
dry  season,  compared  with  that  of  ni- 
trate of  soda  and  of  guano,  upon  the 
produce  of  hay.  Thus  the  crop  of  hay 
per  acre  from  the 

Cost 
.  tons.  cwts.  £.  8.  d. 

Undressed  portion,  weighed  ..18     

Dressed  with  40  bush,  of  soot     .  1   15     0  118 
"  "    leOlbs.  nitr.  ofsoda  1   19     1   15  9 

"  "    160  lbs.  of  guano     .2    2     1   15  9 

"  In  this  experiment  the  soot  pro- 
ved a  more  profitable  application  than 
either  of  the  other  manures. 

"  In  regard  to  this  substance,  I 
shall  only  advert  to  one  other  obser- 
vation— but  it  is  an  important  one — 
made  by  Mr.  Morton,  when  describing 
the  management  of  a  well-conducted 
farm.  'The  quantity  of  soot  used 
upon  this  farm  amounts  to  3000  bush- 
els a  year,  one  half  of  which  is  ap- 
plied to  the  potato,  the  other  half  to 
the  wheat  crop.'  All  the  straw  grown 
iifon  this  farm  is  sold  for  thatch,  and 
for  the  last  thirty  years  the  only  ma- 
nure that  has  been  purchased  to  re- 
place this  straw  is  soot." — (Johnston.) 

The  amount  applied  is  from  twen- 
ty-five to  fortv  bushels  the  acre. 

SOPORIFICS.  Drugs  which  pro- 
duce sleep. 

SOREDIA.  Masses  of  powdery 
bodies  lying  on  the  thallus  of  lichens. 

SORI.  The  small  heaps  of  repro- 
ductive granules  found  growing  upon 
the  fronds  of  polvpodiaceous  ferns. 

SOROSIS.  a' fruit  resembling  the 
mulberry,  being  a  succulent  spike. 

SORREL.  Rumex  acctosella.  A 
small  perennial  weed  of  the  dock 
family,  with  a  sour  taste,  arising  from 
the  binoxalate  of  potash.     It  grows 


sow 


sow 


on  poor  lands,  and  marks  sterility.  ' 
A  good  liming  and  tilth  are  wanting  to 
improve  such  soils,  not  because  they 
are  sour,  or  the  sorrel  should  be  kill- 
ed, but  because  they  are  poor  lands. 
The  wood  {oxaiis)  sorrel  grows  only 
in  rich  places. 

SORREL-TREE.  Andromeda  ar- 
borca.  A  handsome  shrubbery  tree 
in  the  North,  with  beautiful  white 
racemes  of  riowers.  In  the  South  it 
becomes  a  large  tree. 

SOUTHERNWOOD.  Wormwood. 

SOWENS.  A  dish  made  from  oat- 
meal. 

SOWING,  AND  SOWING  MA- 
CHINES. "  The  sowing  of  the  seed 
has  always  been  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  most  important  operations  of 
husbandry.  Much  of  the  success  of 
the  future  crops  depends  on  the  time 
and  the  mode  in  wliich  the  seed  is 
committed  to  the  earth.  After  the 
land  has  been  well  prepared  by  ju- 
dicious tillage  and  manuring,  many 
accidents  and  circumstances  may  dis- 
appoint the  hope  of  the  farmer,  and 
the  crop  may  be  scanty  or  fail  alto- 
gether. The  weather  and  the  sea- 
sons are  not  under  his  control ;  but 
much  also  depends  on  his  own  judg- 
ment and  skill.  If  he  selects  the  best 
seeds,  chooses  the  proper  season  for 
sowing  them,  and  has  them  carefully 
distributed  and  properly  covered  with 
earth,  as  their  nature  requires  for  the 
most  perfect  germination,  and  thus 
also  protects  them  from  the  voracity 
of  birds  or  insects,  he  will  have  a 
much  greater  prospect  of  success, 
under  all  circumstances,  than  if  he 
were  careless  or  negligent. 

"  The  most  common  mode  of  sow- 
ing the  seed  is  by  scattering  it  as 
evenly  as  possible  over  the  ploughed 
surface,  as  it  lies  in  ridges  from  the 
plough.  The  harrows  follow,  and 
crumbling  down  the  ridges,  cover  the 
seed  which  has  fallen  in  the  hollows 
between  them.  It  requires  an  ex- 
perienced sower  to  scatter  the  exact 
quantity  o%-er  a  given  surface,  with- 
out crowding  the  seed  in  one  spot, 
and  allowing  too  great  intervals  in 
another.  Hence  the  farmer  wiio 
does  not  himself  sow  the  seed,  inva- 


riably chooses  the  most  experienced 
and  skilful  labourer  to  perform  this 
work.  Notwithstanding  every  care 
and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  farm- 
er, the  labourer  will  ol'ten  relax  and 
become  careless,  and  the  result  ap- 
pears only  when  it  is  too  late  to  rem- 
edy it.  This  has  given  rise  to  the 
various  attempts  which  have  been 
made  to  invent  machines  for  sowing 
the  seed,  such  as  should  ensure  per- 
fect regularity.  Of  some  of  these 
we  will  now  give  a  short  account. 

"One  of  the  simplest  of  these  ma- 
chines consisted  in  a  hollow  cylin- 
der, with  one  or  more  rows  of  holes 
in  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis.  These 
holes  can  be  stopped  in  part,  if  re- 
quired. The  seed  is  put  into  the  cyl- 
inder, the  length  of  which  is  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  land,  or  stitch,  which 
It  is  desired  to  sow  at  a  time.  By 
shaking  this  when  held  horizontally 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  path  of  the 
sower,  the  seed  is  scattered  with  con- 
siderable regularity.  One  inconve- 
nience of  this  instrument  is,  that  it 
requires  to  be  filled  frequently,  and 
that  much  still  depends  on  the  atten- 
tion of  the  operator.  Accordingly,  it 
was  very  soon  laid  by.  The  idea, 
however,  was  followed  up  and  im- 
proved upon  in  the  sowing  harrow, 
an  instrument  still  extensively  used 
for  sowing  grass  seeds.  It  consists 
of  a  wooden  trough  placed  on  the 
frame  of  a  light  wheelbarrow.  An 
iron  spindle,  furnished  with  circular 
brushes  at  regular  intervals,  runs  the 
whole  length  of  the  trough,  and  is 
turned  by  means  of  simple  machin- 
ery connected  with  the  wheel.  Op- 
posite each  brush  is  a  brass  plate, 
with  holes  of  different  sizes,  which 
can  be  partly  closed  by  means  of  a 
circular  slide.  According  to  the  size 
of  the  seed  to  be  sown  and  the  quan- 
tity to  be  scattered,  the  holes  are 
opened  or  shut.  The  seed  is  put 
into  the  trough,  which  has  a  cover  or 
lid  ;  and  by  merely  wheeling  the  bar- 
row in  a  straight  line,  a  breadth  is 
sown  equal  to  the  length  of  the  trough, 
usually  12  or  15  feet.  But  this  ma- 
chine cannot  conveniently  be  used  in 
windy  weather,  which  disperses  the 
739 


SOWING,  AND  SOWING   MACHINES. 


seeds  irregularly  ;  and  it  is  very  little 
superior  to  sowing  by  tlie  hand,  ex- 
cept ill  tlie  case  of  small  seeds,  which 
cannot  so  well  be  spread  evenly  by 
the  hand. 

"  The  drill  husbandry  has  suggest- 
ed other  more  couipiicated  machines, 
of  which  some  account  will  be  found 
in  the  article  Drill.  The  principle 
of  these  is  to  deliver  the  seed  by 
means  of  funnels,  each  corresponding 
to  a  small  furrow  made  by  a  coulter 
placed  iuunediately  before  tlie  fun- 
nel ;  and  some  of  these  machines 
perform  the  work  very  regularly  and 
satisfactorily.  As  the  inequalities  of 
the  ground  require  that  the  coulters 
should  move  up  or  down,  to  allow 
for  these  inequalities,  the  seed  can- 
not be  accurately  deposited  at  a  given 
depth  ;  and  some  improvement  in  the 
mode  of  drilling  is  yet  desirable,  and 
has,  in  some  measure,  been  effected. 
The  patent  lever  drill  in  common 
use  is  very  imperfect  in  its  work,  and 
the  remedy  lies  in  the  greater  atten- 
tion to  the  preparation  of  the  surface. 
When  this  is  effected,  the  levers  may 
be  set  aside,  and  a  much  simpler  drill, 
such  as  was  used  at  first,  may  re- 
place it.  The  object  is  to  make  fur- 
rows of  equal  depth  in  which  to  de- 
posite  the  seed,  and  to  cover  this  uni- 
formly. The  land  must  consequently 
be  more  carefuUy  prepared  by  repeat- 
ed harrowing  and  rolling,  till  the  sur- 
face resembles  the  seed-beds  in  a 
garden.  A  simple  drill,  which  makes 
equidistant  furrows  at  a  given  depth, 
in  which  the  seed  drops  regularly, 
will  then  do  better  work  than  a  more 
complicated  machine  ;  but  if  still 
greater  accuracy  and  perfection  are 
desired,  the  dibble  must  be  had  re- 
course to.  No  one  will  deny  tliat 
seed  deposited  by  means  of  a  dibble 
is  distributed  more  equally  and  cov- 
ered with  a  more  equal  depth  of  soil 
than  by  any  other  means,  and  that 
there  is  a  great  economy  of  seed  in 
this  mode  of  sowing  ;  but  the  slow- 
ness of  the  operation,  and  the  num- 
ber of  hands  it  would  require  to  dib- 
ble all  the  seed  on  a  large  farm,  have 
prevented  its  being  very  generally 
adopted.  See  Arabic  Land.  Many  at- 
740 


tempts  have  been  made  to  invent  ma- 
chines to  imitate  the  work  done  by 
band  in  dibbling,  and  hitherto  with 
no  marked  success,  owing  chiefly  to 
the  difficulty  of  clearing  the  dibbles 
from  the  adhering  soil,  and  making  a 
clean  hole,  and  also  of  letting  the 
seed  fall  exactly  in  the  dibble  holes. 
Several  patents  have  lately  been  ta- 
ken out  for  dibbling  machines,  of 
which  we  shall  only  notice  three. 
The  first  machine  consists  of  large 
hollow  disks,  armed  at  the  circum- 
ference with  blunt  projections  or 
knobs,  which  make  a  depression  in 
the  surface  as  the  disk  revolves  : 
these  knobs  are  hollow,  and  open  by 
one  half  sliding  upward  as  the  knob 
leaves  the  depression  it  has  made. 
The  seed  which  has  been  deposited 
in  the  hollow  knob  falls  into  the  hole. 
This  machine  is  said  to  do  its  work 
well. 

"  The  next  is  Bradshaw's  patent, 
which  is  not  so  generally  known, 
having  only  been  tried  by  the  invent- 
or and  his  friends.  Here  the  dibbles 
are  moved  up  and  down  by  means  of 
a  crank,  or  eccentric  circle,  and  are 
twisted  in  the  ground  by  means  of  a 
projection  from  the  shank  of  the  dib- 
ble, which  is  connected  with  the  frame 
of  the  machine;  andw'hen  the  dibble  is 
moved  by  the  crank,  the  rod  is  twist- 
ed by  the  difference  in  the  motion  of 
the  crank  and  the  machine.  The 
seed  is  delivered  by  means  of  a  cyl- 
inder with  cavities  in  its  surface, 
which  revolves  very  near  the  ground, 
the  seed  being  kept  in  these  cavities 
liy  a  leather  belt,  which  only  lets 
them  out  at  the  lowest  part. 

"  The  last  is  somewhat  on  the 
same  principle,  and  was  invented  by 
the  late  Rev.  W.  L.  Rham.  This  ma- 
chine, which  was  exhibited  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  So- 
ciety of  England  at  Liverpool,  in  1841, 
is  thus  noticed  by  the  judges  of  the 
implements  appointed  by  that  So- 
ciety : 

'"The  Rev.  W.  L.  Rham  exhibited 
an  implement,  the  principal  object  of 
which  is  to  extend  and  improve  the 
system  of  drilling  and  dibbling  wheat, 
beans,  «Scc.     It  is  chiefly  in  its  latter 


SOWING,  AND  SOWING  MACHINES. 


capacity,  as  a  dibbler  of  seed  and  ' 
manure,  that  we  shall  attempt  to  give 
a  slight  description  of  it.     The  op- 
erative part  of  the  machine  is  sus- 
pended upon  an  iron  carriage  having  ■ 
four  wheels,   the   two   hinder   ones 
being  fast  upon  their  axle  and  turn- 
ing with  it.     On  this  axle  is  a  spur- 
wheel,  giving  motion  to  a  pinion  on 
an  intermediary  axle,  which  carries 
a  wheel  geared  into  a  second  pinion 
fixed  on  its  axis,  having  six  cranks 
arranged  spirally.   The  velocity  given 
to  the  axis  is  such  that  the  cranks 
make  one  revolution   for  every  six 
inches  of  the  circumference  of  the 
hind  wheels,  or  whatever  is  the  dis- 
tance desired  between  dibble  holes. 
The   radius  of  each  crank   is  such 
that  this  distance  shall  be  equal  to 
the  circumference  described  by  one 
revolution.   Thus  the  space  described 
by  every  crank  coincides  with  that 
passed  over  in  the  same  time  by  the 
hind  wheels  ;  and  as  the  cranks  turn, 
during  the  half  of  a  revolution,  in  an 
opposite   direction    to    that    of    the 
wheels,  the  result  of  this  compound 
motion  is  a  pause  or  rest  of  short  du- 
ration, at  the  point  where  the  crank 
in  its  rotation  commences  to  retro- 
grade from  the  line  of  progress  of  the 
machine,  t.  c,  at  the  lowest  point, 
and  when   the   dibbles    are    in   the 
ground.     The  crank  raises  the  dib- 
bles up  and  down  by  means  of  con- 
necting rods  and  levers,  which  double 
the  vertical  without   increasing  the 
horizontal  motion  ;  and  in  order  that 
the  point  when  in  the  ground  may 
be  perfectly  stationary,  it  is  made  the 
centre  of  motion  while  the  machine 
progresses  ;  and  to  enable  it  to  re- 
tain   that   position    for   a    sufficient 
length  of  time,  for  the   purpose   of 
leaving  a  hole  truly  vertical,  the  dib- 
bles move  between  checks  in  the  rod 
which  connects  it  with   the  crank, 
and  which  has  a  spring  to  restore  it 
quickly  to  its  proper  place  as  it  rises 
out  of  the  ground     During,  therefore, 
the  entire  time  occupied  in  its  pier- 
cing the  hole  and  being  withdrawn 
from  the  soil,  the  dibble  retams  its 
perpendicularity. 
'•  '  By  an    ingenious   and    simple 


contrivance,  a  slow  rotatory  motion 
about  its  own  axis  is  given  to  the 
dibble,  by  which  means  its  point  may 
be  said  to  bore  into  the  ground,  thus 
assisting  in  the  formation  of  the  hole  ; 
and  by  the  same  action  the  dibble  is 
cleared  of  any  adhering  soil,  and  the 
hole  left  firm  and  clear. 

"  '  The  seed-valve  consists  of  a 
cylinder,  with  a  cavity  in  it  of  dimen- 
sions sufficient  to  hold  one  or  more 
seeds.  This  cylinder  is  tumbled  over, 
and  the  seed  discharged  into  a  recip- 
ient of  the  shape  of  a  quadrant,  from 
which  it  is  pushed  out,  when  the  cyl- 
inder returns  to  its  first  position  and 
takes  in  a  fresh  supply.  As  this  mo- 
tion is  sudden,  the  seed  is  surely  de- 
livered, even  when  rather  damp  : 
when  the  cylinder  is  delivering,  the 
quadrant  is  receiving,  and  vice  versa. 
The  delivery  of  manure  is  effected  by 
a  similar  apparatus,  only  of  a  larger 
size,  the  valves  being  furnished  with 
brushes,  or  other  means,  to  remove 
the  superfluity. 

"  '  The  valves  are  connected  with 
the  dibbles  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
deposite  the  manure  and  seed  in  the 
hole  last  formed,  while  the  dibbles 
are  stationary  in  the  advancing  one. 
The  dibbles  bore  their  holes  in  shal- 
low drills  made  by  the  pressure  and 
sliding  action  of  an  iron  shoe  shaped 
like  a  boat,  and  forming  a  smooth 
furrow. 

'• '  The  whole  of  the  machinery  is 
supported  by  an  iron  frame,  one  end  of 
which  rests  on  trunnions  attached  to 
aprojecting  part  of  the  back  of  the  car- 
riage. It  is  suspended  at  the  other  end 
by  a  cross  shaft,  carrying  two  pinions, 
working  in  arcs  of  circles  fixed  on  the 
frame,  so  that  it  can  be  raised  or  de- 
pressed at  pleasure,  or  elevated  clear 
of  the  ground  by  one  turn  of  a  winch. 
At  the  same  time,  the  pinion  con- 
necting the  machinery  with  the  hind 
wheels  is  put  out  of  gear,  and  the 
whole  can  be  moved  about  on  the 
carriage. 

"  '  The  object  of  the  reverend  gen- 
tleman in  contriving  this  original  and 
singularly  ingenious  implement,  has 
been  to  imitate  the  more  minute  and 
1  certain  manipulations  of  the  garden- 


SOWING,  AND  SOWINt!  MACHINES. 


er,  and  so  to  adapt  his  machinery  to 
the  (lrillin<;  and  dihbiin^r  of  seed  upon 
land  previously  laid  flat  and  well 
prepared,  that  (!very  field,  however 
extensive,  should  present  the  neat- 
ness and  regularity  of  a  highly  fin- 
ished garden. 

"  '  The  distinguishing  peculiarities 
of  this  remarkable  piece  of  mecha- 
nism are  the  arrangements  for  the 
dibbles  to  horc  holes,  causing  them  to 
be  perpendicular  and  truly  cylindri- 
cal, and  the  apparatus  forgiving  cer- 
tainty to  the  valves  in  receiving  and 
delivering  the  manure.' 

"  In  order  to  render  the  above  high- 
ly commendatory  report  of  the  judges 
more  intelligible  to  those  who  have 
not  seen  this  implement,  we  will  add 
a  slight  diagram,  to  explain  the  most 
essential  parts  : 

"  A  C  13  is  a  lever,  whose  fulcrum 
is  at  A  ;  B  G,  the  rod  of  the  dibble 
M,  which  turns  on  it  by  means  of  a 


!  socket ;  C  D  E  is  the  rod  which  com- 
i  mutiicates  the  motion  to  the  lever 
A  C  B,  by  means  of  the  crank  L  E, 
moved  by  the  machinery.  A  D  is  a 
rod  connecting  the  crank  with  the 
rod  of  the  dibble,  and  having  a  slit  or 
cheeks  in  which  this  rod  moves.  F 
is  the  spring  which  keeps  the  rod  in 
its  place  when  the  dibble  is  out  of  the 
ground,  a  i  is  an  iron  plate  with  a 
slit  or  cheeks  to  keep  the  dibble  from 
swerving  from  the  line  of  the  furrow 
made  by  the  shoe,  c  is  a  thin  pi« 
projecting  upward  from  this  plate, 
and  bent  at  its  upper  end.  This  pin 
meets  one  of  four  arms  projecting 
horizontally  from  the  shank  of  the 
dibble  whenever  it  descends  into  the 
ground  ;  and  as  it  proceeds  with  the 
carriage  while  the  dibble  is  at  rest, 
it  gives  this  a  motion  round  its  rod 
to  the  extent  of  a  quarter  of  a  circle. 
When  the  rod  rises,  it  clears  the 
arms  from  the  pin,  which,  at  the  next 


descent,  meets  with  another  arm  ; 
and  thus  a  complete  revolution  is  ef- 
fected in  four  descents  of  the  dibble. 
"  H  is  the  vessel  which  contains 
the  seed.  The  valve  consists  of  a 
cylinder,  d,  with  a  cavity  sufficient 
to  receive  the  required  number  of 
seeds  to  be  deposited  in  each  hole, 
a  brush  to  remove  any  superfluous 
seeds,  and  a  recipient,  V,  in  the  form 
of  a  quadrant,  in  which  they  drop 
when  the  cylinder  is  suddenly  turned 
half  round  on  its  axis.  This  is  ef- 
fected by  a  small  crank  fixed  to  the 
axis,  and  connected  by  a  rod  r  with 
742 


the  quadrant  V.  The  quadrant  it- 
self moves  a  quarter  round  its  centre 
X  by  means  of  a  rod  q,  which  con- 
nects it  with  the  dibble,  or  with  the 
crank  when  the  dibble  is  not  used  ; 
and  the  seed  is  dropped  into  the  dib- 
ble hole  or  the  furrow  when  the 
quadrant  is  pushed  back  in  its  place. 
A  rake  and  roller  are  attached  to  the 
implement  to  complete  the  operation. 
"  This  may  give  some  idea  of  this 
new  machine,  and  if  it  answer  the 
expectations  of  the  inventor,  it  will 
cause  a  great  saving  in  the  seed  and 
labour  of  sowing,  while  it  will  de- 


SPE 

posite  the  seed  much  more  regularly, 
and  at  an  equal  depth." 

SOW  THISTLES.  Composite 
plants  of  the  genus  Sonchiis.  They 
are  smooth  perennials,  with  a  milky 
juice. 

SPADE.  A  well-known  garden 
implement.  The  spading  of  land  pro- 
duces the  best  results  from  the  thor- 
ough loosening  and  great  depth  to 
which  the  soil  is  stirred.  Astonish- 
ing crops  have  been  obtained  on  small 
lots  by  using  the  spade  for  wheat  and 
root  culture  ;  but  the  expense  is  the 
great  drawback. 

SPADIX.  A  form  of  inflorescence, 
m  which  the  flowers  are  arranged 
around  a  fleshy  raehis,  and  enclosed 
within  a  kind  of  bract  called  a  spathe, 
as  in  palms  and  araceous  plants.  The 
Indian  turnip  is  an  instance. 

SPANISH  NEEDLES.  Annual 
weeds  of  the  genus  Bidetis,  the  seeds 
of  which  adhere  to  the  skm  of  ani- 
mals and  clothes. 

SPAN  WORMS.  The  caterpillars 
called  geometers,  loopers,  or  canker- 
worms.  See  Canker-worm.  The  fe- 
male of  the  prefect  insects  are  inca- 
pable of  flight,  and  crawl  up  trees  to 
lay  their  eggs  ;  various  contrivances 
have,  therefore,  been  adopted  to  hin- 
der them  passing,  such  as  a  rope  of 
straw  bound  round  the  trunk,  a  layer 
of  tar  spread  on  paper  and  fastened 
round,  or  lead  and  tin  troughs  con- 
taining od,  water,  or  other  prepara- 
tions, have  been  affixed  to  the  trunk 
with  sreat  advantage. 

SPASM.  A  cramp.  Rubbing  the 
skin  with  turpentine,  when  it  is  of 
the  external  muscles,  often  alleviates 
the  pain. 

SPATHE.     See  Spadix. 

SPAVIN.     See  Horse,  Diseases  of. 

SPAYING.  The  operation  of  ex- 
tracting the  ovaries  of  the  females  of 
different  kinds  of  animals,  as  sows, 
heifers,  mares,  &c.,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent any  future  conception,  and  pro- 
mote fattening. 

SPEAR  GRASS.  A  name  given 
to  the  Poa  pratensis. 

SPEAR.MINT.  Common  green 
mint :  also  the  weed  Mentha  tenuis. 

SPECIES.     In  natural  history,  an 


SPI 

individual  separated  from  others  of  a 
genus  by  certain  slight  but  permanent 
characters. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.  See  Grav- 
ity. 

SPECTRUM.  An  image,  usually 
applied  to  the  image  of  the  sun  seen 
throuifh  a  prism,  and  which  consists 
of  seven  colours. 

SPECULU.M.  A  reflector  or  mir- 
ror of  metal. 

SPEEDWELL.  The  genus  Fero«- 
ica,  perennial  plants,  ot'ten  with  beau- 
tiful spikes  of  blue  flowers. 

SPELT.  Spelter  wheat.  See 
Wheat. 

SPERMATIC  ANIMALCULES. 
Minute,  thread-like  animalcules  found 
in  the  secretion  of  the  testes. 

SPERMATIC  CORD.  The  col- 
lection of  blood-vessels  passing  from 
the  abdomen  to  the  testes. 

S  P  E  R  M  I  D  I  U  M.  The  same  as 
akenium,  a  small  seed  vessel  resem- 
bling a  seed. 

SPHACELUS.  Mortification,  gan- 
grene. 

SPHAGNU.M.  A  genus  of  mosses 
growing  in  bogs,  and  forming  a  great 
deal  of  the  peat. 

SPHENOID  BONE.  A  bone  in 
the  base  of  the  skull. 

SPHINCTER  (from  acfir/xu,  I 
close).  The  name  of  muscles  which 
close  the  natural  openings  of  the 
bodv. 

SPICE  WOOD,  or  BUSH.  Lau- 
rus  benzoin.  Benjamin  bush,  fever 
bush.  An  indigenous  shrub,  four  to 
ten  feet  high,  the  wood  of  which  yields 
an  aromatic  smell.  It  grows  on  damp 
places. 

SPIGEL.     Fennel. 

SPIKE.  An  inflorescence,  in  which 
the  flowers  are  sessile  upon  an  up- 
right stem. 

SPINACH.  Spinaciaoleracca.  An 
annual  of  the  family  Chenopodiacem. 
Varieties :  Large  round-leaved,  broad- 
leaved  Savoy,  Holland.  The  New 
Zealand,  which  is  a  superior  vegeta- 
ble, is  very  large  and  running :  it  is 
the  Tetragnna  expansa.  The  seeds 
are  planted  in  hills  six  feet  apart, 
three  to  the  hill,  in  May  ;  twenty  hills 
supply  a  family. 

748 


SPI 

"  The  soil  requires  to  be  rich  to  pro- ; 
(luce  larjfc,  tine  leaves,  though  spin- 
ach will  grow  even  in  the  poorest 
soil,  if  well  manured.  The  time  of 
sowing  for  a  winter  crop,  to  come  in 
from  iMurch  till  May,  is  from  the  mid- 
dle of  August  to  tlic  8th  of  Septem- 
ber ;  but  if  frost  occurs  soon  after  the 
latter  sowing,  it  will  seldom  survive 
the  winter.  For  a  summer  crop,  to 
come  in  after  the  winter  crop  has  run 
to  seed,  tlie  end  of  April  is  the  prop- 
er time ;  though,  if  an  August  sowing 
have  been  neglected,  seed  may  be 
sown  in  the  end  of  February  or  even 
in  January,  ^^'hen  sown  in  June  and 
July,  it  will  run  rapidly  to  seed. 

"  The  sorts  are  the  prickly-seeded, 
or,  what  is  better,  the  Holland,  for  the 
August  sowing,  and  the  round-leaved 
for  spring. 

"  For  a  bed  five  feet  wide  and 
twelve  feet  long,  an  ounce  of  seed 
will  be  enough,  or  half  an  ounce  for 
the  same  space  drilled. 

"  Sow  thinly  broad-cast  in  a  finely- 
dug  bed,  or,  rather,  in  very  shallow 
drills  six  or  eight  inches  apart ;  or, 
as  some  prefer,  double  that  distance, 
with  rows  of  radishes  or  lettuce  be- 
tween, treading  it  well  before  raking. 
The  earth  over  the  seed  should  not 
exceed  the  third  of  an  inch,  for  if 
much  thicker,  the  seed  will  be  lost. 

"  Sparrows  and  other  birds,  if  not 
prevented,  will  endeavour  to  purloin 
the  whole  sowing,  as  has  frequently 
occurred  within  our  knowledge  ;  and 
when  the  young  plants  come  up,  pi- 
geons, if  they  get  at  them,  will  devour 
the  whole.  Careful  weeding  and  hoe- 
ing up  the  earth,  so  as  not  to  choke 
the  hearts  of  the  plants,  are  indispen- 
sable. Thinning  also  must  be  duly 
attended  to,  and  the  plants  should  be 
left  three  or  four  inches  apart.  If  a 
few  plants  of  the  winter  or  spring 
crops  are  allowed  to  remain,  they  will 
produce  an  abundance  of  seed,  which 
should  be  protected  from  birds.  For 
summer  crops,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
sow  the  seed  in  drills,  between  the 
rows  of  pease,  as  the  latter  will  af- 
ford it  shelter  and  shade,  and  assist 
much  in  preventing  it  from  running 
to  seed  ;  besides  which,  the  ground 
744 


SPI 

will  thus  be  better  and  more  profita- 
bly occupied. 

"While  licet  of  the  curled  sort,  and 
several  wild  plants  and  weeds,  such 
as  Good  King  Henry,  goosefoot,  or 
niylcs,  yield  leaves  little  inferior  to 
spinach." 

SPINDLE.  The  axis  of  a  wheel 
or  roller. 

SPINDLE-SHAPED,  FUSI- 
FORM. Roots  are  so  called  which 
taper  at  both  ends,  as  the  radish. 

SPINDLE-TREE.  Euomjmus  Eu- 
ropaus.  A  small  tree  or  shrub,  the 
wood  of  which  is  extremely  hard,  and 
used  for  spindles.  It  is  improperly 
called  strawberry-tree  by  some  nur- 
sery men. 

SPINDLE  WORM.  The  caterpil- 
lar which  destroys  the  young  ear  of 
corn,  Gorlyna  Zecc  of  Harris  :  they 
make  known  their  presence  by  leav- 
ing a  small  hole  on  the  shuck,  and 
should  be  destroyed  when  found,  as 
they  hinder  the  formation  of  the  ear. 
See  Corn,  Diseases  of.  The  moth  is 
thus  described  by  Dr.  Harris  : 

"  The  fore  wings  are  rust-red ;  they 
are  mottled  with  gray,  almost  in 
bands,  uniting  with  the  ordinary  spots, 
which  are  also  gray  and  indistinct ; 
there  is  an  irregular  tawny  spot  near 
the  tip,  and  on  the  veins  there  are  a 
few  black  dots.  The  hind  wings  are 
yellowish-gray,  with  a  central  dusky 
spot,  behind  which  are  two  faint, 
dusky  bands.  The  head  and  thorax 
are  rust-red,  with  an  elevated  tawny 
tuft  on  each.  The  abdomen  is  pale- 
brown,  with  a  row  of  tawny  tufts  on 
the  back.  The  wings  expand  nearly 
one  inch  and  a  half" 

SPINE.  The  vertebrated  column 
of  quadrupeds.  It  is  composed  of 
forty  or  more  pieces,  or  vertebra',  ar- 
ticulated by  cartilage  ;  through  these 
runs  the  spinal  marrow,  or  pith, 
which  sends  ofl"at  every  bone  a  pair 
of  spinal  nerves,  which  distribute  the 
sensation  of  touch  and  the  power  of 
movement  to  the  skin  and  muscles, 
over  which  they  are  distributed. 

SPINES.  In  botany,  imperfect 
branches.  ■• 

SPIRACLES,  The  breathing  open- 
ings or  pores  of  insects. 


SPR 


SPU 


SPIRAL  VESSELS.  In  plants, 
elongated  cellules,  which  contain  a 
delicato  internal  thread,  spirally 
wound,  and  capable  of  being  drawn 
out. 

SPIRIT.  A  distilled  alcoholic 
product. 

SPIT  OF  EARTH.  A  spadeful, 
as  dug  from  the  soil. 

SPLANCHNOLOGY  (from  aT?.ay- 
vov,  an  enlrail).  An  account  of  the 
viscera. 

SPLAYED.  In  building,  an  angle 
cut  off  obliquely. 

SPLEEN.  "A  spongy  viscus,  of 
an  oval  form,  the  use  of  which  is  un- 
known ;  placed  in  the  human  subject 
in  the  left  hypochondrium,  between 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  false  ribs." 

S  P  L  I  N  T.  ••  In  farriery,  a  hard 
excrescence  growing  on  the  shank 
bnnes  of  horses.  It  appears  first  in 
the  form  of  a  callous  tumour,  and 
afterward  ossifies.  If  the  splint  in- 
terfere with  the  action  of  some  ten- 
don or  ligament,  the  hair  should  be 
removed,  a  little  strong  mercurial 
ointment  be  rubbed  in  for  two  days, 
and  then  an  active  blister  applied.'' 
Also,  a  thin  board  of  a  suitable  fig- 
ure, or  pasteboard,  to  sustain  a  bro- 
ken limb. 

SPONGIOLE.  The  small  spongy 
extremity  of  the  rootlets. 

SPORADIC.  Springing  up  singly, 
or  in  small  numbers.  Diseases  are 
sporadic  which  are  not  epidemic  or 
endemic. 

SPORANGIUM.  The  case  or  re- 
ceptacle containing  the  spores. 

SPORIDIA.  The  covering  of  the 
spores,  the  spore-like  bodies  of  algae. 

SPORULES,  or  SPORES.  The 
minute,  simple,  reproductive  grains 
of  cryptogamic  plants. 

SPRINGS.  Natural  fountains  of 
water,  formed  whereverthe  rain,  fall- 
ing on  a  pervious  bed,  is  interrupted 
b/an  impervious  stratum  of  clay  or 
rock.     See  Drainage. 

SPRAY.  The  young  branches  or 
twigs  of  trees. 

SPRUCE  PINE.  Pinus  Canaden- 
sis. Hemlock  pine,  a  handsome  ever- 
green tree,  with  excellent  wood.  It 
is  common   in   New-York  and  the 

R   R    R 


Eastern  States.  The  bark  is  used  for 
tanning. 

SPUD.  "  An  implement  used  ad- 
vantageously in  cutting  up  weeds. 
It  consists  of  a  chisel-formed  tool, 
about  two  inches  wide  on  the  cutting 
edge,  inserted  into  a  handle  of  some 
four  or  six  feet  in  length.  It  is  often 
made  use  of  by  the  farmer  as  a  use- 
ful substitute  for  the  walking-cane, 
affording  an  opportunity  of  destroy- 
ing weeds  with  the  utmost  facility 
while  walking  over  his  grounds." 

SPUR.  The  short,  fruit-bearing 
branches  of  apples  and  pears.  The 
hind  toe  of  gallinaceous  birds.  A 
well-known  implement  used  by  horse- 
men. In  botany,  an  elongated  ap- 
pendage of  the  corolla. 

SPURRED  RYE.  Ergotted  rye. 
See  Ersot. 

SPURGE.  The  genus  Euphorbia^ 
the  juice  of  which  is  usually  acrid. 
Many  species  are  highly  ornamental. 
The  unripe  fruit  of  the  E.  lathyris  is 
used  as  a  pickle. 

SPURGE  LAUREL.  Daphne  lau- 
rcola.  A  shrub  of  the  same  genus  as 
the  Mczereoa. 

SPUR  OF  RYE.   Ergot.    See  Rye. 

SPURRY.  Spcrgula  arveusis  {fig.). 
Corn  spurrv,  an  indigenous  annual, 


growing  in  sandy  wheat  and  grain 
fields.  It  may  be  cultivated  on  the 
poorest  soils,  and  is  so  quick  of 
growth  and  short  of  duration,  that  it 
is  often  made  to  take  an  intermediate 
place  between  the  harvest  and  the 
spring  sowing,  without  any  strict  ad- 
herence to  the  regularity  of  sucres- 
i  sion.  It  is  sown  sometimes  in  the 
746 


SQU 

sprinj:,  but  in  general  in  the  autumn, 
iuuncdiatcly  alter  liarvcstiiiy  the  corn 
crops.  One  light  ploiigliing  is  sutli- 
cient,  and  as  the  grain  is  very  small, 
it  is  but  very  lightly  covered.  About 
twenty-four  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre  is  the  usual  quantity.  Its  growth 
is  so  rapid  that  m  tive  or  six  weeks 
it  acquires  its  full  height,  w^hich  sel- 
dom exceeds  twelve  or  fourteen  inch- 
es. The  crop  is  of  course  a  light 
one,  hut  is  considered  of  great  value, 
both  as  supplying  a  certam  quantum 
of  j)rovender  at  very  little  cost,  and 
as  being  the  best  food  for  milch  cows 
to  improve  the  quality  of  the  butter. 
It  lasts  till  the  frost  sets  in,  and  is 
usually  fed  off  by  milch  cows  tether- 
ed on  it,  but  is  sometnnes  cut  and 
carried  to  the  stalls. 

Where  spurry  is  sown  in  spring, 
the  crop  is  occasionally  made  into 
hay  ;  but  from  the  watery  nature  of 
the  plant,  it  shrinks  very  much  in 
bulk,  and,  upon  the  whole,  is  much 
more  advantageously  consumed  in 
the  other  manner.  It  is  indigenous 
in  Flanders  ;  and,  except  when  culti- 
vated, is  looked  on  as  a  weed,  as  in 
this  country. 

Von  Thaer  considers  it  the  most 
nutritious  herb  of  any,  but  the  crop 
is  too  small.  Crome  makes  the  fresh 
plants  to  consist  of  water,  710; 
starch,  sugar,  and  gum,  75  ;  albu- 
men, 2  3  ;  woody  fibre,  120  percent. 

SQUAMA.  A  scale  :  rudimentary 
scale,  like  leaves  or  other  parts  of 
a  plant.  Squamous  is  scaly,  or  scale- 
like. 

SQUARROUS.  Ragged  in  appear- 
ance. 

SQUASH.  Cucurbita  melopepa  is 
the  simbling  or  round  squash  ;  C. 
verrucosa,  wharty  squash  ;  the  vege- 
table marrow,  C.  succado.  Varieties  : 
Early  orange,  early  bush  scollop, 
green-striped  bush,  early  crookneck, 
large  cushaw,  vegetable  or  autumn 
marrow,  Canada  or  winter  crook- 
neck,  Lima  cocoanut,  acorn  or  Cal- 
ifornia, and  Valparaiso.  Of  these, 
the  early  orange  and  autumn  marrow 
are  best  for  the  table  ;  the  Valparai- 
so, which  sometimes  becomes  up- 
ward of  100  lbs.  weight,  is  also  ex- 
746 


STA 

cellent  for  the  table  and  a  crop.  The 
Canada  or  winter  crookneck  keeps 
well  through  winter,  and  is  good  for 
a  crop  for  cattle.  The  culture  is  the 
same  as  for  the  cucumber  and  melon, 
the  hills  being  from  six  to  ten  feet, 
according  to  the  variety.  They  should 
be  well  aired  and  dry  before  being 
put  away  for  winter,  and  should  be 
placed  on  straw  or  shelves,  and  not 
allowed  to  press  on  each  other. 

SQUASH  BUG.  Coreus  trislis. 
See  Cucumber. 

SQUEAKERS.  Pigeons  under  six 
months  old. 

SQUILL.  The  genus  Scilla.  Bul- 
bous plants  with  handsome  flowers 
like  the  hyacinth.  The  root  of  S. 
i7taritima,  a  native  of  the  sandy  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  is  an  excellent 
medicine  in  diseases  of  the  throat 
and  chest ;  it  is  also  diuretic. 

STABLE.  The  building  in  which 
horses  are  lodged.  It  should  be  well 
ventilated  and  often  cleaned,  the 
urine  and  dung  being  collected  into  a 
suitable  tank,  or  charcoal  and  gyp- 
sum should  be  spread  on  the  floor  to 
catch  the  urine  and  improve  the  air. 
The  following  account  of  stable  man- 
agement is  from  the  "  British  Hus- 
bandry ;" 

"  Notwithstanding  that  the  cost  of 
horses  forms  a  prominent  item  in  the 
farmer's  outlay,  there  is  frequently 
no  part  of  his  live-stock,  nor  any 
branch  of  his  business,  either  so  ill 
understood  or  so  much  neglected  as 
stable  management.  Let  any  one  look 
into  the  low-roofed,  narrow,  dark,  and 
unstalled  building  in  which  teams  are 
often  huddled  together  in  some  of  the 
old  homesteads,  and  the  fumes  arising 
from  stagnant  urine  lying  upon  the 
uneven  pavement,  as  well  as  from 
accumulated  heaps  of  fermenting  lit- 
ter, and  he  must  be  convinced  that  it 
is  a  place  as  noxious  to  health  as  the 
cobwebbed  rafters,  the  unwhitewash- 
ed  walls,  and  the  confusion  of  the 
harness  and  utensils,  show  it  to  be 
devoid  of  neatness  and  order.  Let 
him  examine  the  horses,  and  he  will 
find  that,  although  perhaps  sleek  from 
good  feedmg,  their  coats  are  foul  and 
their  heels  greasy.     Instead  of  e.\- 


STABLE. 


hibitingthe  sprightly  appearance  indi-  I 
cuted  by  animals  that  have  been  com-  j 
fortably  bedded,  their  heavy  eyes  and  \ 
sluggish  appearance  distinctly  mark 
the  state  ol  the  stable  tbey  have  quit- 
ted.    But  tliuugh  this  description  is 
strictly  applii"al)le  to  many  stables,  it 
must  yet  be  admitted  that  those  on 
most  farms  of  magnitude  wear  a  very 
different  appearance. 

"  A  stable  for  farm  horses  need  not 
be  rigged  out  like  one  for  hunters ;  but 
it  should  be  roomy,  clean,  and  well 
ventilated,  and  everything  belonging 
to  it  should  be  kept  in  its  proper  place. 
Neither  is  it  necessary  that  it  should 
he  completely  stalled  :  team  cattle  are 
generally  quiet ;  if  vicious,  they  should 
be  got  rid  of  A  pair  of  horses, 
worked  together,  will  stand  and  feed 
together  quite  as  conveniently  as  in 
sejjarate  stalls,  if  allowed  sufficient 
room,  and  two  in  one  stall  are  more 
convenient  to  the  carter.  Horses 
gather  their  feet  under  them  ;  and  5 
feet,  or  4^  feet  if  the  cattle  be  not 
large,  are  sufficient  width  for  the  fore 
quarter.  A  division  between  each 
pair  is,  however,  desirable ;  but  a 
strong  post  and  rail  will  be  sufficient, 
without  close  boarding,  provided  a 
partition  be  made  about  four  feet 
long,  and  extending  from  thence  up- 
ward at  least  the  full  depth  of  the 
manger,  so  as  to  enclose  both  that 
and  the  rack.  Horses,  however, 
sometimes  acquire  a  habit  of  not  ly- 
ing down  at  all  in  the  stable,  if  they 
be  not  very  conveniently  lodged; 
and  as  this  cannot  but  prove  highly 
prej  udicial  to  their  health,  they  should, 
in  such  cases,  be  accommodated  with 
roomy  single  stalls,  or  else  turned 
out  under  a  loose  shed.  Double 
stables,  in  which  horses  stand  heel 
to  heel,  are  objectionable  ;  and  hay 
is  better  when  cut  fresh  daily  from 
the  stack,  as  well  as  more  economi- 
cally used,  than  when  kept  in  lofts. 
Corner  racks  are  preferable  to  those 
which  extend  along  the  front ;  and 
if  bars  be  nailed  across  the  manger, 
at  about  a  foot  distance  from  each 
other,  they  will  prevent  the  horses 
from  throwing  out  their  food,  which 
tbey  are  apt  to  do,  in  search  of  the 


corn,  when  it  is  mixed  with  chafT,  as 
well  as  when  they  have  filled  them- 
selves. Every  kind  of  food  should, 
also,  be  administered  in  small  (juanti- 
ties  at  a  time  ;  when  manger  meal  is 

'  given,  and  even  when  racked  up  for 
the  night,  the  provender  should  be 
served  out  s[)aringly.  A  cart  horse, 
fed  on  dry  food,  will  require  from  two 

I  to  three  hours  to  consume  his  morning 
feed  ;  the  men  should  therefore  be 
early  in  the  stable,  and  all  food  should 
be  punctually  given  at  stated  hours. 
Regularity  should  also  be  observed  in 
the  hours  of  their  work.  A  farm 
horse  can  well  support  ten  hours'  la- 

I  hour  in  the  day,  provided  he  be  not 
hurried,  and  the  time  be  divided  into 

'  two  equal  periods,  with  a  rest  of  at 
least  two  or  three  hours  between.  In 
the  short  days  of  winter,  when  that 
cannot  be  allowed,  the  time  may  be 
prolonged  to  six  or  even  seven  hours, 
but  ought   never  to  extend  beyond 

I  eight,  with  a  short  bait. 

"  Care  is  also  requisite  in  watering 
horses  in  the  stable  ;  and  it  should 

';  never  be  given  either  immediately  be- 
fore or  after  their  corn,  unless  they 
first  eat  some  hay.  On  the  road 
they  may  be  watered  moderately,  and 
then  put  gently  into  motion,  instead 
of  allowing  them  to  stand  at  an  ale- 
house door  while  the  carter  refreshes 
himself  Some  persons  imagine  that 
hard  spring  water  is  the  most  whole- 
some for  cattle,  but  horses  invariably 
prefer  it  soft. 

"  Farm  stables  are  merely  intended 
to  protect  the  cattle  from  the  weather, 
for,  being  much  exposed  to  changes 
of  the  temperature,  they  should  nev- 
er be  kept  hot ;  and  as  fresh  air  is 
an  essential  element  of  health,  the 
windows  should  be  merely  latticed, 
like  those  in  granaries  ;  and  two  or 
three  wooden  funnels,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  stable,  should  be  in- 
serted from  the  ceiling  through  the 
roof,  thus  forming  so  many  chimneys 
for  the  escape  of  foul  vapours.  The 
floors  of  all  stables  should  be  paved 
with  either  clinkers  or  table-stones, 
laid  close  and  even,  and  well  bedded 
under  the  foundation,  as  otherwise  a 
portion  of  the  urine  will  be  absorbed 
74T 


STABLE. 


by  the  soil,  and  will  emit  a  nauseous  ' 
and  unwholesome  exiialation.     The 
floor  should  be  slightly  raised  at  the 
front  of  the  stalls,  but  the  slope  should  ; 
not  exceed  three   inches,   and   that 
should  be  provided  for  by  raising  the  ; 
litter  behind  them,  or  they  wdl  stand  i 
in  an   uneasy   position.     The  doors 
would  be  more  conveniently  placed  ! 
at  one  end  of  the  stable  than  in  the 
side,  as  the  dung  will  be  more  easily  ; 
removed,  and  a  free  passage  mi-iy  be  : 
allowed  to  the  urine  by  a  gentle  slant 
in  the  gutter  of  the  pavement  at  their 
feet,  which  may  then  be  convenient- 
ly carried  ofl' by  a  drain. 

"  Some   very    intelligent    farmers 
keep  their   teams   entirely  in  open  , 
yards,  or  hammels,  surrounded  with 
well  littered  sheds  for  them  to  run  , 
under  at  pleasure  ;    and  experience  ; 
has  proved  that,  in  this  manner,  their 
health  may  be  maintained  as  well,  if 
not  better  than  in  stables.     Such  a 
yard   does  for  the   whole  year — for 
summer  soiling  and  wmter  feeding —  ' 
but  it  is  attended  with  the  inconve- 
nience of  exposing  them  to  accidents 
when  many  are  thus  together ;  nei- 
ther can  their  food  be  so  equally  di- 
vided, nor  can  they  be  kept  equally 
clean.  i 

"  Carters  think  it  no  harm  to  pilfer 
corn  to   pamper  their  teams ;    they 
have  no  idea  of  any  better  mode  of 
feeding  than  to  cram  them  to  the  ut- 
most, and,  if  allowed  the  free  use  of 
hay,  they  will  not  only  waste  it,  but, 
out  of  mistaken  kindness,  do  the  ani- 
mals serious  injury  by  overloading 
their  stomachs.      On  every  consid- 
eration, therefore,  of  health  and  econ- 
omy,   they    should    be    allowanced.  ' 
The  chatr,  as  well  as  the  corn,  should 
be  weighed  or  measured,  and  if  hay 
be  given  in  the  racks,  it  should  be  ! 
bound,  and  given  out  in  trusses  :  the 
expense  of  binding  will  be  more  than 
repaid  by  the  saving  in  consumption. 
Marshall  has  justly  observed,  in  his 
Minutes  of  Agriculture,  that,  by  stint- 
ing  the   quantity,  the  men   become 
more  careful ;  they  look  upon  it  as  ' 
something,  and  know  that  if  they  lav-  j 
ish  to-day  they  will  want  to-morrow-; 
thus   the  servant   learns   frugality,  | 
748 


while  his  cattle  have  their  food  reg- 
ularly ;  he  will  give  them  a  little  at 
a  time,  and  see  that  they  eat  it  up 
clean.  There  is  a  sympathy  between 
the  human  and  the  brute  creation, 
arising  from  acquaintance,  which  is 
more  easily  observed  than  communi- 
cated. There  are  carters  who  would 
sooner  starve  themselves  than  their 
horses,  and  among  stock-feeders  in 
general  it  is  obvious  to  common  ob- 
servation ;  though  this  kindness  does 
not  extend  equally  to  the  bestowal 
of  their  labour,  and,  from  habit,  as 
well  as  idleness,  they  are  very  gen- 
erally neglectful  of  the  essential  du- 
ties of  cleanliness.  Much  of  this 
must,  however,  be  attributed  to  their 
masters,  who  too  commonly  treat 
them  as  men  not  to  be  trusted,  and 
suspicion  naturally  begets  deceit. 
There  is,  consequently,  but  little  sym- 
pathy existing  between  them  ;  but 
when  servants  are  used  with  kind- 
ness, they  often  return  it  with  inter- 
est, and  devote  themselves  with  sin- 
cerity to  the  service  of  their  em- 
ployer. 

"  Condition  is  a  word  of  large 
meaning  in  the  stable  of  a  gentleman  ; 
in  that  of  a  farmer,  whose  horses 
should  be  kept  more  for  work  than 
for  show,  it  should  be  understood  to 
mean  a  sufficiency  of  wholesome 
food,  evidenced  by  a  healthy,  mellow, 
clean-skinned  hide,  without  much 
fat,  a  lively  eye,  and  a  general  ap- 
pearance of  health.  Common  work- 
ing horses  require  but  little  groom- 
ing ;  yet  their  coats  should  be  kept 
clear  of  scurf,  and  their  feet  should 
be  well  attended  to.  The  rough  hair 
which  encumbers  their  fetlocks  is 
useful  in  some  countries  as  a  protec- 
tion against  flints,  but  a  much  less 
quantity  would  serve  that  purpose, 
and  when  allowed  to  remain  clog- 
ged with  dirt,  it  engenders  grease. 
Through  a  very  unwise  economy  of 
some  masters,  the  shoes,  too,  are 
seldom  removed  until  they  are  either 
completely  worn  or  broken,  by  which 
much  injury  is  done  to  the  hoof; 
their  shoulders  are  galled  by  want  of 
timely  attention  to  the  state  of  the 
collars,  and  tinae  is  contmually  lost 


STABLE. 


by  the  breaking  and  patching  of  the 
harness.  In  all  these  cases,  preven- 
tion is  better  than  cure  ;  and,  besides 
the  established  regulation  of  remo- 
ving the  dung  and  '  setting  the  stable 
fair'  every  morning,  as  well  as  see- 
ing that  each  horse  be  thoroughly  dry 
and  clean,  his  feet  washed,  and  occa- 
sionally oiled  and  stopped,  before 
'  making  up  for  the  night,'  it  would  be 
a  good  rule  to  have  a  regular  inspec- 
tion of  the  cattle,  harness,  and  imple- 
ments, once  every  week,  even  were 
a  portion  of  the  Saturday  evening's 
usual  work  devoted  to  that  ])urposc. 
'•  Shucing. — Although  tlie  better 
class  of  veterinary  surgeons  are  men 
of  education,  it  is  yet  to  be  regretted 
that  the  common  run  of  farriers  are 
of  a  very  different  description,  who, 
though  usually  employed  in  common 
cases,  yet  should  never  be  intrusted 
in  one  that  incurs  danger.  They, 
however,  are  generally  handy  work- 
men, and  possessed   of  knowledge 


and  observation  sufficient  to  shoe  a 
horse  with  propriety,  though  it  is  oft- 
en an  operation  which  requires  con- 
siderable delicacy,  and,  in  the  com- 
monest case,  should  never  be  confi- 
ded to  a  man  who  is  not  perfectly 
master  of  his  business.  Though  usu- 
ally executed  through  the  general  do- 
cility of  the  animals,  without  any  ex- 
traordinary difficulty,  yet  there  is  no 
one  who  has  not  witnessed  repeated 
instances  of  accidents  to  both  men 
and  horses,  through  the  violence  or 
the  imperfect  performance  of  the  op- 
eration, through  the  unsteadiness  of 
the  latter ;  and  it  even  sometimes 
becomes  necessary  to  cast  them,  in 
order  to  avoid  danger,  from  the  want 
of  a  proper  machine  for  the  purpose 
of  security. 

"  This  difficulty  may,  however,  be 
avoided  by  the  adoption  of  the  Flem- 
ish forge,  which  is  in  general  use 
throughout  the  Low  Countries,  and 
consists  of  strong  posts  and  rails,  by 


R  R  R  S 


749 


STACK. 


which  the  horses  are  confined  in  a 
very  simple  apparatus,  whinh  may  be 
easily  erected,  and  which  we  partly 
copy  from  one  of  the  plates  in  the 
work  of  Count  Lasteyrie  on  agricul- 
tural implements." 

STACK.  A  regular  structure  of 
hay,  oats,  wheat,  or  other  produce, 
for  their  storage  and  preservation. 

"  Stands  are  requisite  fi.xtures  of  the 
stack-yard  :  they  are  basements  of 
timber,  or  masonry,  or  sometimes  of 
iron,  on  which  to  build  the  stack,  and 
their  object  is  to  keep  the  lower  part 
of  the  stack  dry  and  exclude  ver- 
min. The  usual  mode  of  constructing 
stands  is  to  place  a  stout  frame  of 
timber  on  upright  stones,  two  feet 
high,  and  having  projecting  caps  of 
flat  stones.  They  are  also  construct- 
ed wholly  of  stone,  with  circular  or 
polygonal  walls  {Fig.  1,  a,  b),  built  to 
Fig.  1. 


the  same  height  as  in  the  former  case, 
in  a  rather  slanting  manner  outward, 
and  covered  on  the  tops  with  copings 
of  oak  planking,  or  flat  stones,  which 
project  over  the  edges  several  inches, 
and  in  that  way  prevent  the  ascent 
of  rats  and  mice  to  the  stacks.  In 
both  these  modes,  pieces  of  timber 
are  placed  as  a  frame  in  the  middle 
to  support  the  grain  upon,  and  gener- 
ally a  cone  of  spars  in  the  centre,  to 
form  a  column  of  air  in  the  heart  of 
the  corn.  Some  suppose  the  first  of 
these  sorts  of  corn  stands  to  be  the 
best  for  general  purposes,  as  being 
more  easily  as  well  as  more  cheaply 
constructed,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
permitting  the  air  to  enter  and  circu- 
late with  more  freedom  underneath, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  stand,  which  is 
of  much  advantage.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  form  of  these  stands  or  base- 
ments must  vary  according  to  that  in 
which  the  stacks  are  to  be  made, 
which  is  different  in  different  dis- 
750 


tricts.  But  wherever  the  thrashing 
machine  is  introduced,  the  circular 
base,  as  producing  a  stack  of  a  mod- 
erate size,  with  other  advantages,  is 
generally  preferred.  But  cast-iron 
stands  {Fig.  2),  with  or  without  fun- 
Fig.  2. 


nels,  are  found  preferable,  and  admit 
of  stacking  the  corn  somewhat  ear- 
lier. The  pillars  of  these  stands  are 
three  feet  high,  and  weigh  half  a  hun- 
dred each.  A  stack  requires  s€ven 
pillars,  besides  the  framing,  which 
may  either  be  made  of  poles  or  young 
trees.  In  the  wet  climate  of  Clack- 
mannanshire, wheat  has  been  stack- 
ed in  five  days,  beans  in  eight,  and 
barley  and  oats  in  ten  days,  and  some- 
times earlier.  No  vermin  can  find 
their  way  into  these  stacks  to  con- 
sume the  grain,  and  the  straw  is  bet- 
ter preserved.  The  cone  or  triangle 
keeps  up  a  circulation  of  air,  and  pre- 
vents heating  or  other  damage. 

"  The  stack-yard,  or  enclosure, 
within  which  corn,  hay,  &c.,  are 
stacked,  is  placed  exterior  to  that  side 
of  the  building  which  contains  the 
barn.  Stack-yards  should  always  be 
sufficiently  spacious  and  airy,  having 
a  firm,  dry  bottom  ;  and  some  advise 
them  to  be  ridged  up  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  surface  water ;  as 
by  raising  the  ridges  pretty  well  in 
the  middle,  and  covering  the  places 
where  the  stacks  are  to  be  built,  ei- 
ther with  rough  stones,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  gravel,  or  with  pavement  in 
the  same  manner  as  streets,  much 
advantage  would  be  gained  at  little 


STACK. 


expense  ;  but  a  much  bettor  method 
is  to  have  them  raised  considerably 
above  tbe  surface,  and  placed  upon 
pillars  of  wood  or  stone,  with  a  cov- 
ering of  wood  round  the  circumfe- 
rence, and  beams  laid  across.  The 
enclosing  of  stack-yards  should  be 
well  performed,  either  by  means  of 
walls  or  palings,  or,  better,  with  a  sunk 
fence  ;  as  in  this  way  the  stacks  will 
have  the  full  benefit  of  the  air  from 
top  to  bottom,  a  circumstance  of  no 
small  moment,  since  il  is  ollen  found, 
especially  in  wet  seasons,  where  the 
fence  of  the  stack-yards  is  only  a  low 
wall,  that  the  whole  of  the  stacks  are 
damaged  or  spoiled  as  high  up  as  the 
wall  reaches,  while  the  upper  part  is 
perfectly  safe.  Should  any  addition 
be  required  to  the  sunk  fence,  a  rail- 
ing upon  the  top  may  be  quite  suffi- 
cient. This  fully  sliows  the  vast  ad- 
vantage of  having  stack-yards  suffi- 
ciently airy.  The  proper  arrange- 
ment of  the  stands,  for  their  being 
removed  to  the  thrashing-mill,  is  also 
a  matter  of  much  consequence  in  the 
economy  of  the  work  that  is  to  be 
performed  in  them. 

"  The  proper  size  of  the  hay  stack 
should  probably  be  different  in  some 
degree,  according  to  the  state  and  na- 
ture of  the  hay  ;  but  a  middling  size 
is  perhaps  the  best,  say  from  twenty 
to  thirty  loads  of  about  one  ton  each, 
as  there  are  inconveniences  in  both 
small  and  large  stacks,  the  former 
having  too  much  outside,  while  the 
latter  are  liable  to  take  on  too  much 
heat,  and,  at  the  same  time,  permit 
less  moisture  to  be  preserved  in  the 
hay.  In  small  stacks,  the  bellying 
forms,  with  very  narrow  bottoms, 
have  often  much  advantage,  and  are, 
in  some  districts,  termed  sheep 
stacks,  probably  from  the  slovenly 
practice  of  sheep  having  been  per- 
mitted to  feed  at  them. 

"  In  building  every  description  of 
stack,  the  stem,  or  body,  should  be  so 
formed  as  to  swell  gradually  out- 
ward, quite  up  to  the  part  termed  the 
eaves  ;  as  by  this  method  it  is  more 
perfectly  secured  against  the  en- 
trance of  moisture,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  requires  a  less  space  of  stand 


to  rest  upon  ;  and,  when  the  building 
of  them  is  well  performed,  they  have 
equal  solidity,  and  stand  in  as  firm  a 
manner. 

"  The  stem  should  contain  about 
two  thirds,  and  the  roof  one  third,  of 
the  wiiole  stack.  If  it  be  built  on  a 
frame,  the  stem  should  contain  less 
and  the  roof  more  ;  if  on  a  bottom, 
the  reverse.  The  corners  of  the 
stem  should  not  be  built  too  sharp, 
but  should  be  carried  up  rather  round- 
ish, by  which  the  sides  will  look  full- 
er, and  the  swell  given  by  the  press- 
ure will  be  more  perceptible. 

"  The  ends  of  the  roof  should  have 
a  gentle  projection,  answerable  to 
the  stem  ;  and  the  sides  should  be 
carried  up  rather  convex  than  flat  or 
concave.  Perhaps  a  roof  gently  con- 
vex shoots  otr  the  rains  better  than 
any  other. 

"  Where  grain  is  stacked  that  has 
not  been  sheaved,  and  in  building 
hay  stacks,  it  is  the  usual  practice  to 
have  a  number  of  persons  upon  the 
stack,  the  corn  or  hay  being  forked 
up  and  deposited  on  the  different 
sides  all  round  in  a  similar  method  ; 
after  this,  other  parcels  are  laid  all 
round  on  the  inside  of  these,  so  as  to 
bind  them  in  a  secure  manner  from 
slipping  outward,  the  operator  pro- 
ceeding in  the  same  manner  till  the 
whole  of  the  middle  space  is  perfect- 
ly filled  up,  when  he  begins  another 
course  in  the  same  method,  and  goes 
on  in  this  mode,  with  course  after 
course,  till  he  has  raised  the  whole 
of  the  stem,  when  he  begins  to  take 
in  for  the  roof,  in  a  very  gradual  man- 
ner, in  every  succeeding  course,  un- 
til the  whole  is  brought  to  a  ridge  or 
point,  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  stack  is  formed.  But  for 
the  purpose  that  the  roofs  may  throw 
off  the  water  in  a  more  perfect  and 
effectual  manner,  they  should  be 
made  so  as  to  have  a  slight  degree 
of  fulness  or  swell  about  the  middle 
of  them,  and  not  be  made  flat,  as  is 
too  frequently  the  practice  with  in- 
different builders  of  stacks. 

"  In  stacking,  where  the  grain  is 
bound  into  sheaves,  there  is  seldom 
more  than  one  person  employed  in 
751 


STACK. 


managing  the  work  of  building  the 
staclt,  except  in  cases  where  the  di- 
mensions are  very  consideral)le,  m 
which  case  it  is  found  necessary  to 
have  a  boy  to  receive  the  sheaves 
from  the  pitcher  and  hand  them  to 
the  man  wlio  builds  the  stack.  In 
executing  the  work,  it  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance  that  the  centre  of 
the  stack  be  constantly  kept  in  a 
somewhat  raised  state  above  the 
sides,  as  the  sheaves  have  thus  a 
sloping  direction  outwards  by  which 
the  entrance  of  moisture  is  more  ef- 
fectually guarded  against  and  pre- 
vented. To  accomplish  this  in  the 
most  perfect  manner,  the  workman 
begins  in  the  middle  of  the  stand  or 
staddle,  setting  the  sheaves  together 
so  that  they  may  incline  a  little 
against  each  other,  placing  the  rest 
in  successive  rows  against  them  till 
0  he  comes  to  the  outside,  when  he  car- 
ries a  course  of  sheaves  quite  round, 
in  a  more  sloping  manner  than  in  the 
preceding  courses.  The  bottom  of 
the  stack  being  formed  in  this  way, 
it  is  afterward  usual  to  begin  at  the 
outside,  and  advance  with  different 
courses  round  the  whole,  placing 
each  course  a  little  within  the  other, 
so  as  to  bind  them  in  an  exact  and 
careful  manner,  till  the  stacker  comes 
to  the  middle.  All  the  different  cours- 
es are  to  be  laid  on  in  a  similar  manner 
until  the  whole  of  the  stem  is  raised 
and  completed,  when  the  last  outside 
row  of  sheaves  is,  in  most  cases, 
placed  a  very  little  more  out  than  the 
others,  in  order  to  form  a  sort  of  pro- 
jection for  the  eaves,  that  the  water 
may  be  thrown  ofi'  more  effectually. 
But  in  cases  where  the  stems  of  the 
stacks  are  formed  so  as  to  project 
outward  in  the  manner  already  no- 
ticed, this  may  be  omitted  without 
any  bad  consequences,  as  the  water 
will  be  thrown  off  easily  without 
touching  the  waste  of  the  stack.  The 
roof  is  to  be  formed  by  placing  the 
sheaves  gradually  a  little  more  in  and 
in,  in  every  course,  until  it  comes  to 
a  ridge,  or  point,  according  to  the 
form  of  the  stack,  as  has  been  al- 
ready observed.  But  in  forming  and 
constructing  this  part  of  the  stack, 
752 


great  care  should  constantly  be  taken 
to  give  the  ear  ends  of  the  sheaves  a 
sufficiently  sloping  direction  upward, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  the  better 
secured  from  wetness  ;  and  to  the 
outside  should  be  given  a  rounded 
form,  in  the  manner  that  has  been 
already  noticed. 

"  A  funnel  or  chimney  is  frequent- 
ly formed  or  left  in  circular  stacks, 
especially  in  wet  districts,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  taking  on  too  much 
heat :  where  these  funnels  are  not 
formed  with  the  basement  of  timber, 
iron,  or  masonry,  they  are  produced 
by  tying  a  sheaf  up  in  a  very  tight 
manner,  and  placing  it  in  the  middle, 
on  the  foundation  of  the  stack,  pull- 
ing it  up  occasionally  as  the  building 
of  the  stack  proceeds  all  round  it.  In 
setting  up  ricks  in  bad  harvests,  it  is 
a  practice  in  some  places,  particular- 
ly with  barley  crops,  to  have  three  or 
four  pretty  large  poles  tied  together, 
by  winding  straw  ropes  round  them, 
set  up  in  the  middle,  round  which  the 
stacks  are  then  built.  But  except 
the  stacks  are  large,  or  the  grain, 
when  put  into  them,  is  in  an  imperfect 
condition,  such  openings  are  quite 
unnecessary. 

"  The  stacking  of  hay  requires 
much  care  and  attention  in  the  per- 
son employed  for  the  purpose,  though 
less  than  that  of  building  grain  stacks. 
There  should  constantly  be  a  proper 
stand  or  foundation,  somewhat  raised 
by  wood  or  other  materials,  prepared 
for  placing  the  stacks  upon  ;  but  no- 
thing of  the  coping  kind  is  here  ne- 
cessary. In  the  business  of  stacking 
hay,  the  work  should  be  constantly 
performed,  as  much  as  possible,  while 
the  sun  is  upon  the  hay,  as  considera- 
ble advantage  is  thus  gained  in  its 
quality :  and  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  stacker  that  has  been  accustomed 
to  the  business,  and  a  proper  number 
of  persons  to  help  upon  the  stack,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  well  spread  out 
and  trodden  down. 

"  The  building  of  hay  stacks  should 
be  conducted  much  in  the  same  way 
as  the  building  of  stacks  of  loose 
grain  ;  the  middle  of  the  stack  being 
always  well  kept  up  a  little  higher 


STACK. 


than  the  sides,  and  the  sides  and  ends 
well  bound  in  by  the  proper  applica- 
tion of  the  successive  portions  of  hay 
as  the  work  advances,  and  during 
which  it  is  a  good  way,  where  there 
are  plenty  of  hands,  to  have  the  sides 
and  ends  properly  pulled  into  form, 
as  by  this  means  much  after  labour  is 
prevented.  It  is  likewise  of  advan- 
tage that  the  hay  should  be  well  sha- 
ken and  broken  from  the  lumps  du- 
ring the  operation  of  stacking.  The 
form  in  which  the  stacks  are  built  is 
not  of  much  consequence  ;  but  if 
large,  and  made  in  the  square  form, 
it  is  belter  not  to  have  them  too  broad, 
or  of  too  great  width,  as  by  this 
means  they  are  less  apt  to  heat. 
With  the  intention  of  preventing  too 
much  heat,  sometimes  in  building  hay 
stacks,  as  well  as  those  of  the  grain 
kind,  holes,  pipes,  and  chimneys  are 
left  in  the  middle,  that  the  excessive 
heat  may  be  disciiarged  ;  but  there  is 
often  injury  sustained  by  them,  from 
their  attracting  too  much  moisture. 


"  The  hay  stacks  of  Middlesex, 
England,  are  more  neatly  formed  and 
better  secured  than  anywhere  else. 
.\t  every  vacant  time,  while  the  stack 
is  carrying  up,  the  men  are  employed 
in  pulling  it  with  their  hands  into  a 
proper  shape  ;  and  about  a  week 
after  it  is  finished  the  whole  roof  is 
properly  thatched,  and  then  secured 
from  receiving  any  damage  from  the 
wind,  by  means  of  a  straw  rope  ex- 
tending along  the  eaves,  up  the  ends, 
and  near  the  ridge.  The  ends  of  the 
thatch  are  afterward  cut  evenly  be- 
low the  eaves  of  the  stack,  just  of 
sufficient  length  for  the  rain  water  to 
drip  quite  clear  off  the  hay.  When 
the  stack  happens  to  be  placed  in  a 
situation  which  may  be  suspected  of 
being  too  damp  in  the  winter,  a  trench 
of  about  six  or  eight  inches  deep  is 
dug  round,  and  nearly  close  to  it, 
which  serves  to  convey  all  the  water 
from  the  spot,  and  renders  it  perfect- 
ly dry  and  secure. 

"  The  stack  guard  {Fig.  3),  or  cov- 


ering of  canvass,  is  emploved  in  some 
districts  to  protect  the  stack  while 
building  in  a  wet  season.  The  worn 
sails  of  ships  are  sometimes  made 
use  of  for  this  purpose,  though,  in 
most  parts,  a  covering  of  loose  straw 
or  hay  is  found  sufficient  in  ordinary 
cases  ;  but  where,  from  a  continued 
rain,  the  stack  is  penetrated  some 
way  down,  a  part  is  removed  on  re- 
commencing, and  dried  before  being 
replaced,  it  is  observed  by  Marshal, 
that  a  sail  cloth,  thrown  over  and  im- 


mediately upon  the  hay  of  a  stack  in 
full  heat,  is  liable  to  do  more  injury 
by  increasing  the  heat,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  checking  the  ascent  of  the 
steam,  than  service  in  shooting  off 
rain  water.  The  improved  method 
of  spreading  the  cloth  he  describes  as 
follows  :  two  tall  poles  (a,  a)  are  in- 
serted firmly  in  two  cart  wheels  (i,  b), 
which  are  laid  flat  upon  the  ground  at 
each  end  of  the  stack,  and  loaded 
with  stones  to  increase  their  stability. 
Another  pole  of  the  same  kind,  and 
753 


STA 


STA 


somewhat  longer  than  the  stack,  is  ;  hrasts  come  as  regularly  to  market 


furnished  at  each  end  with  an  iron 
ring  or  hoop,  large  enough  to  admit 
the  upright  poles  and  to  pass  (reely 
upon  them.  Near  the  head  of  each 
of  the  standards  is  a  pulley  (c,  r),  over 
which  a  rope  is  passed  from  the  ring 
or  end  of  the  horizontal  pole,  by 
which  it  is  easily  raised  or  lowered 
to  suit  the  given  height  of  the  stack 


in  winter  as  in  summer.  Stall  feed- 
ing is  now  the  principal  means  hy 
which  oxen  and  cows  are  rendered 
fit  for  the  market. 

"  It  has  been  observed  in  the  arti- 
cle Soilnio-,  that  one  object  of  that 
system  was  to  save  the  waste  of  foo-* 
which  is  occasioned  by  the  treading 
of  cattle  in  pastures,  and   by  their 


A  cloth  being  now  thrown  over  the  choosing  the  sweetest  grasses  to  the 
horizontal  pole,  and  its  lower  mar-  neglect  of  the  coarser.  The  princi- 
gins  loaded  with  weights,  a  complete  pal  object,  however,  is  to  save  the 
roof  is  formed  and  neatly  fitted  to  i  manure,  which  in  the  pastures  goes 
the  stack,  whether  it  l)e  high  or  low,  to  waste,  but  in  the  yards  or  stall  is 
wide  or  narrow  ;  tlie  eaves  being  al- |  all  preserved.  In  stall  feeding  an- 
ways  adjusted  to  the  wall  plate,  or  I  other  object  is  looked  to,  that  of  in- 
upper  part  of  the  stem  of  the  stack  ;  I  creasing  the  substance  of  the  animal, 
thus  effectually  shooting  off  rain  wa- 1  especially  the  fat ;  and  to  do  this'ju- 
ter,  while  the  internal  moisture,  or  I  diciously  and  with  profit  requires 
steam,  escapes  freely  at  either  end  as  \  much  experience  and  attention.  It 
the  wind  may  happen  to  blow.  This  j  has  been  proved  that  animals  require 
contrivance  is  readily  put  up  or  ta-  a  certain  portion  of  meat  and  drink 
ken  away  ;  the  poles  being  light,  are  i  to  keep  them  alive,  and  that  this  quan- 
easily  moved  from  stack  to  stack,  or  |tity,  in  the  same  species,  is,  in  gen- 
laid  up  for  another  season,  and  the  eral,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
wheels  are  readily  removed  or  re-    the  animal.     If  an  animal  has  his  ex- 


turned  to  their  axles." — (Loudon.) 

STADDLES.  The  contents  of 
haycocks  spread  out  in  circles  of  five 
or  six  yards  to  dry. 


act  ration  of  food,  he  will  continue  in 
health,  but  he  will  not  increase  in 
weight  :  in  this  case,  therefore,  it 
only  produces  a  certain  portion  of 


STAKE   AND   RICE.      A   fence   manure,  which  is  not  equivalent  to 


made  of  stakes  driven  into  the  ground 
with  branches  intertwined. 

STAG.  Sometimes  used  for  a 
young  horse. 

STAGGERS.  Apoplexy.  See 
Horse,  Diseases  of. 

STALL  FEEDING.  The  feeding 
of  cattle  in  stalls  for  the  purpose  of 
fattening  them  more  readily  than  by 
simple  grazing,  and  at  a  time  when 
they  cannot  get  fat  on  pastures,  as  a 
regular  part  of  the  process  of  hus- 
bandry, is  comparatively  modern.  In 
former  times  cattle  were  slaughtered 
in  October  and  November,  which  lat- 
ter, in  most  languages  derived  from 
the  Teutonic,  is  called  Slaughter 
month  ;  there  being  no  possibility  of 
buying  fresh  meat  of  any  degree  of 
fatness  during  winter,  and  salt  meat 
was  the  food  of  all  classes  in  that 
season.  But  now  the  process  of  fat- 
tening cattle  goes  on  without  inter- 
ruption during  the  whole  year,  and  fat 
754 


the  food  consumed.  If  a  larger  quan- 
tity be  given,  the  animal,  if  in  health, 
will  increase  in  weight,  and  the  more 
food  he  has,  within  a  certain  limit, 
the  faster  will  be  this  increase  :  but 
there  is  a  point  where  increase  stops  ; 
and  if  by  any  means  the  animal  is  in- 
duced to  take  more,  his  stomach  will 
be  deranged,  and  he  will  become  dis- 
eased, and  occasion  loss  by  over- 
feeding. It  is  consequently  of  great 
importance  to  the  stall  feeder  to  as- 
certain what  is  the  exact  quantity 
of  food  which  it  will  be  most  prof- 
itable to  give  to  a  stall-fed  animal. 
Experience  alone  can  teach  this  ; 
but  some  rules  may  be  given  which 
will  enable  any  one  who  wishes  to 
stall  feed  cattle  not  greatly  to  err 
in  his  mode  of  feeding,  and  soon  to 
find  out  what  is  the  most  profitable 
course  to  pursue.  For  this  purpose, 
it  is  essential  that,  after  having  as- 
certained by  experiment  the  quantity 


STALL  FEEDING. 


of  food  which  will  give  the  greatest 
increase  of  (iesli  per  week  on  a  cer- 
tain weifilit  of  beasts  when  put  up  to 
fatten,  all  the  food  given  to  the  cat- 
tle be  carefully  weighed,  and  no  more 
given    in   any  day   tiian   is    needful. 
The  quality  of  the  food  should  also 
he  attended  to  ;   for  a  truss  of  line, 
well-made  clover,  lucern,  or  sainfoin 
hay,  may  contain  double  the  nourish- 
ment of  another  truss  of  coarse  marsh 
hay.     The  best  kind  of  food  should  al- 
w'ays  be  reserved  for  fattening  cattle. 
Roots  are  e.vcellent  helps  ;  hut  roots 
alone   are   too  watery,  and  must  be 
corrected  by  dry  food,  such  as  straw 
cut  into  chafl",  or  good  hay,  and  es- 
pecially farinaceous  food,  wliether  it 
be  corn  ground  or  bruised,  or  oil-cake 
after  the  oil  has  been  expressed.    By 
a  judicious  mixture  of  food,  a  much 
greater  mcrease  of  flesh  may  be  pro- 
duced than  by  an  irregular  mode  of 
feeding,  however  good  the  quality  or 
abundant  the  quantity  given  may  be. 
To  over  feed  is  as  unprolitable  as  to 
starve  a  beast,  and  produces  similar 
effects.     It  is   of  great    importance 
that  the    cattle  should  be   fed  with 
great  punctuality  at  certain  hours  du- 
ring the  day,  and  that  the  troughs 
should  be  cleared  of  all  the  remains 
of  food  which  they  do  not  eat  at  each 
time  of  feeding.     Rest  and  sleep  are 
great  aids  to  digestion,  and  a  little 
gentle  exercise  after  sleep  prepares 
the  stomach  for  a  fresh   supply  of 
food  :  air,  also,  is  highly  conducive  to 
health  ;  and  hence  those  beasts  which 
are  allowed  to  move  about  in  a  loose 
stall  or  a  small  yard,  protected  from 
the  rain  and  wind,  thrive  belter  in 
general  than  those  which  are  tied  up. 
It  is  the  practice  of  many  good  feed- 
ers   to   put   oxen    in   pairs    in  small 
stalls,  partly  open,  so  that  they  may 
be  in  the  air,  or  under  shelter,  as  they 
prefer  ;  and  the  finest  oxen,  if  not  the 
fattest,  are  prepared  for  the  market 
in  this  way.     E.xperience  shows  that 
all  domestic  animals  like  company, 
and  that  they  are  more  contented  and 
quiet  when  they  have  a  companion 
than  when  they  are  alone.     This  is 
the  reason  why  they  are  put  up  in 
pairs.    Whatever  promotes  the  health 


and  comfort  of  the  animal  will  be 
most  profitable  to  the  feeder.  When 
a  beast  has  actpiired  a  certain  degree 
of  fatness,  it  is  a  nice  point  to  decide 
whether  it  would  be  best  to  send  hiin 
to  market  or  continue  to  fe(;d  him. 
This  is  often  decided  by  mere  caprice 
or  fancy  ;  but  if  the  food  has  been 
weighed,  and  the  weekly  increase  of 
the  beast  is  noted,  which  is  best 
done  by  weighing,  but  may  nearly  be 
guessed  by  measuring,  it  becomes  a 
mere  question  in  arithmetic  to  deter- 
mine whether  his  increase  pays  for 
his  food  and  attendance  ;  if  it  does 
not,  there  is  a  loss  in  keeping  him ; 
and  if  a  lean  animal  put  in  his  stead 
would  increase  faster  on  the  same 
food,  every  day  he  is  kept  there  is  a 
loss  of  the  difference  between  the  in- 
crease of  the  two.  The  pride  of  pro- 
ducing a  wonderful  animal  at  a  fair 
or  show  may  be  dearly  paid  for,  and 
must  be  put  down  to  the  account  of 
luxuries,  such  as  keeping  hunters  or 
race-horses. 

"  The  most  profitable  food  for  fat- 
tening cattle  is,  in  general,  the  prod- 
uce of  the  farm  ;  the  expense  of  all 
purchased  food  is  increased  by  the 
profit  of  the  dealer  and  the  carriage 
of  it ;  and  the  only  compensation  for 
this  additional  cost  may  be  in  in- 
creasing the  manure,  where  the  straw 
and  roots  of  the  farm  are  deficient. 
In  that  case,  oil-cake,  or  even  corn, 
may  be  purchased  with  advantage; 
since  by  means  of  the  manure,  crops 
may  be  raised  which  without  it  must 
fail.  The  stalling  of  cattle,  as  well 
as  the  fattening  of  pigs,  is  in  many  sit- 
uations the  best  means  of  carrying 
the  produce  of  the  farm  to  market. 
An  ox  can  be  driven  many  miles, 
while  the  food  he  has  consumed 
would  not  repay  the  carriage,  and 
all  the  manure  would  be  lost,  and 
must  be  purchased  at  a  great  expense, 
if  it  can  be  had  at  all.  If  a  farmer 
can  feed  cattle  so  as  to  pay  him  a 
fair  market  price  for  the  food  con- 
sumed, and  something  for  the  risk  of 
accidental  loss,  he  may  be  well  con- 
tented to  have  the  manure  for  his 
trouble  :  few  stall  feeders  get  more 
than  this  in  the  long  run." — {Kham.) 
753 


STA 

STAMENS.  The  male  apparatus 
of  a  flower.  They  are  situated  iin- 
niedialely  within  the  petals,  and  con- 
sist each  of  a  filament,  the  anther, 
and  the  pollen  ;  of  which  the  two  lat- 
ter are  essential,  and  tlio  fornior  not. 
They  are  a  niodiried  form  of  the  pe- 
tal, and  are  placed  next  it  on  the  in- 
side, towards  the  centre  of  the  flower. 
Independently  of  their  physiological 
importance,  they  are  much  used  as 
good  marks  of  discrimination  in  sys- 
tematical hotany. 

STAMINATE.  Having  stamens 
only. 

STANDARD  TREES.  Such  trees 
as  are  not  trained,  but  grow  erect  and 
without  support. 

STARCH.  Amylaceous  matter, 
fecula,  composed  oi'  carbon  12  ;  hy- 
drogen 10  ;  oxygen  10.  "  Starch  is 
one  ofthe  commonest  proximate  prin- 
ciples of  vegetables.  It  is  character- 
ized by  its  insipidit}',  and  by  insolu- 
bility in  cold  water,  in  alcohol,  and  in 
ether.  It  dissolves  in,  or  at  least 
forms  a  gelatinous  compound  with 
water,  heated  to  175°  ;  and  this  solu- 
tion, even  when  much  diluted,  is  ren- 
dered blue  by  iodine.  This  admira- 
ble test  of  the  presence  of  starch  is 
not  effective  in  hot  solutions  ;  and  by 
boiling,  the  blue  colour  disappears, 
but  returns  in  strong  solutions  as 
they  cool.  The  term  starch  is  com- 
mercially applied  to  that  obtained  from 
wheat,  which,  for  this  manufacture, 
is  ground  and  diffused  through  vats 
of  water,  where  it  undergoes  a  slight 
fermentation,  and  acquires  a  peculiar 
sour  smell.  A  part  of  the  gluten  and  al- 
bumenof  ihegrain  is  thus  separated  in 
the  form  of  a  viscid  scum  ;  the  starch 
being  in  the  form  of  a  finely-divided 
white  powder,  is  gradually  farther 
separated  by  washing  in  large  quan- 
tities of  water,  from  which  it  is  ulti- 
mately allowed  to  settle,  and  put  into 
boxes  lined  with  linen  to  drain  ;  it  is 
then  cut  into  squares,  which  are  dried 
first  in  airy  chambers  upon  porous 
bricks,  and  afterward  rolled  up  in  pa- 
pers and  s/ovc  dried  ;  it  is  in  this  lat- 
ter operation  that  the  starch  acquires 
that  peculiar  columnar  texture  and 
fracture  which  is  well  exhibited  on 
756 


STE 

opening  a  paper  parcel  as  it  comes 
from  the  stove.  A  little  smalt  is  gen- 
erally added  to  the  starch,  by  which 
it  acquires  a  very  pale  blue  tint,  and 
is  better  adapted  to  conceal  or  cover 
the  yellow  tint  acquired  by  worn  lin- 
en. Starch  may  be  obtained  from 
many  other  grains,  and  from  potatoes 
and  several  other  esculent  vegetables. 
Arrow-root  is  the  starch  ofthe  Maran- 
ta  arundinacea ;  sago,  of  the  Sagus 
farimfcra,  an  East  India  palm-tree  ; 
and  tapioca  and  cassava  of  the  Jalro- 
pha  manihot.  In  the  process  of  ger- 
mination, and  by  various  chemical 
agents,  starch  may  be  converted  into 
a  species  of  gum,  dextrin,  and  su- 
gar." 

STAR- WORTS.  Composite  plants 
of  the  genus  Aster. 

STAVES.  Staves  for  spirit  pun- 
cheons are  of  white  oak,  for  sugar 
hogsheads  of  red  oak  ;  but  ash  and 
white  oak  are  also  used.  They  are 
cut  of  several  lengths  to  make  into 
hogsheads,  puncheons,  and  tierces. 
The  largest  size  is  72  inches  long,  7 
wide,  and  3  inches  thick  ;  for  punch- 
eons, tierces,  brewer's  casks,  pipes, 
&c.,  staves  are  33,  42,  4.5,  54  inches 
long,  and  from  ^,  1^,  U,  2h,  to  3 
inches  thick.  The  most  usuafdimen- 
sions  are  72,  42,  and  33  inches,  with 
3,  Ik,  and  one  inch  thickness;  these 
measures  are  exclusive  of  sapwood. 
The  British  duly  on  staves  has  been 
reduced  to  2Ss.  the  50  cubic  feet,  and 
hence  they  will  be  largelv  exported. 

STEAMING  FOOD.  By  this  means 
many  roots,  especially  potatoes,  are 
reduced  almost  to  a  powder.  Corn 
and  other  meal,  when  boiled,  is  more 
perfectly  digested,  and  in  this  way,  by 
answering  for  imperfect  grinding,  the 
steaming  of  food,  or  boiling,  serves 
to  assist  a  more  perfect  assimilation. 
There  is  no  increase  in  nutritiousness, 
and  in  many  cases  the  economy  is 
very  questionable.     See  Food 

STEARIN.  The  solid  part  of 
fats.     It  is  a  stearate  of  glycerine. 

STEARIC  ACID.  The  acid  ob- 
tained by  saponizing  stearin,  and  de- 
composing the  soap  by  a  dilute  acid. 
It  is  a  brilliant  white,  soft  body,  in- 
soluble in  water. 


STI 


STO 


STEATITE.     Soapstonc. 

STEATOMA.     A  Tatty  tumour. 

STEEPING  SEEDS.  See  Uredo, 
Manuring  Seeds,  Smiif. 

STELLATE.  Star-shaped,  resem- 
bling a  star. 

STEM.  In  botany,  the  upward 
prolongation  of  the  axis  of  a  plant. 
It  is  distinguished  from  all  other  parts 
by  bearing  buds. 

STENELYTRAXS.  A  fttmily  of 
coleopterous  insects,  many  of  which 
have  the  elytra  narrow  at  the  poste- 
rior part. 

STEPPE.     An  extensive  plain. 

STERCORARY.  A  place  where 
dung  and  manure  is  kept. 

STEREO.METER.  An  instrument 
for  taking  specific  gravities. 

STERNUM.  The  breast  bone,  to 
which  the  ril)s  are  attached. 

STETHESCOPE.  A  wooden  tube, 
twelve  inches  long,  used  to  assist  the 
ear  in  determining  the  character  of  the 
sounds  of  respiration  and  other  func- 
tions occurring  within  the  body,  to 
form  an  opinion  of  the  diseases,  &c. 

STHENIC  DISEASES.  Those  of 
increased  action  or  inflammation. 

STIGMA.  The  upper  extremity 
of  the  style,  or  female  organ  of  plants ; 
it  has  almost  uniformly  a  humid  sur- 
face. It  is  the  part  upon  which  the 
pollen  falls,  and  where  it  is  stinmlated 


into  the  production  of  the  pollen  tubes, 
which  are  indispensable  to  the  act  of 
impregnation. 

STILE.  In  building,  an  upright 
piece  in  framing.  In  rural  adairs,  a 
rough  ladder,  or  set  of  steps,  to  al- 
low the  passage  of  men,  but  not  of 
animals. 

S  T  I  M  IJ  L  A  N  T  S.  Substances 
which  produce  increased  circulation 
or  heat,  as  alcohol. 

STIPULE.  A  small  leaf  or  scale 
situated  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk 
(pedole)  of  some  plants. 

STOCK.  The  live  stock,  or  ani- 
mals of  the  farm. 

STOLON,  STOLE.  A  running 
stem  which  throws  off  young  plants 
at  certain  points,  as  the  strawberry. 
Stolomferons  is  a  derivative. 

STd.MACH.  The  cavity  or  pouch 
in  which  food  is  digested.  In  most 
animals  there  is  one  stomach  only, 
but  in  the  sheep  and  ruminants  there 
are  four.  See  Oz.  In  the  stomach, 
properly  so  called,  a  fluid  termed  the 
gastric  juice  is  secreted  at  meal  times, 
which  serves  to  digest  the  food. 

STOMACH  PUMP.  An  instru- 
ment of  great  value  to  the  farmer  to 
remove  poisonous  matters  or  bad  food 
from  the  paunch  of  anmials.  It  is 
also  serviceable  for  administering 
glysters,  and  one  pump,  with  a  num- 


757 


STO 


STO 


ber  of  tubes  of  different  sizes,  will 
answer  fur  oxen,  horses,  or  sheep 
The  instninieiit  consists  of  a  syringe, 
«,  liaving  a  side  openini;,  b,  and  an 
ordinary  opening  at  the  bottom,  d.  It 
is  used  both  for  throwing  fluid  into 
the  stomach,  &c.,  and  removing  it 
from  the  l)ody.  FtLT-  1  shows  the  fix- 
ture for  injections.  Tiie  extremity, 
d,  is  placed  into  the  pail  of  water,  (kc, 
and  a  long  probang  screwed  on  to  the 
side  opening,  b;  by  pumping,  the  flu- 
id is  driven  along  the  probang  or  in- 
jection tube.  When  used  to  remove 
matters  from  the  stomach,  the  pro- 
bang  is  screwed  on  to  the  lower  end, 
d,  and  introduced  :  the  fluid  from  the 
stomach  passes  out  at  b  (Fig.  2). 

Where  matters  are  to  be  removed 
from  the  stomach,  tepid  water  is  first 
injected ;  the  syringe  is  then  un- 
screwed from  the  probang  at  b,  and 
screwed  on  at  d.  It  is  now  a  stom- 
ach pump,  and  will  draw  any  thin  flu- 
ids out  of  the  stomach. 

The  introduction  of  the  pump  is  ef- 
fected by  the  help  of  an  assistant,  who 
holds  tlie  animal  by  a  horn  and  the 
dividing  cartilage  of  the  nose  ;  the 
operator  now  takes  the  tongue  in  the 
left  hand,  and  introduces  the  tube 
with  the  right,  the  assistant  holdmg 
the  head  and  neck  in  a  straight  line, 
so  as  to  assist  the  passage.  The 
jaws  are  kept  open  by  a  regular  bit 
of  perforated  wood,  or  by  any  piece  of 
stick  introduced  between  the  teeth. 

STOMATA.  Minute  openings  on 
the  under  side  of  most  leaves.  They 
are  surrounded  by  small  cellules, 
which  have  the  power  of  shutting 
them  up. 

STONE.     A  weight  of  14  pounds. 

STONE  CROP.  Small,  succulent 
plants  of  the  genus  Scdum,  growing 
on  old  walls  and  roofs. 

STOOK  and  STOOKING.  The 
same  as  shock  and  shocking. 

STOOL.  "  The  root  of  a  tree  or 
plant,  similar  to  the  oak,  beech,  elm, 
&c.,  which  throws  up  shoots.  Cop- 
pice wood  consists  chiefly  of  the 
shoots  sent  up  by  the  roots  or  stools 
of  trees  or  shrubs  which  have  been 
cut  over  by  the  surface.  In  general, 
all  dicotyledonous  trees  are  endowed 
758 


by  nature  with  the  property  of  send- 
ing up  shoots  from  the  stump  or 
stools  ;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with 
most  of  the  gymnosperms  or  conif- 
erous trees.  A  wood  of  pines  or  flrs, 
therefore,  when  once  cut  down,  can 
never  be  renewed  except  bv  seeds." 

STORK'S  BILL.  The  genera 
F,rodium  and  Geramum,  which  fur- 
nish many  beautiful  flowers  ;  they  are 
propagated  chiefly  by  slips. 

STORY  POST.  An  upright  post 
or  timber  to  support  a  flooring,  &c. 

STOVE.  "  In  horticulture,  a  struc- 
ture in  which  plants  are  cultivated 
that  require  a  considerably  higher 
temperature  than  the  open  air.  There 
are  two  or  three  kinds  of  stoves,  but 
the  principal  are  the  dry  stove  and 
the  damp  stove.  The  dry  stove  is  a 
structure,  the  atmosphere  of  which 
is  heated  to  the  temperature  of  from 
55°  to  60°  during  winter,  in  which 
are  chiefly  cultivated  succulents,  such 
as  the  different  species  of  Ceretus, 
Cereus,  Slapheiia,  Euphorbia,  Mesem- 
bryanlhemiim,  and  other  succulents 
having  similar  habits.  During  win- 
ter these  plants  require  very  little  wa- 
ter, and  during  summer  they  require 
intense  heat,  and  abundance  of  air 
and  water  during  fine  weather.  The 
damp  stove,  sometimes  also  called 
the  bark  stove,  requires  a  tempera- 
ture of  between  60°  and  70-  during 
winter,  with  a  proportionate  increase 
during  summer,  accompanied,  in  both 
seasons,  with  a  high  degree  of  at- 
mospherical moisture.  This  moist- 
ure is  produced  partly  by  evaporation 
from  the  bark  bed  in  which  the  plants 
are  plunged,  but  chiefly  by  watering 
the  floor  of  the  house,  and  by  syr- 
inging the  plants.  During  summer 
the  plants  in  the  bark  stove  require 
all  the  light  which  the  atmosphere  in 
this  country  is  capable  of  i)roducing, 
together  with  abundance  of  air,  as  in 
the  dry  stove.  Both  stoves  are  heat- 
ed by  smoke  flues,  or  by  hot  water  or 
steam,  circulated  in  metallic  or  other 
tubes.  The  plants  cultivated  in  the 
moist  stove  are  exclusively  those  of 
the  tropics  ;  and  those  which  require 
the  highest  degree  of  heat  are  chiefly 
monocotyledonous  plants,  such  as  the 


STR 


STR 


■'  Scitamincct,  which  inchide  the  ginger, 
plantain,  banana,  sugar  cane,  pahus, 
Orc/iidacca; ;  and  such  dicotyledonous 
plants  as  the  bread  fruit,  the  yam, 
niangosteen,  and  other  East  Indian 
plants.  The  bark  bed  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed for  producing  a  uniform  de- 
gree of  moisture  and  heat  to  the 
roots,  and  also  as  a  reservoir  of  heat 
for  the  atmosphere  of  the  house  in 
case  of  any  diminution  from  the  flues, 
water  or  steam  pipes,  or  the  sun. 
Stoves  of  every  description  require  a 
constant  degree  of  attention  frimi  the 
gardener  throughout  the  year,  more 
especially  such  as  are  devoted  to  the 
palms,  the  banana,  the  pineapple,  and 
the  OrcIudaccoL." — {LuuUcy.) 

STOVER.  Refuse  hulls,  coarse 
fodder. 

STRAINING  PIECE.  A  timber 
intended  to  keep  two  posts  or  other 
pieces  at  a  certain  distance. 

STR.4  INS,  SPRAINS.  Injuries 
produced  by  over-stretching  the  lig- 
aments of  muscles  ;  they  are  often 
very  severe,  and  require  cupping  and 
leeching.  Occasionally  fomentations 
are  suthcient,  with  rest,  and  banda- 
ging the  part  tightly. 

STRAMONIUM.  Jamestown 
weed.     See  Datura. 

STRANGLES.  A  disease  of  young 
horses.     See  Horse,  Diseases  of. 

S  T  R  A  N  G  U  R  Y,  or  SUPPRES- 
SION  OF  URINE,  INCONTI- 
NENCE OF  URINE,  BLOODY 
URINE.  "  Strangury  may  arise  from 
an  injury  done  to  the  kidneys,  or  to 
the  bladder,  by  strains,  or  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  irritating  matters.  In 
these  cases,  bleed  if  there  be  fever  ; 
if  not,  merely  give  the  horse  absolute 
rest ;  mash  him,  give  gruel,  and  warm 
the  water  given  him  for  drink.  Bloody 
urine  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
way.  Some  horses  have  such  a  nat- 
ural or  acquired  weakness  of  kid- 
neys, as  to  stale  blood  with  their 
urine  on  every  occasion  of  over-ex- 
ertion. The  means  frequently  used 
fur  relief  are  such  as  aggravate  the 
complaint,  and,  indeed,  are  often  the 
occasion  of  it,  which  are  diuretics. 
Strong  diuretics  injure  horses  more 
than  strong  physic,  and  benefit  them 


less  than  any  other  of  the  popular 
means  made  use  of  In  retentions  of 
urine,  but  particularly  in  the  ease  of 
bloody  urine,  they  are  absolutely  im- 
proper." 

STRATH.     A  small  valley. 

STRATUM.  A  bed  of  rock,  or 
other  deposite. 

STRAW.  The  culm  or  stalk  of 
the  cerealia.  It  is  used  both  as  litter 
and  fodder.  For  the  latter  purpose, 
the  different  kinds  are  of  unequal 
value.     See  Food. 

STRAW  CUTTER.  A  machine 
to  cut  straw  into  chafT:  a  chaff  en- 
gine. The  simplest  kind  is  no  more 
than  two,  three,  or  more  curved 
knives  working  between  iron  bars ; 
but  the  better  sorts  consist  either  of 
knives  set  on  a  fly  wheel,  or  on  roll- 
ers which  press  on  the  straw  as  it  is 
pushed  along  the  feeding-trough,  or 
hopper.  In  the  best,  the  straw  is 
pulled  forward  by  the  machine,  so 
that  the  labourer  has  only  to  turn  the 
handle  and  feed  the  hopper.  The 
number  of  patents  is  very  great. 
The  machines  of  Willis,  Boynton, 
Green,  ^^'orley,  Hovey.SafTord,  Sand- 
ford,  and  Botts  are  well  known.  The 
cost  IS  from  815  to  §50,  and  they  cut 
from  live  to  thirty  bushels  per  hour. 
An  English  machine,  by  W.  Lester,  is 
a  very  simple  and  admirable  contri- 
vance. Sandford's  machine  is  of  a 
durable  construction,  and  the  knives 
are  readily  sharpened.     Price,  §15. 

STRAWBERRY.  This  admirable 
fruit  is  yielded  by  several  species  of 
the  genus  Fragaria.  The  European 
wood  is  F.  vcsca ;  the  scarlets  are 
froraF.  Virgimana;  the  Alpines  from 
F.  collma  ;  and  the  F.  Carolutcnsis, 
elalior,  Cluliensis,  also  furnish  some 
of  the  best  kinds. 

"  The  best  soil  is  a  strong,  rich 
loam,  and  one  that  is  tolerably  adhe- 
sive and  retentive  of  moisture  ;  for, 
as  strawberries  are  generally  injured 
in  this  country  by  excessive  drought, 
it  is  best  to  provide  against  this  ca- 
'  lamity  by  planting  them  in  a  rather 
I  wet  soil.  A  rich  soil,  however,  is 
not  indispensable,  as  almost  any 
mould  that  is  not  loo  dry  will  pro- 
duce  a  greater  or 'ess  quantity  of  fruit. 
759 


STR 


STR 


"  Trenching  the  ground  a  foot  and 
a  half  deep,  and  mixing  plenty  of 
Well-rolled  dung  willi  the  soil  that  is 
brought  to  the  surface,  is  the  best 
preparation. 

"The  lime  of  planting  is  the  first 
week  in  August  for  the  offsets  of  the 
first  spring  runtn^rs,  always  choosing 
those  thai  are  large,  and  rejecting 
small  ones.  During  the  first  year, 
cut  off  all  ruimers  as  they  appear. 
Any  time  from  October  to  May  will 
do  for  planting  out  old  stools  which 
have  borne  fruit  once.  Those  which 
liave  borne  twice  are  good  for  no- 
thing, and  should  be  thrown  away. 

"The  offsets  may  be  planted  in  a 
single  row  along  the  borders  of  the 
walks,  at  ten  or  fifteen  inches  apart  : 
if  another  row  be  made,  it  ought  to 
be  fifteen  inches  from  the  other ; 
they  may  also  be  planted  in  clumps 
of  three  or  more  together,  si.x  inches 
or  less  apart,  and  three  feet  between 
the  clumps.  Beds  with  four  rows 
each,  and  two  feet  between  the  beds 
for  cabbages,  answer  well.  But  the 
best  situation  for  planting  strawber- 
ries is  where  a  row  of  dwarf  apple, 
pear,  or  other  trees  is  grown  on  ei- 
ther or  both  sides  of  a  walk,  to  have 
a  bed  of  strawberries,  four  or  five  feet 
wide,  beneath  them  ;  for  in  this  situa- 
tion they  will  be  afforded  that  degree 
of  shade  which  is  necessary  for  them 
in  dry  weather,  without  injuring  the 
trees  or  being  injured  by  them.  In 
these  beds  they  should  first  be  plant- 
ed in  four  rows,  two  on  each  side  of 
the  trees,  and  the  offsets  from  these 
should  be  allowed  to  spread  so  as  to 
extend  themselves  over  the  whole  of 
the  bed,  only  cutting  off  annually 
those  that  are  disposed  to  wander 
from  the  prescribed  bounds  of  the 
bed.  A  strawberry  bed  of  this  de- 
scription would  produce  a  far  great- 
er crop  than  if  planted  out  in  single 
rows,  and  will  continue  bearing  for 
a  greater  number  of  years,  as  well  as 
be  less  liable  to  injury  from  drought. 

"  It  is  important  to  fix  the  roots 
well  in  the  ground,  otherwise  they 
may  be  drawn  out  by  earth  worms, 
or  pushed  out  of  the  ground  on  a 
thaw  succeeding  a  hard  frost. 
760 


"  The  best  sorts  are  Keen's  seed- 
ling, llovey's  seedling.  Myall's  Brit- 
ish Queen,  Swainstone"s  seedling, 
old  pine,  red  w-ood,  the  roseberry,  and 
the  hautbois.  The  scarlet  is  the  ear- 
liest, and  the  small  red  Alpine,  which 
some  say  is  best  when  rai.sed  from 
seed,  others  say  best  from  runners, 
planted  in  August  or  September,  at 
SIX  inches  distance,  will  produce  fruit 
from  the  end  of  May  till  the  frost  sets 
in.  For  a  late  crop,  all  the  tiovver 
steins  should  be  cut  off  as  they  show, 
up  to  the  end  of  June. 

"  Strawberries  are  much  injured  by 
hot,  dry  weather,  and  ther(;fore  they 
must  be  abundantly  supplied  with  wa- 
ter when  this  occurs,  particularly  just 
as  the  blossom  falls  ;  but  the  blossom 
must  not  be  wetted.  Weeds  must 
be  cleared  off,  but  in  stirring  the 
earth  with  a  fork,  not  with  a  spade, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  go  too  near 
the  roots,  as  recommended  by  some. 
Birds  must  be  guarded  against,  as 
well  as  snails  and  slugs,  which  would 
eat  the  blooms  and  spoil  the  fruit. 
Pieces  of  slate,  tiles,  tin,  boards,  or, 
what  is  preferable,  hay,  straw,  or  dry 
moss,  should  be  laid  three  or  lour 
inches  thick  under  the  fruit  as  it  be- 
comes ripe,  to  keep  it  clean  from 
sand:  but  this  precaution  is  seldom 
necessary.  The  superfluous  runners 
and  dead  leaves  should  be  removed 
in  September.  What  are  termed  male 
or  barren  plants  should  always  be 
grubbed  up." 

STREAK.  In  mineralogy,  the 
mark  left  by  a  mineral  when  drawn 
along  the  surface  of  paper. 

STREET  MANURE.  The  sweep, 
ings  of  streets,  consisting  of  the  dung 
of  animals,  vegetable  garbage,  earthy 
matters,  rubbish  from  buildings,  soot, 
&c.  It  is  necessarily  of  very  differ- 
ent values.  It  is  chiefly  useful  to 
lighten  stiff  soils,  and  may  be  used 
at  the  rate  of  20  to  30  loads  the 
acre. 

STRENGTH.  "In  mechanics, 
this  term  is  used  in  the  same  sense 
as  force  or  power.  Thus,  strength 
of  animals  is  the  muscular  force  or 
energy  which  animals  are  capable  of 
e.xerting ;  strength  of  materials  is  the 


STR 


STR 


resistance  which  bodies  oppose  to  a 
force  acting  upon  them.  It  is  obvi- 
ously a  matter  of  much  importance 
to  be  able  to  estimate  with  tolerable 
accuracy  the  efforts  which  an  animal 
of  the  average  strength  employed  in 
labour  is  capable  of  exerting,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, very  numerous  observa- 
tions have  been  made  on  the  subject ; 
but  this  species  of  force  is  subject  to 
variation  from  so  great  a  number  of 
circumstances,  both  physical  and  me- 
chanical, that  the  results  given  by 
different  authors  present  very  little 
agreement  with  each  other,  though 
they  are  of  great  value  as  affording 
data  for  determining  the  modes  in 
which  animal  labour  is  most  advan- 
tageously employed. 

"  Of  all  animals  employed  as  first 
movers,  the  horse  is,  beyond  ques- 
tion, the  most  useful,  and  that  whose 
labour  is  susceptible  of  the  most  nu- 
merous and  varied  applications.  For 
the  purpose  of  determining  his  mus- 
cular power,  the  dynamometer  may 
be  conveniently  used  ;  but  as  the  ac- 
tion of  the-animal  is  very  quickly  re- 
duced by  continued  exertion,  it  is 
more  usual  to  estimate  it  according 
to  the  amount  of  daily  labour  perform- 
ed. Desaguliers  and  Smeaton  esti- 
mate the  strength  of  a  horse  as  equiv- 
alent to  that  of  five  men  ;  the  French 
authors  have  commonly  stated  it  as 
equal  to  seven  men  ;  and  Schulze 
makes  it  equal  to  that  of  fourteen 
men,  in  drawing  horizontally.  Ac- 
cording to  Desaguliers,  a  horse's  pow- 
er is  equal  to  44-000  lbs.  raised  one 
foot  high  in  one  minute.  Smeaton 
makes  this  number  22  916,  Hachett 
28000,  and  Watt  33  000.  The  last 
estimate  is  commonly  understood  by 
the  term  horse  pmccr  as  applied  to 
steam-engines.  The  quantity  of  ac- 
tion which  a  horse  can  exert  dimin- 
ishes as  the  duration  of  the  labour  is 
prolonged.     The  following  table,  by 


Time  of 
Man:li  in 
Hours. 

Gre.itesl 
Velocity 
per   Hour 
in  Miles. 

Time  of 
March  in 
Hours. 

Greatest  1 
Veloiity 
per  Hour 
in  Miles. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

14-7 
10-4 
8-5 
7-3 
6-6 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 

60 
5-5 
5-2 
49 
46 

Tredgold,  shows  the  average  maxi- 
mum velocity  with  which  a  horse  un- 
loaded can  travel,  according  to  the 
number  of  hours  per  day. 

"  The  useful  effect  a  horse  is  capa- 
ble of  producing  depends  much  upon 
the  manner  in  which  his  strength  is 
applied. 

"Strength  of  Materials. — There  are 
four  different  ways  in  which  the 
strength  of  a  solid  body  may  be  ex- 
erted ;  first,  in  resisting  a  longitudin- 
al tension,  or  force  lending  to  tear  it 
asunder ;  secondly,  in  resisting  a 
force  tending  to  break  the  body  by  a 
transverse  strain  ;  thirdly,  in  resist- 
ing compression,  or  a  force  tending 
to  crush  the  bo(iy  ;  and,  fourthly,  in 
resisting  a  force  tending  to  rend  it 
asunder  by  torsion.  .Mr.  Hodgkinson 
gives  the  following  results  of  his  ex- 
periments on  the  resistance  of  a 
crushing  force  on  short  pillars  of  some 
of  the  most  common  descriptions  of 
wood,  the  force  being  applied  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres  : 


Description  of  Wood. 

.Strength 
Inch 

per  square 
in  lbs. 

Alder 

6831 

0  0960 

Ash 

8f.!S3 

9363 

Bay 

7518 

7518 

Beech 

7733 

9363 

Birch 

39-27 

6402 

Cedar 

5fi74 

5S63 

Red  deal 

5748 

66t-fi 

White  deal     .... 

6781 

7292 

Elder 

7451 

9973 

Elm 

10331 

Fir  (spruce)   .... 

6499 

6819 

MahoEjany       .... 

8198 

8198 

Oak  (Quebec)     .     .     . 

4331 

5962 

Oak  (Enghsh)     .     .     . 

64  84 

10058 

Pine  (pitch)    .... 

6790 

6790 

Pine  (red)      .... 

5395 

7518 

Poplar 

3107 

5124 

Plum  (dry)     .... 

8241 

10493 

Teak 

12101 

Walnut 

6063 

7227 

Willow 

2898 

0128" 

S  s  s  2 


— {Brande's  Diet,  of  Science  ;  Barlow^s 
Treatise  on  the  Strength  of  Timber.) 

STREPSIPTERANS.  An  order 
of  insects  possessing  rudimentary 
elytra  in  the  form  of  scales. 

S  T  R I  A  T  E.  Grooved,  coloured 
with  narrow  lines  or  streaks. 

STRIGID.-E.  The  raptorial  birds 
of  the  owl  kind. 

STROBILE.  The  conical  fruit  of 
the  pines,  firs,  hop,  &,c. 

761 


STU 


SUB 


STRONGYLUS.  A  genus  of  par- 
asitical intestinal  worms. 

STRONTIA.  An  alkaline  earth, 
very  similar  to  lime. 

STRUMA.     A  swelling. 

STRYCHNIA.  An  extremely 
poisonous  vegetable  alkali,  obtained 
from  the  nux  vomica  and  other 
strychnous  plants.  It  produces  vio- 
lent convulsions. 

STUBBLE.  The  roots  and  stems 
of  grain  plants  left  in  the  soil  after 
harvest.  If  they  are  long,  it  will  be 
best  to  burn  them,  but  on  light  soils 
they  may  be  turned  in. 

STUD.  A  post  or  upright  in  a 
building :   an  establishment  of  hor- 

STUMP  MACHINE  OR  EX- 
TRACTOR. A  contrivance  for  the 
extraction  of  stumps  from  new  lands. 
They  are  usually  on  the  principle  of 
a  windlass.  The  machines  of  Pratt 
and  Witney  have  been  often  recom- 
mended. One  of  these  will  raise  from 
100  to  200  stumps  a  day ;  they  cost 
from  8200  to  $400.  The  Western 
Farmer  and  Gardener  gives  the  fol- 
lowing method  of  removing  stumps  : 

"  Procure  a  dry,  red-elm  lever, 
about  twenty  feet  long,  and  about  six 
to  eight  inclies  in  diameter;  a  good, 
stout  log  chain,  with  two  yokes  of 
oxen  ;  this  is  all  the  machinery  that 
is  necessary.  The  mode  of  operation 
is  thus  :  wrap  the  log  chain  round  the 
stump,  a  little  above  the  ground,  and 
make  what  is  called  a  log  hitch  ;  lay 
the  lever  horizontally  on  the  ground, 
the  large  end  next  to  the  chain  and 
against  the  stump  ;  make  the  other 
end  of  the  chain  fast  to  this  end  of 
the  lever,  drawing  the  lever  tiglit 
against  the  stump ;  the  cattle  are 
hitched  to  the  small  end  of  the  lever, 
and  driven  round  the  stump  in  a  cir- 
cle of  which  the  lever  is  the  radius. 
One  revolution  of  the  oxen  round  the 
stump  will  generally  twist  out  the 
largest  of  them  ;  but  should  not  the 
power  thus  applied  be  sufficient  to 
move  the  stump,  the  side  roots  may 
be  uncovered  and  cut  partly  off;  after 
this  is  done,  the  stump  will  be  easily 
removed.  You  will  tind  this  plan 
much  preferable  to  any  '  patent  stump 
762 


extractor'  that  you  may  have  seen 
puffed  in  the  papers." 

STY.     See  Hog-sty. 

STYLE.  The  stem  which  sup- 
ports the  stigma  ;  it  is  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  carpels. 

STYLOBATE.  An  uninterrupted 
base  common  to  many  columns. 

STYPTICS.  Substances  which, 
when  applied  to  small  wounds,  re- 
strain the  flow  of  blood,  as  alum. 
The  word  scarcely  differs  from  as- 
tringents. 

SUBCLAVIAN.  Any  part  under 
the  clavicle  or  collar  bone. 

SUB  ERIN.  The  substance  of 
cork.  By  digesting  it  with  nitric 
acid,  it  is  converted  into  suberic  acid. 

SUBLIMATION.  A  process  by 
which  solids  are  by  the  aid  of  heat 
converted  into  vapour,  which  is  again 
condensed,  and  often  in  the  crystal- 
line form.  This  operation  is  frequent- 
ly resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  pu- 
rifying various  chemical  products, 
and  separating  them  from  substances 
which  are  less  volatile. 

SUBLINGUAL.  The  parts  lying 
under  the  tongue. 

SUBSOIL.  The  earth  immediate- 
ly below  that  which  is  tilled.  The 
value  of  land  depends  almost  as  much 
on  the  subsoil  as  the  tilth  :  if  it  be 
wet  and  full  of  stagnant  water,  it 
must  be  under-drained  ;  if  it  be  hard 
and  rocky,  the  surface  soil  dries  too 
readily  to  a  dust ;  if  it  be  deep  and 
too  light,  water  and  fluid  manures 
may  drain  away  wastefully. 

S'UBSOILING.  Loosening  the  sub- 
soil by  a  plough  without  any  mould- 
board  to  turn  it,  has  been  strenuously 
recommended  of  late,  as  a  great  im- 
provement in  tillage.  A  heavy  plough 
is  first  run  along  the  field  some  six  or 
eight  inches  deep,  and  a  subsoil 
plough  (see  Plough)  follows  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow,  deepening  it  to 
fourteen  or  sixteen  inches  in  all. 
This  differs  from  trench  ploughing,  in 
which  the  subsoil  is  cast  up  and 
mixed  with  the  surface,  by  which  the 
soil  is  either  benefited  or  injured,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  subsoil. 

The  principal  effect  of  subsoil 
ploughing  is,  that  the  earth  is  deep- 


SUF 

ened  to  a  considerable  depth,  and 
root  culture  is  much  improved  ;  the 
soil  is  also  considerably  drained,  and, 
if  moor  pans  exist  in  it,  may  be  re- 
claimed from  sterility.  It  is  there- 
fore an  admirable  process  in  stiff  soils 
imperfectly  drained,  but  in  loose 
gravelly  or  sandy  soils  subsoil  plough- 
ing is  often  very  injurious.  15y  the 
tillage  of  years,  the  treading  of  cat- 
tle, and  the  pressure  of  the  sole  of 
the  plough  and  rolling,  the  surface 
soil  be(!omes  compact,  and  holds  wa- 
ter and  manure  sufficiently  for  the 
crops  ;  but  by  suhsoiling  these  ad- 
vantages are  thrown  away,  and  a 
thirstv,  loose  soil  again  established. 

SUBSTANTIVE  COLOURS. 
Colouring  matters  which  stain  the 
texture  or  yarn  permanently,  without 
the  necessity  for  a  mordant ;  the  lat- 
ter being  called  adjective  colours. 

SUBSTITUTION.  In  chemistry, 
the  doctrine  advanced  by  Dumas,  that, 
in  many  organic  and  complex  com- 
pounds, one  element  can  take  the 
place  of  another  without  changing  the 
relations  of  the  others. 

SUBSTRATUM.  The  stratum  of 
a  different  geological  kind  immedi- 
ately below  the  surface. 

SUBULATE.  Awl-shaped,  round, 
and  tapering  to  the  end. 

SUBULICORNS.  A  family  of  neu- 
roptera,  with  awl-shaped  antennae. 

SUBULIPALPS.  A  section  of 
caraboid  beetles,  some  of  which  have 
the  exterior  palpi  awl-shaped. 

SUCCORY.     See  Chicory. 

SUCCULENT.  Fleshy,  full  of 
water. 

SUCKERS.  The  shoots  from  the 
roots  of  trees  or  plants  near  the  stem. 
They  are  often  serviceable  for  prop- 
agation. 

SUCTION  PUMP.     See  Piimp. 

SUDORIFICS.  Medicines  which 
produce  increased  perspiration. 

SUET.  Fat  which  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  stearin,  and  is  hard. 
It  is  best  from  the  loins  or  kidneys  of 
the  sheep,  and  next  from  the  ox.  It 
is  used  f(jr  the  best  tallow  candles. 

SUFFRUTEX.  An  under  shrub, 
a  small  shrub,  a  portion  of  whose  an- 
nual stems  die  away.  Suffruticose  is 
like  an  under  shrub. 


SUG 

SUGAR.  One  of  the  indifferent 
and  ordinary  products  of  plants.  It 
is  recognised  by  its  flavour.  Chem- 
ists distinguish  a  variety  of  species 
of  sugar,  of  which  the  crystallizable, 
or  cane  sugar,  and  uncrystallizable,  or 
difficultly  crystaUizahlc,  or  grape  su- 
gar (glucose),  arc  the  representatives  ; 
these  differ  in  composition,  cane  su- 
gar being  Ci...  Hn  On,  and  grape  su- 
gar, Ci.2  Hi4  Oi., ;  but  their  chief  dis- 
tinction rests  in  the  circumstance  that 
grape  sugar  is  capable  of  undergoing 
fermentation,  whereas  cane  sugar 
must  lirst  be  converted  into  glucose 
to  ferment.  CJrape  sugar  is  identical 
with  that  from  fruits,  green  stalks, 
and  with  dial)ctic  and  starch  sugar. 
Sugar  for  commercial  purposes  is  ob- 
tained chiefly  from  the  cane,  but  the 
beet  is  also  extensively  manufactur- 
ed (see  Beet),  and  the  maple  (see  Ma- 
ple) yields  a  large  quantity.  Some 
sugar  or  molasses  is  also  made  from 
starch  of  potatoes  by  boiling  it  in  sil- 
ver or  lead  boilers  with  dilute  sulphu- 
ric acid :  for  this  purpose,  200  parts  of 
starch,  4  of  strong  acid,  and  800  of 
water  are  used,  and  the  boiling  con- 
tinued thirty  hours  :  by  steaming  at  a 
high  pressure,  six  hours  will  answer. 

SUGAR  CANE.  Arundo  saccha- 
rifera.  It  is  very  readily  destroyed  by 
light  frosts,  and  cannot  be  grown 
north  of  32^  N.  In  Louisiana  the 
frost  sometimes  destroys  the  crop, 
and  to  save  it,  the  cut  stems  are  piled 
up,  or  mattressed  on  the  field  in  mass- 
es three  or  four  feet  high.  The  press- 
ing is  done  between  rollers  worked 
usually  by  animals,  but  sometimes  by 
wind,  water,  or  steam  power.  The 
process  of  making  the  sugar  is  de- 
tailed under  the  article  Beet.  The 
following  short  rules  may,  however, 
be  of  service : 

"1.  To  cut  the  cane  as  ripe  as  pos- 
sible, but  before  any  acetic  acid  is 
formed  :  litmus  paper,  touched  to  the 
fresh-cut  cane,  will  turn  red  if  acid. 

"2.  Express  the  juice  without  loss 
of  time,  as  every  moment  after  cut- 
ting will  deteriorate  its  quality. 

"  .3.  A  small  (jiiantity  of  clear  lime- 
water,  say  one  quart  to  a  hundred  gal- 
lons of  juice,  should  be  added  the  mg- 
7G3 


'*r 


SUGAR  CANE. 


ment  it  is  expressed,  unless  the  juice 
shows  acidity  witli  litmus  paper;  in 
tliat  case,  no  lime  sliould  be  used,  but 
a  solution  of  sal-soda,  or  soda  ash, 
should  be  added  until  it  is  precisely 
neutral. 

"  4.  When  the  juice  is  neutral,  free 
from  excess  of  acid  or  alkali,  it  should 
be  evaporated  in  sucii  an  apparatus  as 
would  finish  its  charge  in  thirty  min- 
utes :  if  the  boiling  power  is  too  small, 
good  crystallization  cannot  possibly  be 
obtained. 

"  The  whole  time  occupied,  from 
the  cutting  of  the  cane  to  finishing  its 
boiling,  should  not  exceed  one  hour. 
"5.  To  know  when  the  boiling  is 
finished,  place  a  thermometer  in  the 
kettle,  and  continue  to  evaporate  un- 
til it  stands  at  239°  Fahrenheit.  If, 
when  placed  to  run  off  after  cooling, 
it  should  be  found  too  freely  boiled, 
the  next  time  boil  to  240^,  or,  if  too 
light  to  run  off,  to  238^,  and  so  on. 

"6.  The  kettle  or  boiler  should  be 
so  arranged,  that  the  moment  it  is 
done  its  charge  should  be  thrown  into 
a  cooler  capable  of  holding  a  number 
of  charges.  The  first  charge  should 
be  left  in  the  cooler,  without  stirring, 
until  the  second  charge  is  thrown  in  ; 
then  with  an  oar  scrape  the  crystals 
found  on  the  side  and  bottom  of  the 
cooler  loose,  and  gently  stir  the  whole 
mass  together :  the  less  stirred  the 
better  ;  so  continue  at  the  letting  in 
of  each  charge,  to  stir  gently ;  and 
when  all  is  in  the  cooler,  let  the 
whole  stand  until  it  cools  down  to 
175°  ;  then  fill  out  into  sugar  moulds 
of  a  capacity  not  less  than  14  gallons. 
When  cooled  in  the  mould  sufficient- 
ly, say  fourteen  hours,  pull  the  plug 
out  of  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  and 
insert  a  sharp  point,  nearly  as  large 
as  the  hole,  some  six  inches  ;  with- 
draw the  point,  and  stand  the  mould 
on  a  pot  to  drip. 

"  7.  If  the  sugar  is  intended  to  be 
brown,  leaving  it  standing  on  the  pot 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  in  a 
temperature  of  80°,  will  run  off  its 
molasses,  and  leave  it  in  a  merchant- 
able shape  :  it  will  probably  require 
twenty  days.     It  can  then  be  thrown 


use.  When  moulds  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, conical  vessels  of  wood  or 
metal,  with  a  hole  at  the  apex,  will 
answer  equally  well." 

The  stools  of  the  cane  throw  up 
stems  or  ratoons  for  two  or  three 
years,  unless  destroyed  by  frost,  to 
guard  against  which  they  are  hilled 
up  in  the  fall,  and  opened  in  part  in 
spring  :  the  same  treatment  is  pur- 
sued in  regard  to  the  cuttings  for 
propagation.  The  blue  riband  cane 
is  that  most  used  in  Louisiana.  The 
following  from  Boussingault  gives  an 
account  of  the  cultivation  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Central  America  : 

"  Three  principal  varieties  of  su- 
gar cane  are  cultivated — the  Creole, 
the  Batavian,  and  the  Otaheitan.  The 
Creole  cane  has  the  leaf  of  a  deep 
green,  the  stem  slender,  the  knots 
very  close  together.  This  species,  a 
native  of  India,  reached  the  New 
World  after  having  passed  through 
Sicily,  the  Canaries,  and  the  West 
India  Islands.  The  Batavian  cane  is 
indigenous  in  the  Island  of  Java;  its 
foliage  is  very  broad,  and  has  a  pur- 
ple tint :  the  sap  of  this  variety  is 
much  employed  in  making  rum.  The 
Otaheite  cane  is  that  which  is  most  ex- 
tensively grown  at  the  present  time. 
It  was  introduced  into  the  West  In- 
dia Islands  and  neighbouring  conti- 
nent by  Bougainville,  Cook,  and  Bligh, 
in  their  several  voyages,  and  is  cei*- 
tainly  one  of  the  most  important  ac- 
quisitions which  the  agriculture  of 
tropical  countries  owes  to  the  voy- 
ages of  naturalists.  This  variety  of 
cane  grows  with  extraordinary  vig- 
our :  its  stem  is  taller,  thicker,  and 
richer  in  juice  than  that  of  the  other 
species.  I  observed  it  along  the 
whole  coast  of  Venezuela,  of  New 
Grenada,  and  of  Peru  ;  far  from  hav- 
ing degenerated  by  its  transplantation 
to  the  American  continent,  it  appears 
to  have  preserved  all  its  original  qual- 
ities without  alteration. 

"  The  sugar  cane  is  propagated  by 
cuttings.  Pieces  of  the  stem  about 
18  or  20  inches  long,  and  having  sev- 
eral buds  or  eyes,  are  placed  two  or 
three  together  in  holes  a  few  inches 


out  of  the  moulds,  and  will  be  fit  for  j  in  depth,  and  are  covered  with  loose 
764 


SUGAR  CANE. 


moist  earth.  From  a  fortnight  to  three 
weeks  are  required  for  the  shoots  to 
show  themselves  above  ground.  The 
space  to  be  left  between  each  clump 
of  plants  depends  much  on  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil ;  in  the  most  fertile 
soils  the  distance  may  be  about  a 
yard,  or  a  little  more  ;  and  along  the 
rows  the  spaces  may  he  about  eigh- 
teen inches.  Where  land  is  of  no 
great  value  it  is  found  more  advanta- 
geous to  give  greater  space,  and  so 
to  favour  the  access  of  the  air  and 
the  light.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see 
plantations  where  the  canes  are  spa- 
ced at  distances  of  between  four  and 
live  feet.  The  time  at  which  the  set- 
ting of  the  slips  takes  place  cannot  be 
definitively  Indicated  ;  it  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  epoch  at  which  the 
periodical  rains  are  anticipated.  But 
in  places  where  irrigation  is  possible, 
the  setting  goes  on  through  all  the 
months  of  the  year  The  holes  for 
the  reception  of  the  slips  are  usually 
dug  with  a  hoe,  and  a  negro  will  make 
from  sixty  to  eighty  holes  in  the 
course  of  a  day.  When  the  ground 
has  been  previously  ploughed,  as  it  is 
in  some  of  the  West  India  islands,  he 
will  mal^e  twice  as  many.  Loose, 
rich  soils,  when  they  have  a  certain 
moisture,  are  the  best  adapted  to  the 
sugar  cane  :  it  does  not  thrive  in  an 
argillaceous  soil,  which  drains  with 
difficulty.  In  these  moist  soils  the 
slips  are  not  laid  horizontally  and  cov- 
ered, but  with  one  end  projecting  a 
little  way  out  of  the  ground.  When 
the  young  shoots  are  covered  with 
narrow  and  opposed  leaves,  watering 
is  particularly  advantageous,  and  the 
plants  are  repeatedly  hoed  until  they 
liave  acquired  sufficient  vigour  to 
choke  noxious  weeds.  About  the 
ninth  month  after  the  plantation  of 
the  slips,  the  shaft  of  the  sugar  cane 
begins  to  lose  its  leaves,  the  most  in- 
ferior falling  first,  the  others  in  suc- 
cession, so  that  when  arrived  at  ma- 
turity it  only  presents  a  tuft  of  ter- 
minal leaves.  The  flowering  gener- 
ally takes  place  with  the  conclusion 
of  the  year  ;  and  the  cane  is  held  suf- 
ficiently ripe  in  from  two  to  three 
months  after  this  epoch,  when  the 


stem  has  acquired  a  yellow  or  straw 
colour.  The  planters,  however,  are 
by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  proper 
period  of  the  sugar  cane  harvest  ; 
some  even  insist  upon  cutting  before 
the  flowering,  believing  that  the  quan- 
tity of  sugar  diminishes  on  the  appear- 
ance of  the  flower.  It  is  unquestion- 
able, however,  that  the  period  that 
elapses  between  the  planting  and  the 
harvest  must  vary  with  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  and  especially  with  that  of 
the  climate  ;  while  in  some  places  the 
cane  may  be  cut  when  it  is  a  year 
old,  doubtless  there  are  others  where 
it  requires  to  stand  from  fifteen  to 
sixteen  months.  In  Venezuela,  where 
the  Otaheile  cane  is  grown  at  the  lev- 
el of  the  sea,  and  where  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  year  is  between 
81°  and  82°  Fahrenheit,  the  cane  ri- 
pens, according  to  Colonel  Codazzi, 
in  eleven  months.  In  districts  at 
greater  elevations  under  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude,  where  the  cli- 
mate is  of  course  not  so  hot,  the  cane 
requires  a  longer  time  to  come  to 
maturity  ;  where  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  about  78°  Fahrenheit,  twelve 
months  are  required  ;  where  it  is 
about  74°  Fahr.,  fourteen  months  be- 
come necessary  ;  and  where  it  is  no 
more  than  about  67=  Fahrenheit,  six- 
teen months  are  requisite.  The  Ota- 
heite  cane  grows  to  very  different 
heights  :  in  very  favourable  circum- 
stances it  will  reach  a  height  of  16 
feet  and  upward,  but  its  general 
height  may  be  stated  at  from  9^  to 
10^  feet.  Great  cane  plantations  are 
divided  into  squares  of  from  100  to 
120  yards  on  the  side,  each  of  which 
coming  to  maturity  in  succession,  the 
labour  is  easily  performed,  both  in  re- 
gard to  field-work  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  sugar. 

"  The  cane  is  cut  close  to  the  root, 
and  before  being  carried  to  the  mill 
the  terminal  tuft  of  leaves  is  struck 
off  These  heads  in  the  green  state 
afTord  excellent  food  for  horses  and 
cattle  ;  when  dry  they  are  used  for 
thatching  houses.  After  the  first  cut- 
ting, fresh  sprouts  arise,  which  re- 
quire no  other  attention  than  hoeing. 
In  good  soils  one  planting  will  yield 
7165 


SUGAR  CANE. 


five   or   six   harvests  by  successive  I 
shoots  ;  but  I  have  heard  phinters  af- 
firm tliat  the  produce  in  sugar  duiiin- 
ishes  from  year  to  year.     In  Venezu- 
ela, cane  pieces  are  replanted  every  I 
five  or  six  years.  I 

"  The  cane  with  its  top  struck  off  j 
is  carried  to  the  mill,  where  the  juice 
is  expressed,  and  the  stems,  which 
aresiioken  ofunderthe  name  of  trash, 
are  dried  and  used  as  fuel.  I 

"  The  expressed  juice  contains  j 
crystallizable  sugar,  an  azotized  sub- 
stance analogous  to  albumen,  and  | 
some  saline  matters  dissolved  in  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  which  is  dis- 
sipated by  boiling,  and  the  sugar  final- 
ly won  by  crystallization.  The  man- 
ufacturing process  is  conducted  with  | 
very  dilTerent  degrees  of  perfection 
in  different  places.  In  some  the  prod-  ' 
uce  is  obtained  almost  without  ad- 
mixture of  molasses,  in  others  the 
quantity  of  this  article  which  drains 
away  from  the  sugar  is  very  large. 
It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  mo- 
lasses proceeds  in  great  part  from  im- 
perfections in  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses employed,  especially  to  chan- 
ges which  the  sugar  undergoes  in  the 
course  of  its  concentration  by  boiling 
at  a  high  temperature.  By  the  em- 
ployment of  what  are  called  vacuum 
pans  of  various  construction — pans 
from  which  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  removed  either  by  the 
air-pump,  or  the  condensation  of  the 
vapour  as  fast  as  it  is  formed,  rapid 
evaporation  is  effected  at  a  tempera- 
ture much  below  that  of  boiling  wa- 
ter, by  which  it  is  found  that  the  rel- 
ative quantity  of  sugar  to  that  of  mo- 
lasses is  greatly  increased.  It  was 
long  believed,  indeed,  and  that  on  the 
authority  of  the  first  chemists,  that 
there  were  two  kinds  of  sugar  con- 
tained in  the  sugar  cane,  one  crys- 
tallizable, the  other  uncrystallizable, 
and  constituting  the  molasses  or  trea- 
cle. The  researches  of  M.  Peligot 
have  shown  definitively  that  this  con- 
clusion is  erroneous ;  that  the  cane 
contains  no  sugar  that  is  not  crystal- 
lizable, and  that  the  pre-existence  of 
uncrystallizable  sugar  or  molasses  is 
entirely  chimerical.  M.  Plague  had 
766 


indeed  come  to  the  same  conclusion 
some  considerable  time  ago — as  far 
back  as  1826  ;  but  his  labours  were 
not  made  known  by  publication  till 
1840.  M.  Casaseca,  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Havana,  has  very  late- 
ly confirmed  these  conclusions,  so 
important  for  the  sugar  husbandry  of 
the  world.  The  composition  of  the 
juice  of  the  sugar  cane  is  therefore 
less  complex  than  it  was  once  believ- 
ed to  be  ;  making  abstraction  of  very 
minute  quantities  of  an  albuminous 
azotized  substance,  of  several  salts 
and  a  little  silica,  substances  which 
altogether  do  not  amount  to  more 
than  two  or  three  hundredths,  cane 
juice  may  be  said  to  consist  of  water 
and  of  crystallizable  sugar  in  the  pro- 
portion of  from  17  to  20  per  cent.  The 
Otaheite  cane,  analyzed  by  M.  Peligot, 
actually  yielded 

Water 721 

Woodj'  matter 99 

Soluble  matter  (sugar)     .     .     .     18  0 
1000 

"  This  conclusion  was  verified  by 
M.  Dupuy  at  Guadaloupe  in  1841, 
who,  operating  on  the  spot,  found  the 
composition  to  be  as  follows  : 

Water 720 

Woody  matter 9'8 

Soluble  matter  (sugfar)     .     .     .     17-8 

Salts 0-4 

1000 

"  The  analyses  of  the  Creole  cane, 
made  by  M.  Casaseca  at  Havana,  ap- 
pear to  indicate  a  larger  quantity  of 
woody  fibre  : 

Water 65-9 

Wood 16-14 

Sugar 177 

1000 

"  The  quantity  of  sugar  yielded  by 
the  cane  differs  considerably.  M. 
Codazzi  assigns  6  and  15  per  cent, 
as  the  extremes,  and  7J  per  cent,  as 
the  mean.  M.  Dupuy  gives  7-1  per 
cent,  as  the  average.  The  quantity 
is,  of  course,  first  and  most  intimate- 
ly connected  with  the  quantity  of 
juice  obtained.  But  the  produce  of 
juice  is  extremely  variable.  In  Gua- 
daloupe, the  juice  varies  between  56 
and  62  per  cent,  of  the  cane  subjected 
to  pressure.  The  generality  of  mills 
do  not,  in  fact,  enable  us  to  obtain 
more  than  about  56  per  cent.    At 


SUGAR  CANE. 


New-Orleans  the  usual  quantity  ob- 
tained i-3  said  to  be  50,  and  in  Cay- 
enne only  36  per  cent.  At  Havana, 
according  to  .M.  (^'a.saseca,  the  riband 
cane  yields  45,  the  crystalline  35,  and 
the  Otaheitan  5(5  per  cent,  of  juice. 


"The  Otaheite  cane  was  examin- 
ed by  M.  Peligt)t,  under  a  variety  of 
circumstances  of  age,  growth,  part 
of  plant,  &c.  The  following  table 
contains  the  condensed  results  of  his 
experiments  : 


First  shoots 

Second  do.  from  original  sprouts  . 
Third     do.  from  second        do. 
Fourth  do.  from  third           do. 

Inferior  part  of  cane 

Middle  part  of    do 

Siipenorpart  of  do 

Knots 

Cane  of  eifht  months      .... 
Cane  of  ten  months 

Water. 

Soluble  mat- 
ters  (suRnr). 

Woody  fibre. 

7.S-4 
71-7 
71.6 
730 
73-7 
72-6 
72-8 
70-8 
73-9 
72-3 

17-2 
17.8 
164 
168 
155 
16-5 
155 
120 
18-2 
18-5 

8-9 
10-5 
12-0 
10.2 
10-8 
10-9 
11-7 
17-2 
7-9 
9-2 

"  It  would  therefore  appear,  ma- 
king exception  always  of  the  knots 
which  occur  in  the  course  of  a  cane, 
that  the  composition  of  the  plant,  in 
its  various  states  and  conditions,  is 
almost  identical.  M.  Peligot's  im- 
portant paper,  while  it  informs  us  of 
the  average  composition  of  the  Ota- 
heite cane,  satisfies  us  that  the  gum- 
my and  mucilaginous  substances  and 
the  uncrystallizable  sugar,  the  exist- 
ence of  which  was  held  as  demon- 
strated, are,  in  fact,  nowise  constitu- 
ents of  the  sugar  cane.  Whence  we 
may  conclude,  with  M.  Peligot,  that 
every  drop  of  molasses  which  drains 
from  the  sugar  is  the  produce  of  the 
manufacture  ;  aii  opinion  to  which  I 
assent  the  more  readily  from  having 
myself  seen,  oftener  than  once,  the 
juice  of  the  cane  yield  nothing  but 
crystaliizable  sugar.  These  analyses 
farther  demonstrate,  more  powerful- 
ly than  could  any  discussion,  the  im- 
perfection of  the  processes  usually 
followed  in  manufacturing  sugar. 
They  prove,  in  fact,  that  in  the  mill 
rather  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole 
juice  contained  in  the  cane  is  left  in 
the  trash.  This  loss  might  be  con- 
siderably diminished  were  more  per- 
fect pressure  employed  in  extracting 
the  juice.  But  it  appears  that  the 
planters  are  indisposed  to  crush  the 
trash  too  much,  as  by  this  it  is  ren- 
dered less  fit  for  fuel,  a  considerable 
quantity  of  which,  by  the  present 
mode  of  manufacture,  is  indispensa- 
ble. M.  Dupree,  however,  says  that  by 


insisting  on  obtaining  from  65  to  66 
per  cent,  of  juice  in  all  cases,  the  trash 
is  still  left  with  all  its  value  as  a  com- 
bustible. The  trash,  on  coming  from 
the  mill,  appears  quite  dry.  I  have 
seen  some  which,  after  having  been 
pressed  twice  consecutively,  looked 
as  if  it  were  impossible,  by  any  far- 
ther amount  of  pressure,  to  express 
more  liquid.  Nevertheless,  it  was 
enough  to  taste  this  pressed  cane,  to 
be  satisfied  that  it  still  contained  a 
considerable  quantity  of  sugar.  To 
procure  this  without  using  more  pow- 
erful machinery,  M.  Peligot  proposed 
to  steep  the  trash  in  water,  and  to 
press  it  a  second  time.  By  this 
means  a  weak  juice  is  obtained, 
which,  added  to  the  first  pressings, 
raises  the  produce  of  sugar  from  sev- 
en to  ten  per  cent,  upon  the  whole 
amount  of  cane  employed.  By  fol- 
lowing this  process,  suggested  by  the- 
ory, upon  the  great  scale,  M.  Dupree 
has  succeeded  in  obtaining  one  fifth 
more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  su- 
gar without  makmg  any  change  in  his 
apparatus,  and  without  finding  the 
trash  too  much  shaken  to  be  burned 
under  his  coppers.  In  some  circum- 
stances the  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  juice  which  this  procedure  implies 
might  be  found  an  objection  on  ac- 
count of  the  larger  quantity  of  fuel 
required  for  its  evaporation  ;  but 
wherever  a  supjjjy  of  wood  is  to  be 
had,  M.  Peligot's  method  ought  un- 
doubtedly to  be  applied. 
"  The  very  dissimilar  quantities  of 
767 


SUG 

crystallizable  sugar  obtained  from 
canes,  wliicli,  as  we  have  seen,  all 
contain  very  nearly  the  same  quan- 
tity of  this  substance,  prove  that  the 
processes  of  concentration  and  puri- 
fication of  the  sap  also  contribute  to 
the  loss  which  has  been  indicated. 
M.  Peligot  has  pointed  out  several 
causes  which  concur  to  deteriorate 
sugar:  among  i  he  number  :  1.  A  vis- 
cous fermentation,  which  renders  the 
sap  thick  and  stringy,  like  mucilage, 
by  which  the  boiling  becomes  difficult 
and  the  crystallization  of  the  sugar 
which  has  escaped  change  is  render- 
ed imperfect.  2.  An  acidity,  which 
takes  place  when  the  juice  is  not  run 
at  once  into  the  coppers  and  boiled, 
an  acidity  which  ro(juires  the  addi- 
tion of  lime  to  destroy  or  to  prevent 
it.  The  alkaline  earth,  as  I  have  had 
occasion  to  say,  is  by  no  means  indis- 
pensable ;  its  utility,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  is  probably  confined 
to  assisting  the  defecation  by  form- 
ing an  insoluble  precipitate  with  some 
of  the  organic  substances  which  are 
always  met  with  in  small  quantities 
in  cane  juice  ;  perhaps,  also,  to  ma- 
king an  earthy  soap  with  the  fatty 
matters  which  adhere  to  the  cane 
and  are  expressed  in  the  crushing. 
When  lime  is  added  to  correct  acid- 
ity, it  forms  an  acetate  or  a  lactate, 
salts  which  are  peculiarly  soluble, 
uncrystallizablc,  and  which  necessa- 
rily retain  a  quantity  of  sugar  in  the 
sirupy  state.  3.  The  presence  of 
certain  mineral  salts  in  the  cane. 
Conmion  salt,  for  instance,  in  com- 
bining with  sugar  forms  a  deliques- 
cent compound,  in  which  one  part  of 
salt  is  united  with  six  parts  of  sugar  ; 
such  a  compound  as  this  of  course 
renders  a  large  quantity  of  sirup  in- 
disposed to  crystallize.  It  is  therefore 
impossible  to  be  too  cautious,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Peligot,  in  the  choice  of 
manure  for  a  cane  field  ;  that  which 
contains  any  common  salt  must 
needs  be  injurious  in  one  way,  how- 
ever advantageous  it  may  be  in  an- 
other. The  entire  absence  of  this 
salt  in  the  soil  of  plantations  which 
are  very  remote  from  the  seashore 
is  perhaps  one  of  the  causes  which 
768 


SUL 

increases  the  quantity  of  sugar  ob^ 
tained  from  the  crop,  and  makes  it 
more  easily  manufactured  in  such 
districts. 

"  M.  Codazzi  reckons  the  quantity 
of  white  sugar  produced  by  a  iicctare 
of  land  (2  473  acres),  planted  with 
the  Otaheite  cane  in  the  province  of 
Caraccas,  at  1875  kilogrammes,  or 
36  cwt.  3  qrs.  9  lbs.  avoir.,  which 
is  at  the  rate  of  15  cwt.  1  qr.  10  lbs. 
per  acre.  Taking  71  per  cent,  as  the 
average  quantity  of  sugar  obtained, 
the  weight  of  cane  brought  to  the 
mill  must  obviously  have  amounted 
to  19,134  kilog.,  or  18  tons,  15  cwt.  3 
qrs.  10  lbs.  ;  or  7  tons,  11  cwt.  3  qrs. 
25  lbs.  per  acre.  Assuming  the  av- 
erage composition  of  the  plant  to  be, 

Wood  (dry) HO 

Sugar  (minimum) 155 

Water "-^'S 

1000 

one  acre  of  land  will  consequently 
yield  a  crop  of 

Tons.  Cwts.  Qrs.  Lbs. 

Wood  (dry)      .     .     0  16        2  24 

Sugar     ....     1  3        2  6 

Water    •     •     •     ■     ^  H         2  12 

7  11         3  25 

"  The  trash  of  the  sugar  cane  un- 
dergoes rapid  fermentation  ;  it  soon 
exhales  a  distinct  smell  of  vinegar, 
and  almost  the  whole  of  the  sugar 
which  is  left  in  it  is  destroyed." 

SUGAR  OF  LEAD.  Acetate  of 
lead,  so  called  from  its  sweet  taste. 
It  is  much  used  in  lotions;  and  in 
solution  with  a  little  vinegar  forms 
Goulard's  lotion.  It  must  not  be 
used  incautiously,  as  it  is  poison- 
ous. 

SULCATE.  Marked  with  furrows, 
or  parallel  deep  lines. 

SULPHATES.  Salts  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  principal  in  agriculture 
are  the  sulphate  of  lime  (see  Gyp- 
sum), the  sulphate  of  soda  {Glauber's 
salt),  and  sulphate  of  potash.  The 
latter  is,  however,  too  expensive  ;  it 
is  found  in  the  ashes  of  some  plants. 
Glauber's  salt  may  be  obtained  for 
Si  to  $1  50  the  100  pounds,  and  is 
serviceable  as  a  steep,  or  as  a  manure 
in  gardens  for  the  cruciferous  plants. 
The  chief  value  of  the  sulphates  as 
manures  arises  from  the  necessity  for 


SUL 


SUL 


sulphur  in  plants,  especially  the  cru- 
ciferous and  lef^uminous  families.  It 
would  appear  that  plants  possess  the 
property  of  decomposing  the  sul- 
phates, for  they  chiefly  require  the 
sulphur,  which  is  an  ingredient  of 
fibrin,  casein,  and  albumen,  as  well 
as  some  oils.  The  sulphate  of  cop- 
per is  of  great  value  as  a  steep,  and 
a  solution  of  sul()hate  of  iron,  or  green 
vitriol,  is  much  used  in  Switzerland 
to  fix  the  ammonia  of  putrescent  ma- 
nures. 

SULPHITES.  Salts  of  sulphurous 
acid. 

SULPHOCYANATE  OF  POTAS- 
SIUM. A  solution  of  this  body  is 
used  to  detect  iron,  with  which  it 
forms  a  brownish-red  colour. 

SULPHOSLXAPISIN.  A  pungent 
body  obtained  from  mustard,  contain- 
ing both  salphur  and  nitrogen. 

SULPHUR  Bnmsloiic.  A  solid, 
lusible.  insoluble,  yellow  element- 
ary b  )dy  ;  equivalent,  161  :  symbol 
S  :  specific  gravity,  19.  It  is  a  non- 
conductor of  electricity,  and  power- 
fully electro -positive  in  its  com- 
pounds. It  is  very  inflammable,  uni- 
ting with  oxysren,  and  forming  the 
white,  suffocatmg  vapours  of  sul- 
phurous acid.  With  three  equiva- 
lents of  oxygen  it  forms  sulphuric 
acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol ;  a  dense,  oily 
acid,  of  great  causticity,  and  well 
known  in  the  arts  :  equivalent,  401. 
Sulphur  unites  directly  with  metals 
at  a  heat  below  redness,  forming  sul- 
phurets.  The  gaseous  compound  of 
1  equivalent  of  sulphur  with  1  of  hy- 
drogen, or  sulphuretled  hydrogen,  is 
remarkable  for  its  great  foetor ;  it  is 
given  off  by  decaying  organic  mat- 
ters containmg  sulphur,  and,  with  the 
sulphurct  of  anmionium,  constitutes 
the  principal  cause  of  the  stench  of 
putrefying  animal  matters. 

Sulphur  is  abundant  in  tlie  mineral 
kingdom  al)out  volcanoes.  It  is  pres- 
ent in  all  vegetables,  existing  in  al- 
bumen, casein,  and  analogous  bodies. 
It  has  been  used  to  destroy  insects, 
and  when  made  into  an  ointment 
with  lard  and  applied  to  the  parts, 
is  often  elTective.  When  burned,  the 
pungent,  sulphurous  acid  destroys 
T  r  T 


life,  but  is  also  injurious  to  vegeta- 
tion. It  has  the  property  of  bleach- 
ing many  colours,  and  especially  that 
of  straw.  A  solution,  formed  by  boil- 
ing equal  parts  of  quicklime  and  sul- 
phur in  twenty  or  thirty  times  their 
weight  of  water,  is  extremely  foetid 
and  poisonous  to  insects  :  it  is  called 
the  fn/ilrostilphnret  of  lime. 

SULPHURETS.  Compounds  of 
sulphur  with  metals. 

SULPHURETTED.  Containing 
sulphur  chemically  united.  A  solu- 
tion of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  in 
water  is  much  used  as  a  test  for 
metals  in  solution. 

SULPHURIC  ACID,  OIL  OF  VIT- 
RIOL. It  is  procured  in  commerce 
by  burning  sulphur  and  nitre  togeth- 
er in  chambers  made  of  lead.  The 
vapours  are  condensed  in  water, 
which  is  afterward  boiled  down  in 
platina  boilers  until  the  solution  be- 
comes of  the  appearance  of  oil,  and 
specific  gravity  18.  It  should  be  col- 
ourless, but  is  often  brown  ;  is  dread- 
fully caustic,  destroying  the  skin  in- 
stantly. When  water  is  added,  the 
mixture  becomes  quite  hot,  and  will 
often  break  glass  vessels.  It  com- 
bines with  all  oxides,  forming  sul- 
phates. Sulphuric  acid,  mixed  with 
500  parts  of  water,  has  been  applied 
to  clover  and  grass  with  advantage, 
but  is  not  better  than  gypsum,  and 
much  more  expensive  and  difficult  to 
manage.  It  is  now  used  to  dissolve 
bones,  but  is  inferior  to  muriatic  acid. 
100  pounds  of  the  best  acid  dissolve, 
after  much  time  and  with  repeated 
stirrings,  about  200  pounds  of  fine 
bone  dust,  converting  it  in  part  into 
a  sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum),  and  mto 
a  superphosphate  of  lime,  which  is 
soluble  :  the  solution  is  enough  for  an 
acre,  and  should  be  diluted  with  200 
parts  of  water,  and  applied  as  a  top- 
dressing.  The  solution  must  be  made 
in  an  earthen-ware  vessel  with  great 
care,  lest  the  acid  be  spilled. 

SULPHURIC  .^THER.  Common 

SULPHUROUS  ACID.    It  is  com- 
posed of  sulphur  16  1,  oxygen  16.     It 
is  a  gas  readily  condensed,  soluble  in 
water,  and  very  sour,  with  the  odour 
709 


SUN 


SUR 


of  sulphur;  in  contact  with  oxygen 
and  moisture,  it  readily  becomes 
changed  into  sulphuric  acid.  See 
Sulphur. 

SULPHUR  SALTS.  A  class  of 
salts  in  which  the  acid  and  ba.sc  both 
contain  sulphur  in  the  place  of  oxy- 
gen, or  as  their  electro-positive  ele- 
ment. 

SUMACH.  (SeeRhiis.)  "The 
powder  of  the  loaves,  flower  stems, 
and  young  branches  of  the  R/ius  eo- 
riaria  and  Rhus  culiiius,  shrubs  which 
grow  in  Hungary  and  the  Illyrian 
Provinces.  Both  kinds  contain  tan- 
nin, with  a  little  yellow  colouring 
matter,  and  are  a  good  deal  employed 
for  tanning  ligiit-coloured  leathers  : 
but  the  first  is  the  best.  With  mor- 
dants, it  dyes  nearly  the  same  colours 
as  galls.  In  calico  printing,  sumach 
affords,  with  a  mordant  of  tin,  a  yel- 
low colour ;  with  acetate  of  iron, 
weak  or  strong,  a  gray  or  black  ;  and 
with  sulphate  of  zinc,  a  brownish  yel- 
low. A  decoction  of  sumach  red- 
dens litmus  paper  strongly ;  gives 
white  flocks  with  the  proto-muriate 
of  tin  ;  pale  yellow  flocks  with  alum  ; 
dark  blue  flocks  with  red  sulphate  of 
iron,  with  an  abundant  precipitate. 
In  the  south  of  France,  the  twigs  and 
leaves  of  the  Coriaria  myrtifolia  are 
used  for  dyeing,  under  the  name  of 
redoul  or  rodoii." 

The  common  sumach  (R.  glahrnm) 
of  the  L'nited  States  is  extensively 
used  by  dyers  and  leather  dressers  ; 
it  is  more  valuable  from  the  South 
than  North,  but  is  inferior  to  the  R. 
coriaria,  or  Italian  sumach  of  Sicily 
and  the  south  of  Europe.  This  plant 
is  propagated  by  layers,  as  it  does  not 
mature  fruit. 

SUMMER  FALLOW.  A  fallow 
made  during  the  warm  months  to  kill 
weeds — a  green  fallow. 

SUNFLOWER.  HcUanthus  an- 
rtuvs.  A  well-known,  large  compos- 
ite plant,  yielding  an  abundance  of 
seeds,  which  are  excellent  for  feed- 
ing poultry.  It  requires  a  good  soil 
of  a  clayey  basis,  but  will  grow  on 
most  tdled  lands.  It  is  raised  in 
France  for  oil,  and  should  be  sown 
broad-cast  and  thinly,  or  in  rows  18 
770 


inches  apart.  It  soon  grows  suffi- 
ciently to  cover  weeds.  An  acre  will 
carry  2.5,000  plants  12  inches  apart, 
and  yield  50  bushels  of  seeds,  and 
upward  of  50  gallons  of  good  oil,  val- 
uable for  the  table,  lamps,  or  soap 
making.  The  cake  is  one  of  the 
most  nutritious  fodders  knowu  :  1500 
pounds  will  be  obtained  from  the 
above  crop.  Tlie  leaves  are  also 
eaten  by  cattle,  and  the  young  plants 
removed  in  thinning  form  good  prov- 
ender. The  stalks  are  rich  in  pot- 
ash, yielding  from  eight  to  ten  per 
cent,  of  it  in  their  ash,  but  should  be 
returned  to  the  land  as  manure.  It 
also  contains  a  large  proportion  of 
nitrate  of  potash  (nitre).  The  young 
plants  form  as  good  a  crop  to  plough 
in  as  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  which 
is  indeed  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
sunflower. 

SUPPOSITORY.  A  solid  medi- 
cine introduced  into  the  rectum  to 
produce  purgation. 

SUPPURATION.  The  common 
healthy  termination  of  inflammations 
of  the  cellular  tissues,  in  which  pus 
is  formed.  It  should  be  thoroughly 
evacuated  as  soon  as  formed. 

SUPRACRETACEOUS.  The 
formations  above  the  chalk,  now  call- 
ed tertiary. 

SURFEIT.    See  Horse,  Diseases  of. 

SURVEYING.  In  agriculture,  tlie 
determination  of  the  contents  of  any 
piece  of  ground  or  estate  ;  it  is  usual- 
ly done  in  a  rough  way  by  a  compass 
with  sights,  or  a  plane  table  and 
chain  of  100  links,  or  22  yards.  The 
external  boundaries  of  the  lield  are 
measured  by  the  chain  along  straight 
lines  determined  by  setting  up  the 
compass,  level,  and  a  staff.  The  dis- 
tance between  these  is  ascertained  in 
chains  and  links  ;  every  turn  or  angle 
of  large  size  is  determined  by  its 
bearing  with  the  compass  and  staff, 
and  a  measurement  of  the  length  of 
the  straight  line,  made  as  often  as 
there  are  sides  or  angles.  In  this 
way  a  plan  is  obtained,  giving  the 
angles,  bearings,  and  lengths  of  the 
sides  bounding  the  field.  This  is 
plotted,  and  a  calculation  made  of  the 
contents   by  the   ordinary  rules  of 


SWA 


SWE 


.mensuration.  For  this  purpose,  the 
contents  arc  divided  into  triangles, 
the  side  of  any  of  wliich  can  be  meas- 
ured on  the  ground,  to  assist  or  cor- 
rect the  reckoning.  The  chain  con- 
tains 100  links  of  7  92  inches.  A 
.square  chain  forms  tlic  tenth  of  an 
acre  ;  the  calculation  is  therefore 
made  in  links,  which  are  a  decimal 
portion  of  the  acre  ;  and  the  resulting 
area  being  reduced  by  three  ligures, 
gives  the  number  of  acres  in  a  field. 

But  in  better  examinations  the  the- 
odolite is  used,  and  the  distances  de- 
termined i)y  trigonometrical  observa- 
tions, and  not  by  measurements  with 
a  chain.  The  inclinations  of  hills,  &c.. 
Ere  also  reduced  to  a  plane  surface. 

SUTURE.  The  serrated  junction 
of  two  bones,  especially  of  the  skull. 
In  insects,  the  line  along  which  the 
w]ng  cases  meet.  In  botany,  the  nat- 
ural division  or  opening  in  a  fruit. 

SWAMP.  A  low  lake  or  morass 
in  which  trees  grow.  The  emana- 
tions from  swamps  in  the  spring  and 
fall  are  extremely  injurious,  and  fatal 
to  men  and  animals.  They  should  be 
drained,  if  possible.  The  mud  from 
thein  consists,  in  a  great  measure,  of 
vegetable  matter,  and  when  compost- 
ed with  lime  or  putrescent  matters, 
forms  a  good  coarse  manure  for 
amending  the  character  of  lands. 
Twenty  to  forty  loads  are  used  to  the 
acre. 

SWAN.  Cygnvs  olor.  The  most 
graceful  and  majestic  of  the  famdy 
of  birds.  They  are  much  used  in  Eu- 
rope to  adorn  rivers  and  small  lakes, 
are  not  destructive  to  fishes,  but  feed 
c-n  vegetables  and  grains.  The  fe- 
male breeds  in  the  summer,  lays  five 
4o  eight  eggs,  sits  a  month,  and  pre- 
fers a  retired  islet.  The  cygnets  are 
driven  off  the  next  spring,  and  are 
?iot  in  full  plumage  till  three  years. 
These  birds  are  disposed  to  migrate 
n  the  fall,  and  should  have  the  feath- 
ors  of  one  wing  clipped.  They  are 
also  very  quarrelsome,  and  seldom 
live  in  peace  when  more  than  one 
pair  are  placed  on  a  small  water.  The 
black  and  all  other  kinds  of  swan  are 
inferior  to  the  large  white  {Ct/i^mus 
olor),  the  base  of  u  hose  upper  bill  is 


furnished  with  a  black  prominence. 
They  require  to  be  ffMl  in  the  winter, 
and  the  ice  broken  for  tbeir  accom- 
modation until  the  weather  is  very 
severe,  when  they  should  be  allowed 
to  retire  to  a  shc^ltcred  yard. 

SWARU.  The  green  surface  of  a 
meadow. 

SWARD  GRASSES.  A  name  giv- 
en to  the  genus  Poa,  which  forms  the 
best  natural  meadows. 

SWATH.  The  bands  of  hay  or 
grass  cut  in  mowing. 

SWAYS.  Long  bramble  or  other 
flexible  rods,  used  in  thatching  with 
coarse  straws  or  reeds. 

SWEATING  HAY.  The  slightfer- 
mentation  which  occurs  when  fresh 
grass,  clover,  &c.,  are  placed  in  heaps. 
It  is  attended  w-ith  considerable  heat 
if  the  quantity  is  great,  and  should, 
therefore,  be  looked  after.  Fruits 
and  grain  also  undergo  a  sweating 
process,  if  heaped  soon  after  collec- 
tion. It  is  the  best  method  to  pre- 
pare the  different  kinds  of  hay.  See 
Hny-makwg. 

SWE.\L.  To  singe  the  hair  from 
hogs  or  other  slaughtered  animals 
with  lighted  wisps  of  straw. 

SWEET  flag.  Acorus  calamus, 
the  root  of  which  is  pleasantly  aro- 
matic. 

SWEET  GRASS.  The  genus 
Glyccna,  for  the  most  part  water 
grasses.  The  seeds  of  G.  fluitans,  or 
Marona  grass,  are  cultivated  in  Ger- 
many for  gruel.  The  G.  aquatica,  or 
water  fescue,  is  a  large,  permanent 
grass,  growing  in  rich  marshes  and 
the  edges  of  rivers,  and  affording  an 
abundance  of  good  provender. 

SWEET  POTATO.  Convolvulus 
hattatus.  A  convolvulus,  the  root  of 
which  attains  a  large  size,  and  con- 
tains much  sugar  mixed  with  an 
agreeable  farina.  They  require  a 
rich,  light  soil.  The  potatoes  are  set 
out  in  a  warm  place  early  in  April. 
In  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States 
a  warm  bed  is  necessary.  They  spront 
in  two  or  three  weeks,  and  throw  out 
a  number  of  runners  ;  these  are  ta- 
ken off  when  throe  inches  above  the 
soil,  and  trans()lanled  to  beds  [)roper- 
ly  prepared  in  hills  four  to  five  feet 
771 


SYC 


SYN 


apart  each  way.  The  old  tubers  con- 
tinue to  throw  out  runntTs  during 
April  <Tnd  May.  iSomeliincs  tlu'y  are 
set  out  in  liilis,  and  nut  mi  a  l)ed,  and 
allowed  to  grow  witli  litile  intcrruj)- 
tion  :  in  this  way  the  jioialocs  are 
sooner  fit  for  use.  The  hills  must  be 
carefully  weeded  and  worked.  'J'hey 
may  he  taken  when  large  enough  for 
use,  but  the  winter  crop  should  not 
be  removed  until  the  vines  are  dead. 
To  keep  them  during  winter,  they 
should  be  dried  in  the  sun  till  the 
moisture  is  driven  ofi",  sweated  in 
heaps,  and  when  dry,  packed  in  dry 
sand  in  a  cellar  not  subject  to  wet  or 
frost.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
sweet  potato,  but  they  are  not  classi- 
fied. The  kind  cultivated  in  Florida 
is  very  large,  and  altogether  superior 
to  those  wliich  are  known  to  us.  The 
Nansemond  potatoes  are  also  large, 
and  in  high  repute.  The  yams  are  of 
a  different  genus  ;  the  varieties  are 
derived  from  the  Dioscorca  sa/ira  and 
alata ;  the  roots  are  often  palmated, 
and  often  weigh  thirty  pounds. 

SWEET-SCEA'TED SHRUB.  Ca- 
lycantlius  Floridus.  Allspice,  a  pleas- 
ant, fragrant  shrub  with  dark  flowers. 

SWINE.     See  Hog. 

SWINESTONE.  A  bituminous 
limestone,  which  becomes  foetid  when 
rubbed. 

SWING  PLOUGH.  The  plough 
without  a  fore  wheel  under  the  beam. 
It  is  difficult  for  a  novice  to  manage, 
from  the  point  sometimes  running 
unequally,  and  sinking  or  rising  sud- 
denly, and  in  very  rolling  land  is  in- 
ferior to  the  wiieel  ploughs  ;  but  in 
the  hands  of  an  experienced  plough- 
man is  often  preferred. 

SWINGING-TREE,  SWINGLE- 
TREE,  WHIPPLE-TREE.  The  bar 
of  wood  or  iron  to  which  the  traces 
of  each  horse  are  fastened,  and  which 
are  hitched  on  to  the  cart,  plough,  or 
other  implement  to  be  drawn. 

SWITCHING  HEDGES.  Cutting 
off  the  year's  shoots.  This  is  done 
with  a  sharp  hooked  blade  called  a 
iwitching-hook,  or  with  large  hedge 
shears. 

SYCAMORE.     The  buttonwood. 

SYCON,SYCONUS.  Afiuitcon- 
772 


sisting  of  a  fleshy  disk  or  hollow  re- 
ceptacle, as  in  the  fig. 

SYENITE.  A  granite  with  black 
spots  of  hornblend.  Haddam  or  Bos- 
ton granite. 

SYMBOL.  In  chemistry,  the  abbre- 
viation used  to  distinguish  an  ele- 
ment or  chemical  body.  It  usually 
consists  of  the  initial  letter,  some- 
times of  the  first  and  second. 

SY.MPATIIY.  A  veterinary  and 
medical  term  used  to  express  the  ex- 
istence of  certain  symptoms  in  a  dis- 
ease which  are  remote  from  the  part 
injured. 

SYMPATHETIC  NERVE.  A 
grand  connexion  of  nerves  from  one 
end  of  the  body  to  the  other,  furnish- 
ed with  nervous  centres  or  ganglia, 
by  which  some  physiologists  suppose 
a  uniformity  in  the  operations  of  the 
different  viscera  is  maintained.  It  is 
also  called  the  trisplanchnic  nerve. 

SY.MPIESOMETER.  A  kind  of 
barometer. 

SYN  (from  aw,  together).  A  com- 
mon prefix  in  descriptive  words, 
meaninff  united. 

SYNAPTASE.  The  white  matter 
of  almonds  freed  from  oil,  albumen, 
and  other  matters.  It  is  probably  the 
same  as  emulsin. 

SYNCARPOUS  FRUITS  (from 
CTw,  and  KapjTOf,  a  fruit).  Such  as  con- 
tain several  carpels  united,  as  the  ap- 
ple, pear,  &,c. 

SYNCHONDROSIS  (from  ow,  and 
xovdpvr,  a  cartilage).  Tlie  junction  of 
bones  by  a  cartilage. 

SYNCOPE.  Fainting  ;  whenever 
the  circulation  and  respiration  be- 
come very  feeble  for  a  lime. 

SYNGENESIA  (from  aw,  and  ye- 
veoig,  reproduction).  The  composite 
family  of  plants.  A  class  of  Linnaeus, 
m  which  the  anthers  are  united  into 
a  tube,  the  filaments  being  usually 
separate  and  distinct. 

SYNOCHA.  Continued  inflamma- 
tory fevers. 

SYNOVIA.  The  albuminous  or 
serous  fluid  secreted  in  the  joints,  to 
diminish  the  friction  of  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  bones  ;  it  is  poured  out 
from  little  pouches,  called  synovial 
bags. 


TAG 


TAN 


SYNTHESIS.  In  chemistry,  the 
production  of  a  compound  body  by  a 
union  of  its  elements  or  parts. 

SYRINGE.  A  macliine  consisting 
of  a  small  cylinder  with  an  air-tii^ht 
piston  or  sucker,  which  is  moved  up 
and  down  in  it  by  means  of  a  handle. 
The  lower  end  of  the  cylinder  ter- 
minates in  a  small  tube,  throu£jh 
which  a  fluid  is  forced  into  the  body 
of  the  cylinder  by  the  atiriospheric 
pressure  when  the  handh^  is  drawn 
up,  and  then  expelled  in  a  small  jet, 
by  pushing  the  handle  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  syrinj^e  acts  on  the 
principle  of  the  sucking  pump.  Tlie 
syringe  is  also  used  as  a  pneumatic 
machine  for  condensing  or  exhaust- 
ing the  air  in  a  close  vessel,  but  for 
this  purpose  it  must  be  furnished 
with  two  valves.  In  the  condensing 
syringe  the  valves  open  downward 
and  close  upward  ;  in  the  exhausting 
syringe  they  are  closed  downward 
and  opened  upward.  The  garden  syr- 
inse,  so  useful  for  watering  plants, 
and  removing  caterpillars,  red  spi- 
ders, and  other  insects,  is  no  more 
than  a  large  squirt,  of  a  pint  or  (piart 
size,  which  discharges  fluid  from  a 
rose  or  perforated  end  instead  of  a 
point. 

SYRUP.  A  thick  solution  of  sugar. 

SYSTOLE  (from  nvireiyM,  I  cnn- 
trar.t).  The  contraction  of  the  heart, 
the  diastole  being  its  dilatation. 
These  two  alternate  movements  pro- 
duce the  beating. 

SYTHE.     See  Scythe. 

T. 

TACAMAHACA.  The  Populus 
balsamica  of  Canada,  which  yields  a 
resinous,  balsamic  exudation  in  the 
spring,  which  is  sometimes  called  Ta- 
camhac. 

TAG.  A  sheep  of  the  first  year. 
Tai^s  are  the  masses  of  dirt  that  ac- 
cumulate on  the  wool  of  the  tail  ; 
the  process  of  removing  them  is  call- 
ed tagging,  and  sometimes,  when 
they  cause  the  tail  to  be  fastened  to 
the  body,  that  state  is  called  tagbelt 
or  pinning. 

TAGLI.\.  A  combination  of  pul- 
leys, a  tackle. 

T  T  T  2 


TAGLIACOTIAN  or  TALIACO 
TIAN  OPERATION.  Any  opera 
tion  in  which  the  skin  is  nearly  cut 
from  one  part  and  made  to  cover  an- 
other. 

TAIL  DRAIN.  The  main  drain, 
which  receives  the  water  of  the  less 
er  drains. 

TALC.  A  mineral  closely  resem 
bling  mica,  but  not  elastic. 

TALLOW.  The  melted  or  ren 
dered  fat  of  the  ox  or  sheep.  The 
greater  part  of  the  bodies  of  sheep 
and  oxen  are  thrown  into  inmiense 
caldrons,  and  rendered  by  steam  at 
a  high  pressure,  in  the  West  and  in 
New  Holland.  The  fat  of  bones, 
which  amounts  to  eight  or  ten  per 
cent.,  is  obtained  in  the  same  way, 
and  forms  a  coarse  tallow.  Its  com- 
position is  similar  to  that  of  oils,  but 
the  stearin  is  in  excess. 

TALLOW-TREE.  Croton  sebife- 
runi.  A  large,  lauraceous  tree  of 
China,  the  seeds  of  which,  when 
pressed,  yield  a  fatty  body  very  simi- 
lar to  tallow.  Some  specimens  of 
this  tree  are  found  growing  in  the 
sltrul)beries  of  the  Southern  States. 

TALKS.  A  heap  of  rubliish  accu- 
mulated at  the  foot  of  a  clitlor  steep 
rock. 

TAMARIND.  Tamarindus  Lidica. 
A  large  tree  of  the  leguminous  fam- 
ily, native  of  the  tropical  East  and 
West  Indies.  The  prepared  pods, 
preserved  in  sugar,  form  a  refreshing 
sweetmeat.  They  contain  much  cit- 
ric acid. 

TAMARIX.  The  genus  Tamarix, 
small,  ornamental  shrubs. 

TAMPING.  In  blasting,  filling  the 
hole  with  sand  and  pieces  of  rock 
after  a  cartridge  has  been  introduced. 

TANK.  "A  reservoir  for  water 
or  other  fluids.  The  name  is  some- 
times applied  to  large  open  recepta- 
cles, or  ponds,  formed  by  excavating 
the  ground  and  disposing  the  removed 
earth  in  the  form  of  banks  to  retain 
the  water;  but  the  tanks  which  will 
here  be  especially  treated  of,  are  the 
smaller  covered  reservoirs  used  to 
collect  and  retain  water  and  liquid 
manure  for  domestic  and  agricultural 
purposes. 

773 


TANK. 


"  The  importance  of  collecting  rain 
water  for  domestic  purposes,  espe- 
cially in  districts  where  springs  are 
deficient  or  lie  at  a  great  depth,  has 
been  much  overlooked.  Waistell  ur- 
ges the  importance  of  placing  spouts 
round  all  the  buildings  of  a  farm  to 
collect  tiie  rain  water  which  falls 
upon  them  into  a  tank  or  tanks,  ob- 
serving that,  besides  the  value  of  the 
supply  of  water  thus  obtained,  the 
buildings  will  be  benefited  by  the 
walls  and  foundations  being  kept 
drier  than  when  the  water  from  the 
roof  is  suffered  to  fall  upon  them. 
He  states  that  the  quantity  of  water 
that  falls  annually  upon  every  hun- 
dred superficial  feet,  or  square  of 
building,  is  about  1400  imperial  gal- 
lons. If,  therefore,  the  external  sur- 
faces of  roofs  were  adapted  to  the 
collection  of  the  rain  water  which 
falls  upon  them,  and  means  were 
provided  for  conveying  it  to  covered 
tanks,  in  which  it  might  be  preserved 
from  evaporation,  and  kept  free  from 
any  admixture  of  impurities,  almost 
every  house  might  be  readily  and 
cheaply  supplied  with  a  quantity  of 
wholesome  water  sufficient  for  the 
ordinary  wants  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  extensive  roofs  of  churches  and 
other  public  buildings  might  be  em- 
ployed in  like  way  to  collect  water 
for  the  supply  of  ponds  or  tanks  for 
public  use.  In  some  cases,  even  the 
drainage  of  lands  might  also  be  made 
avadable,  as  the  water  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  any  required  process  of 
filtration  before  it  is  allowed  to  enter 
the  tank. 

"  Tanks  or  cisterns  to  hold  water 
for  domestic  purposes  maybe  conve- 
niently situated  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  so  that,  being  paved 
over,  they  occupy  no  valuable  space. 
They  are  formed  of  stone  slabs 
grooved  into  each  other  and  set  in  ce- 
ment ;  of  slate  ;  of  large  paving  tiles 
bedded  in  cement  ;  of  brick-work ; 
of  plates  of  cast  iron  ;  or  of  thick 
wooden  planks,  i)rotected  by  charring 
and  pitching,  or  lined  with  sheet  lead. 
The  brick  tanks  described  by  ^^■aist- 
ell  are  circular,  the  sides  being  built 
like  a  well,  with  bottoms  of  an  in- 1 
774 


verted  dome-shape,  of  very  slight 
convexity.  The  top  is  also  dome- 
shaped,  and  has  an  opening  in  the 
centre,  large  enough  to  receive  a 
man,  in  order  that  the  tank  may  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  out  when  neces- 
sary. This  opening,  which  may  be 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  a 
little  above  it,  should  be  covered  with 
an  oak  flap  pierced  with  a  number  of 
holes,  or  with  an  iron  grating.  The 
depth  and  width  of  the  tank  should, 
it  is  stated,  be  nearly  equal.  If  ne- 
cessary, a  smaller  brick  chamber  may 
be  constructed  alongside  of  the  tank, 
in  which  the  water  may  be  filtered 
through  gravel,  sand,  charcoal,  &c., 
before  entering  it.  It  is  recommend- 
ed to  make  the  opening  by  which 
water  enters  the  tank  near  the  top. 
Brick  tanks  of  this  description  may 
be  rendered  water-tight  by  laying  the 
inner  course  of  bricks  in  cement,  and 
plastering  the  v^'hole  of  the  inside 
with  the  same  to  the  thickness  of 
about  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  To 
enable  them  without  injury  to  bear 
the  great  weight  of  water  when  near- 
ly full,  the  earth  should  be  rammed 
closely  round  the  brick  work,  and  it 
should  be  allowed  to  settle  thoroughly 
before  any  great  quantity  of  water  is 
admitted.  Loudon  describes  anoth- 
er kind  of  brick  tank,  contrived  to 
save  expense  in  construction,  by 
adopting  a  figure  of  maximum  capa- 
city and  minimum  surface.  When 
the  tank  is  large,  it  is  proposed  to 
adopt  the  spherical  form  ;  and  when 
of  less  than  five  or  six  feet  in  diam- 
eter, that  of  a  short  vertical  cylinder, 
with  hemispherical  ends.  By  pud- 
dling with  clay  round  about  the  tank, 
the  necessity  for  the  use  of  Roman 
cement  is  avoided. 

"  In  addition  to  tanks  for  water, 
every  farm-yard  should  have  one  to 
collect  the  liquid  portion  of  the  ma- 
nure, which  is  washed  by  the  rain 
through  the  refuse  litter,  and  also  the 
urine  of  the  stalled  cattle.  Though 
not  yet  generally  adopted,  in  France, 
Germany,  and  especially  in  Belgium, 
such  tanks  are  considered  as  neces- 
sary to  a  farm  as  any  of  its  most  com- 
mon  buildings.      They   are   usually 


TANK. 


constriictpd  of  an  ohlong  shape,  of 
Idie-k  well  cemented,  with  one  or 
more  divisions,  and  capable  of  con- 
taining at  least  ten  times  as  many 
hogslieads  as  liiere  are  heads  of  cattle 
on  the  farm.  They  are  vaulted  over, 
having  a  small  aperture,  in  which  a 
pump  is  placed,  suliicient  to  allow  a 
man  occasionally  to  clear  out  the  sed- 
iment when  the  li<iuid  has  been  pump- 
ed up.  The  best  shape  to  contain  a 
large  quantity  in  the  smallest  space 
would  be  like  those  before  described ; 
but  they  cannot  conveniently  be  made 
sufficiently  large,  and  a  cubical  form, 
or,  rather,  that  of  several  cubes  in 
succession,  is  preferred.  A  tank  for 
a  farm  of  200  acres  of  arable  land 
should  be  15  feet  wide,  15  deep,  and 
45  long,  giving  three  cubes  of  15  feet, 
or  a  cavity  capable  of  containing  up- 
ward of  10,000  cubic  feet  of  liquid. 
In  this  tank  the  urine  is  diluted  with 
water  to  prevent  too  rapid  decompo- 
sition, and  also  to  retain  the  ammo- 
nia which  is  formed  ;  for  which  pur- 
pose gypsum  and  sulphate  of  copper 
are  sometimes  put  into  the  tanks. 

"  If  the  soil  be  not  sandy,  clay  will 
answer,  instead  of  mortar,  to  con- 
nect the  brick-work,  and  a  plastering 
of  lime  or  cement  will  be  sufficient  to 
keep  out  the  worms  ;  hut  in  very 
porous  soils  the  bottom  and  sides 
must  be  puddled,  to  keep  in  the  liquid ; 
and  it  may  be  advantageous  to  build 
the  walls  in  cement  altogether.  The 
liquid  from  the  yards  and  stables  is 
carried  into  the  tank  by  a  main  drain 
constructed  of  brick  or  stone,  and 
which  receives  a  number  of  smaller 
drains  from  every  part  of  the  yards 
and  cattle  sheds.  Thus  the  litter  in 
the  yard  is  always  dry,  and  none  of 
the  richness  of  the  manure  is  lost  by 
evaporation. 

"  Sometimes  the  tank  is  vaulted 
like  a  cellar  under  the  cow-house  and 
stables,  which  are  washed  out  twice 
every  day,  and  all  the  dung  and  wa- 
ter are  swept  into  a  cess-pool  com- 
municating with  the  tank.  Thus  a 
very  diluted  but  rich  liquid  soon  fills 
the  first  division  of  the  tank  :  a  sluice 
is  then  shut,  and  the  ne.xt  washings 
run  into  a  second  division,  and  when 


that  is  full,  into  a  third.  In  the  mean 
time  the  contents  of  the  first  tank 
have  undergone  a  certain  fermenta- 
tion, by  which  the  caustic  ammonia 
first  evolvcnl  has  become  mild  and 
impregnates  the  water.  It  is  then 
in  a  fit  state  to  be  carried  on  the  land 
in  tubs  or  water-carts.  When  prop- 
erly diluted,  it  accelerates  vegetation 
in  a  surprising  degree  ;  but  if  ])ut  on 
fresh,  it  burns  the  grass  or  any  ve- 
getable it  touches,  because  the  am- 
monia is  in  a  caustic  state.  If  a  cow 
drop  her  urine  in  a  field  in  a  hot 
sununer's  day,  all  the  grass  it  has 
touched  becomes  yellow  and  is  burn- 
ed up  ;  but  if  the  same  happen  in 
rainy  weather,  the  spot  soon  becomes 
very  green,  and  the  grass  luxuriant ; 
because,  in  this  case,  the  urine  is 
amply  diluted  and  its  caustic  nature 
corrected.  Those  who  live  near  gas 
works  may  collect  the  ammoniacal 
gas  water  in  a  tank,  and,  by  the  ad- 
dition of  sulphuric  acid  in  very  small 
quantities,  they  may  produce  a  very 
fertilizing  liquid,  which  will  stimulate 
vegetation,  and  be  a  very  good  ma- 
nure. 

"  The  necessary  concomitant  of  a 
tank,  whether  for  water  or  manure, 
is  a  water-cart,  that  is,  a  large  cask 
put  upon  wheels  to  bring  water  from 
some  distance.  When  there  are  no 
means  of  bringing  water  in  pipes,  a 
water-cart  is  quite  indispensable.  It 
is  simply  a  cask  placed  on  the  frame 
of  a  cart,  with  a  plug-hole  in  the  end 
or  lower  part,  from  which  the  water 
may  be  let  out  by  a  cock,  or  drop  on 
a  flat  board  or  into  a  bucket  with 
holes,  so  as  to  spread  it  about.  The 
plug-hole  is  shut  by  a  valve  inside, 
which  can  be  opened  by  means  of  a 
string,  the  pressure  of  the  liquid 
keeping  it  close  to  the  plug-hole. 

"  Many  of  the  artificial  manures, 
of  which  a  number  have  been  lately 
proposed,  would  make  excellent  li- 
quids by  merely  mixing  them  with 
water  in  a  tank,  and  allowing  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  fermentation  to  take 
place.  Thus  nothing  is  lost,  and  all 
volatile  substances  are  taken  up  by 
the  water.  The  soluble  portions  are 
dissolved  and  the  earthy  matters  dif- 
775 


TAN 

fused,  so  as  to  be  more  equally  spread 
over  the  land.  If  it  be  true  tliat  the 
ammonia  found  in  some  plants  is 
chiefly  derived  from  tlie  very  small 
portion  discovered  in  rain  water,  it 
follows  that  a  scarcely  perceptible 
impregnation  with  this  salt  may  have 
most  powerful  effects  on  vegetation. 

"When  a  farm-yard  is  situated  on 
a  hill,  and  there  are  fields  or  pastures 
on  a  lower  level,  at  no  great  distance 
from  it,  the  liquid  from  tiie  tank  may 
be  conducted  by  channels  lined  with 
clay,  having  small  sluices  to  direct 
the  streams  to  any  particular  field. 
It  may  ihus  be  made  to  irrigate  tem- 
porarily a  considerable  surface,  which 
it  will  greatly  enrich.  It  may  be  led 
into  the  common  furrows  between 
the  lands,  or  stitches,  in  j)loughed 
land,  and  allowed  to  soak  in  them,  and 
then  it  can  be  spread  with  the  earth 
of  the  furrow,  by  means  of  broad 
shovels,  over  the  growing  crops,  and 
wUl  greatly  invigorate  them.  This 
species  of  irrigation  is  common  in 
Lombardy,  where  much  ingenuity  is 
shown  in  the  manner  in  which  water 
is  made  to  flow  in  small  rivulets  be- 
tween the  rows  of  growing  vegeta- 
bles. The  water  here  is  supplied  by 
streams,  but  the  same  method  would 
distribute  the  tank  liquor  with  great 
effect.  A  very  small  quantity  of  this 
liquor,  allowed  to  flow  into  the  main 
feeder  of  a  water  meadow,  will  soon 
prove  how  great  effects  are  produced 
by  impregnations  which  are  scarcely 
perceptible  by  chemical  analysis. 

"Small  as  the  experience  has  hith- 
erto been  in  this  country  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  liquid  manure  tanks,  it 
has  sufficiently  proved  their  use  to 
induce  every  man  who  constructs  a 
farm-yard  and  erects  buildings  to  take 
in  tlie  tank  as  an  essential  part  of  his 
plan  ;  and  even  if  it  only  collected  the 
refuse  fluids  which  are  allowed  to  run 
off  in  common  sewers  from  most 
houses,  it  would  soon  repay  tlie  cost 
of  its  construction,  while  it  rendered 
the  ditches  in  the  neighbourhood  less 
subject  to  noxious  emanations  from 
the  corrupted  matter  which  now  flows 
into  them." 

TANNER'S  BARK.    The  bark  of 
776 


TAN 

'  oak,  &c.,  used  for  tanning  ;  when  ex- 
hausted it  is  serviceable  to  the  farm- 
er and  gardener,  and  may  be  used 
in  stoves  (see  Store),  or  composted 
with  lime  and  earth,  or  putrescent 
j  manures,  into  a  good  coarse  manure. 
Where  the  quantity  is  large  and  the 
I  land  in  good  tilth,  it  may  be  burned, 
i  and  the  ashes  applied  at  the  rate  of 
i  ten  to  fifteen  bushels  the  acre,  espe- 
j  cially  to  clovers  and  grass. 
I      TANNER-S  WASTE.     The  mix- 
ture of  lime  and  hair,  scrapings  and 
trimmings  of  skins,  as   well  as  the 
fluid  of  the  lime  and  steeping  vats, 
are  all  serviceable  in  composts  ;  the 
solids  being  mixed  with  earth,  char- 
coal, spent  bark,  or  sawdust,  and  the 
fluids  being  used  to  moisten  the  com- 
post heaps. 

TANNIN.  The  astringent  princi- 
ple of  galls,  sumach,  catechu,  and 
numerous  barks.  It  is  very  soluble 
in  water,  and  possesses  the  property 
of  uniting  with  albuminous  matters, 
and  forming  lanno-gelatinc,  or  leather. 
When  separated  from  the  other  sub- 
stances in  bark,  it  is  found  to  be  a 
white,  astringent  powder,  with  acid 
reaction,  and  known  as  tannic  acid; 
by  the  action  of  moisture  and  air  it 
absorbs  oxygen,  and  becomes  con- 
verted into  the  insoluble  gallic  acid. 
The  formula  of  tannic  acid  is  C]8 
H.5  Og-f-S  HO  :  it  is  tribasic,  and  its 
salts  are  called  tammtes. 

The  value  of  any  specimen  of  bark 
for  tanning  and  certain  dyes  is  as- 
certained by  the  amount  of  tanni-3 
acid  they  contain.  The  amount  in 
the  following  table  is  from  Davy.  In 
480  parts, 

at. 

Oak  bark  contains   ....  29 

Spanish  chestnut     ....  21 

Leicester  willow  (large)  .     .  33 

Elm 13 

Common  willow  (large)    .     ,  11 

Ash .16 

Beech 10 

Horse-chestnut 9 

Sycamore ]1 

Lomliardy  poplar     ....  15 

Birch 8 

Hazel 14 

Blackthorn 16 

Cojjpice  oak 32 

Inner  rinii  of  oak  bark.     .     .  72, 

Oak  cut  in  autumn  ....  21 

Larch  cut  iu  autumn    ...  8 


TAN 


TAN 


To  this  may  be  added  the 

Sicilian  sumach 78  lbs. 

Nut  galls 127 

Catechu 261 

TANNING  ON  THE  PLANTA- 
TION. The  advantajjcs  of  liaving  a 
means  of  preparin':r  hides  on  the  plan- 
tation, in  the  South  and  Southwest, 
need  not  be  enlarged  upon  ;  the  fol- 
lowing simple  process  is  by  Mr.  Af- 
fleck, and  from  the  American  Agri- 
culturist : 

"  Tanning  leather  for  the  use  of 
the  plantation  is  an  item  of  good 
management  that  should  not  be  over- 
looked by  any  planter  ;  nor  would  it 
be  as  nuich  overlooked  as  it  is,  if  the 
simplicity  of  the  process  was  gener- 
ally known — that  process,  I  mean, 
that  will  suffice  for  making  leather 
for  home  use.  The  tanner  by  profes- 
sion, in  order  to  prepare  an  article 
that  will  command  a  good  price  in 
market,  and  have  a  merchantable  ap- 
pearance, puts  the  hides  and  skins 
through  a  greater  number  of  manip- 
ulations ;  and,  that  he  may  work  to 
better  advantage,  has  his  arrange- 
ments on  a  more  extensive  scale. 

"  The  vats,  tools,  and  implements 
really  needed  are  few  and  simple. 
Four  vats  will  generally  be  found  all- 
sufficient  :  one  for  a  pool  of  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  for  baiting ;  one  for  limincr ; 
another  for  colouring;  and  a  fourth 
for  tanning.  The  best  size,  in  the 
clear,  is  seven  feet  long,  four  and  a 
half  feet  wide,  and  five  feet  deep. 
They  should  be  placed  so  as  to  be 
easily  and  conveniently  filled  with 
water  from  a  spring,  running  stream, 
or  cistern.  Dig  the  holes  nine  feet 
by  six  and  a  half  and  six  ;  if  the  found- 
ation is  clay,  the  depth  need  not  be 
over  five  feet.  Form  a  stifT  bed  of 
clay  mortar  in  the  bottom,  on  which 
to  lay  the  floor,  and  on  it  erect  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  vat,  of  plank  of 
almost  any  kind,  sufficiently  thick  to 
resist  tiie  pressure  from  without : 
two  inches  will  be  thick  enough. 
When  this  is  done,  and  the  wiiole 
nailed  fast,  fdl  in  the  vacant  space  all 
round  with  ur.ll  tempered  cVay  mortnr, 
ramming  it  efTectually  ;  it  is  on  this, 
and  not  the  planks,  that  dependance 


is  placed  for  rendering  the  vat  per- 
fect. When  well  made,  a  vat  will 
be  good  for  a  long  lifetime,  the  ooze 
preventing  the  decay  of  any  but  the 
top  round  of  plank.  Such  a  vat  will 
hold  fifteen  large  beef  hides  (thirty 
sides),  besides  a  number  of  small 
skins. 

"The  material  used  for  tanning  is 
the  bark  of  the  red  or  black  oak, 
stripped  when  the  sap  flows  in  the 
spring,  stacked  and  dried,  of  which 
about  four  pounds  are  supposed  to  be 
necessary  to  produce  one  pound  of 
leather.  There  is  an  article  occa- 
sionally used,  called  '  catechu,'  which 
is  an  extract  made  from  the  wood  of 
a  mimosa-tree,  a  native  of  India,  half 
a  pound  of  which  answers  the  same 
purpose.  Galls,  willow  bark,  the  bark 
of  the  Spanish  chestnut,  and  common 
elm,  as  also  sumach,  are  all  used  by 
the  tanner.  It  has  been  recently 
found  that  the  root  of  the  palmetto 
answers  an  equally  good  purpose  with 
the  best  oak  bark. 

"  Bark  has  to  be  ground  as  wanted  ; 
or  if  the  quantity  needed  is  small,  and 
it  is  not  thought  advisable  to  incur 
the  expense  of  a  bark  null  (from  ten 
to  eighteen  dollars),  it  may  be  pound- 
ed in  a  large  mortar,  or  beat  up  on  a 
block.  It  will  require  one  third  more 
of  pounded  than  of  ground  bark  to  af- 
ford equally  strong  ooze,  which  is  the 
infusion  of  bark. 

"  Tlie  principal  tools  requisite  are 
afcshing-knifc,  currier's  knife,  a  brush 
like  a  stiff"  horse-brush,  and  ajleshing- 
bcnm.  The  fleshing-beam  is  made  by 
splitting  in  two  a  hard- wood  stick  of 
about  a  foot  in  diameter,  inserting 
two  stout  legs,  some  thirty  inches 
long,  in  one  end,  on  the  split  side,  so 
that  the  other  end  rests  on  the  ground, 
with  the  round  side  up,  the  elevated 
end  being  high  enough  to  reach  the 
workman's  waist.  A  fleshing-knife 
may  be  made  by  bending  an  old  draw 
knife  to  suit  the  round  of  the  fleshing- 
beam. 

"  The  skins  of  bulls,  oxen,  cows, 
and  horses,  are  called  hides ;  those 
of  calves,  deer,  sheep,  &c.,  are  known 
as  skins. 

"  Fresh  and  dried  hides  receive  the 
777 


TANNING  ON  THE  PLANTATION. 


same  treatment,  except  in  the  wash- 
ing process.  Those  that  are  salted 
and  dry  (and  no  hide  should  be  dried 
■with  less  than  from  two  to  lour  quarts 
of  salt  being  rubbed  on  tlie  flesh  side  : 
dried  without  salt,  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  soften  theui)  require  to 
be  steeped,  beaten,  and  rubbed  sev- 
eral times  alternately  to  bring  them 
to  a  condition  sufficiently  soft  for 
tanning. 

"  Green  or  fresh  hides  must  be 
soaked  in  pure  water  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours,  to  extract  all  the 
blood,  &.C..,  and  soften  the  extrane- 
ous fleshy  matter,  which  must  then 
be  removed  by  throwing  one  hide  at 
a  time  on  the  fleshing-beam,  i^r«!«  o;- 
hair  side  dinvn,  and  scraping  or  sha- 
ving it  off  with  the  fleshing-knife, 
which  must  be  somewhat  dull,  or  the 
skin  is  apt  to  be  cut.  They  are  then 
put  in  the  Umuii^  rat,  winch  is  su|)- 
plied  with  'strong  lime-water,  by  fill- 
ing the  vat  a  little  over  half  full  of 
water,  and  adding  thereto  four  bush- 
els of  unslacked  (or  of  air-slacked) 
lime,  or  at  the  rate  of  two  thirds  of 
a  bushel  of  lime  to  the  barrel  of  wa- 
ter. This  will  suffice  for  fifteen 
hides ;  each  time  that  they  are  re- 
moved and  a  fresh  lot  of  hides  put 
in,  add  another  bushel  of  lime,  which 
will  keep  up  the  strength  for  a  twelve- 
month. Before  using,  stir  the  lime 
well  up,  and  while  it  is  thus  mixed 
with  the  water  put  in  the  hides  even- 
ly, so  lliat  the  hme  will  settle  on  ev- 
ery part  of  them.  They  are  to  re- 
main here  from  ten  to  fifteen  days, 
or  for  three  or  four  days  after  the 
hair  will  rub  off  with  the  finger  com- 
pletely and  v^nth  ease.  While  in  the 
liming  vat,  they  must  be  moved  up 
and  down  every  other  morning,  to 
expose  them  to  the  air,  and  to  the 
equal  action  of  the  lime.  Being  now 
ready  for  unhairing,  cut  each  hide  in 
two,  by  slitting  them  along  the  cen- 
tre of  tlie  back  w^th  a  knife,  forming 
them  into  sides.  Tlirow  ten  or  twelve 
of  these  sides  on  the  fleshing-beam, 
and  strip  the  hair  off  with  the  knife  ; 
and  as  they  are  unhaired,  throw 
each  one  into  the  vat  of  freah  water 
lo  bait  or  soak.  When  the  sides 
778 


and  skins  in  hand  have  been  all  «n- 
haired  and  thoroughly  washed,  Ihiow 
tlu'iii  again,  and  at  once,  on  the  flesli- 
iiig-beam,  with  the  grain  or  hair  side 
up,  and  u-ork  thr.m  ofcr(rub  and  press 
them)  with  the  knife  until  all  the 
mucus  or  mucilaginous  matter  is 
worked  out.  This  should  be  repeat- 
ed two  or  tiiree  limes  during  ten  or 
twelve  days,  being  each  time  baited 
anew  in  fresh  water.  And  this  irork- 
ing  over  must  only  be  done  when  the 
sides  feel  soft  and  smooth  to  tlie 
touch  ;  as  they  will,  at  times,  from 
some  unexplained  cause,  feel  rough, 
at  which  time  they  must  not  be  u-ork- 
cd  over.  While  they  are  thus  baitinrr, 
they  must  not  be  neglected,  or  they 
will  soon  spoil.  Tanners  are  in  the 
practice  of  adding  a  1000th  part  of 
sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  to  the 
last  bait,  which  has  the  effect  of 
swelling  the  pores  and  distending  the 
fibres,  and  thus  rendering  the  skins 
more  susceptible  to  the  action  of  the 
ooze  :  forty-eight  hours  generally  suf- 
fice for  this  last  bailing. 

"  In  the  mean  time,  some  good 
strong  ooze  should  be  prepared  for  the 
first  tanning  process,  called  colouring. 
Fill  a  vat  a  little  more  than  half  full 
of  water,  and  add  bark,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  bushel  and  a  half  of 
ground,  or  two  bushels  of  pounded 
bark,  to  the  barrel  of  water,  which 
will  bring  the  vat  up  to  about  two 
thirds  full.  A\'hen  the  bark  hassoaked 
from  four  to  five  days,  the  sides  are  put 
in,  and  allowed  to  remain  filteen  days  ; 
during  which  they  must  be  orice  well 
and  CdrefuUy  fleshed  and  worked  over, 
and  must  be  drawn  up  and  down  ev- 
ery morning,  for  the  first  week  at 
least,  and  the  bark  well  ;>/!<no-c(i  or  stir- 
red up,  to  have  them  colour  evenly. 

"  .\fter  this,  the  vat  being  now  two 
thirds  full  of  this  same  ooze,  after 
drawing  out  the  hides,  lay  a  good 
coating  of  fresh  bark,  of  say  an  inch 
thick,  on  top  of  the  water,  on  which 
it  will  float ;  lay  on  this  a  side,  spread 
out  evenly  ;  and  if  it  has  to  be  lapped 
over  in  any  part,  lay  on  more  bark 
until  it  is  all  well  coated,  taking  care 
to  place  those  hides  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vat  now  that  were  at  the  top  last 


i 


TANNING  ON  THE  PLANTATION. 


time.  On  this  side  lay  an  inch  coat- 
ing of  bark,  and  on  that  anotlier  side, 
and  so  on,  with  alternate  layers  of 
bark,  until  the  vat  is  full,  or  the  sides 
all  laid  away. 

"  In  this,  which  is  called  the  first 
bark,  the  sides  must  lie  four  weeks  ; 
they  are  then  drawn  out,  and  the 
spent  bark  taken  out  with  a  skimmer 
or  drainer.  The  sides  are  then  re- 
placed as  before,  with  alternate  lay- 
ers of  fresh  bark  in  the  same  ooze, 
which  has  acquired  some  additional 
strength,  notwithstandingthe  amount 
of  tannin  and  extractive  matter,  con- 
tained in  the  bark,  that  has  become 
intimately  combined  with  the  animal 
fibre  of  the  hide.  In  this  second  bark 
they  remain  six  weeks  undisturbed, 
when  they  receive  a  third  bark  in  the 
same  way,  in  which  they  are  left  an- 
other six  or  eight  weeks.  Three  barks 
will  suffice  to  tan  deer,  hog,  calf,  and 
other  small  skins  ;  four  barks  will 
make  good  sole  leather,  but  five  are 
preferable. 

"  The  tanning  process  being  com- 
pleted, sole  leather  is  taken  out  of 
the  vat,  rinsed  efTectually,  and  dried 
in  the  shade,  hanging  the  sides  up  by 
two  of  their  corners  to  joists,  where 
they  may  remain  until  wanted.  Those 
sides  inteniled  for  upper  and  harness 
leather  (which  are  tliose  of  cows, 
&c.,  the  largest  and  thickest  bullock 
hides  being  used  for  sole  leather),  as 
also  deer,  hog,  and  other  small  skins, 
being  thoroughly  rinsed,  are  spread 
out  on  a  strong  table,  with  the  grain 
or  hair  side  up,  and  scoured  with  a 
stiff  brush,  like  a  very  stiff  horse- 
brush,  occasionally  throwing  on  pure 
water,  until  all  the  ooze  is  scoured 
out.  Tanners  use  the  edge  of  a  stone, 
made  smooth,  to  assist  in  rubl)ing  out 
the  ooze,  and  all  the  water  that  can 
possibly  be  rubbed  out.  They  also 
use  what  they  call  a  slicker,  being  a 
dull  edge  of  copper  of  about  six  or 
seven  inches  long,  set  in  a  piece  of 
wood  to  serve  as  a  handle. 

"  After  they  are  all  served  thus, 
and  rubbed  as  dry  as  pos.sible,  the  ta- 
ble is  cleaned  off,  and  the  skins  thrown 
back  upon  it,  grain  side  up,  and  are 
rubbed  with  lanner"s  oil  (codfish  oil) 


as  long  as  the  leather  will  receive  it. 
Harness  leather  must  be  completely 
saturat(!d.  As  they  are  oiled,  fold 
them  up  and  lay  them  aside.  When 
they  are  all  gone  over,  lay  one  on  the 
table  at  a  time,  Jlesh  side  up,  and  with 
a  rag  rub  on  all  the  dubbmg  that  the 
leather  will  absorb.  Thin  hides  re- 
quire but  a  small  quantity.  Harness 
leather  must  have  a  heavy  coating. 

''Dubbing,  which  consists  of  equal 
parts  of  tar  and  tallow,  melted  to- 
gether, and  well  mixed,  must  be  made 
the  day  previous  to  being  used.  Lard 
may  he  used  in  place  of  tallow,  but 
will  require  a  less  proportion  of  it. 
Each  side  of  leather  is  then  hung  up 
by  two  corners  to  joists,  there  to  re- 
main until  dry,  or  until  wanted. 

"  a  iron  or  steel  touches  a  hide  du- 
ring the  process  of  tanning,  when  in 
the  least  wet,  or  even  moist,  it  will 
discolour  it,  forming  an  indelible  black 
mark. 

"  To  blacken  harness  or  other  leath- 
er, take  the  skin  when  completely 
dried,  and  if  any  greasy  spots  ap- 
pear, showing  that  more  oil  or  dub- 
bing has  been  applied  than  the  leath- 
er could  absorb,  wet  the  spots  with  a 
little  strong  ooze,  and  scrub  them 
out  with  the  brush  ;  then  apply  a  good 
coat  of  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron), 
dissolved  in  ooze,  until  the  leather 
has  a  good  colour  all  over.  After 
this,  when  dry,  put  on  another  good 
coat  of  oil.  The  leather  may  then 
be  smoothed  off  with  a  rounding  edge 
of  polished  steel,  or  glass,  or  stone." 

A  discovery  has  recently  been 
made  which  seems  likely  to  revolu- 
tionize the  tanning  trade.  By  means 
of  a  tanning  machine,  or  pair  of  hori- 
zontal rollers,  fixed  over  a  tan-pit, 
between  which  is  fixed  a  band  or  belt 
of  hides  attached  by  ligatures  to  each 
other,  to  the  number  of  50  to  100, 
and  by  which  the  rollers  are  con- 
stantly fed  or  sujjplied,  the  hides  are 
lifted  out  of  the  pit  on  one  side  of  the 
machine.  As  they  pass  between  the 
rollers,  the  exhausted  ooze  or  tan- 
ning liquid  is  [)ressed  out  of  them, 
and  they  are  deposited  in  folds  in  the 
pit  on  the  other  side  of  the  machine, 
wJiere  they  absorb  another  supply  of 
779 


TAP 


TAR 


fresh  tannin.  The  first  hide  having 
been  inserted  between  the  rollers, 
the  other?;  follow  in  succession,  and 
n|)on  arrivintr  at  the  end  ol'tiic  l)ai)d 
the  motion  of  the  roller  is  reversed, 
and  the  belt  is  returned  through  the 
machine  to  receive  another  squeeze. 
This  alternating  motion  is  constantly 
repeated,  the  i)il  being  replenished 
from  time  to  time  with  fresh  solu- 
tions of  tan  till  the  operati(jn  is  com- 
pleted. The  effects  produced  by  this 
simple  plan  are,  1.  The  shortening  of 
the  time  of  tanning  to  one  fourth  of 
that  generally  requireil.  2.  The  pro- 
duction of  a  consideralile  increase  of 
weight.  3.  The  leather  tanned  by  this 
method  resists  water  longer  than  that 
tanned  by  the  old  process.  4.  The 
new  method  is  cheaper  than  the  old. 
5.  It  is  applicable  to  the  existing  tan- 
yards,  at  a  comparatively  trifling  ex- 
pense, with  a  capability  of  working 
in  rounds  or  series,  and  of  expending 
tan  or  liquor.  6.  That  it  is  available 
for  all  sorts  of  leather. 

TANSY.  The  plants  of  the  genus 
Ta7iacctum :  they  are  composite,  her- 
baceous, and  tonic. 

TAN  FSTOMES.  A  family  of  dip- 
tera,  most  of  which  have  a  project- 
ing proboscis. 

TAPETUM.  A  coat  of  the  eye 
under  the  black  pigment,  and  peculiar 
to  quadrupeds. 

TAPE  WORMS.  Flat  worms 
(TcBnia)  of  great  length,  and  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  pieces,  which  in- 
fest the  intestines.  They  are  de- 
stroyed by  large  doses  of  turpentine. 

TAPIOCA.   A  starchy  farina  from 


I  the  root  of  the  Janipha  {Jalropa)  man' 
'  hiot  ( /'Vi'.)  There  are  two  varieties  : 
one  with  a  bitter,  jjoisonous  root ;  the 
other  witii  a  sweet  root.  Tlie  former 
is  [)repared  with  heat. 

TAP  ROOT.  The  main  root  which 
descends  vertically  from  trees. 

T.\R.  "  .\  dark-brown,  viscid  li- 
quor,obtained  by  charring  the  wood  of 
the  fir-tree.  It  consists  of  resin,  em- 
pyreumatic  matters,  and  acetic  acid. 
When  inspissated  by  boiling,  it  is  con- 
verted into  pitch.  The  manufacture 
is  simple  ;  a  conical  hole,  usually  in 
the  side  of  a  bank,  being  made,  roots 
and  billets  of  pine  are  let  into  the  cav- 
ity, and  the  whole  is  covered  with 
turf,  which  is  beat  firmly  down  above 
the  wood.  The  wood  being  kindled, 
a  slow  combustion  takes  place.  A 
cast-iron  pan  at  tlie  bottom  of  the 
cavity  receives  the  fluid,  and  has  a 
spout  which  projects  through  the 
bank  and  carries  the  tar  into  barrels. 
As  quickly  as  the  barrels  are  filled 
they  are  closed  with  bungs,  when  the 
material  is  ready  for  exportation. 
This  manner  of  preparing  tar  has 
been  derived  from  the  earliest  ages. 
Tar  is  a  very  compound  substance  ; 
it  contains  modified  resin,  and  oil  of 
turpentine,  acetic  acid,  charcoal,  wa- 
ter, &c.  Tar  is  used  in  medicine  as 
well  as  in  the  arts.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent topical  stimulant,  when  made  into 
an  ointment  with  lard,  in  dry  skin 
diseases.  These  two  substances,  tar 
and  pitch,  are  of  extensive  use  in  the 
arts. 

"Tar  may  be  found  useful  as  an 
application  for  cuts  in  sheep  by  clip- 
ping, and  also  to  the  parts  atfected 
by  the  fly.  It  is  also  of  great  use  in 
some  cases  for  applying  as  a  paint  to 
boarding,  &c.  ;  but  in  this  use,  a  lit- 
tle tallow,  or  other  coarse  fat,  should 
be  melted  with  it,  as  by  this  means  it 
resists  the  weather  more  effectually." 

TARE.  In  the  great  interest  at 
present  taken  in  sheep  husbandry, 
full  information  is  desirable  on  this 
crop ;  for,  although  tares  have  not 
succeeded  well  in  some  imperfect  ex- 
periments hitherto  made,  there  is  no 
reason  why,  on  poorish  soils,  they 
should  fail  if  properly  managed. 


780 


TARES. 


"  They  are  a  most  important  green 
crop  ill  the  improved  systems  ot  agri- 
culture, especially  on  heavy  soils, 
■where  they  thrive  best.  When  sown 
in  autumn,  with  a  small  sprinklinsr  of 
■wlieat  or  rye,  they  cover  the  ground 
in  spring,  and  supply  abundance  of 
fodder  in  summer.  A  good  crop  of 
tares  is  fully  equal  in  value,  if  not  su- 
perior, to  one  of  red  clover :  it  comes 
off  the  ground  in  sufficient  time  to 
give  the  land  a  hasty  summer  tillage, 
which  is  so  useful  in  destroying 
weeds,  and  to  allow  turnips  to  be 
sown  in  the  same  season.  They 
smother  annual  weeds  if  the  crop  is 
plentiful,  which  should  always  be  se- 
cured by  an  abundant  manuring ;  thus 
they  are  a  good  substitute  for  a  sum- 
mer fallow  m  heavy  soils,  and  amply 
repay  the  labour  and  manure  bestowed 
upon  them. 

"  There  are  many  species  and  va- 
rieties of  tares ;  hut  that  which  is 
found  the  best  adapted  for  agricultu- 
ral purposes  is  the  common  tare  (Fi- 
cm  sattva,  Fig.),  of  which  there  are 


cK 


-if/' 


two  principal  varieties,  very  slightly 
differing  in  appearance,  one  of  which 
is  hardy,  and  will  stand  the  severest 
winters  ;  the  other  is  more  tender, 
and  is  therefore  only  sown  in  spring  ; 
but  it  has  the  advantage  of  vegeta- 
ting more  rapidly,  so  that  spring  tares 
sown  in  March  will  be  fit  to  cut  with- 
in a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  after 
those  which  were  sown  in  autumn. 
U  u  u 


By  sowing  them  at  regular  intervals 
from  September  to  May,  a  succession 
of  green  tares  in  perfection,  that  is, 
in  bloom,  or  wlien  tlie  pods  are  form- 
ed, may  be  cut  for  several  months, 
from  May  to  October.  A  prudent 
farmer  arranges  his  crops  so  that  he 
shall  have  artificial  green  food  for 
his  horses  and  cattle  at  least  six 
months  in  the  year,  by  having  tares 
fit  to  cut  between  the  first  and  sec- 
ond cut  of  clover.  When  there  are 
more  tares  than  is  absolutely  requi- 
red for  this  purpose,  and  the  weather 
permits,  they  make  excellent  hay ; 
or,  if  the  weather  is  not  favourable, 
they  are  cut  and  given  to  sheep, 
which  are  folded  on  the  portion  al- 
ready cut.  It  is  an  advantage  to  have 
portable  racks  for  this  purpose,  that 
the  fodder  may  not  be  trodden  under 
foot  and  wasted  ;  or  the  tares  may 
be  placed  between  hurdles,  tied  two 
and  two,  which  form  extemporaneous 
racks.  It  is  prudent  to  raise  suffi- 
cient seed  for  another  year ;  but  a 
crop  of  seed  tares  raised  for  sale  is 
seldom  profitable,  as  they  greatly  ex- 
haust the  soil  ;  and  tlie  price  varies 
so  much  in  different  seasons,  that  it 
becomes  too  much  of  a  speculation 
for  a  farmer.  The  difficulty  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  seed  of  the  winter 
tare  from  the  spring  variety  is  so 
great,  that  it  should  either  be  raised 
at  home,  or  only  purchased  from 
neighbours  or  from  the  most  respect- 
able seedsmen.  It  is  a  common  prac- 
tice with  dealers  to  mix  the  seeds  of 
the  winter  tares,  after  the  time  of 
sowing  is  past,  with  spring  tares, 
which  are  in  request  at  a  later  period. 
The  inconvenience  of  this  is,  that 
they  do  not  vegetate  equally,  and  con- 
sequently the  winter  tare  is  not  in 
bloom  when  the  spring  tare  is  fit  for 
the  scythe.  Foreign  tares,  which  are 
imported  in  large  quantities,  are  often 
the  growth  of  southern  climates,  and 
will  not  stand  the  winter ;  or  they 
have  been  raised  from  seed  sown  in 
spring,  so  as  to  be  really  spring  tares. 
The  difference  is  probably  more  ow- 
ing to  habit  than  to  any  real  botani- 
cal distinction  between  them.  When 
spring  tares  are  sown  m  autumn 
781 


TARES. 


instead  of  winter  tares,  they  may  oc- 
casionally stand  the  frost,  if  not  very 
severe  ;  hut,  in  {jeneral,  tliey  rot 
on  the  ground  and  never  recover  ; 
whereas,  the  real  hardy  winter  tares, 
whose  vegetation  is  slower,  seem  in- 
sensible to  the  severest  frosts. 

"  In  the  early  part  of  summer,  green 
rye  and  tares,  mixed,  are  sold  at  a 
great  priee  in  large  towns,  for  horses 
which  have  worked  hard  and  been 
highly  fed  in  winter.  They  act  as  a 
gentle  laxative,  and  cool  the  blood  : 
near  London,  where  every  produce 
is  forced  with  an  abundance  of  ma- 
nure, tares  are  often  tit  to  cut  early 
in  May,  and  the  land  is  immediately 
ploughed  and  planted  with  potatoes, 
or  sown  with  mangel-wurzel  or  ruta 
haga,  which  come  off  in  September  or 
October,  in  time  for  wheat  sowing. 
Thus  two  very  profitable  cnips  are 
raised  during  the  time  that  the  land, 
according  to  the  old  system,  would 
have  been  fallow  ;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  left  as  clean,  by  careful 
hoeing,  as  the  best  fallow  would  have 
made  it. 

"  There  are  a  great  many  species 
of  tares  or  vetches,  for  the  terms  are 
synonymous,  many  of  which  have 
been  proposed  to  be  introduced  into 
general  cultivation  ;  but  none  seem, 
on  the  whole,  to  be  so  well  adapted 
to  our  climate  as  the  common  tare  : 
some  have  biennial  and  some  peren- 
nial roots.  The  Vlcia  bicmiis  has  a 
strong  stem  and  large  leaves,  and 
grows  four  or  five  feet  high  ;  but  it  is 
not  so  succulent  as  the  common  sort. 
It  might,  perhaps,  by  cultivation  and 
early  cutting,  become  a  useful  early 
fodder,  and  it  may  be  worth  while 
to  make  some  experiments  with  it. 
There  are  several  species  of  tares 
which  grow  wild  in  bushesand  hedges, 
but  they  have  never  been  cultivated 
in  the  fields,  perhaps  from  the  difH- 
culty  in  collecting  the  seeds,  which 
shed  as  they  are  ripe.  Of  these,  the  I 
Vicia  craca  appears  most  deserving  of 
attention.  It  bears  its  blue  flower  on 
stems  or  spikes  longer  than  the  leaves, 
which  are  downy  It  is  very  com- 
ni'/n  in  France  among  wheat;  and, 
although  a  decided  weed  there,  it  is 
782 


I  not  much  dreaded  by  the  peasants,  as 
it  improves  the  fodder  greatly.  It 
has  the  appearance  of  great  luxuri- 
ance in  its  growth,  wliere  it  meets 
with  a  proper  support.  If  it  weie 
mixed  with  some  plants  with  a  strong 
stem,  such  as  the  Bokhara  clover 
{Mclilotus  arborca  altissima),  which  it- 
self affords  much  fodder,  it  might 
probably  he  cultivated  to  great  ad- 
vantage. 

"In  the  south  of  France  there  is  a 
white  perennial  vetch  or  tare,  called 
Vicia  pisifnnnis,  which  is  cultivated 
for  its  white  seeds,  of  which  soups 
are  made,  as  with  the  pea  and  lentil. 
It  grows  in  very  light,  soils  ;  and,  al- 
though indigenous  to  a  southern  cli- 
mate, it  is  said  not  to  be  impatient  of 
frost.  It  has  been  called  by  some  the 
Canadian  lentil,  or  the  white  tare. 

"We  shall  only  notice  one  more 
of  the  wild  tares,  which  is  an  annual : 
it  is  called  the  yellow  tare  (Vicia  lii- 
tra).  It  grows  in  stony  soils  and 
among  bushes,  is  very  branching,  and 
rises  from  one  to  two  feet  high.  From 
some  experiments  made  by  the  Ag- 
ricultural Society  of  Versailles  sev- 
eral years  ago,  it  would  appear  that 
this  tare  might  be  cultivated  with 
great  advantage,  and  is  even  superi- 
or to  the  common  sort,  because  it 
can  be  cut  two  or  three  times  during 
the  summer,  and  aflbrds  a  very  good 
pasture  in  winter,  which  does  not 
stop  its  vegetation  ;  it  will  even  bloom 
in  a  mild  winter.  Although  short,  it 
is  so  thick  upon  the  ground,  that  its 
first  cut  is  as  heavy  as  that  of  the 
common  tare,  which  is  seldom  worth 
cutting  a  second  time. 

"  Tares  should  be  sown  on  land 
which  is  well  pulverized.  If  after 
wheat,  the  stubble  should  be  plough- 
ed in  with  a  deep  furrow  after  a  pow- 
erful scarifier  has  gone  over  the  land 
several  times  to  loosen  it ;  five  or  six 
cart-loads  of  good  farm-yard  dung 
should  be  ploughed  in.  The  tares 
should  be  drilled  or  dibbled,  and  the 
surface  well  harrowed.  The  inter- 
vals should  be  hoed  early  in  spring  : 
this  will  accelerate  the  growth,  and 
ensure  a  complete  covering  of  the 
ground.     As  soon  as  the  tares  show 


TAR 


TEA 


the  flower,  they  may  be  cut  daily  till 
tiie  pods  are  fully  formed  ;  after  this, 
any  which  remain   uncut  should  be 
made  into  hay  or  given  to  sheep  ;  for 
if  the  seeds  arc  allowed  to  swell,  the 
ground  will  he  mucii  exhausted.     An- 
other piece  should  be  ready  to  cut  by 
this  time,  and  thus  there   may  be  a 
succession  of  tares  and  broad  clover 
from  May  to  November.     Tares  may 
be  sown  as  late  as  August,  on  a  bar- 
ley or  rye  stubble,  for  sheep  feed  ear- 
ly in  wuiter,  or  to  be  ploughed  in  to 
rot  in  the  ground  where  beans  and 
pease  are  intended  to  be  sown  early 
in  spring  :  this  is  perhaps  the  cheap- 
est mode  of  manuring  the  land,  the 
only  expense  being  the  seed,  for  the 
tillage  is  necessary  at  all  events.     In 
light  soils,  tares  and  huckwheat,sown 
together  mimediately  after  barley  or 
rye  harvest,  will  produce  a  consider- 
able crop  of  vegetable  matter,  which 
may  be  ploughed  in  in  November.    In 
favourable   seasons,  wheat   may   be  ] 
sown  immediately  after,  without  fear- 1 
ing  the  effect  of  two  white  crops  fol- 
lowing each  other  ;  for  the  tares  and 
buckwheat  coming  between,  by  their 
shade,  and  the  two  ploughings  of  the 
ground,  one  when  they  are  sown,  and 
the  second  when  they  are  ploughed 
in,  will  entirely  destroy  all  weeds, 
and  give  to  the  soil  that  improvement 
which  will  enable  it  to  bear  as  good  a 
crop  of  wheat  as  it  would  have  done 
had  it  been  sown  the  year  after  on  a 
clover  lay.     Clover,  which  could  not 
be  sown  with  the  barley,  from  the  foul 
state  of  the  lattd,  imay  be  sown  among 
the  wheat  in  the  next  spring,  when  it 
is  hoed  for  the  second  time.     This  is 
held  out  as  a  hint  to  show  how  an 
accidental  interruption  in  a  rotation 
may  be  remedied  without  any  loss  of 
crop  or  great  deviation.     As  no  rule 
is  without  exception,  so  no  rotation 
can   always  be  strictly  adhered  to  ; 
antl  those  crops  which  admit  of  being 
sown  at  different  times  of  the  year 
are  of  the  greatest  use  as  substitutes 
for  others  which  could  not  be  con- 
veniently sown  without  materially  al- 
tering the  succession   of  crops.     In 
the  common  course  of  cultivation  of 
heavy  soils,  where  occasional  fallows 


are  necessary  to  clean  the  land,  one 
half  of  the  land  wliich  retjuires  fallow- 
ing iTiay  lie  sown  with  tares  ;  and  thus 
the  clean  unjiroductive  summer  fal- 
low will  only  return  at  every  second 
rotation.  If  the  tares  have  been  ma- 
nured, or  if  they  are  fed  off  with  sheep 
fokled  upon  the  land,  the  wheat  or 
other  crop  which  is  sown  after  them 
will  be  as  good  as  on  a  clean  fallow, 
or  after  a  good  crop  of  clover.  This 
alone  would  make  tares  a  valuable 
crop  ;  and  they  may  be  compared  in 
their  effect  on  heavy  lands  to  turnips 
on  lighter  soils. 

"  The  seeds  of  the  tare  are  occa- 
sionally ground  into  meal  and  made 
into  bread.  It  is  a  very  poor  food  ; 
and  when  there  is  more  seed  than 
can  be  profitably  disposed  of,  it  may 
be  given  to  pigs  ;  but  poultry,  espe- 
cially pigeons,  are  very  fond  of  it. 
When  given  to  horses,  the  seeds  of 
tares  are  found  very  heating  ;  and  al- 
though they  produce  a  fine  glossy 
coat,  they  are  not  to  be  recommended 
for  this  purpose." — (Kliam.) 

TARO.  A  cultivated  Arum  of  the 
Columbia  River. 

TARRAGON.  Artcmesia  dracun- 
cidus.  A  bitter  pot-herb,  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  tansy. 

TARSUS,  TARSE.  The  bones 
articulated  to  the  tibia,  and  forming 
the  upper  part  of  the  foot. 

TARTAR.  The  sediment  of  wine 
casks. 

TARTAR,  CREAM  OF.  Siiper- 
tartrate  of  potash,  obtained  by  purify- 
ing tartar. 

TARTAR  EMETIC.      Tartrate 

of  potash  and  antimony,  a  powerful 

J  emetic,  sedative,  and  expectorant.   • 

TARTARIC  ACID.     The  acid  of 
grapes  or  of  tartar.     See  Acids. 
I      TAXICORNS.     A  family  of  cole- 
opterans,  in  many  of  which  the  an- 
tenna; enlarge  to  wards  the  upper  ends. 

TAXIS.  The  replacement  of  parts 
by  the  hand. 

TEA.  The  tea  plant  has  been  par- 
tially introduced  into  North  Carolina 
with  a  view  to  cultivating  that  impor- 
tant staple  ;  we  tiierefore  present  the 
reader  with  an  abstract  of  the  Chi- 
nese plan  from  Louduo  : 

.783 


TEA. 


"  Tlie  tea  districts  of  China  extend 
from  the  27th  to  the  31st  deffree  of 
latitude.  Accordinij  to  the  missiona- 
ries, it  thrives  in  the  more  northern 
provinces  ;  and  from  Kiempfer  it  ap- 
pears to  he  cultivated  in  Japan  as  far 
north  as  lat.  45  \  It  seems,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Abel's  observation,  to  suc- 
ceed best  on  the  sides  of  mountains, 
where  there  can  be  but  little  accumu- 
lation of  vegetable  mould.  The  soils 
from  which  he  collected  the  best  spe- 
cimens consisted  chiefly  of  sandstone, 
schistus,  or  granite.  It  grows  well 
in  St.  Helena  and  Rio  Janeiro,  and 
will  grow  an>"where  in  a  meager  soil 
and  moderate  temperature. 

"  The  culture  of  the  tea  plant  in  Chi- 
na has  been  given  by  various  authors. 
It  is  raised  from  seeds  sown  where 
the  plants  are  to  remain.  Three  or 
more  are  dropped  into  a  hole  four  or 
five  inches  deep  ;  these  come  up  with- 
out farther  trouble,  and  require  little 
culture,  except  that  of  removing 
weeds,  till  the  plants  are  three  years 
old.  The  more  careful  stir  the  soil, 
and  some  manure  it  ;  but  the  latter 
practice  is  seldom  adopted.  The  third 
year  the  leaves  are  gathered,  at  three 
successive  gatherings,  in  February, 
April,  and  June,  and  so  on  till  the 
bushes  become  stinted  or  tardy  in 
their  growth,  which  generally  hap- 
pens in  from  six  to  ten  years.  They 
are  then  cut  m  to  encourage  the  pro- 
duction of  fresh  shoots. 

""The  gathering  of  the  leaves  is 
performed  with  care  and  selection. 
Tlie  leaves  are  plucked  off  one  by 
one  :  at  the  first  gathering  only  the 
unexpanded  and  tender  are  taken  ;  at 
llie  second,  those  that  are  full  grown  ; 
and  at  the  third,  the  coarsest.  The 
first  forms  what  is  called  in  Europe 
imperial  tea ;  but  of  this  and  other 
names  by  which  tea  is  designated, 
tlie  Chinese  know  nothing ;  and  the 
compounds  and  names  are  supposed 
to  be  made  and  given  by  the  mer- 
chants at  Canton,  w'ho,  from  the  great 
number  of  varieties  brought  to  them, 
have  an  ample  opportunity  of  doing 
so.  These  varieties,  though  numer- 
ous, and  some  of  them  very  different, 
are  yet  not  more  so  than  the  difler- 
7S4 


cnt  varieties  of  the  grape  ;  they  are 
now  generally  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  one  species,  the  Thea  Bohea, 
now  Camellia  Bohca  {Fig.  a),  of  bot- 


anists. Formerly  it  was  thought  that 
green  tea  was  gathered  exclusively 
from  Camellia  viridis  ;  but  that  is  now 
doubtful,  though  it  is  certain  there  is 
what  is  called  the  green  tea  district 
and  the  black  tea  district ;  and  the 
varieties  grown  in  the  one  district 
differ  from  those  grown  in  the  other. 
Dr.  Abel  could  not  satisfy  himself  as 
to  there  being  two  species  or  one,  but 
thinks  there  are  two  species.  He  was 
told  by  competent  persons  that  either 
of  the  two  plants  will  atford  the  black 
or  green  tea  of  the  shops,  but  that  the 
broad,  thin-leaved  plant  (C  vin{lii)  is 
preferred  for  making  the  green  tea. 

•'Tlie  tea  leaves  being  gathered, 
are  cured  in  houses  which  contain 
from  five  to  ten  or  twenty  small  fur- 
naces, about  three  feet  high,  each 
having  at  the  lop  a  large,  flat  iron 
pan.  There  is  also  a  long,  low  table 
covered  with  mats,  on  which  the 
leaves  are  laid,  and  rolled  by  work- 
men, who  sit  round  it :  the  iron  pan 
being  heated  to  a  certain  degree  by 
a  little  fire  made  in  the  furnace  un- 
derneath, a  few  pounds  of  the  fresh- 
gathered  leaves  are  put  upon  the  pan  : 
the  fresh  and  juicy  leaves  crack  when 
they  touch  the  pan,  and  it  is  the  bu- 
siness of  the  operator  to  shift  them 
as  quickly  as  possible  with  his  bare 
hands,  till  they  become  too  hot  to  be 


TEA 


TEA 


easily  endured.  At  this  instant  he 
takes  off  the  leaves  with  a  kind  of 
shovel  reseinbling  a  fan,  and  pours 
them  on  the  mats  before  the  rollers, 
who,  taking  small  quantities  at  a  time, 
roll  them  in  the  palms  of  their  hands 
in  one  direction,  while  others  are  fan- 
ning them,  that  they  may  cool  the 
more  speedily,  and  retain  their  curl 
the  longer.  This  process  is  repeated 
two  or  three  times  or  oftencr,  before 
the  tea  is  put  into  the  stores,  in  or- 
der that  all  the  moisture  of  the  leaves 
may  be  thoroughly  dissipated,  and 
their  curl  more  completely  preserved. 
On  every  repetition  the  pan  is  less 
heated,  and  the  operation  performed 
more  slowly  and  cautiously.  The  tea 
is  then  separated  into  the  different 
kinds,  and  deposited  in  the  store  for 
domestic  use  or  exportation. 

"  The  different  sorts  of  black  and 
green  are  not  merely  from  soil,  situa- 
tion, and  age  of  the  leaf ;  but,  after 
winnowing  the  tea,  the  leaves  are  ta- 
ken up  in  succession  as  they  fall  ; 
those  nearest  the  machine,  being  the 
heaviest,  form  the  gunpowder  tea; 
the  light  dust,  the  worst,  being  chief- 
ly used  by  the  lower  classes.  That 
which  is  brought  down  to  Canton  un- 
dergoes there  a  second  roasting,  win- 
nowing, packing,  &c  ,  and  many  hun- 
dred women  are  employed  for  these 
purposes. 

"  For  more  select  sorts  of  tea,  the 
blossoms  of  the  Camellia  sasanqua 
{Fig.  b)  appear  to  he  collected,  since 
they  are  brought  over  land  to  Russia, 
and  sold  by  Chinese  and  Armenians 
in  .Moscow  at  a  great  price.  The 
buds  also  appear  to  be  gathered  in 
some  cases.  By  far  the  strongest  tea 
which  Dr.  Abel  tasted  in  China  was 
that  called  Yu-tien,  used  on  occasions 
of  ceremony.  It  scarcely  coloured 
the  water,  and  on  examination  was 
found  to  consist  of  the  half-expanded 
leaves  of  the  plant. 

"  As  substitutes  for  tea,  used  by 
the  Chmese,  may  be  mentioned  a  spe- 
cies of  moss  common  to  the  mount- 
ains of  Shan-tung  ;  an  infusion  of 
ferns  of  different  sorts,  and  Dr.  Abel 
thinks  the  leaves  of  the  common 
camellia  and  oil  camellia  may  be  add- 
U  u  u  2 


ed.  Du  Halde  observes  that  all  the 
plants  called  tea  by  the  Chmese  are 
not  to  be  consid<5red  as  the  true  lea 
plant ;  and  Kiempfer  asserts  that  in 
Japan  a  species  of  Camelha,  as  well 
as  the  Oleafragrans,  is  used  to  give 
it  a  high  flavour." 

TEAK.  Tcctona grandis.  A  splen- 
did tree  of  the  elevated  lands  of  In- 
dia, the  wood  of  which  appears  to  be 
superior  even  to  oak.  It  is  strong, 
light,  oily,  and  free  from  dry  rot. 

TEAM.      "  Nothing  is  of  greater 
importance  in  the  management  of  a 
farm  than  the  cattle  winch  perform 
the  necessary  work  in  ploughing  and 
other  operations  on  the  soil,  in  draw- 
ing manure  to  the  land,  and  carrying 
the  produce  to  market.     It  is  evident 
that  the  smaller  the  expense  of  the 
team  which  does  the  requisite  work 
in  proper  lime,  the  greater  the  profit 
of  the   farmer,  and  every  saving  in 
this  part  of  the  expense  of  cultivation 
is  so  much  added  to  the  clear  gain. 
Wherever  the  land  is  only  partially 
cultivated,  and  a  portitm  of  it  riMnains 
in  coarse  pasture,  which  costs  little  or 
nothing  to  the  occupier,  or  where  ex- 
tensive open  commons  alford  cheap 
food  for  oxen,  these  last  arc  naturally 
employed  in  farm  labour.   If  four  oxen 
do  only  the  work  of  two  horses,  they 
are  maintained  at  a  much  smaller  ex- 
pense, and,  alter  working  for  two  or 
three  years,  their  value  is  improved 
for  the  purpose  of  fattening  for  the 
butcher.    The  necessary  gear  is  much 
less  expensive,  especially  where  the 
old  yoke  is  still  in  use,  whether  across 
the  neck  or  the  horns.    In  fact,  for  a 
poor  man  who  has  only  a  few  acres 
,  of  land,  and  who  is  situated  near  a 
,  waste  or  coinmon,  oxen  are  by  far 
;  the  most  economical  team.      Many 
;  writers  on  agriculture,  who  in  gcner- 
i  al  have  more  theoretical  than  practi- 
;  cal    knowledge    of  husbandr)',   have 
I  maintained  the  general  superiority  of 
',  an  ox-tearn  over  that  composed   of 
j  horses,  and  have  given  calculations 
which  appear  clearly  to  establish  that 
j  point.     But,  on  the  other  side,  it  may 
be   observed,  that    wherever    arable 
;  land  is  the  chief  object  of  the  farmer's 
attention,  and  the  tillage  of  the  soil 


TEAM. 


is  brought  to  any  degree  of  perfec- 
tion, there  oxen  arc  never  seen  at 
work,  but  have  been  invariably  su- 
perseded by  active  horses. 

"  In  Switzerland,  which  is  tolera- 
bly advanced  in  its  agriculture,  oxen 
are  very  generally  used  for  the  work 
of  the  farm  ;  but  there  the  system  of 
stall-feeding  is  universal,  and  having 
a  considerable  portion  of  grass  land, 
whicii  can  be  irrigated  by  the  streams 
from  tlie  mountains,  they  cut  the 
coarse,  long  grass  produced  there  for 
their  cows  and  oxen  ;  and  this  food 
is  more  congenial  to  their  nature  than 
to  horses,  which  do  not  thrive  on 
coarse  watery  grass,  and  require  hay 
and  corn  nearly  all  the  year  round. 
But  where  there  is  less  grass  land 
and  more  artificial  grass,  such  as  lu- 
cern,  sainfoin,  and  clover,  which  is 
the  case  in  all  extensive  farms,  there 
horses  are  chiefly  used,  this  food  being 
suited  to  their  constitution.  Not  to 
enter  farther  into  the  comparative  ad- 
vantage of  oxen  and  horses,  we  shall 
turn  our  attention  to  the  most  profit- 
able management  of  the  latter,  which 
now  almost  universally  compose  the 
farmer's  team. 

"  The  choice  of  the  horses  for  a 
farm  is  of  great  importance.  It  may 
be  very  satisfactory  to  a  rich  fanner 
to  see  fine,  large,  well-fed  horses  in 
his  wagon,  moving  along  as  if  they 
followed  a  procession,  with  bright  har- 
ness ornamented  with  shining  brass. 
This  is  a  luxury  like  that  of  the  rich 
man's  coach-horses,  and  as  such  is 
very  natural  and  innocent.  It  is  the 
pride  of  many  a  wealthy  farmer,  and 
we  would  not  curtail  his  pleasure  or 
despise  his  taste  ;  but  as  a  matter  of 
profit  or  loss,  the  case  is  very  differ- 
ent :  a  fat  horse  does  little  work,  no 
more  than  a  fat  coachman.  Horses 
to  be  in  working  condition  should  be 
muscular  and  active.  The  great, 
heavy  cart-horse  may,  for  a  moment, 
be  capable  of  greater  exertion  at  a 
dead  pull,  his  weight  assisting  him  ; 
but  in  a  long  day  the  thin,  active  horse 
will  do  witli  ease  what  would  sicken, 
if  not  kill,  his  heavy  companion.  Hor- 
ses about  fifteen  hands  high,  with 
short  legs  and  broad  chests,  such  as 
786 


the  Canadian  horse,  which  walk  as 
fast  as  an  ordinary  man,  are  the  most 
economical  for  farm  work.  A  pair  of 
such  horses  will  draw  a  load  in  a  cart 
sixteen  miles  and  return,  or  plough 
one  acre  and  a  quarter  in  ten  working 
hours,  having  a  rest  of  two  hours  ; 
while  the  heavy,  slow  cart-horses 
could  not  walk  the  distance  in  the  time 
without  being  overdriven.  This  is 
more  than  the  average  work  ;  but  in 
the  busy  lime  of  the  year  it  is  a  great 
advantage  to  have  horses  which  can, 
with  good  feeding,  work  longer  and 
faster  without  suffering  in  their  health. 
The  carriers  on  the  roads,  who  hve 
entirely  by  the  work  of  their  horses, 
know  how  to  choose  them  and  how 
to  feed  them  to  the  greatest  advan- 
tage, and,  without  overworking  them, 
to  make  them  do  as  much  as  is  con- 
sistent with  their  health.  If  hard 
w'ork  is  the  cause  of  some  diseases  in 
horses,  comparative  indolence  causes 
many  more.  Where  horses  are  slug- 
gish, the  men  soon  become  so  like- 
wise. To  see  a  wagon  with  four 
strong  horses  returning  empty,  at  the 
rate  of  two  miles  in  the  hour,  with 
two  men,  or  at  least  a  man  and  a  boy, 
lying  lazily  in  it,  is  a  sure  sign  that 
the  work  on  the  farm  to  which  they 
belong  is  done  at  the  same  rate.  A 
single  horse-cart,  or  a  light  spring 
wagon  with  two  horses,  driven  by  a 
man  or  boy  with  reins  and  a  whip, 
and  trotting  at  the  rate  of  five  miles 
an  hour,  is  a  perfect  contrast  to  tliis, 
and  no  doubt  the  owner  has  his  work 
done  much  more  expeditiously,  and 
consequently  at  a  cheaper  rate.  The 
stage-coach  proprietors  have  gener- 
ally very  light,  four-wheeled  carriages 
to  carry  their  corn  from  their  chief 
stations  to  places  where  they  keep 
horses,  and  they  often  carry  as  heavy 
loads  as  a  farmer's  wagon  does  when 
carrying  corn  to  market  ;  yet  the  two 
horses  in  the  light  carriage  trot  with 
their  load,  and  the  three  or  four  heavy 
horses  of  the  farmer  move  at  the  rate 
of  two  miles  and  a  half  in  the  hour  at 
most,  both  going  and  returning.  It 
is  evident  that  there  is  a  waste  of 
time  and  power  here,  which  is  so 
much  lost.    Horses  half-bred  between 


TEAM. 


a  cart  mare  and  a  blood  horse  are  ; 
reared  by  some  spirited  farmers,  and 
if  they  are  more  dehcate  and  suscep- 
tible of  cold  than  the  coannon  cart- 
horses, they  have  many  advantages  :  i 
sometimes  they  inherit  so  much  cour-  '• 
age  and  vigour  from  their  sire,  that 
they  become  valuable  as  carriage  hor- 
ses or  hunters,  and  well  repay  tlie  ex- 
pense incurred  in  rearing  them  ;  and,  ' 
at  all  events,  they  are  superior  to  any 
others  for  the  work  of  the  farm,  and 
are  in  general  docile  and  tractable. 
The  only  inconvenience  arises  from 
their  spirit.  When  any  sudden  ob- 
struction arises  in  ploughing,  such  as 
a  considerable  root  of  a  tree  or  a  large 
stone,  they  make  violent  exertions, 
and  sometimes  break  the  ploughs  or 
other  implements.  In  this  respect 
oxen  are  more  phlegmatic,  and  stop 
when  the  collar  presses  on  them  ;  so 
that  in  breaking  up  rough  commons 
or  newly-cleared  woods  oxen  may  be 
preferred.  This  is  almost  the  only 
case  where  spirit  and  courage  ai'e  not 
an  advantage. 

"  With  respect  to  the  food  of  farm- 
horses,  as  we  observed  before,  a  great 
saving  may  be  effected  by  a  judicious 
use  of  many  vegetables  and  roots 
which  are  easily  raised  on  arable 
land.  Various  modes  of  preparing 
the  food  have  been  recominended, 
such  as  steeping  corn  till  it  sprouts, 
baking  it  into  bread,  or  mixing  it  with 
boiled  roots.  All  these  may  have  their 
advantage  where  economy  is  the  ob- 
ject ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  baked 
bread  made  of  rye,  barley,  and  oats, 
and  slightly  leavened,  which  is  per- 
haps the  best  food  which  can  be  giv- 
en to  slow-wo  king  horses,  there  is 
nothing  so  congenial  to  the  healthy 
stomach  of  a  horse  as  good  hay  and 
dry  oats,  or  beans  bruised  in  a  mill 
and  mixed  with  cut  chaff.  They  re- 
quire no  cooking  to  be  fully  digested, 
and  the  digestive  power  ot  the  horse 
will  extract  all  the  nourishment  which 
they  contain.  But  there  are  cheaper 
fodders  than  hay  and  corn,  especially 
in  summer,  when  they  can  be  given 
fresh  and  green.  Tares,  clover,  lu- 
cern,  and  sainfoin,  cut  as  they  are 
wanted,  will  keep  a  horse  in  health 


and  working  condition  with  little  or 
no  corn,  and  at  a  comparatively  tri- 
fling expense :  carrots  are  peculiarly 
relished  by  horses,  and  are  very  whole- 
some ;  and  Swedish  turnips,  or  ruta 
baga,  given  raw  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties, make  their  skins  shine,  and  thus 
prove  that  they  tend  to  keep  them 
in  condition.  Every  prudent  farmer 
takes  care  to  have  a  sufficient  supply 
of  these  clieaper  substitutes  for  hay 
and  corn,  keeping  these  last  as  a  re- 
serve and  auxiliary  to  the  former.  In 
a  prize  essay  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society,  on  the  compar- 
ative advantages  of  raw  and  boiled 
grain  as  food  for  farm  horses,  the 
author  adduces  some  experiments, 
which  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
there  is  no  advantage  in  boiling  grain, 
but  rather  the  contrary.  The  cost  of 
keep  of  a  horse  per  day  on  different 
food  has  been  given  as  follows  : 

10  lbs.  of  straw  cut  into  chaff  .     .     .     Id. 
10  lbs.  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  bushel    .     .     9 
16  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  li)s.  per  ton  .     .     1 

E.xpense  of  culling •     Ij 

1*.  OU. 


16  lbs.  of  hay,  at  3s.  6d.  per  cwt. 
5  lbs.  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  busliel  . 
16  lbs.  of  turnips,  at  lOs.  per  ton  . 


6(i. 
4i 
J_ 

or, 

2S  lbs.  of  steamed  turnips    ....     3W. 
7  lbs.  of  coals,  at  Is.  per  bushel  .     .     1 

Expense  of  steaming 5 

16  lbs.  of  straw,  at  H.  per  ton  .     .     .     Ij 
Ud 

"This  last  appears  the  most  eco- 
nomical food,  but  steamed  turnips 
and  straw  only  would  probably  not 
keep  a  horse  in  good  working  condi- 
tion, and  it  is  not  said  how  long  the  ex- 
periment was  continued,  nor  whether 
the  horses  thus  fed  lost  weight.  The 
food  is  also  valued  at  a  low  rate. 

"  It  is  evident  that  if  farm  horses 
can  be  kept  in  condition  for  Ghd.  a 
day,  which  is  not  4s.  a  week,  while 
on  hay  and  oats,  in  the  common  mode 
of  feeding,  they  will  cost  more  than 
double  that  sum,  the  saving  in  a  year 
would  amount  to  nearly  X 10  on  each 
horse ;  and  as  every  twenty-hve 
acres  of  a  farm  of  moderately  light 
land  will  require  one  horse  fbr  its 
7!37 


TEAM. 


cultivation,  tliere  will  be  a  saving  of 
fijilil  .sliillini,'s  per  acre,  probal)!)' iialf 
tlie  rent,  and  more  than  liaK"  tiie  prof- 
it. However  this  may  he,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  is  of  ^^roat  importance 
to  ascertain  what  is,  on  the  whole, 
the  best  and  cheapest  mode  of  feed- 
ing farm  horses  ;  and  without  enter- 
ing into  miiuito  calculations,  it  will 
be  found  that  various  artilicial  grass- 
es may  be  made  to  succeed  each 
other  l)y  successive  sowings  so  reg- 
ularly that  the  horses  shail  be  kept 
for  six  months  of  the  year  entirely 
on  succulent  green  food,  which  will 
enable  them  to  do  all  the  necessary 
work,  and  keep  them  in  good  health 
and  condition.  Tims,  with  the  help 
of  carrots,  potatoes,  and  rula  baga, 
a  great  saving  of  hay  and  oats  may 
be  effected  in  winter,  and  these  crops 
will  take  up  much  less  land  for  their 
production  than  hay  and  oats,  and 
exhaust  the  soil  less,  if  we  except 
potatoes,  which  are  more  profitably 
used  as  human  food,  or  to  fatten  pigs. 
"The  example  of  tradesmen  and 
manufacturers  who  keep  horses,  and 
cut  all  the  hay  which  they  use  into 
chaff,  mixing  it  with  oats,  may  be 
good  for  a  farmer  to  follow  where 
hay  is  scarce  and  beans  a  good  price, 
but  otherwise  it  is  fully  as  economi- 
cal to  give  the  hay  in  racks,  provided 
no  more  be  given  at  once  than  a  horse 
will  eat  up  entirely,  and  a  certain  ra- 
tion be  allowed  for  each  horse,  which 
experience  has  shown  to  be  sufficient. 
In  the  cavalry,  where  great  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  economy,  the  horses 
have  their  rations  of  hay,  oats,  and 
straw,  according  to  the  exercise  they 
take,  or  the  fatigue  they  are  exposed 
to  ;  so  likewise  it  should  be  with  a 
farmer's  team.  In  the  old  mode  of 
feeding  horses  with  as  much  hay  as 
they  would  eat,  and  two  bushels  of 
oats  for  each  horse  per  week,  during 
at  least  nine  months  in  the  year,  and 
giving  them  tares  or  artificial  grasses 
between  spring  sowing  and  harvest, 
when  there  was  less  to  be  done,  the 
expense  of  a  horse  was  much  greater 
than  most  farmers  could  now  afford, 
and  more  land  was  devoted  to  the 
keep  of  the  team  than  was  necessary. 
788 


i  "  It  is  of  great  importance  to  a  per 
son  about  to  manage  a  farm  lo  know 
exactly  what  number  of  horses  will 
be  required  for  its  proper  cultivation  ; 
and  this  depends  ui)on  many  circum- 
stances, which  mu.siall  be  taken  into 
:  consideration,  and  which  will  make 
I  a  very  materia!  difference,  often  as 
much  as  half  the  rent  of  the;  land. 
j  He  is  lo  consider  the  situation  of  the 
i  farm  buildings,  especially  the  stalls 
!  and  cattle-yards,  where  the  manure 
is  to  be  made,  with  respect  to  their 
distance  from  the  fields  ;  the  stale  ol 
the  roads  and  the  access  to  the  fields  , 
the  distance  of  a  good  market-town, 
and  whether  the  fields  lie  in  a  ring, 
fence  or  are  scattered.  A  farm  o) 
good  light  loam  will  require  one 
horse  for  every  twenty-five  acres  for 
Its  cultivation,  with  an  additional  one 
for  every  two  hundred  acres;  that 
is,  nine  horses  for  two  hundred  acres. 
The  additional  horse  should  be  light- 
er and  more  active  than  the  rest,  for 
the  farmer  to  ride  on  and  to  drive  in 
a  light  cart ;  yet  it  should  be  capable 
of  supplying  the  place  of  any  of  the 
others  in  case  of  illness  or  accident, 
or  when  extra  work  is  required,  as 
in  harvest  or  seed  time.  The  larger 
the  farm,  or  rather  the  fields,  the 
fewer  horses  are  required  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size,  because  much  time  is 
lost  in  turning  the  plough  where  the 
furrow  is  short;  and  ploughing  is  al- 
ways the  principal  work  ot  the  team. 
If  more  than  two  horses  are  requi- 
red to  plough  the  ground,  the  soil 
must  be  very  compact  and  heavy ; 
and  if  this  is  not  compensated  by 
greater  fertility,  the  expense  of  the 
horses  will  much  reduce  the  profit  of 
the  farmer.  It  is  the  custom  in 
some  farms  for  each  ploughman  to 
have  the  charge  of  his  own  horses  ; 
but  it  is  far  better  to  make  the  feed- 
ing and  cleaning  of  horses  the  busi- 
ness of  regular  servants,  who  should 
sleep  in  or  near  the  stables,  and  rise 
very  early,  so  that  the  horses  maybe 
fed  and  ready  to  go  to  work  as  soon 
as  the  ploughman  comes.  \\'lien  a 
man  has  been  eight  or  ten  hours 
holding  a  plough,  he  is  not  so  capable 
of  cleaning  and  rubbing  the  horses  as 


TEA 

one  who  has  onlj'  had  light  work  in  1 
the  day.  The  horse  kcep'TS  oan  | 
prepare  manure,  make  coinijosts.  cut  I 
iiay  and  straw  into  chad' lor  llie  lior- } 
ses,  mow  tares  or  oilier  i!;ieeii  food,  | 
or  hoe  the  crops  in  tJK!  season  while  j 
the  horses  are  at  work,  and  the  hist  | 
thing  before  lliey  He  down  at  night  i 
shonld  be  to  give  the  horses  tlieir  [ 
proper  ration  of  hay,  and  hcc  thai  j 
their  beds  are  comfortal)le  and  every- 1 
thing  in  proper  order  in  tlie  stables  : 
good  grooming  is  of  as  great  use  to 
a  horse  as  good  feeding,  and  without 
it  they  will  never  be  in  perfect  work- 
ing condition.  The  harness  should 
always  be  cleaned  and  oiled,  and 
hung  up  in  a  separate  place,  not,  as 
is  too  commonly  done,  hung  up  be 
hind  the  horses  in  the  stables.  There 
should  be  no  unnecessary  ornaments, 
but  strength  and  simplicity  should  be 
studied.  The  weight  and  size  of  the 
collars  are  in  many  places  absurd  : 
they  cannot  be  too  light,  provided 
they  are  of  sufficient  strength.  The 
work  in  the  field,  when  the  days  are 
long,  should  be  divided  so  as  to  give 
the  horses  at  least  two  hours'  rest, 
during  which  they  should  be  fed  with 
oats  or  corn.  When  the  fields  are 
near  the  stables,  the  horses  may  be 
brought  home,  but  a  portable  manger 
is  easily  carried  into  the  field,  such 
as  is  used  at  the  inns  on  the  roads 
where  carriers  stop  to  bait.  In  win- 
ter it  may  be  as  well  to  finish  the 
days'  work  with  only  an  interval  of 
half  an  hour.  The  time  in  summer 
should  be  from  five  in  the  morning 
till  ten,  and  from  two  till  seven  if  the 
weather  is  very  warm,  resting  four 
hours;  or  from  si.x  till  eleven,  and 
from  one  till  six,  resting  two  hours. 
In  winter  the  time  is  from  seven  till 
three,  resting  half  an  hour  or  an  hour 
between  eleven  and  twelve.  With 
good  feeding  and  grooming  this  is  by 
no  means  too  hard  work  when  the 
work  requires  to  be  carried  on  brisk- 
ly. The  heavier  and  lighter  kind  of 
work  should  be  so  arranged  that 
\vhen  horses  have  worked  hard  for  a 
day  or  two,  they  may  have  one  or  two 
days  of  lighter  work." 
TEATHING     Feeding  or  stack- 


TEA 

ing  hay  for  use  on  the  field  :  bating 
turnips,  &,c.,  on  fields,  or  young  wheat 
in  spring. 

TEASEL,  or  FULLER'S  TEAS- 
EL. Dipsaats  fullonum.  It  is  an 
herbaceous  biennial,  of  the  composite 
fitmily,  growing  four  to  six  feet  high, 
and  cultivated  for  the  rough,  jjrickly 
flower  head,  which  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cloth,  flannel,  &c. 
The  soil  best  suited  is  a  clayey  loam, 
not  over  rich  ;  the  seed  is  sown  in 
April  or  May,  either  broad-cast  or  in 
drills  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet 
apart.  Sometimes  caraways  are 
sown  with  them.  One  to  two  pecks 
of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre.  The 
plants  are  weeded,  thinned,  and  deep- 
ly worked  as  they  grow,  to  six  inches 
in  the  row,  or  one  foot  each  way,  in 
the  broad-cast  field.  They  are  fit  for 
cutting  the  second  year  about  July, 
or  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  begin  to 
fall  from  the  heads,  and  are  now  to 
be  cut  immediately  above  the  upper 
leaves  (see  Fig.)  with  a  sharp  knife 


or  hook,  and  received  into  a  basket ; 
the  cutter  should  have  his  hands  well 
provided  with  stout  gloves.  Three 
cuttings  are  made  at  intervals  of  eight 
to  ten  days,  the  ripe  heads  only  being 
taken.  They  are  to  be  sunned  for  a 
day,  and  then  conveyed  into  dry 
rooms  or  sheds  ;  no  water  should 
touch  them.  They  are  sorted  for 
sale  :  the  finest  and  firmest  are  call- 
ed kings  ;  the  second,  middhngs  ;  and 
789 


TER 


TET 


the  inferior,  unripe,  and  brittle  kinds 
scrubs.  The  sorts  are  put  into  open 
bales  of  sticks  for  sale.  9000  heads 
of  the  first  form  a  pack,  and  20,000 
of  the  second.  An  acre  will  yield  ten 
to  fifteen  packs  in  all.  The  haulm  is 
burned  on  tiie  ground.  The  crop  is 
not  exhausting,  but  sometimes  fails. 

TEGTRICES.  The  small  feathers 
which  cover  the  quill  feathers. 

TEDDING  HAY.  Spreading  it  out. 

T  E  E  T  II.  To  leara  the  age  of 
horses  by,  see  Horse. 

TEGMENTA.  The  scales  of  win- 
ter buds. 

TEGUMENT,  or  TEGMEN.  Tn 
anatomy,  the  general  covering  of  the 
body.  In  entomology  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  the  coverings  of  the  wings 
of  the  order  Orthoptera,  or  straight- 
winged  insects. 

TEMPORAL  BONES.  The  tem- 
ple bones. 

TENACITY.  Cohesion.  The 
power  of  resisting  a  pulling  force. 

TENACULUM.  A  simple  small 
hook,  used  to  seize  bleeding  vessels 
in  operations. 

TENDRIL.  A  clasping  stem,  as 
that  of  the  vine. 

TENESMUS.  A  straining  and  in- 
effectual effort  to  relieve  the  bcnvels  ; 
it  is  a  symptom  of  irritations  and  in- 
flannnalions  of  the  bowels. 

TENON.  The  end  of  a  rail  intro- 
duced into  a  mortice. 

TENSOR  MUSCLES.  Those 
which  tighten  a  part. 

TENT.  A  plug  of  lint  or  sponge 
introduced  into  wounds  to  dilate 
them,  or  to  stop  hemorrhages. 

TENTACULA,  or  TENTACLES. 
Prehensile,  thread-like  organs  in  the 
lower  animals,  usually  arranged 
around  their  mouths. 

T  E  N  U  I  R  O  S  T  E  R  S.  Incesso- 
rial  birds,  with  a  slender  bill. 

TEREBRANTIA.  A  section  of 
hymenopterous  insects,  the  females 
of  which  are  furnished  with  a  icrchra, 
or  borer,  with  which  she  bores  into 
the  bark  of  trees,  or  the  bodies  of  an- 
imals, to  deposiie  her  eggs.  The  ich- 
neumons, wheat  insect,  <Scc.,  are  of 
this  class.     See  Insects. 

TERETE  (from  teres,  round).  A 
790 


I  term  applied  to  round  stems,  anten- 
nse,  &.C. 

TERGUM.  In  insects,  the  upper 
part  of  the  abdomen  or  back. 

TERMITES.  A  genus  of  insects 
inhabilmg  tropical  Africa  and  Amer- 
ica, and  allied  to  the  ants. 

TERRACE.  A  raised  bank,  for  a 
promenade  and  ornamental  oi)jects. 

TERTIARY  F O RM A T 1 0 N. 
Strata  situated  above  the  chalk  and 
green  sand,  disposed  in  basins,  and 
for  the  most  part  sednnentary,  but 
containing  some  hard  rocks.  It  is  di- 
vided into  three  portions,  the  eocine, 
miocine,  and  pliocine,  which  see. 

TESSELATED.  Marked  into 
squares,  or  trapezoids ;  a  pavement 
laid  with  square  stones  of  different 
colours. 

TEST.  In  chemistry,  anything  by 
which  we  distinguish  the  chemical 
nature  of  substances  from  each  oth- 
er ;  thus,  infusion  of  galls  is  a  test  of 
the  presence  of  iron,  which  it  ren- 
ders evident  by  the  production  of  a 
black  colour  in  water  and  other  li- 
quids containing  that  metal ;  in  the 
same  way,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  a 
test  of  the  presence  of  lead,  and  ni- 
trate of  baryta,  of  sulphuric  acid.  In 
metallurgy  and  assaymg,  the  porous 
crucible  which  absorbs  the  liquid  vit- 
rifiable  oxide  of  lead  and  other  met- 
als combined  with  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  lest. 

TESTA.  The  shell  or  integument 
of  a  seed. 

TESTACEANS.  Animals  provi- 
ded with  a  shell. 

TESTES.  The  glands  which  pro- 
duce the  reproductive  secretion  of 
male  animals. 

TESTUDINATA.  A  tribe  of  an- 
imals like  the  tortoise,  furnished  with 
a  carapace  or  horny  covering. 

TETANUS.     Locked  jaw. 

TETHERING.  Fastening  cattle 
or  horses  by  a  rope,  or  chain,  to  a 
post,  or  tree,  to  give  them  a  limited 
pasturage. 

TETRADYNAMIA.  Having  four 
long  and  two  short  stamens,  as  the 
cruciferous  plants. 

TETRAGONA.  The  New  Zea- 
land spinach.    See  Spinach. 


THA 


TIIA 


TETRAGYXIA.  Having  four  pis- 
tils. 

TETRANDRIA.  With  four  sta- 
mens. 

TETTIGONIANS.  Tiie  Cicadi- 
ans,  or  tree  locusts. 

THALAMUS.  In  anatomy,  the 
part  of  the  brain  from  which  the  op- 
tic nerves  have  part  of  their  origin. 
In  botany,  the  part  on  which  the 
ovary  is  seated.  The  succulent  red 
centre  of  a  strawberry,  the  core  ia 
the  fruit  of  a  raspberry,  are  the  thai- 
ami  of  these  plants.  Some  botanists 
call  it  the  receptacle  of  the  fruit. 

T  H  A  L  L 1 :  S.  The  leaf-like  ex- 
pansion of  lichens,  sea-weeds,  &.c. 
Hence  these  plants  are  sometimes 
called  Thallogens,  or  Thallophjtes. 

THATCH.  "This  is  a  covering  of 
straw,  rushes,  or  reeds,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  tiles,  or  slates,  for  houses, 
barns,  and  principally  for  sheds  for 
cattle.  The  increase  of  agricultural 
produce  on  a  farm  makes  the  stacking 
of  corn  out  of  doors  a  matter  of  neces- 
sity as  well  as  convenience.  The 
temporary  thatching  of  these  stacks, 
as  well  as  of  hayricks,  has  made  it 
necessary  that  some  of  the  regular 
servants  of  the  farm  should  be  capa- 
ble of  thatching  in  a  neat  and  sub- 
stantial manner,  that  there  may  be 
no  delay  fr.om  want  of  a  regular 
thatcher.  We  will  first  describe  the 
mode  of  thatching  hayricks  and  corn 
stacks,  as  the  simplest. 

"  The  rick,  or  stack,  having  heen 
formed  into  a  proper  shape,  either 
with  a  roof  slanting  from  a  ridge,  or 
conical,  and  ending  in  a  central  point, 
the  straw  is  prepared  by  moistening 
it,  that  it  may  more  easily  bend  with- 
out breaking.  It  is  then  forked  up 
in  a  loose  heap,  the  straws  lying  in 
every  direction,  and  somewhat  mat- 
ted. Portions  are  now  drawn  out 
from  this  heap  in  handfuls,  which 
lays  the  straws  again  in  a  more  paral- 
lel order :  these  are  placed  in  a  fork- 
ed stick,  which  will  hold  several  of 
these  bundles  or  handfuls,  and  are 
thus  carried  to  the  thatcher  on  the 
top  of  the  rick,  or  stack.  He  seizes  a 
handful,  and  bending  one  end  into  a 
kind  of  noose,  he  inserts  this  into  the 


hay  or  straw  near  the  bottom  of  the 
roof,  at  one  end  if  it  be  a  square  roof, 
or  at  any  convenient  part  if  it  be  a 
round  one.  He  presses  down  the 
straw  which  he  has  thus  inserted  to 
about  half  its  length,  in  order  to  form 
the  eaves,  which  extend  a  little  be- 
yond the  lower  part  of  the  roof. 
When  he  has  thus  laid  several  hand- 
fuls side  by  side,  so  as  to  cover  about 
a  yard  in  width,  that  is,  as  far  as  he 
can  conveniently  reach  without  mo- 
ving his  ladder,  he  begins  another 
row  a  little  above  the  place  where 
he  began,  so  that  the  lower  end  of 
the  straw  now  inserted  may  cover 
the  upper  part  of  the  first  row,  as  tiles 
do  each  other.  Thus  he  proceeds 
upward  till  he  comes  to  the  upper 
ridge  of  the  roof,  or  to  the  point  of 
the  cone  in  a  round  stack.  In  the 
latter  case  the  covering  diminishes 
to  a  point,  so  as  to  form  a  triangle. 
The  ladder  is  now  shifted  a  yard  to 
one  side,  and  the  same  operation  is 
performed,  care  being  taken  that  each 
j  fresh  handful  put  on  shall  be  inter- 
■  woven  with  that  which  lies  beside  it, 
so  that  no  water  can  possibly  pass 
i  between  them.  Thus  the  work  pro- 
ceeds till  the  roof  is  completed,  and 
it  only  remains  to  secure  the  upper 
ridge  in  a  square  stack,  or  the  point 
of  the  cone  in  a  round  one.  In  the 
first  case,  the  highest  layer  of  straw 
is  made  to  extend  beyond  the  ridge 
I  on  both  sides,  and  the  ends  are  brought 
together  and  stand  up  like  the  bristles 
on  a  hog.  A  rope  of  straw  has  been 
prepared,  and  many  small  rods,  about 
two  feet  long,  and  cut  sharp  at  the 
point:  these  are  inserted  just  below 
;  the  ridge,  in  a  line  with  it,  and  about 
a  foot  apart ;  one  end  of  the  straw 
:  rope  is  inserted  into  the  stack,  and 
twisted  firmly  round  the  projecting 
end  of  the  first  rod  ;  it  is  then  wound 
once  round  the  next  rod,  and  so  on 
the  whole  length  of  the  ridge  :  this  is 
done  on  both  sides.  The  straws  which 
form  the  ridge  are  now  cut  with  shears 
horizontally,  to  give  it  a  neat  finish, 
and  at  each  end  a  kind  of  ornament 
is  usually  made  by  winding  a  straw 
rope  round  a  handful  of  the  project- 
ing straw,  lorming  a  kind  of  knot  or 
791 


THE 


THE 


bow,  accordinn;  to  the  taste  of  the 
tliatchcr.  Rods  with  straw  ropos 
twisleii  round  them  arc  inserted  near 
the  edge  of  the  slanting  side  and  all 
along  the  eaves,  whieh  prevent  the 
wind  from  blowing  off  the  thatch. 

"The  only  ditferenoe  in  the  thatch 
of  a  round  ricic  is,  that  it  is  brought 
to  one  point,  wliere^  it  is  lied  with 
straw  rope  wound  round  it,  and  form- 
ed into  a  kind  of  bow  ;  the  rods  are 
inserted  a  little  below  in  a  circle,  and 
a  straw  rope  twisted  round  them, 
and  likewise  around  the  circular 
eaves.  Barley  is  generally  put  into 
square  stacks,  and  wheat  in  round 
ones.  When  the  outside  is  neatly 
trimmed  and  cut  smooth,  so  that  no 
birds  can  lodge  in  it,  wheat  may  be 
kept  for  years,  without  danger  of  in- 
jury or  loss,  much  better  than  in  a 
barn,  or  even  in  a  granary. 

"  In  thatching  sheds  and  buildings 
which  are  to  last  many  years,  the 
straw  is  prepared  in  the  same  man- 
ner, but  the  ends  of  the  handfuls,  as 
they  are  put  on  a  lathed  roof,  are 
kept  down  by  means  of  long  rods, 
which  are  tied  to  the  laths  of  the  roof 
by  means  of  strong  tar  twine.  A 
much  thicker  coat  of  straw  is  put  on  ; 
and  rye  straw,  which  has  a  solid 
stem,  is  preferred  as  more  lasting, 
and  less  liable  to  be  filled  with  water 
than  hollow  straw.  Instead  of  straw 
ropes,  split  willow  is  used,  and  the 
rods  which  are  inserted  are  much 
nearer  each  other  and  more  carefully 
secured.  As  this  kind  of  thatching 
is  a  peculiar  trade,  it  requires  a  reg- 
ular apprenticeship  to  be  master  of 
it.  The  thatching  of  temporary  ricks 
may  be  done  from  mere  description, 
and  a  very  little  practice  will  enable 
any  one  to  protect  his  stacks  suffi- 
ciently by  a  thatched  covering." 

THECA.  A  case,  usually  the  urn 
of  mosses,  in  which  their  spores  are 
situated. 

THECOSTOMES.  Those  insects 
which  have  their  suckers  surrounded 
bv  a  sheath  or  case. 

THEODOLITE.     A  surveying  in- 
strument for  measuring  both  vertical 
and  horizontal  angles,  and  necessary 
ia  accurate  surveys. 
792 


THEORY.  The  expression  of  a 
general  law  based  on  numerous  as- 
certained facts.  An  hypothesis  is 
merely  a  guess,  without  any  basis  on 
fact. 

THERAPEUTICS.  The  science 
which  treats  of  the  action  of  medi- 
cines. 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY.  The 
study  of  the  conditions  for  the  produc- 
tion of  an  electrical  current  i)y  heat. 

"  When  one  part  of  a  metallic  bar 
is  heated  and  another  cooled,  an  elec- 
tric current  is  generated  in  its  sub- 
stance, which  may  be  rendered  evi- 
dent, and  its  direction  ascertained  by 
the  galvanometer.  When  two  rnetals 
of  ditTerent  temperatures  are  brought 
into  contact,  similar  electric  currents 
are  generated,  the  quantity  and  di- 
rection of  the  electricity  varying  with 
the  nature  of  the  metals  and  their  re- 
spective temperatures.  The  best  ap- 
paratus for  exhibiting  these  thermo- 
electric currents  consists  of  alternate 
bars  of  antimony  and  bismuth  sol- 
dered together  at  their  ends,  so  as  to 
form  a  compound  bar  or  parallelo- 
gram, the  junctions  of  which  may 
be  alternately  heated  and  cooled.  In 
this  case,  the  direction  of  the  current 
is  from  the  antimony  to  the  bismuth  ; 
so  that  these  metals  bear  the  same 
relation  to  each  other  in  the  thermo- 
electric series  as  the  zinc  and  silver 
in  the  simple  voltaic  circuit.  The 
term  stereo-chctric  has  also  been  ap- 
plied to  these  currents,  implying  their 
production  in  solid  bodies  independ- 
ent of  a  fluid,  and  as  opposed  to  the 
hydro-electric  or  voltaic  current." — 
{Krandc.) 

THERMO-ELECTRIC  PILE. 
See  above. 

THERMOMETER  (from  -Qepfio^, 
rearm,  and /^utjiov,  a  measure).  An  in- 
strument to  measure  sensible  heat. 
It  most  usually  consists  of  a  tube  of 
small  bore,  with  a  bulb  at  the  lower 
end  containing  mercury,  which,  by  its 
dilatation  from  heat,  ascends  within 
the  tube.  There  is  a  scale  attached, 
marked  into  degrees,  and  the  altitude 
of  the  mercury  is  measured  by  its 
position  opposite  the  degrees.  The 
marking  is  after  the  plan  of  Fahren- 


THI 


THO 


heit,  32'^  Fahrenheit  being  the  freez- 
ing of  water,  and  212=  Fahrenheit 
its  boiling  point.  The  0  {zero)  is  as- 
certained by  the  cold  produced  from 
mixing  snow  and  salt  so  as  to  melt. 

The  centigrade  scale  is  used  by  the 
French,  in  which  the  zero  is  the 
freezing  of  water,  and  100='  cent,  its 
boiling  pomt. 

The  thermometer  is  of  great  ser- 
vice to  the  gardener  in  the  hot-house, 
to  regulate  its  temperature.  Ruther- 
ford's thermometer  marks  the  lowest 
and  highest  degrees  of  temperature 
during  an\'  given  time.  "  It  consists 
simply  of  two  thermometers:  a  mer- 
curial thermometer.  A,  and  a  spirit 
thermometer,  B,  attached  horizontally 


o  the  same  frame,  and  each  provi- 
ded with  its  own  scale.     The  index 
of  A  is  a  bit  of  steel,  which  is  pushed 
before  the  mercury ;  but,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  horizontal  position,  re- 
mains in  its  place  when  the  mercury 
recedes,  and  consequently  indicates  ; 
the  highest  degree  of  the  scale  to  j 
which  the  mercury  has  risen.     The  j 
index  of  B  is  of  glass,  with  a  small  ; 
knob  at  each  end.     This  lies  in  the  ! 
spirit,  which  freely  passes  it  when  ; 
the  thermometer  rises  ;  but  when  the  | 
spirit  recedes,  the  cohesive  attraction  ■ 
between  the  fluid  and  the  glass  over- 
comes the  friction  arising  from  the  . 
weight  of  tlie  index,  and  the  index  is  ' 
consequently  carried  back  with  the 
spirit  towards  the  bulb.     As  there  is  | 
no  force  to  move  it  in  the  opposite  | 
direction,  it  remains  at  the  point  near-  j 
est  the  bulb  to  which  it  has  been 
brought,  and  tl»us  indicates  the  low- 
est temp(?rature  which  has  occurred.  [ 
By  inclining  the  instrument,  the  in-  '■ 
dices  are  brought  to  the  surfaces  of, 
their  respective  fluids,  and  prepared 
for  a  new  observation." 

Til  Eil.M  OSCOFE.  A  general 
term,  including  any  implement  for 
measuring  heat. 

THICKET.     A  dense   accumula- 
tion of  shrubs  or  young  trees. 
X  X  s 


THILL.  The  central  beam  or 
draught-tree  of  a  wagon. 

T  H  I  X  N  I  N  G  OUT.  Removing 
some  plants  or  branches  of  a  tree  to 
give  the  rest  a  better  opportunity  of 
growing  large.  It  is  an  important 
operation  in  the  orchard,  as  a  tree 
overburdened  with  fruit  will  not  pro- 
duce such  tine  specimens  as  one  that 
has  a  few  to  perfect. 

THISTLE.  The  genus  Cardmis. 
The  commonest  kinds  in  the  United 
States  are  the  C.  lanceolalus  and  ar- 
tcnsis  :  the  latter  is  the  well-known 
Canada  thistle.  Considered  as  a 
weed  in  our  fields,  our  principal  ob- 
ject is  to  eradicate  it,  which,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  ready  dispersion  of 
the  seeds  by  the  wind,  is  not  easily 
done,  as  a  slovenly  farmer  may  seed 
the  vvhole  country  around. 

"  Those  crops  which  are  usually 
hoed  can  readily  be  cleared  of  this- 
tles ;  but  where  the  seed  is  sown 
broad-cast,  the  labour  of  weeding 
them  out  is  much  greater.  If  they 
are  not  extracted  with  the  root,  they 
will  soon  grow  again  with  redoubled 
vigour.  In  a  moist  season  they  may 
be  pulled  up  by  means  of  a  wooden 
or  iron  pincers,  which  grasps  them 
strongly  near  the  crown  of  the  root. 
A^'hen  a  field  has  been  long  infested 
with  thistles,  the  best  way  of  clear- 
ing it  is  to  watch  when  the  thistle  is 
in  full  bloom  and  the  seed  just  form- 
ing ;  if  it  be  then  cut  off"  at  the  root, 
it  will  die.  Thus  in  two  years  a  field 
may  be  entirely  cleared  of  thistles. 

"  It  is  chiefly  in  arable  land  that 
thistles  are  most  troublesome.  In 
pastures  it  is  sufficient  to  eradicate 
them  once,  and  to  permit  none  to 
grow  along  the  hedges  and  ditches. 
The  seed  does  not  readily  vegetate, 
unless  it  finds  a  loose  soil ;  and  little 
birds  are  so  fond  of  it,  that  they  will 
leave  none  that  is  not  covered  with 
earth,  especially  in  the  beginning  of 
winter." 

T  H  O  R  A  QIC.  Relating  to  the 
chest.  The  thoracic  duct  is  a  vessel 
which  receives  the  contents  of  the 
lacteals  and  absorbents,  and  con- 
veys it  to  the  blood  by  the  subclavian 
vein. 

793 


THR 


THY 


THORAX.  The  chest.  The  cav- 
ty  of  the  chest  is  termed  the  lliora- 
cic  cavity,  and  contains  the  heart  and 
lungs.  In  entomology,  the  second 
segment  of  the  frame. 

THORN.  The  genus  Crat<r<rus: 
thorny  shrubs  of  tlie  family  Rosacea. 
The  C.  oxyacanlha  is  the  .May,  or  Eng- 
lish hedge  thorn.  The  C.  crus  gaili, 
or  Newcastle  thorn,  is  much  used  in 
Delaware  as  a  hedge  ;  it  is  supposed 
to  be  superior  to  tlie  C.  cordata,  or 
Virginian  thorn. 

THORN-APPLE.  The  stramo- 
Ilium. 

THRASHING  AND  THRASH- 
ERS. "  The  separation  of  the  grain 
from  the  ear  in  corn  has  always  been 
one  of  the  most  laborious  operations 
on  a  farm. 

"  Where  the  grain  is  thrashed  out 
immediately  after  harvest,  to  be  put 
into  a  granary,  the  most  common 
practice  is  to  level  a  portion  of  a  lieid, 
and  laying  the  grain  in  the  straw  in  a 
large  circle,  to  drive  oxen  and  horses 
over  it  till  it  is  all  trodden  out.  Till 
ingenuity  had  produced  machines  to 
supersede  the  flail,  this  was  the  only 
instrument  in  use.  The  first  idea  of 
a  machine  for  thrashing  was  that  of 
imitating  the  motion  of  the  flail,  but 
so  much  depends  on  the  eye  of  the 
thrasher,  that  no  mechanism  could 
■well  imitate  the  motion  of  his  arms. 
This  was  consequently  given  up,  and 
an  imitation  of  the  rubbing  of  the 
grains  from  the  ears  between  the 
hands,  combined  with  the  beaters 
of  a  flax -dressing  machme,  grad- 
ually produced  the  present  improved 
thrashing  machine. 

"  Without  a  figure  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  describe  the  different  parts 
and  motions  of  a  thrashing  machine. 
They  are,  however,  now  so  common, 
that  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  general 
principal  of  action,  and  to  mention 
some  of  the  latest  improvements  in 
it.  A  rapid  motion  is  given  to  a  hol- 
low cylinder  round  a  horizontal  axis  ; 
on  the  outer  surface  there  are  pro- 
jecting ribs  parallel  to  the  axis  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other, 
or,  what  is  more  common,  spikes. 
Around  half  the  cyluider  is  a  case, 
79  i 


the  inner  surface  of  which  is  lined 
with  plates  of  cast-iron  grooved  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis,  or  furnished 
with  spikes.  The  ribs  or  beaters 
come  quite  close  to  these,  so  that  an 
ear  of  wheat  or  other  grain  cannot 
well  pass  between  them  without  be- 
ing flattened.  The  sheaves  of  grain, 
having  been  untied,  arc  spread  on  a 
slanting  table,  and  in  some  machines 
are  drawn  in  by  the  spikes.  The 
motion  of  the  cylinder  or  drum  is 
very  rapid.  The  beaters  act  on  the 
straw  as  it  comes  through,  and  beat 
out  most  of  the  grain  ;  but  wliat  re- 
mains is  carried  in  between  the  beat- 
ers and  the  case,  and  when  it  has 
made  half  a  revolution  all  the  grain 
has  been  beaten  and  rubbed  out.  It 
i  falls  on  a  sieve,  which  lets  the  grain 
j  through,  but  retains  the  straw,  which 
I  is  raked  off  by  hand,  or  by  circular 
I  rakes  moved  by  the  machinery.  The 
great  perfection  of  a  thrashing  ma- 
chine is  to  rub  out  every  grain  and 
to  break  the  straw  as  little  as  possi- 
ble :  the  larger  the  scale  of  the  ma- 
chine the  better  it  does  this.  Hand 
machines  have  been  made  on  the 
same  principle,  but  they  do  not  effect 
any  saving  in  the  expense,  requiring 
many  men  to  produce  the  effect  of 
one  horse.  Moveable  thrashing  ma- 
chines are  very  generally  in  use  where 
farms  are  small.  They  are  often  the 
property  of  an  industrious  mechan- 
ic, who  undertakes  to  superintend 
the  work,  the  farmer  finding  horses 
and  men.  Thus  he  goes  from  farm 
to  farm.  The  best  machines  will 
thrash  25  to  50  bushels  the  hour." 
The  thrashers  best  known  are  Pitt's, 
Hall's,  Hale's,  Whitman's,  Stafford's, 
Warren's,  Bostwick"s. 

THREAVE.  Twelve  sheaves  of 
grain  in  the  straw. 

THROAT.  Faux,  the  commence- 
ment of  the  tube  of  a  personate  or 
labiate  flower. 

THRIPS.  The  genus  of  vine  fret- 
ters,  minute  flies  which  destroy  the 
buds,  leaves,  and  flowers  of  several 
fruit-trees.  They  are  extremely  act- 
tive,  and  skip  considerable  distances. 
See  Insects. 

TIIY.ME.    The  genus  Thymus,  ol 


TIL 


TIL 


which  T.  vulgaris  is  cultivated  as  a 
well-known  aromatic  pot-herb  of  the 
family  Labiahe.  It  is  a  perennial,  and 
propagated  both  by  seed  and  slips  :  it 
should  be  placed  in  a  moderately  fer- 
tile bed  in  a  dry  situation. 

THYRSUS,  or  TIIYRSE.  An  in- 
florescence similar  to  that  of  the  com- 
mon lilac. 

T  H  Y  R  0  I D  GL AXD.  A  gland 
situated  in  front  of  the  throat :  its 
office  is  unknown. 

TIBIA.  The  largest  of  the  two 
bones  of  the  fore  leg.  In  entomolo- 
gy, the  fourth  joint  of  the  leg. 

TICK.  A  well-known  race  of  in- 
sects found  on  grass,  decayed  wood. 
&c.  :  they  are  easily  removed  by 
smoking  with  tobacco.  The  sheep 
tick  is  destroyed  by  mercurial  or  sul- 
phur ointment,  or  dipping  the  sheep 
mlo  a  strong  infusion  of  tobacco. 

TIE.  In  building,  a  limber  or  met- 
al used  to  bind  together  two  parts 
which  are  liable  to  separate. 

TILLAGE.  "  Applied  to  arable 
land,  the  stirring  and  preparing  the 
surlace  of  the  soil,  so  as  to  render  it 
fit  for  the  vegetation  of  seeds  ;  its 
object,  also,  is  the  destruction  of 
noxious  weeds. 

"  The  whole  art  of  cultivation  con- 
sists in  tillage  and  manuring,  and  the 
profit  of  the  husbandman  depends  on 
the  perfection  of  the  tillage  and  the 
economy  of  labour  in  producing  the 
elTect.  A  defect  in  tillage  will  cause 
a  creat  deficiency  in  the  crops  in  or- 
dinary years.  To  ensure  good  crops, 
the  soil  should  be  in  such  a  state  that 
the  rains  and  dews  may  readily  be 
diffu.sed  through  it,  without  giving  it 
a  wet  appearance,  or  evaporating  too 
rapidly.  It  requires  great  knowledge 
and  experience  to  give  any  particular 
soil  the  exact  portion  of  tillage  which 
is  suited  to  it.  A  fine  garden  tilth, 
as  it  is  called,  is  the  most  perfect  for 
liglit  soils  which  have  been  long  cul- 
tivated and  manured  :  when  they  can 
be  brought  to  such  a  state,  that  after 
continued  rains  the  surface  dries 
without  forming  a  crust,  and  crum- 
bles of  its  own  accord,  the  tillage  has 
been  good  ;  and  the  deeper  this  soil 
is  stirred,  the  more  it  will  produce ; 


but  where  clay  abounds  in  the  soil, 
which  in  dry  weather  can  be  readily 
pulverized  by  crushing  the  dry  clods, 
and  be  reduced  to  the  finest  powder, 
too  much  tillage  may  do  more  harm 
than  good.  The  fine  clay  is  soon 
converted  into  mud  at  the  surface  by 
the  least  rain,  because  it  is  not  suffi- 
ciently porous  to  let  the  water  tiirough 
it ;  it  dries  into  a  hard  crust,  which 
effectually  precludes  the  access  of 
air,  and  consequently  stops  the  ve- 
getation of  the  seed.  It  is  only  by 
abundant  manuring  with  organic  mat- 
ter that  this  natural  tendency  in  clays 
to  cohere  can  be  overcome  ;  and  un- 
til this  is  effected,  it  is  best  to  stir 
clay  soils  as  deep  as  possible  by 
means  of  subsoil  ploughs,  but  they 
should  not  be  pulverized  so  that  the 
water  cannot  run  down  between  the 
lumps  and  clods,  and  especially  the 
surface  should  be  left  in  such  a  state 
of  roughness  that  heavy  rains  cannot 
cover  It  with  a  coat  of  mud.  The 
clods  which  are  left  on  the  surface 
imbibe  the  moisture  more  gradually, 
and,  in  drying,  fall  to  pieces,  by  which 
the  young  plants  are  invigorated, 
and,  as  it  were,  moulded  up.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  in  winter  after  a 
frost,  as  all  clay  land  tanners  are 
well  aware.  It  is  very  easily  ascer- 
tained whether  a  soil  will  bear  much 
tillage  or  not.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  try  some  of  it  in  a  large  pot  or 
box  ;  make  the  surface  very  fine  by 
breaking  the  clods,  then  water  it 
abundantly,  and  let  it  dry  in  the  sun  ; 
if  a  crust  is  formed  in  drying,  that 
soil  will  not  bear  too  much  harrow- 
ing and  pulverizing,  and  should  be 
left  in  a  moderately  rough  state  after 
sowing  or  drilling  the  seed  ;  but  if, 
after  it  dries,  the  surface  is  loose  and 
porous,  then  the  finer  the  tillage  the 
better  the  seed  will  vegetate.  The 
whole  depends  on  the  ready  admis- 
sion of  air  or  its  exclusion.  When 
grass  seeds  are  sown,  the  surface 
sliould  be  well  pulverized ;  but  this 
cannot  be  safely  done  if  the  soil  is  apt 
to  run  together  when  mucii  rain  falls 
soon  after  the  seed  is  sown.  Some 
plants,  like  beans,  will  force  theii 
way  through  a  very  hard  surface ; 
795 


TILLAGE. 


but  small  seeds  are  too  weak  to  do 
so,  and  their  growth  is  entirely  stop- 
ped by  the  least  crust  on  the  surface. 
Besides  the  preparatory  tillage  of  the 
soil  before  sowing  the  seed,  there  is 
great  advantage  in  the  stirring  it  as 
the  plants  are  growing.  On  this  de- 
pends all  the  merit  of  the  row  culture 
for  every  kind  of  plant,  especially 
those  which  have  esculent  roots  or 
extensive  foliage,  and  which  are 
chiefly  cultivated  for  the  sustenance 
of  cattle.  The  effect  of  deep  tillage 
is  here  most  remarkable.  If  rows  of 
turnips  or  cabbages  be  sown  at  such 
a  distance  that  a  small  plough  or  oth- 
er stirring  implement  can  be  used  l)e- 
tween  them,  and  the  intervals  be 
stirred  more  or  less,  and  at  different 
depths,  it  will  be  found  that  the  deep- 
er and  more  frequent  the  tillage,  until 
the  foliage  covers  the  whole  interval, 
or  the  bulbs  swell  to  a  great  size,  the 
heavier  and  more  abundant  the  prod- 
uce will  be.  It  is  worth  while  to  try 
tl>e  experiment ;  Sow  Swedish  tur- 
nips or  mangel  wurzel  in  rows  three 
feet  apart ;  let  some  of  the  rows  be 
merely  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  surface 
hoeing,  and  the  plants  be  thinned  out 
to  the  distance  of  a  foot  apart  :  let 
oiher  intervals  be  stirred  to  different 
depths  ;  some  three  inches,  some  six 
inches,  and  some  nine  inches  or  more. 
The  result  will  be,  that  the  first  rows 
will  appear  to  have  been  sown  much 
too  far  from  each  other,  not  half  the 
ground  being  covered  with  the  fo- 
liage of  the  plants  ;  the  others  will 
he  covered  more  and  more  as  the  till- 
age has  been  deeper,  and  the  last 
will  completely  cover  the  whole  in- 
tervals. The  roots  or  bulbs  will  be 
in  exact  proportion  to  the  richness 
of  the  foliage,  and  the  weight  of  the 
deeply-tilled  rows  will  far  exceed 
that  of  any  of  the  others,  while  the 
first  will,  by  comparison,  appear  a 
poor  and  scanty  crop,  however  clear 
of  weeds  the  surface  may  have  been 
kept.  The  soil  best  suited  for  this 
experiment  is  a  good,  light  loam  on 
a  dry  or  well-drained  subsoil ;  for 
stagnant  moisture  under  any  soil  will 
chill  the  fibres  and  check  the  growth 
of  the  plants,  however  dry  the  sur- 
796 


face  may  he.  It  was  this  which  led 
Tull,  the  father  of  drill  husbandry,  to 
the  conclusion  that  tillage  was  all 
that  the  soil  required  to  maintain 
perpetual  fertility.  He  carried  his 
conclusion  too  far  ;  but  we  shall  not 
be  wide  of  the  truth,  if  we  assert  that 
with  proper  tillage  the  soil  will  be 
gradually  improved,  and  a  much 
smaller  quantity  of  manure  occasion- 
ally added  to  recruit  the  waste  pro- 
duced by  vegetation  will  render  the 
soil  much  more  fertile  than  it  would 
be  with  more  manure  and  less  till- 
age ;  and  as  tillage  can  be  increased 
by  mechanical  contrivances  where 
labourers  are  scarce,  whereas  the 
supply  of  manure  must  generally  be 
limited,  it  follows  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  the  land  should  be  well  and 
deeply  tilled,  due  attention  being  paid 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  its  prop- 
erty of  retaining  or  transmitting 
moisture.  Very  loose  sands  should 
not  he  much  stirred  until  they  are 
consolidated  by  the  admixture  of 
marl,  clay,  peat,  or  well-rotted  dung  ; 
but  in  all  cases  the  manure  should 
he  mixed  as  intimately  as  possible 
with  the  soil,  and  as  deep  as  the  til- 
lage has  gone,  not  including  the  stir- 
ring of  the  subsoil  ;  for  the  roots  will 
always  penetrate  thus  far,  and  find 
the  nourishment  which  they  require. 
Those  plants  which  throw  out  roots 
from  tlie  bottom  of  the  stem,  as 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  require  the 
surface  to  be  most  pulverized  and 
enriched  to  allow  these  roots  to 
spread  ;  a  spring  tillage  is  therefore 
highly  advantageous,  which  can  only 
be  given  when  the  seed  has  been  de- 
posited in  rows  by  drilling,  or  in 
patches  by  dibbling.  This  last  meth- 
od is  found  to  give  much  finer  crops, 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  hoe 
not  only  loosens  the  earth  between 
the  rows,  but  also  between  the  dif- 
ferent patches  of  the  growing  corn, 
by  which  the  coronal  roots  are 
strengthened,  and  the  tillering  of  the 
stems  so  much  encouraged,  that  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  see  twenty,  thirty, 
or  more  strong  stems,  all  bearing  fine 
ears,  arising  from  one  tuft  of  plants, 
the  produce  of  one  or  more  seeds. 


TILLAGE. 


whose  roots  are  matted  together  and 
send  out  fibres  in  every  direction. 
The  crowding  of  several  plants  does 
not  prevent  their  growth,  provided 
the  fibres  can  spread  around  in  a 
rich,  mellow  soil,  well  pulverized, 
and  admitting  the  air  and  moisture 
readily. 

"  As  a  perfect  tillage  requires  much 
labour  and  minute  attention,  and  hi 
many  situations  where  the  farms  are 
large  labourers  cannot  be  procured 
at  moderate  wages,  nor  can  they  al- 
ways be  depended  upon  to  perform 
the  work  with  sufficient  care,  me- 
chanical ingenuity  has  been  taxed  to 
invent  implements  of  tillage  by  which 
it  may  be  more  perfectly  accomplish- 
ed, and  at  a  smaller  expense,  by 
using  the  power  of  horses  instead  of 
that  of  men,  and  making  implements 
which  will  till  a  considerable  breadth 
at  once,  and  thus  save  time. 

"  The  old  plough,  and  which,  how- 
ever it  may  be  improved,  still  acts  on 
the  same  principle  of  turning  up  a 
fresh  portion  of  the  soil,  burying  that 
which  has  for  some  time  been  at  the 
surface,  will  probably  always  contin- 
ue to  be  the  chief  implement  of  tillage ; 
but  the  minuter  operations,  which  are 
taken  from  garden  culture,  require 
particular  contrivances  to  effect  them 
by  instruments.  The  harrows  are  but 
an  imperfect  substitute  for  the  gar- 
den rake,  and  do  not  stir  the  soil  to  a 
sufficient  depth.  Other  implements 
have  therefore  been  invented,  which 
by  means  of  wheels  can  be  regulated 
so  as  to  act  at  a  greater  or  less  depth. 
These  have  received  the  different 
names  of  scarifiers,  grubbers,  or  cul- 
tivators, according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
inventors.  Many  of  these  answer 
the  purpose  well,  and  save  labour. 
They  can  be  used  in  all  directions,  so 
as  to  pulverize  the  soil  to  any  degree. 
Heavy  rollers,  with  and  without 
spikes  around  them,  are  used  when 
many  clods  require  breaking ;  and, 
although  not  yet  adopted  in  this  coun- 
try, the  Belgian  trunieau,  a  strong 
frame  of  wood,  boarded  over  and 
loaded  with  weights  if  required,  is  a 
most  effectual  instrument  in  levelling 
the  -urface  and  crushing  clods,  wilh- 
X  X  X  2 


out  pressing  them  into  the  soil,  as  the 
roller  freijuently  does. 

"  ft  would  be  endless  to  enumerate 
all  the  implements  of  tillage  which 
are  daily  invented.  As  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil  approaches  more  to 
that  of  the  garden,  more  perfect  in- 
struments will  be  used,  such  as  can 
be  directed  with  great  accuracy  be- 
tween parallel  rows  of  growing  plants 
without  danger  of  injuring  them. 
\Mien  the  width  of  the  stitches  or 
beds  accurately  corresponds  with  the 
width  of  the  instrument,  so  that  the 
wheels  will  run  in  the  intervals  and 
the  horses  step  in  the  same,  the  soil 
may  be  tilled  perfectly,  although  the 
rows  of  plants  have  but  a  small  in- 
terval between  them  ;  and  the  lar- 
gest field  w'ill  thus  present  to  the 
eye  extended  seed-beds  or  equal 
rows  of  growing  plants,  as  we  are  ac- 
customed to  see  in  a  kitchen-garden. 
The  result  will  be  the  same  as  when, 
for  the  sake  of  experiment,  we  sow 
the  common  grains  and  leguminous 
plants  of  the  fields  in  a  plot  of  garden 
ground  ;  in  such  case  the  produce  is 
so  far  greater,  that  it  quite  baffles 
our  calculation  when  extended  to  a 
large  surface,  and  hence  the  incredi- 
ble results  which  we  continually 
meet  with  in  the  reports  of  experi- 
ments on  some  new  produce  lately 
introduced  :  everything  is  on  a  mag- 
nified scale,  owing  to  superior  tillage. 
No  doubt  many  fields  possessed  of 
fertile  soils  might,  by  attentive  tillage, 
be  made  as  productive  as  the  best 
garden  ground.  The  Chinese  have, 
as  we  are  told,  already  accomplished 
this  by  their  incredible  numbers  and 
indefatigable  labour  ;  but  science  and 
mechanical  contrivance  are  a  substi- 
tute for  millions  of  labourers  when 
judiciously  apiilied.  The  same  in- 
genuity applied  to  tillage  might  in- 
crease the  produce  of  the  earth,  if 
not  indefinitely,  at  least  far  beyond 
what  we  may  now  suspect. 

"  In  the  early  ages  of  agriculture, 
tillage  was  almost  confined  to  the 
ploughing  of  fallows  to  clean  the 
land,  which  was  very  imperfectly 
executed,  and  in  ploughing  the  stubble 
of  one  crop  to  prepare  for  the  seed 
797 


TIM 


TOB 


of  another,  as  long  as  the  land  would  ] 
give  a  return  for  tlie  labour.  The  ; 
idea  of  tdlage  for  tlie  sake  of  a  per- 
manent improvement  of  the  sod  was 
only  entertained  by  a  few  men  who 
reflected,  and  that  of  encouraging  tlie 
vegetation  while  the  crop  was  grow- 
ing was  not  even  thought  of.  The 
plough  to  stir,  and  the  harrow^s  to 
cover  the  seed,  were  the  only  instru- 
ments in  use,  and  they  were  very 
rude  of  their  kind." 

TILLER.  The  branching  of  stems 
from  the  root. 

TILTH.  The  fineness  and  prep- 
aration of  the  soil.     See  Tillage. 

T  I  M  O  T  H  Y  GRASS.  Phkum 
pralcnse.  Meadow  cat's-tail  grass. 
"  This  has  been  highly  extolled  by 
many  agriculturists  for  the  profusion 
of  hay  which  it  makes,  and  also  for  its 
rai)id  growth  when  depastured.  It  is 
but  a  coarse  grass  when  allowed  to 
stand  till  it  is  fit  for  hay  ;  and  in  rainy 
weather  it  too  readily  imbibes  moist- 
ure. It  is  said  to  give  a  very  sweet 
and  early  herbage  for  sheep  in  spring, 
and,  mixed  with  other  grasses,  is 
found  very  useful  in  laying  down 
land  to  pasture  for  a  few  years. 

"  The  soil  which  suits  timothy 
grass  best  is  a  good,  moist,  and  rather 
stiff  loam.  On  gravel  it  soon  dies 
off.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  recommend- 
ed without  a  mixture  of  other  grass- 
es, although  very  heavy  crops  of  it 
have  been  grown  ;  and  from  its  strong 
stem  when  full  grown,  it  should  al- 
ways be  fed  off  when  young,  or  cut 
for  soiling  horses  and  cattle  before 
the  stem  has  acquired  its  full  growth. 
In  rich  land  which  is  tired  of  clo- 
ver, it  may  form  a  very  good  sub- 
stitute, to  cut  up  green  and  depasture 
afterward." 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  on 
wheat  in  the  spring,  or  it  may  be 
sown  with  oats  ;  two  pecks  are 
commonly  used,  but  it  is  better  to 
use  three  pecks,  or  even  a  bushel 
when  other  grasses  are  not  used. 
Clover  and  timothy  do  well  together  ; 
eight  pounds  of  clover  and  three 
pecks  of  timothy  seed  may  be  used. 

TirsGTLRE.     A  solution  in  proof 
alcohol ;  the  substance  is  usually  cut 
798 


or  pounded,  and  allowed  to  remain 
fourteen  days,  and  then  strained. 

TINE.  A  tooth  or  spike  of  a  hai- 
row,  &c. 

TIN  MORDANT.  The  common 
mordant  is  made  of  8  parts  of  aqua- 
fortis, 1  part  conurion  salt,  or  sal  am- 
moniac, and  1  part  granulated  tin. 

TISSUE.  A  mcuibrane,  or  expan- 
sion of  a  cellular  structure  in  animals 
or  plants. 

TITHONICITY.  A  new  impon- 
derable existing  in  sunlight,  and  pro- 
ducing chemical  changes. 

TOAD.  Rana  bujo  {Biifo  Ameri- 
canus).  A  well-known  hatrachian,  of 
great  use  in  the  garden  to  devour  in- 
sects :  it  is  perfectly  harmless. 

TOADFLAX.  Weeds  of  the  ge- 
nus Antirrhinum  and  Linaria  :  they 
are  usually  perennial,  and  should  be 
extirpated. 

TOBACCO.  Plants  of  the  genus 
Nicotiana,  cultivated  for  smoking,  and 
of  great  service  in  medicine  and  gar- 
dening ;  in  the  latter,  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  insects  by  smoking,  infusion, 
or  snuff.  Its  activity  as  a  sedative 
poison  arises  from  the  presence  of 
nicotine,  an  oily  base,  which  is  pro- 
duced during  the  curing  of  the  leaves. 

Varieties. — The  principal  varieties 
of  tobacco  in  cultivation  are  the  N. 
tabacum  {Fig.  I),  or  Virginian  tobac- 
Fig.  1. 


TOBACCO. 


CO  ;  the  varietywilh  a  large  leaf  (ma- 

crophylla)  is  prclbrrcd  ;  the.  iV.  rusltca 

{Fig.  2),  tlie  green,  or  Orinoko,  as 

Fig.  2. 


it  is  sometimes  improperly  called  ; 
the  N.  repanda  {Fig.  3,  a},  which  yields 


the  hcst  Havana  ;  the  N.  qnadrivalvis 
(i)  and  nana  (c)  make  gooil  tobacco, 
and  arc  cultivated  by  tlio  Indians  for 
that  purpose. 

The  natural  soil  of  the  tobacco  is 
a  forest  mould  ;  but  it  grows  well  on 
any  light,  well-tilled  soil  which  has 
been  impregnated  with  manure.  It 
requires  a  dry  soil  with  a  good  expo- 
sure, protected  from  heavy  winds, 
which  break  the  leaves.  The  follow- 
ing account  of  the  cultivation  is 
chiefly  from  Mr.  Edmunds  : 

"  Raising  Ihc  Plants. — The  land  for 
the  ■plant-bed  is  usually  selected  in  a 
warm  exposure  on  the  south  or  south- 
eastern side  of  a  hill  in  a  wood,  new 
ground  being  always  preferred.  From 
this  the  roots  should  be  grubbed,  the 
rubbish  cleared  away,  and  the  old 
leaves  raked  ofT.  Brush  of  pine  or 
other  wood  is  then  to  be  piled  on 
until  from  two  to  three  feet  thick  all 
over  the  bed,  and  this  is  to  be  set  on 
fire.  As  the  beds  should  be  prepared 
for  seeding  immediately  after  the 
frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  the  brush 


should  be  collected  and  put  in  place 
some  time  during  the  winter.  In- 
stead of  burning  over  the  whole  bed 
at  once,  a  part  may  be  fired  for  an 
hour  or  so  at  a  time,  proceeding  thus 
over  the  entire  bed.  The  place  is 
then  to  be  broken  up  with  hoes,  and 
sometimes  with  coulters  drawn  by 
horses  or  oxen,  and  the  work  repeat- 


I  ed  until  the  earth  is  made  perfectly 
fine,  being  careful  to  avoid  turning 
under   the    surface.      All    the   roots 

!  should  then  be  extracted,  and  the. 
land  laid  offin  beds  (slightly  elevated, 
if  dry,  and  more  if  moist  or  wet;  four 
feet  wide  ;  and  to  16  s(juare  yards  a 
common  jiipe-bovvl  of  seed  is  sown. 
The  bed  is  then  trodden  or  pressed 
799 


TOBACCO. 


with  hoes,  and  well  covered  with 
brush  to  protect  the  plants  from 
frosts.  When  the  plants  have  coine 
fully  out,  tlicy  should  be  slightly  ma- 
nured Willi  strong  manure  made  fine  ; 
this  should  bo  repeated  frc()uently, 
and  in  larger  (juantity  as  the  plants 
increase  in  size  and  arc  able  to  bear  it. 

"  When  the  plants  have  attained  a 
good  size,  and  there  is  no  longer  dan- 
ger of  frost,  the  covering  of  brush  is 
removed,  and  the  bed  weeded  with 
the  hand,  those  employed  in  this  duty 
taking  great  care  to  avoid  bruising 
the  tender  plants.  The  beds  require 
frequent  picking  to  keep  down  the 
weeds. 

"  Preparation  and  Pla7ithig. — Tlie 
plants  will  be  generally  ready  for  re- 
moval about  the  last  of  May  or  first 
of  June.  They  are  to  be  drawn  out 
after  a  rain  and  transplanted  in  good 
ground  previously  well  prepared  for 
their  reception. 

"  Field  Culture. — The  land  for  to- 
bacco should  be  of  the  best  quality, 
either  newly  cleared  and  virgin  soil, 
or  old  ground  highly  manured  and 
well  pulverized,  or  good  clover  fal- 
low, ploughed  in  the  fall,  manured 
and  cross-ploughed  in  the  spring, 
just  before  planting,  well  harrowed, 
and  then  laid  off  with  a  plough  in 
rows  three,  three  and  a  half,  or  four 
feet  apart  each  way.  Every  square 
thus  made  is  to  be  scraped  with  the 
hoe  so  as  to  form  a  hill,  in  which  one 
plant  is  to  be  set.  In  case  the  plants 
die  from  drought,  or  are  destroyed 
by  worms,  a  very  common  occur- 
rence, others  must  be  set  in  their 
places. 

"  Cultivation. — The  culture  is  very 
much  like  that  usually  adopted  for  In- 
dian corn,  the  plough,  cultivator,  and 
hand  hoe  being  freely  used  to  keep 
down  weeds  and  loosen  the  earth. 

"  It  is  important  to  the  early  growth 
of  the  plant  to  plough  and  work  deep 
once  or  twice,  so  that  when  it  is  ri- 
pening, the  ground  will  be  broken 
deep  and  fine.  (The  coulter  is  prefer- 
red for  this  operation.)  This  should 
be  effected  without  much  interference 
with  the  roots,  as  that  would  check 
the  growth,  and  prevent  the  plant 
800 


from  attaining  its  proper  size.  And 
hence  the  advantage  of  greater  dis- 
tance between  the  rows  than  the 
common  distance  of  three  and  a  half 
feet,  because  the  wide  rows  can  be 
ploughed,  and  worked  with  less  dam- 
age to  the  roots.  In  this,  as  in  all 
other  crops,  if  we  wish  a  good  return, 
"  we  must  speed  the  plough"  and  hoc 
before  the  roots  run  out.  On  our 
high  lands,  we  should  endeavour,  by 
deep  and  horizontal  ploughing,  to 
counteract  the  bad  effects  of  drought. 
On  our  fiats,  we  should  aim  to  pre- 
vent the  collection  of  water  by  drains 
discharged  at  the  lowest  point. 

"  The  bed  is  best  for  high  land,  be- 
cause it  retains  more  moisture  where 
it  is  generally  needed.  The  hill,  re- 
taining less  moisture,  is  best  for  flat 
land,  where  there  is  commonly  a  su- 
perabundance. 

"  Priming,  Topping,  Suckering,  and 
Worming.  —  As  the  tobacco  plant 
grows  and  develops,  a  blossom  bud 
puts  out  from  the  top,  which  is  term- 
ed buttoning.  This  top  must  be  pulled 
off  along  with  such  of  the  upper  leaves 
as  are  too  small  to  be  of  any  value. 
The  plants  are  thus  left  usually  about 
two  or  three  feet  high.  The  plants 
also  shoot  out  suckers  from  every 
leaf,  which  must  be  broken  off,  care 
being  taken  not  to  break  the  leaf  from 
the  main  stem.  This  causes  the 
leaves  to  spread. 

"  The  most  regular  topping  is  per- 
formed by  measure.  The  topper  car- 
ries in  his  hand  a  measure  six  inches 
long,  by  occasionally  applying  which, 
he  can  regulate  the  priming  with 
great  accuracy ;  and  as  the  remain- 
ing leaves  are  numbered,  this  governs 
the  operation,  and  gains  the  object  of 
even  topping.  The  topper  should 
always  carry  this  measure  in  his 
hand,  as  it  serves  to  prevent  excuses 
fur  negligence  and  uneven  topping. 
Prime  six  inches,  and  top  to  eight 
leaves.  We  have  found,  by  experi- 
ence, that  this  is  the  best  average 
height.  We  sometimes,  but  seldom, 
vary  from  this  general  rule.  If  the 
land  is  poorer  than  common,  or  if, 
from  the  backwardness  of  the  plant, 
and  the  advanced  state  of  the  season, 


TOBACCO. 


we  apprehend  frost,  we  do  not  prime 
as  hif,'li  (say  four  inches.)  If  we  have 
an  uncominonlv  rich  spot,  and  there  is 
danger  that  the  top  leaves  will  come 
to  the  ground,  we  should  rise  in  the 
same  proportion.  The  crop  should 
be  wormed  and  suckered  at  least 
once  a  week. 

"  Cutting  and  Housing. — In  about 
three  months  after  setting  out,  the 
plants  assume  a  spotted  and  yellow- 
ish appearance,  indicating  that  they 
have  attained  sufficient  maturity  for 
cutting  and  housing.  This  stage  of 
the  tobacco  culture  is  generally  reck- 
oned the  most  difficult  and  delicate 
part  of  the  whole  business,  and  the 
planter,  if  he  wishes  to  be  successful, 
must  give  it  all  his  attention,  as  the 
profit  of  a  whole  plantation  for  the 
year  greatly  depends  upon  the  dili- 
gence and  skilful  management  exer- 
cised during  the  few  days  of  cutting. 
He  should,  therefore,  be  well  prepa- 
red for  this  state  of  the  crop,  by  hav- 
ing the  barns  close,  carts  and  wag- 
ons in  good  order,  and  everything 
arranged  to  despatch  business  as 
much  as  possible,  since  it  is  hard 
work  he  has  to  encounter.  To  save 
a  heavy  crop  in  the  best  manner  re- 
quires both  energy  and  activity.  The 
most  judicious  hands  should  be  se- 
lected for  cutters.  The  plants  are 
cut  with  a  knife  near  the  ground,  and 
suffered  to  lie  in  the  sun  for  a  few 
hours,  to  cause  them  to  '  fall'  or  wilt. 
When  the  field  is  a  pretty  large  one, 
a  middling  or  average  hand  should 
count  the  whole  number  of  plants  he 
cuts,  so  that,  allowing  each  cutter  the 
same  ninnber,  we  may  arrive  at  near- 
ly the  whole  quantity  cut.  We  should 
never  cut  more  nor  less  than  will  fill 
the  contemplated  barn  ;  otherwise 
there  is  labour  lost  in  attending  to  a 
barn  not  full,  or  the  overplus  is  in- 
jured for  want  of  firing.  The  tobac- 
co, after  it  has  'fallen,'  or  becomes 
sufficiently  limber,  is  carried  to  the 
barn  in  carts  or  wagons,  being  from 
six  to  ten  plants  on  a  stick,  and  stow- 
ed away  for  firing.  It  is  also  of  great 
importance  to  be  particular  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  sticks.  The 
equal  and  general  circulation  of  heat 


throughout  the  house  depends  on  the 
manner  in  which  this  is  done.  Our 
barns  commonly  have  three  firing 
tiers  above,  and  three  below  the  joists. 
We  commence  arranging  the  sticks 
on  the  most  elevated  tier  in  the  roof, 
to  which  we  give  five  inches  distance  ; 
and  on  each  tier,  as  we  descend,  we 
gain  one  inch  ;  so  that  on  the  lowest 
tier,  nearest  the  fire,  the  sticks  are 
placed  eleven  inches  apart.  This  dis- 
position of  the  sticks,  I  have  ascer- 
tained by  late  experiment,  is  impor- 
tant. The  sticks  of  tobacco  being 
wider  apart  next  to  the  fires,  gives  a 
freer  circulation,  and,  consequently, 
a  more  equal  temperature  than  the 
usual  way  of  e(|ual  distance  from  bot- 
tom to  top.  The  heat  having  more 
space  to  ascend,  must  be  more  equal 
and  generally  diffused,  and  will  give 
a  more  uniform  house  of  tobacco.  I 
esteem  this  a  considerable  improve- 
ment ;  and  if  we  have  house  room, 
and  make  a  greater  difference  in  the 
proportionate  distance  between  the 
sticks,  it  will  be  a  still  better  arrange- 
ment. The  stems  of  the  tobacco  are 
often  split  to  hasten  the  drying. 

"  Curing.  —  We  commence  our 
warming  or  preparing  fires  the  day 
after  housing.  We  prefer  what  is 
commonly  called  the  '  bed  logs'  of 
green,  and  the  'feeding'  of  dry  or 
seasoned  wood.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  fires  are  rendered  more 
governable.  The  bed  logs  should  be 
nicely  fitted  to  the  barn  floor,  two 
lengths  to  reach  across,  the  large  ends 
placed  outward,  to  guard  agamst  the 
tendency  of  heat  to  the  centre.  We 
keep  up  our  warming  fires  from  36  to 
48  hours,  the  mercury  rangmg  from 
100°  to  115=.  This  will  generally 
bring  the  leaf  to  the  drying  state  ;  the 
tail,  or  end  of  the  leaf,  now  begins  to 
curl  handsomely,  and  then  the  planter 
must  be  on  the  alert.  If  he  is  careless, 
and  his  fires  are  made  too  hot,  the 
aromatic  oil  passes  off  with  the  sap 
and  smoke,  and  he  has  a  house  of  red 
or  dark  inferior  tobacco.  If  his  fires 
are  kei)t  too  low,  his  tobacco  geta 
into  a  clammy  sweat,  and  the  oil  es- 
capes. There  is  much  more  danger 
of  the  former  than  of  the  latter  evil. 
801 


TOB 


TOB 


There  is  more  tobacco  injured  by  too 
mucli  heat  than  by  the  want  of  a  suf- 
ficiency. Tiie  fires  shouhl  now  l)e 
kept  steady  and  regular,  witli  a  grad- 
ual increase  of  heat,  so  that  in  48 
hours  the  mercury  will  stand  150-  to 
160°.  It  must  be  kept  at  or  about 
that  temperature  until  the  tobacco  is 
cured. 

"  6Vr !/)/); ?(ir,  Prcsxintr.  6fC.  —  After 
the  plants  become  sufficiently  dried, 
known  by  the  stems  getting  hard, 
which  will  be  in  about  two  months 
after  housing,  the  leaves  are  stripped 
from  the  stalks.  For  this  operation, 
a  moist  time  in  the  spring  or  late  in 
winter  is  chosen,  to  prevent  the  leaves 
from  crumbling,  'i'hey  are  divided 
by  select  hands  into  three  classes  for 
stripping:  1st,  that  which  is  of  the 
best  colour  and  quality ;  2dly,  that 
which  is  somewhat  inferior,  compri- 
sing the  balance  of  the  leaf;  3dly, 
higs,  or  ground  leaves.  Some  planters 
make  still  more  classes,  but  this  re- 
quires more  attention  and  discrimi- 
nation than  can  be  generally  bestow- 
ed, at  least  by  ordinary  hands.  After 
sorting,  the  leaves  are  neatly  tied  up 
in  bundles  called  '  hayuls,'  consisting 
of  four  leaves  in  each  bundle  of  the 
first  class,  or  six  of  the  second  and 
third  classes.  The  hands  are  next 
'  put  down  to  condition,'  as  the  pro- 
cess is  commonly  termed.  This  con- 
sists in  putting  it  in  large  bulks 
and  subjecting  it  to  pressure  from 
weights,  in  which  state  it  undergoes 
a  sweat.  It  must  be  watched  during 
this  process,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  ob- 
served beginning  to  heat,  taken  out 
and  hung  up  to  dry.  After  drying 
thoroughly,  it  must  be  again  taken 
down  and  put  into  bulk,  a  damp  time 
being  chosen,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
leaves  from  breaking  or  crumbling. 
At  the  close  of  each  day's  stripping, 
and  oftener,  if  the  weather  is  drymg, 
we  bulk  down  what  has  been  strip- 
ped, being  careful  to  pack  straight. 
It  is  left  in  this  situation  until  we 
wish  to  commence  pressing,  and  then 
hung,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  bundles 
on  a  smooth  stick,  and  hoisted  in  the 
barn,  the  sticks  placed  six  inches 
apart,  the  bolster  carrying  a  measure 
802 


in  his  hand.  It  is  important  to  meas- 
ure, as  the  order  will  be  more  uni- 
form. It  should  remain  until  tbe 
stems  are  pcrlectly  dry  ;  after  which 
it  should  be  taken  down  for  j)ressing, 
as  dry  as  it  can  be  handled  without 
breaking.  It  remains  in  this  state  a 
few  days,  until  the  leaves  are  pressed 
together,  and  we  have  soft  weather 
for  packing.  Each  bundle  is  tlien 
carefully  straightened,  repacked,  and 
heavily  weighted.  It  is  then  ready 
for  pressing.  We  should  press  in 
weather  when  the  order  of  the  tobac- 
co will  not  change.  Each  bundle 
should  be  straight,  and  closely  pack- 
ed in  hogsheads  in  the  usual  way."' 
The  press  is  a  long  lever  weighted 
w'iih  stones. 

The  hogshead  contains  from  1100 
to  1300  pounds.  One  hand  can  at- 
tend to  6000  plants,  or  rather  more 
than  an  acre,  and  these  will  average 
from  1000  to  1100  pounds  of  cured 
tobacco,  and  commands,  if  of  good 
quality,  seven  cents  the  pound. 

New  land  tobacco  and  the  Orinoko 
variety  are  often  sun-dried,  without 
any  heat ;  by  this  means  they  acquire 
a  rich  golden  colour,  and  are  of  supe- 
rior excellence  for  chewing  tobacco. 

Diseases  of  Tobacco. — The  first  diffi- 
culty the  planter  encounters  is  in  the 
dryness  of  the  season  at  the  time  of 
transplanting,  for  the  young  plants 
will  not  take  except  in  moist  weather 
and  a  wet  soil.  The  next  is  the  large 
horn  worm,  which  increases  the  ex- 
pense of  cultivation  by  requiring  the 
attention  of  pickers,  and  the  worm- 
holes  injure  the  value  of  the  leaves. 
Hail  storms  and  heavy  winds  are 
often  causes  of  damage.  Sun  burn- 
ing during  cutting  and  house  burning 
are  also  sources  of  loss.  But  per- 
haps the  greatest  cause  of  loss  is 
firing  or  Fue  Blight,  which  see. 

TOBACCO,  CHEMICAL  RE- 
MARKS CONCERNING.  The  fla- 
vour and  value  of  tobacco  depend 
entirely  on  the  sweating  or  prepara- 
tion :  during  this  time  the  fermenta- 
tion set  up  converts  the  fat  which  it 
contains  into  the  aromatic  principle 
nicotin.  If,  therefore,  the  heat  is  too 
little,  the  quantity  produced  is  defi- 


TOI 


TOR 


cient ;  if  too  great,  the  volatile  nico- 
tin  is  driven  out.  The  object  in  cu- 
ring is,  therefore,  in  the  first  place, 
to  retain  all  the  fat  of  the  leaf,  and 
in  the  second,  to  get  the  largest  quan- 
tity of  aromatic  principle  in  the  pre- 
pared tobacco. 

Special  Manures. — The  analysis  of 
tobacco  in  Europe  has  brought  to 
light  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  best 
varieties  contain  much  potash  in  their 
ashes,  and  the  inferior  kinds  most 
lime. — {Pclouze.)  Now  these  bases  in 
tobacco  can  replace  one  another,  and 
the  planter  will  produce  lime  tobac- 
co in  any  soil  in  which  that  base  is 
more  abundant. 

One  hundred  parts  of  the  ashes  of 
leaf  tobacco  contain,  according  to 
Fresenius  and  Will, 

Potash 30-67 

Lime  and  magnesia 3336 

Sulphate  of  lime  (gypsum) 5'CO 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)      .     .     5-95 

Phosphates 603 

Silica     .     .   ~ 1839 

lUJ-UO 

From  this,  which  is  the  examina- 
tion of  a  good  specimen,  we  learn 
that  the  plants  require  not  only  pot- 
ash and  lime,  but  gypsum  and  salt : 
the  former  is  indeed  added  with  great 
effect  in  Virginia  ;  the  latter  is  very 
worthy  of  a  trial ;  one  bushel  to  the 
acre  in  a  compost,  applied  to  the 
plants  at  the  time  of  hoeing,  or  three 
or  four  busliels  to  the  acre,  would  no 
doubt  show  good  effects.  Where  the 
New- Jersey  green  sand,  or  the  ashes 
of  oaks  or  hickories  can  be  obtained, 
the  potash  salts  can  be  procured.  In 
the  red  clays  of  Virginia,  an  addition 
of  lime  would  unquestionably  be  ser- 
viceable. By  these  means  we  meet 
tiie  demands  of  the  plants  for  miner- 
al matters  ;  but  it  is  not  to  be  over- 
looked that  nitrates  of  potash  and  am- 
monia, as  well  as  sal  ammonia  {chlo- 
ride), have  been  found  in  large  quan- 
tity in  the  juice  :  these  are  destroyed 
by  burning  for  the  asii.  Every  kind 
of  animal  offal  and  putrescent  matter, 
especially  when  composted  into  nitre 
beds  (see  Xitre  Beds),  will  therefore 
be  indicated  as  special  manures. 

TOI.S  E.  Six  French  feet,  equal  to 
G  33  English  feet. 


TOKAY.  A  luscious  and  spright- 
ly wine  made  from  the  Tokay  grape 
when  nearly  dried  into  raisins. 

TOLU.  A  balsam,  from  the  My- 
roxijloii  toluifcruni  of  South  America. 
TO.MATO.  Solarium  hjcopcrsicum. 
An  annual  of  the  family  Solanacece, 
the  fruit  of  which  is  much  used  as  a 
vegetable,  preserve,  and  pickle. 

The  seed  is  sown  in  March  in  a 
hot-bed,  and  the  plants  set  out  in  May 
along  a  fence,  or  near  trellises  where 
they  can  be  supported  :  place  them 
four  feet  distant.  They  are  to  be 
hoed  and  weeded,  and  ripen  in  Au- 
gust and  September.  There  are  four 
principal  varieties,  the  large  red  and 
yellow,  the  pear-shaped,  or  fig,  and 
the  cherry  tomatoes,  or  small-sized. 
The  soil  should  be  rich,  dry,  and  well 
exposed  to  the  sun. 

TOMENTOSE.  Covered  with 
downy  hairs. 

TON.  A  weight  of  20  cwt.,  or 
2240  pounds. 

TONGUE.  The  soft,  fleshy  organ 
of  taste.  It  is  covered  by  nerves  and 
blood-vessels.  The  salted  and  dried 
tongues  of  deer  and  oxen  are  much- 
esteemed  delicacies.  They  are  cured 
like  hams,  but  usually  with  more  nitre. 

TONICS.  Those  medicines  which 
improve  the  general  health  and  appe- 
tite. They  are  commonly  called  bit- 
ters. 

TONKA  BEAN.  The  fruit  of  the 
Diptcri-x  odorata,  used  to  flavour  snuff. 

TONSILS.  Small  glands  situated 
in  the  throat. 

TOP  DRESSING.  Applying  ma- 
nures to  the  surface  of  land,  or  to  the 
growing  crop,  grass,  <Scc.  Spring  is 
the  proper  time,  but  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  soil  is  not  too  much 
pressed  in  carting. 

TORMENTIL.  PotenliUa  officina- 
lis. An  exotic  with  an  astringent  root. 

TORREFACTION.  Roasting  min- 
eral bodies,  usually  under  a  red  heat. 

TORTRICES.  A  tribe  of  noctur- 
nal lepidoptera,  the  larvaj  of  most  of 
which  conceal  themselves  by  rolling 
up  leaves  and  living  in  the  interior. 

TORUS.  The  end  of  the  flower 
branch  on  which  the  carpels  are  sit- 
uated. 

803 


TRA 


TRA 


TOURMALINE.  A  gem,  valued 
from  its  jnopcrty  of  polarizing  light. 

TOURNlyl'ET.  A  bandage  which 
may  be  tightened  to  any  extent  by 
means  of  a  screw,  so  as  to  exert 
pressure  upon  a  cushion,  and  com- 
press the  arterial  truniis  to  which  it 
is  applied.  It  is  chiefly  used  to  pre- 
vent hemorrhage  in  the  operations  of 
amputation. 

TRACHEA.     The  windpipe. 

TRACIIE.E.  The  spiral  vessels 
of  leaves  and  insects. 

TRACIIELIDANS.  A  fainily  of 
coleoptcra,  in  many  of  which  the  head 
is  supported  on  a  kind  of  neck. 

TRACHEOTOMY.  The  operation 
of  cutting  into  the  windpipe  to  ex- 
tract foreign  bodies,  &c. 

TRACHYTE.     An  ancient  lava. 

TRAGACANTH.  A  variety  of 
gum,  which  swells,  but  is  not  soluble 
in  cold  water. 

TRAINEAU.  A  Flemish  imple- 
ment of  agriculture.     See  Tillage. 

TRAINING.  The  education  of 
horses.     See  Horse. 

TRAINING  TREES.  The  man- 
agement, by  pruning,  of  the  stem  and 
branches  of  trees,  so  as  to  secure  an 
increase  of  fruit  of  a  superior  quality. 
Training  against  walls  has  also  the 
advantage  of  enabling  the  orchardist 
to  cultivate  southern  fruits,  and  ri- 
pen them  more  perfectly.  The  chill- 
ing effects  of  winds  and  excessive 
evaporation  are  averted,  while  the  in- 
creased temperature  to  which  the 
fruit  is  exposed  renders  it  sweeter. 

There  are  three  general  plans  of 


training:  on  espaliers,  walls,  or  as 
dwarf  standards.  The  espalier  is  usu 
ally  a  trellis,  consi-sting  of  posts  ten 
feet  high,  set  eight  or  twelve  feet 
apart,  and  sustaining  horizontal  laths 
or  wires:  the  trees  are  therefore 
trained  horizontally.  This  is  usually 
intended  for  grapes,  apples,  or  pears. 
But  the  posts  arc  sometimes  set  in 
circles,  around  which  three  or  more 
branches  are  trained.  This  is  called 
spiral  or  hoop  training  (see  Fig.  I). 
Fig.  1. 


Funnel  training  is  a  modification  , 
the  posts  are  set  in  an  inclined  direc- 
tion, so  as  to  meet  at  their  summits, 
and  produce  the  outline  of  a  cone  ; 
wire  is  wound  around  it  at  intervals 
of  a  foot.  Light  iron  bars  are  some- 
limes  used  instead  of  the  wooden 
posts. 

Walls. — The  choicest  varieties  of 
fruit,  which  require  additional  heat, 
are  placed  on  walls,  as  apricots,  nec- 
tarines, peaches,  plums,  grapes,  figs, 
and  some  cherries  and  pears.  The 
method  of  arranging  the  branches  dif- 


804 


TRAINING  TREES. 


fers  with  the  fruit,  but  the  horizontal 
flan  is  most  recommended,  espe- 
cially for  plums  and  pears  ;  but  some 
gardeners  give  it  the  preference  in 
nearly  every  case  {Fig.  3). 

Fan  training  is  the  most  common, 
especially  for  peaches,  nectarines, 
apricots,  almonds,  figs,  plums,  and 
cherries  of  small  growth  [Fig.  3). 

rig 


Besides  these  most  common  meth- 
ods, pendant,  vertical,  and  high  train- 
ing are  practised.  In  the  first,  the 
branches  are  curved  downward  ;  in 
the  second,  several  shoots,  selected 
from  two  horizontal  branches,  are  car- 
ried upright ;  in  the  third,  the  main 
stem  is  allowed  to  run  nearly  to  the 
top  of  the  w'all  without  branchins, 
3. 


and  then  the  uppermost  shoots  are 
trained  horizontally  and  drooping. 
This  is  especially  recommended  in 
the  grape  and  pear.  It  is  a  good  plan 
for  filling  up  a  wall,  the  lower  parts 
of  which  are  covered  with  peaches  and 
other  fan-trained  trees. 

Some  gardeners  combine  several 
of  these  plans  together,  so  as  to  give 
the  branches  partly  a  horizontal,  and 
partly  a  fan  training,  and  instead  o.f 
one  main  stem  only.others  select  two. 

Standards. — The  commonest  train- 
ing for  standards  is  dirarjing.  The 
leading  shoot  is  kept  down  to  eight 
or  ten  feet,  and  the  lower  branches 
trained  out  and  thinned,  so  as  to  give 
the  tree  the  appearance  of  a  shrub. 
In  this  way  apple  orchards  are  man- 
aged in  Europe,  and  it  is  wonderful 
how  many  varieties  are  thus  culti- 
vated on  an  acre.  For  this  purpose, 
crab  or  paradise  stocks  are  chosen 
for  grafting,  and  the  trees  of  small 
growth  taken.  The  main  stem  is 
made  to  branch  at  eighteen  inches, 
and  the  trees  set  at  eight  to  twelve 
feet  apart. 

The  filbert  is  trained  in  a  peculiar 
manner  :  the  leading  shoot  is  headed  1 
down  to  eighteen  inches,  and  eight  i 


strong  shoots  obtained  within  twelve 
inches  of  the  ground,  and  these  are 
trained  outward  by  placing  a  hoop 
between  them  :  when  they  are  well 
formed,  they  are  trained  curving  up- 
ward. The  centre  is  to  be  kept  free, 
and  the  shoots  encouraged  to  six 
feet  ;    the   small  TigA. 

lateral  branch- 
es along  these 
shoots  are  to  be 
kept  down  to  six 
inches,  and  will 
bear  the  fruit. 

Training  en 
quenouille,  or  dis- 
taff fashion,  is  a 
favourite  method 
in  France  and 
Brussels  for  ap- 
ples and  pears 
{Figure  A:).  The 
branches  are  tied 
down  to  stakes 
driven  near  the 
root,  or  to  the 
stem,  until  the 
wood  is  firm.  The 
height  of  these 
trees  is  usually 
eight  feet,  but  in  France  they  are 
805 


TRA 

sometimes  allowed  to  grow  to  twenty 
feet. 

Another  French  plan  of  training 
standards  is  in  a  pyramidal  form  (en 
pyramidc,  Ftff.  5) ;  this,  with  the  pre- 
Fig.  5. 


ceding,  is  the  common  method  of 
managing  apples  and  pears.  The  tree 
is  either  cut  down  to  a  dwarf  of  eight 
or  ten  feet,  or  allowed  to  run  up  to 
twenty  or  more. 

TRAM  ROAD.  A  road  set  with 
stone  flags  at  such  distances  that  the 
wheels  of  wagons,  &c.,  may  contin- 
ually roll  on  them. 

TRANSITION  ROCKS.  The  ex- 
tensive series  of  stratified  and  an- 
cient rocks  lying  between  the  granit- 
ic series  and  the  coal.  It  consists 
of  slates,  gneiss,  and  crystaUine  lime- 
stones. 

TRANSPLANTING.  The  remo- 
val of  plants  or  trees  from  one  place 
to  another.     See  Planting. 

TRAPA  NATANS.  The  water- 
chestnut. 

TRAP  ROCKS.  Ancient  rocks 
of  fusion  occurring  in  mountains 
and  large  seams.  They  consist  of 
various  mixtures  of  hornblend  and 
feldspar,  and  when  containing  much 
iron  are  very  destructible,  but  usual- 
ly resist  the  action  of  weather  for  an 
immense  time. 

TRAUiMATIC    (from     rpav^ia,    a 
wound).     Relating  to  or  arising  from 
a  wound. 
806 


TRI 

TRAVELLER'S  JOY.  Clematis 
vitalha.  A  climbing  shrub  with  while 
flowers. 

TREFOIL.  A  general  name  for 
the  clovers,  lucern,  &,c.  Plants  which 
have  leaves  of  three  leaflets. 

TRENCH.  A  deep  ditch.  Trench- 
ing, in  gardening,  is  the  preparation 
of  soils  by  digging  two  or  more  spades 
deep,  and  exposing  the  soil. 

TRENCH  PLOUGHING.  Deep 
ploughing;  subsoiling. 

TREPAN  and  TREPHINE.  In- 
struments for  removing  a  part  of  the 
skull  in  disease  or  accidents. 

TRIFOLIUM.  Trifolmm  incarna- 
tuin.  "  This  is  an  annual  of  rapid 
growth,  so  that  in  southern  climates 
it  may  be  sowed  in  summer  after  an 
early  crop  of  corn,  and  fed  off  or  cut 
before  winter.  It  will  stand  the  win- 
ter well  if  sowed  later,  and  give  very 
early  feed  in  spring.  It  produces  a 
great  abundance  of  seed  if  allowed  to 
ripen.  It  is  a  valuable  addition  to 
the  plants  usually  raised  for  fodder, 
and  fills  up  an  interval  between  other 
plants  by  its  very  early  and  rapid  ve- 
getation. The  mode  of  sowing  the 
Trifolmm  incarnatum  is  simple,  and 
attended  with  very  little  expense. 
In  the  month  of  August,  as  soon  as 
the  crops  of  grain  have  been  reaped, 
the  stubble  is  well  harrowed,  to  raise 
a  small  portion  of  mould  ;  the  trifo- 
lium  is  then  sowed  at  the  rate  of  four 
bushels  of  the  seed,  in  the  husk,  per 
acre.  There  is  a  double  advantage 
in  sowing  it  in  this  manner  ;  it  saves 
the  thrashing  required  to  separate 
the  seed,  as  a  very  slight  beating  will 
separate  the  florets  of  the  head  or 
spike  sufliciently  to  sow  them  ;  and 
it  vegetates  sooner  from  the  moist- 
ure retained  in  the  husk  which  en- 
velopes the  seed.  A  bush-harrow  is 
drawn  over  the  land  to  cover  the 
seed,  and  it  is  rolled  with  a  light  roll- 
er if  the  land  be  of  a  firm  nature,  or 
with  a  heavier  roller  if  it  be  a  loose 
soil.  Thus  the  trifolium  will  vege- 
tate much  more  certainly  than  if  the 
land  had  been  regularly  ploughed  and 
harrowed,  which  would  have  loosen- 
ed it  too  much. 
"  It  is  not  advantageous  to  let  it  be 


TRI 

cut  lor  hay.  Its  stem  then  has  ac- 
quired a  hard,  woody  texture,  and  it 
makes  very  inferior  liay.  Its  princi- 
pal value  is  to  feetl  oil"  with  ewes  and 
lambs  before  other  feed  is  ready  in 
spring,  or  to  cut  it  green  for  horses 
and  cattle.  The  ground  may  be 
ploughed  and  prepared  for  spring 
crops  as  early  as  is  required  ;  and 
1^  thus  the  trifolium  in  no  way  inter- 
"  feres  with  the  usual  rotations.  When 
the  common  broad  clover  has  failed 
from  any  cause,  and  bare  patches  are 
left  in  the  fields  in  autumn,  the  trifo- 
lium may  be  sowed  there  with  advan- 
tage ;  it  will  overtake  the  clover  sow- 
ed in  the  preceding  spring,  and  fdl  up 
the  deficiency.  In  this  case  a  mix- 
ture of  Trifolium  incarnaliim  and  Ital- 
ian rye  grass  {Loiium  pcrenne  Ilali- 
cum)  has  been  found  very  useful. 
If  the  trifolium  be  sowed  early  in 
spring,  it  will  produce  very  good 
feed  in  a  few  months,  and  the  land 
may  afterward  be  sowed  with  tur- 
nips, without  any  loss  of  time.  It 
must  be  recollected  that  the  Trifoli- 
um incariiatum  is  a  catch  crop,  that 
is,  one  which  comes  in  between  two 
regular  crops,  without  interfering 
with  the  rotation,  and  that  it  costs 
little  more  than  the  seed,  which  is 
easily  raised,  or  may  be  bought  at  a 
very  moderate  rate.  All  cattle  are 
fond  of  it  in  its  young  state,  and  it 
comes  in  a  fortnight  earlier  than  lu- 
cern,  which  is  one  of  the  first  of  the 
artificial  grasses  fit  for  cutting  in 
spring.  The  great  expectations  rais- 
ed at  its  first  uitroduction  not  having 
been  fully  realized,  this  plant  has 
rather  fallen  in  the  estimation  of 
farmers  ;  but  if  it  is  not  so  valuable 
as  the  broad  clover  in  a  regular  rota- 
tion, it  ought  not  to  be  despised  as  a 
subsidiary  crop.  When  the  season 
has  prevented  the  sowing  of  spring 
corn,  it  may  be  advantageous  to  sow 
it.  together  with  Italian  rye  grass,  as 
soon  as  the  land  is  clear  of  root- 
weeds.  They  may  e  fed  off  with 
sheep  early  in  autumn,  and  the  land, 
being  manured  or  not,  as  may  be 
thought  necessary,  may  be  plouglied 
and  sowed  with  wheat.  Thus  the 
trifolium  and  rye  grass  will  come  in 


TRO 

the  place  of  a  clean  fallow  ;  and  the 
ground  having  been  covered  during 
the  heat  of  the  summer,  and  manu- 
red by  the  sheep  folded  on  it,  will  bo 
much  improved  for  the  wheat  crop. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  tri- 
folium requires  a  solid  bottom,  and 
that  the  heavy  roller  should  not  be 
spared  before  it  is  sowed.  This  is 
chielly  to  be  recommended  on  soils 
which  do  not  suit  spring  tares,  and 
as  a  substitute  for  these  ;  for  under 
favourable  circumstances  the  tares 
will  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of 
feed.  It  is,  however,  useful  to  have 
a  choice  of  different  green  crops, 
from  which  may  be  selected  those 
which  offer  the  greatest  prospect  of 
success,  when  the  season,  the  soil, 
and  other  circumstances  are  takeu 
into  consideration." 

TRIMERANS.  A  section  of  co- 
leoptera,  in  many  of  which  the  tar 
sus  contains  three  joints. 

TRIMMER.  In  building,  a  piece 
of  timber  framed  at  right  angles  to 
the  joists  opposite  chimneys  or  the 
well  holes  of  stairs,  which  receives 
the  ends  of  the  joists  intercepted  by 
the  opening. 

TRIMMING  JOIST.  In  build- 
ing, a  joist  into  which  a  trimmer  is 
framed. 

TRIPLE  SALT.  A  salt  with  two 
bases  combined  with  one  acid. 

TRISMUS.     Locked  jaw. 

TROCAR.  An  instrument  for  let- 
ting out  water  in  dropsies,  wind  in 
hoveu,  &c.  It  consists  of  a  sharp 
rod  of  metal  contained  within  a  case 
or  tube  of  silver  up  to  the  sharp  por- 
tion. When  used,  the  tube  is  separa- 
ted in  part  from  the  rod  and  held 
against  the  part,  and  then  the  rod  is 
driven  in  so  as  to  penetrate  into  the 
cavity,  and,  on  being  withdrawn,  the 
tube  is  pressed  into  the  perforation, 
and  enables  the  fluid  to  escape  per- 
fectly. 

TRONA.  The  impure  carbonate 
of  soda,  or  natron. 

TROPHI  (from  rpedu,  I  nourish). 
A  name  given  to  the  different  instru- 
ments or  organs  contained  in  the 
mouth  or  closing  it,  and  employed  in 
manducation  or  deglutition.  They 
807 


TUF 


TUR 


include  the  labnim,  labium,  mandibula, 
viaxilUr,  lingua,  and  pharynx. 

'I'KUCKr   A  kindofwhecl-barrow. 

TRUFFLE.  "A  suhterrancan  fun- 
gus, of  a  roundish,  ol)long  Ibrni,  and 
a  blackisili  biovvn  colour,  much  em- 
ployed Ml  cookery.  It  is  found  by 
dogs  and  pigs,  trained  for  the  pur- 
pose, in  soil  beneath  trees,  especially 
beeches  and  oaks  ;  it  is,  however, 
very  local.  It  is  propagated  by  spores 
included  in  sinuous  chambers  in  the 
interior  ;  but  has  never  yet  been  cul- 
tivated with  success,  notwithstand- 
ing many  attem])ts  that  have  been 
made.  Botanists  recognise  several 
kinds  of  truifles,  the  commonest  be- 
ing the  Tuber  ctlmriumy — {Lindley.) 

TRUNCATED.  With  the  smaller 
parts  cut  off  or  removed. 

TRUNCHEONS.  Stout  stems  of 
trees,  with  the  branches  lopped  off  for 
rapid  growth. 

TRUNK.  The  shaft  of  a  column  ; 
the  body  without  extremities ;  the 
large  stem  of  a  tree.  In  entomology, 
the  segment  winch  lies  between  the 
head  and  the  abdomen. 

TRUSS.  A  bundle  of  hay  or 
straw :  the  truss  of  hay  weighs  56  lbs., 
of  straw  36.  A  frame  of  timbers  for 
supporting  a  beam  or  piece.  Any 
bandage  intended  to  support  a  part 
of  the  body,  as  in  hernias. 

TUBE.     A  pipe. 

TUBER.  In  botany,  a  kind  of 
fleshy  stem,  formed  under  ground, 
and  filled  with  starch.  It  is  com- 
monly looked  upon  as  a  root,  as  in 
the  potato,  but  differs  from  roots  in 
having  buds. 

TUBERCLE.  A  roundish  tumour 
of  small  size,  and  of  the  consistence 
of  cheese,  found  in  diseased  struc- 
tures. 

TUCKAHOE.  Indian  loaf.  An 
underground  fungus,  often  two  feet 
deep,  but  sometimes  partly  exposed, 
and  from  the  size  of  a  nut  to  a  man's 
head,  roundish,  and  of  a  brown  col- 
our. It  is  the  Lycoperdon  solidus 
of  Clayton.  When  fresh,  it  is  of  an 
acrid  taste,  but  becomes  eatable 
when  dry. 

TUFA.     A  volcanic  rock,  consist- 
ing of  cemented  scoria?. 
808 


TTTFO.     A  light,  calcareous  stone. 

TULIP.  The  genus  Tuhpa,  con- 
taining numerous  ornamental  spe- 
cies :  they  are  all  bulbous. 

TULIP-TREE.  Lirwdemlron  tu- 
lipifera.  White  wood.  It  attains  a 
great  size  on  fertile  bottoms,  meas- 
uring even  150  feet  in  the  Middle 
States,  with  a  trunk  of  sixty  to  eigh- 
ty feet  without  branches.  The  flow- 
ers are  very  attractive  to  bees  and 
other  insects.  The  wood  is  white  or 
yellowish,  and  very  soft ;  it  is  much 
used  by  cabinet-makers  and  in  build- 
ing, under  the  name  of  poplar. 

TUMBREL.     A  rough  cart. 

T  U  M  B  R  I  L.  A  feeding  trough 
made  of  basket-work,  or  withes,  set 
coarse,  so  that  many  sheep  can  take 
hay  from  it  at  the  same  time. 

TUMOUR.  An  unnatural  enlarge- 
ment. This  term  was  formerly  used 
to  express  any  swelling  or  enlarge- 
ment, as  that  of  an  abscess,  or  from 
a  bruise  ;  but  it  is  now  more  strictly 
applied  to  enlargements  of  a  more 
permanent  nature,  in  which  a  change 
of  structure  takes  place,  or  a  new  sub- 
stance is  produced,  as  fatty,  fibrous, 
or  bony  tumours,  in  which  the  swell- 
ings are  respectively  formed  of  fatty, 
fil)rous,  or  osseous  matters.  These 
being  organic  diseases,  are  not  to  be 
treated  by  poulticing  or  lancing,  and 
seldom  give  way  to  any  treatment 
but  an  entire  removal  by  the  knife. 

TUN.  A  measure  of  253  gallons, 
or  four  hogsheads. 

TUNIC,  TUNICA.  A  membrane 
or  coat  covering  an  organ. 

TUPELO.  The  name  given  by 
Michaux  to  several  species  of  Nyssa, 
or  black  gum. 

TURBINATE.  AVhirled,  and  of 
a  conical  figure. 

TURF.  "  The  sod  which  cov- 
ers the  surface  of  pastures.  Tlie 
word  is  often  also  applied  to  the 
substance  which  is  generally  call- 
ed peat.  We  shall  here  notice  the 
uses  to  which  turf  is  applied,  when 
we  mean  a  sod  taken  from  the  sur- 
face on  which  some  living  plants  are 
still  growing,  or  have  lately  done  so. 
Near  extensive  heaths  which  have 
never  been  reclaimed,  and  in  situa- 


TURF. 


tions  where  no  regular  peat-bogs  are 
to  be  found,  turf  becomes  a  very  use- 
ful fuel.  It  is  pared  ofl"  the  surface 
with  the  heath  growing  on  it,  in  dry 
weather,  in  sods  of  a  convenient  size, 
generally  round  and  about  one  foot  in 
diameter.  The  thickness  of  the  sod 
depends  on  the  depth  and  abundance 
of  the  roots  found  in  it,  as  they  are 
the  sole  canse  of  the  turf  continuing 
to  burn  when  the  blaze  caused  by  the 
burning  of  the  heath  is  over.  As  the 
soil  of  the  places  where  turf  is  usual- 
ly cut  is  generally  of  a  sandy  nature, 
turf  ashes  are  not  so  valuable  for  ma- 
nuring the  land  as  peat  ashes  ;  still 
they  contain  portions  of  potash  and 
other  vegetable  salts,  and  produce  a 
very  good  elfect  when  spread  as  a 
top-dressing  on  moist  meadows  the 
soil  of  which  is  chiefly  composed  of 
clay. 

"  Turf  is  used  for  many  other  pur- 
poses, as  well  as  for  fuel ;  laid  lilve 
tiles  on  a  roof,  overlapping  each  oth- 
er, they  form  an  excellent  and  cheap 
protection  against  rain ;  cut  some- 
what thicker,  and  in  the  siiape  of 
bricks,  they  serve  to  build  walls, 
which  are  durable. 

"  The  surface  of  good  pastures,  es- 
pecially of  commons,  is  often  pared 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  an  artifi- 
cial turf  for  ornament,  or  for  the  pur- 
poses of  pasture.  In  the  first  case, 
those  spots  are  chosen  where  the 
grass  is  of  the  finest  and  closest  pile. 
The  surface  is  pared  as  thin  as  can 
conveniently  be  done,  so  that  the 
sward  shall  not  break.  A  proper 
spot  having  been  chosen,  it  is  divided 
by  the  spade,  or  some  sharp  instru- 
ment like  a  knife  stuck  across  a  long 
handle,  into  strips  about  a  foot  wide  ; 
and  a  very  sharp  flat  instrument  with 
a  bent  handle,  so  as  to  work  horizon- 
tally, is  thrust  an  inch,  or  a  little 
more,  below  the  surface,  paring  off 
the  strip  which  has  been  marked. 
As  the  workman  who  cuts  the  sod 
advances,  another  rolls  it  up  before 
him,  until  it  is  of  a  proper  size  to  be 
carried  off.  A  cut  is  then  made 
across  the  strip,  and  another  roll  is 
begun.  Thus  a  large  space  may  be 
completely  bared,  or  parallel  strips 
Y  v  v2 


may  be  cut  out,  leaving  some  of  the 
turf  uncut  between  them.  In  this 
case  the  loss  of  the  herbage  will  be 
soonest  repaired  by  the  spreading  of 
the  grasses  from  the  strips  wbich  are 
left.  When  an  ornamental  lawn  is 
to  be  formed  by  laying  down  the  turf, 
tbe  ground  is  levelled,  or  laid  in  any 
desired  form.  It  is  well  rolled  and 
beaten,  to  make  it  firm  ;  and  if  the 
weather  is  dry,  it  is  well  watered  be- 
fore the  turf  is  applied.  As  lawns 
require  frequent  mowing,  a  close, 
slow-growing  turf  is  a  great  advan- 
tage ;  it  should  therefore  be  taken,  if 
possible,  from  a  poor,  thin  soil.  If 
the  ground  to  be  covered  is  of  a  rich 
quality,  it  is  best  to  remove  the  soil 
and  lay  some  of  the  poorer  subsoil 
bare,  to  place  the  turf  on  :  a  rich 
moist  soil  would  make  the  grass  grow- 
too  rank,  and  require  constant  mow- 
ing and  rolling  to  keep  it  down.  Brick- 
bats and  rubbish  are  ot'ten  spread 
over  the  ground,  where  a  lawn  is  to  be 
formed  by  turfing  it  over  :  these  not 
only  form  a  poorer  soil,  but  also  keep 
it  drier  by  their  porosity.  It  need 
not  be  observed,  that  where  turfing 
is  resorted  to,  to  cover  bare  places  in 
meadows  or  pasture,  the  reverse  of 
all  this  should  be  done,  and  manure 
spread  over  the  places  where  the  turf 
is  to  be  laid,  so  that  the  roots  may 
be  invigorated  and  a  rich  pile  of  grass 
may  spring  up. 

"  When  there  are  banks  and  ine- 
qualities in  pastures,  it  is  often  use- 
ful to  pare  off  all  the  turf,  rolling  it 
up  from  the  places  which  are  to  be 
levelled.  The  superfluous  soil  is 
then  removed,  and  if  it  has  been  long 
in  the  form  of  a  dry  bank,  it  is  spread 
over  the  grass,  which  it  greatly  in- 
vigorates. The  new  surlace  is  en- 
riched with  manure  if  it  reijuires  it, 
and  in  moist  weather,  or  after  wa- 
tering it.  the  turf  is  unrolled  over  it 
and  well  beaten  down.  A  heavy 
roller  drawn  over  it  will  greatly  as- 
sist its  rooting,  and  thus  an  unsight- 
ly bank,  on  which  the  grass  was  usu- 
ally either  coarse  or  burned  up,  ac- 
cording as  the  season  was  wet  or  dry, 
becomes  a  good  and  neat  pasture. 
Another  important  use  of  turf  is  to 
809 


TUR 


TUR 


cut  it  into  small  strips  and  divide 
these  into  pieces  of  a  square  incli  in 
size,  or  somewhat  more,  (or  tlie  pur- 
pose of  hiying  land  to  grass  by  inocu- 
lahon.  This  is  only  a  partial  turfing, 
which  extends  rapidly,  and,  in  the 
course  of  a  very  few  years,  converts 
a  field  which  was  not  very  produc- 
tive, as  arable  land,  into  a  valuable 
meadow,  especially  if  it  is  so  situated 
as  to  be  capable  of  occasional  irri- 
gation." 

TURKEY.     See  Poultry. 

TURMERIC.  "The  root  of  the 
Curcuma  longa.  This  root  yields  a 
fine  yellow  powder,  which  is  occa- 
sionally used  as  a  dye-stuff  in  medi- 
cine ;  it  also  forms  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients oi cxary  poicdcr.  Paper  stain- 
ed with  turmeric  is  often  used  in  the 
chemical  laboratory  as  a  test  of  the 
presence  of  free  alkalies  and  their 
carbonates,  by  which  its  yellow  col- 
our is  converted  to  brown." 

TURNER'S  CERATE.  It  is  made 
by  melting  half  a  pound  of  yellow 
wax  with  two  pounds  of  lard,  and, 
when  cool,  working  into  the  mixture 
half  a  pound  of  prepared  calamine. 
It  is  used  to  excoriations,  or  galled 
places,  burns,  and  is  a  rnild  astrin- 
gent. 

TURXIP.  Brassica  rapa.  *'This 
well-known  plant  is  cultivated  for  its 
bulbous  roots,  both  in  the  garden  and 
the  field.  As  a  culinary  root  it  has 
been  prized  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  many  varieties  have  been  culti- 
vated for  the  table  ;  but  it  is  those  of 
a  larger  kind,  cultivated  in  the  fields, 
which  form  so  important  a  part  of 
the  most  improved  systems  of  agri- 
culture on  all  light  soils,  that  the  suc- 
cess of  the  farmer  is,  in  general,  pro- 
portioned to  the  quantity  of  turnips 
raised  on  his  farm.  They  are  the 
great  foundation  of  all  the  best  sys- 
tems of  cropping,  by  supplying  the 
manure  required  for  the  subsequent 
crop,  and,  at  the  same  time,  clearing 
the  land  of  all  noxious  weeds,  by  the 
numerous  ploughings,  stirrings,  and 
hoeings  which  they  require. 

"  Turnips  were  first  raised  upon 
land  which  had  already  borne  a  crop 
that  was  reaped  early  in  summer,  and 
810 


on  fallows  which  had  been  worked 
and  cleared  early,  so  as  to  leave  a 
sufficient  interval  between  the  last 
ploughing  and  the  time  of  sowing 
winter  corn  to  have  a  tolerable  crop 
of  turnips.  These  turnips,  however, 
which  are  still  cultivated  by  the  name 
of  stubble,  or  eddish  turnips,  never 
grow  so  large  as  those  which  had 
been  sown  earlier  on  land  well  pre- 
pared and  highly  manured. 

"  The  regular  cultivation  of  tur- 
nips on  a  large  scale  was  originally 
introduced  from  Flanders  into  Nor- 
folk two  centuries  ago.  It  was  long 
confined  to  one  or  two  individuals, 
who  cultivated  turnips  very  success- 
fully ;  hut  at  last  it  spread,  and  was 
greatly  improved  by  introducing  the 
row  culture,  according  to  TuH's  sys- 
tem, which  acquired  the  name  of  the 
Northumberland  mode  of  cultivation. 
The  usual  mode  of  sowing  turnips, 
both  in  Flanders  and  in  Norfolk,  was 
broad-cast  ;  and,  as  the  labourers  in 
both  countries  became  very  expert  in 
hoeing  them  out  at  regular  distances, 
this  mode  was  long  preferred.  In 
fact,  the  cultivation  of  turnips  m 
rows  is  scarcely  practised  at  all  in 
Flanders,  and,  notwithstanding  its  ev- 
ident superiority  in  respect  to  quan- 
tity of  produce  and  economy  of  la- 
bour, it  cannot  be  said  to  be  yet  uni- 
versally adopted.  The  Northumber- 
land method  of  cultivating  the  crop, 
which  is  particularly  adapted  to  moist, 
cold,  or  tenacious  soils,  or  to  farms 
where  manure  is  scarce,  and  which 
is  mostly  managed  with  but  little  use 
of  the  hand  hoe,  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  cuts : 

Fig.  1. 


"  Fig.  1  shows  a  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  ground  when  prepared  for 
receiving  the  manure,  it  being  gath- 
ered in  one-bout  ridgelets.  The  dung 
carts  pass  lengthwise,  and  the  dung 
is  dropped,  or  pulled  out  into  the  fur- 
rows :  lads  follow  the  carts  and  spread 
out  the  dung  from  the  little  heaps 
along  the  hollow  of  each  drill.  The 
horse  with  the  loaded  cart  walks  in 
the  interval  of  the  ridges,  so  that  a 


TURNIPS. 


wheel  of  the  cart  shall  go  in  each  of 
the  liollows  of  the  two  lidffos  adjoin- 
ing:^. The  person  who  directs  the 
horse  follows  the  cart,  which  is  open 
hehind,  and  with  a  crooked  two-prong- 
ed fork,  or  dung-hack  {Fig-.  2),  drags 

Fig.  2. 


nr 


out  the  dung,  as  the  horse  moves 
along,  into  little  heaps  in  the  hollow 
of  every  third  ridge,  at  tlie  distance 
from  each  other  of  from  eight  to  ten 
feet.  Behind  follow  three  young  per- 
sons, with  each  a  two-pronged  or 
throe-pronged  fork  (F/^'-.a),  each  walk- 
Vig.  3. 


ing  in  the  interval  of  a  ridge,  and 
spreading  out  the  dung  in  as  regular 
a  manner  as  possihle,  as  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  ridgelets  with  the  dung 
deposited  in  the  intervals  would  show 
{Fig.  4).  It  is  immediately  covered 
Fig.  4. 


by  the  plough,  winch,  pasbuig  down 
the  middle  of  each  ridgelet,  splits  it 
into  two,  so  that  a  new  drill  is 
formed,  whose  top  is  immediately 
above  the  former  hollow  of  the  old 
drill,  as  may  be  seen  in  Figure  5. 
Fig.  5. 

For  this  purpose,  the  double  muuld- 
board  plough  may  be  employed,  but 
the  single  plough  is  preferred,  as  it 
does  the  work  better,  though  it  re- 
quires double  the  time.  The  turnip 
seed  is  sown  upon  the  top  of  the  ridg- 
es, above  the  manure,  with  a  horse 
or  hand  drill,  the  former  of  which 
has  a  roller,  which  precedes  the  coul- 
ters and  flattens  the  ridges.  When 
the  seed  is  sown  by  hand,  a  hand  roll- 


er is  drawn  over  the  ridges  {Fig.  6;. 

Fig.  6. 


"As  soon  as  the  plants  have  as- 
sumed what  is  termed  the  rough  leaf, 
and  are  about  two  inches  in  height, 
the  process  of  hoeing  commences. 
This  is  done  by  turning  first  a  light 
shallow  furrow  from  the  plants,  or 
hy  the  horse  hoe,  or  cultivator  with 
lateral  coulters. 

"  The  great  object  on  poor  light 
lands,  especially  those  which  have 
lately  been  brought  into  cultivation, 
is  to  raise  a  crop  of  turnips  ;  for  when 
once  this  is  obtained,  and  the  land 
has  been  improved  by  the  folding  of 
sheep  upon  it,  there  is  no  great  diffi- 
culty in  maintaining  the  fertility  thus 
produced  by  judicious  management 
and  frequent  green  crops.  Great  im- 
provement in  poor  soils  has  been  ef- 
fected by  the  introduction  of  ground 
bones  as  a  manure,  which  have  the 
peculiar  property  of  favouring  the 
growth  of  the  turnip,  and  have  con- 
sequently been  used  on  poor  light 
sands  and  gravels  to  a  great  extent, 
and  with  unvaried  success,  without 
much  help  from  farm-yard  manure. 
It  has,  however,  been  found  that  a 
much  greater  profit  is  obtained  from 
the  land  by  uniting  the  regular  appli- 
cation of  farm-yard  dung  with  that  of 
the  bone  dust.  For  this  purpose,  the 
best  farmers  prepare  their  land,  wliere 
they  intend  to  sow  turnips,  early  after 
harvest,  by  giving  it  as  complete  a 
cultivation  as  they  can  before  win- 
ter ;  and  they  put  on  it  a  good  coat 
of  manure  and  plough  it  in.  In  the 
beginning  of  summer  another  plough- 
ing is  given,  with  rei>eated  harrow- 
811 


TURNIPS. 


ings,  to  destroy  the  weeds  which 
have  sprung  up.  If  tlie  subsoil  is 
dry,  or  the  land  has  been  thoroughly 
drained,  the  seed  may  be  drilled  m 
rows  from  two  feet  to  thirty  inches 
apart,  with  bones  or  any  equivalent 
artificial  manure  on  the  flat  surface  : 
a  pound  of  seed  the  acre  is  a  good  al- 
lowance. The  turnip  seed  can  scarce- 
ly fail  to  vegetate  soon.  Less  dan- 
ger arises  from  dry  weather  than  if 
they  were  on  the  top  of  a  ridge,  and 
the  intervals  can  be  readily  stirred 
by  the  plough,  or  any  other  instru- 
ment adapted  to  the  purpose.  The 
manure,  which  has  had  time  to  m- 
corporate  with  the  soil  and  to  impart 
to  it  the  various  gaseous  products  of 
its  decomposition,  is  in  the  best  state 
to  nourish  the  young  plant,  untd  it 
can  push  forth  its  roots  ;  a  more  rap- 
id growth  is  ensured,  which  is  the 
best  preservative  against  the  fly  ;  and 
experience  has  proved  that  this  is  a 
much  more  certain  way  to  ensure  a 
good  crop  of  turnips,  especially  of 
Swedes,  than  the  old  method  of  put- 
ting all  the  manure  immediately  un- 
der the  seed  in  the  rows,  where  it 
often  remains  inert  if  dry  weather 
comes  on  soon  after  the  seed  is  sown. 
The  quantity  of  manure  put  on  in  au- 
tumn, or  very  early  in  spring,  depends 
on  the  means  of  the  farm.  If  ten 
cubic  yards  of  short  dung  can  be  af- 
forded per  acre,  the  crop  of  turnips 
will  amply  repay  it ;  and  tu  enty  bush- 
els of  bone  dust  or  less  p^racre  wdl 
be  sufficient  to  drill  with  the  seed. 
Long  fresh  manure  may  be  safely 
ploughed  in  before  winter,  which 
would  be  very  improper  in  a  light 
sod  if  used  in  summer.  This  will  be 
rotten  before  the  turnips  are  sown, 
and  all  the  expense  of  forming  dung- 
hills and  turning  them  over  is  saved. 
^^'here  farm-yard  manure  is  scarce, 
hah  the  above  quantity  may  be  used, 
and  a  fair  crop  of  turnips  may  still  be 
expected.  We  have  ourselves  fol- 
lowed this  method  with  abundant 
manure,  and  also  with  half  the  usual 
quantity,  the  success  being  always 
in  proi;ortion  to  the  quantity  of  farm- 
yard maimre. 

"  The  early  vegetation  of  the  seed 
813 


is  essential  to  a  goop  crop  of  turnips. 
In  its  young  and  tender  state  it  is 
liable  to  a  variety  of  accidents.  Its 
great  enemy  is  the  turnip  fly  {Haltica 
nemorum),  which  appears  always  in 
great  quantities  if  there  is  any  con- 
tinuance of  dry  weather.  The  mores 
frequently  turnips  are  sown  n  the 
same  ground,  the  more  abundant  is 
the  fly  ;  but  where  the  surface  has 
been  pared  and  burned  there  is  sel- 
dom any  loss  from  this  cause.  It  is 
generally  found  that  in  moist  weath- 
er the  fly  does  comparatively  little 
harm,  as  then  the  vegetation  is  rapid, 
and  the  plant,  when  once  it  has  put 
forth  its  rough  leaves,  is  considered 
safe.  Whatever,  therefore,  accel- 
erates the  vegetation  will  secure  the 
growth  of  the  turnip.  In  very  dry 
seasons,  if  water  is  at  hand,  it  is  well 
worth  while  to  water  the  newlj'-sown 
ro\vs  by  means  of  a  common  water- 
cart  ;  and  if  some  liquid  manure  be 
mixed  with  the  water,  the  effect  will 
be  astonishing.  By  means  of  two 
leathern  hose  two  rows  may  readily 
be  watered  at  once  ;  and  if  the  pond 
or  stream  be  not  above  half  a  mile 
off,  a  vast  extent  of  ground  may  thus 
be  watered  in  one  day.  Nothing 
brings  on  vegetation  so  fast  as  dilu- 
ted liquid  manure,  care  being  taken 
that  it  be  not  too  strong.  The  best 
time  for  watering  is  in  the  evening, 
or  early  in  the  morning  ;  and  if  in  a 
fine  summer's  night  the  water-cart 
were  used  before  daylight,  there 
would  be  no  great  inconvenieuee  to 
the  horse  or  his  driver.  It  some- 
times happens  in  soils  rather  com- 
pact, that  a  crust  is  formed  on  the 
surface  wiiieh  has  been  harrowed  fine 
and  rolled,  and  this  impedes  the  ve- 
getation by  excluding  the  air  neces- 
sary to  germination.  In  this  case, 
no  better  remedy  can  be  applied  than 
watering,  which  softens  the  crust 
and  lets  the  young  plant  through.  As 
soon  as  the  turnip  plant  has  put  forth 
Its  rough  leaves,  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  rows  should  be  stirred  with 
a  light  plough  drawn  up  by  one  horse. 
The  plough  can  be  made  to  go  with- 
in an  inch  or  two  of  the  plants,  throw- 
ing the  earth  from  the  row  into  the 


TURNIPS. 


interval :  a  small  harrow,  wliich  can 
be  set  to  any  required  width,  is  then 
drawn  between  the  rows,  to  loosen 
the  earth  raised  by  the  plougli  :  this 
greatly  increases  the  absorption  of 
moisture,  and  invigorates  tlie  young 
plants.  They  may  now  be  thinned 
out  in  the  rows  by  means  of  a  hoe 
about  twelve  inches  broad.  See  Fiff. 
7 ;  a  is  the  blade,  which  will  hoe  out  all 
Fig-  7. 


the  superfluous  plants,  leaving  little 
tufts  a  foot  or  more  apart.  These 
tufts  are  thinned  out  by  hand,  leaving 
only  one  healthy  plant  in  each.  Thus 
the  turnips  are  left  at  a  proper  dis- 
tance, and,  having  ample  room,  will 
soon  cover  the  rows.  A  horse-hoe 
is  now  drawn  between  the  rows,  to 
eradicate  all  weeds  and  keep  the  soil 
open  forthe  fibres  of the  roots  to  shoot 
in.  It  is  not  advisable  to  throw  the 
earth  overthe  turnips,  unless  it  be  just 
before  winter,  to  protect  them  from  tlie 
frost ;  on  the  contrary,  in  wet  weath- 
er the  earth  is  more  likely  to  cause  the 
turnip  to  rot  than  to  help  its  growth. 
The  fibres  which  draw  the  nourish- 
ment strike  in  the  soil  below,  and 
spread  between  the  rows  wherever 
they  meet  with  a  loose  and  mellow 
earth. 

"  In  order  to  have  a  heavy  crop, 
especially  of  Swedish  turnips,  or  rula 
baga,  it  is  advisable  to  sow  the  seed 
early,  that  is,  in  the  beginning  of  July ; 
they  will  then  have  the  advantage  of 
the  summer  showers,  and  be  beyond 
the  reach  of  t!ie  fly  in  a  very  few 
days;  and  when  the  dry  weather  sets 
in,  they  will  already  have  a  supply  of 
moisture  in  tlieir  roots,  and  the  libres, 
having  struck  deep,  will  not  suffer 
any  check.  The  only  inconvenience 
of  sowing  early  is,  that  many  of  the 
plants  are  apt  to  run  to  seed.  This 
is  in  many  cases  owing  to  the  seed 
which  is  used.  If  the  seed  has  been 
raised  from  fine  roots  which  have 
stood  the  winter,  there  is  little  dan- 
ger of  the  plants  running  to  seed  in 
the  first  summer ;  but,  as  is  often  the 
case,  if  small,  imperfect  roots  are  la- 


ken,  or  those  wliich  run  to  seed  in 
autumn,  then  the  plants  will  liave  a 
tendency  to  jiroduco  seed,  and  not 
bulbs.  The  white  Norfolk  turnip  and 
its  varieties  should  be  sown  about 
midsummer,  to  have  a  good  and  heavy 
crop  before  winter.  The  distance  at 
which  they  may  be  left  in  thinning 
them  out  must  depend  on  the  variety, 
whether  it  has  a  wide-spreading  top 
or  not.  The  best  crops,  both  of 
Swedes  and  common  field  turnips, 
are  generally  those  where  the  tops 
are  vigorous  and  moderately  spread- 
ing. A  small  top  will  not  nourish  a 
large  bulb ;  but  when  the  growth  is 
chiefly  in  the  leaves,  the  bulbs  are 
seldom  large. 

"  It  may  be  considered  as  a  gener- 
al rule,  that  the  most  advantageous 
mode  of  consuming  turnips  is  to  draw 
them  and  cut  them  in  slices  in  the 
field,  to  be  there  consumed  in  troughs 
by  sheep,  to  whom  corn  or  oil-cake, 
as  well  as  hay,  is  regularly  given. 
When  the  crop  of  turnips  is  abun- 
dant, part  of  them  may  be  stored  for 
the  cattle  in  the  yard  or  fatting-stalls, 
and  for  the  milch  cows  and  heifers. 
They  will  require  nothing  but  good 
straw,  if  they  have  plenty  of  turnips, 
and  no  hay  whatever  need  be  used, 
unless  it  be  for  the  horses  ;  and  even 
they  will  thrive  well  on  Swedish  tur- 
nips and  straw,  with  a  small  quanti- 
ty of  oats.  Turnips  are  often  left  in 
the  field  all  the  wmter,  which  great- 
ly deteriorates  them.  If  they  cannot 
all  be  fed  off  before  December,  they 
should  be  taken  up,  with  the  tops  on, 
and  set  close  together,  covered  with 
the  tops,  on  a  piece  of  grass,  or  in 
some  dry  spot.  They  will  thus  be 
quite  sufficiently  protected  from  the 
frost ;  or  the  tops  may  be  cut  off 
within  an  inch  of  the  crown  of  the 
root ;  and  they  may  be  stored  in  long 
camps  five  feet  wide  and  four  feet 
high,  sloped  like  the  roof  of  a  house, 
and  covered  with  straw  and  earth,  in 
which  state  they  will  keep  till  they 
are  wanted.  It  is  advantageous  to 
have  different  varieties  of  turnips, 
which  will  come  to  perfection  in  suc- 
cession ;  and  it  is  useful  to  sow  some 
at  different  times  for  this  purpose. 
813 


TURNIPS. 


The  small  turnip,  which  from  its  rap-  ;  Let  us  contrast  this  expense  with 
id  growth  is  called  the  nimble  turnip,  tliat  of  feeding  hay.  We  believe  a 
may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  end  of  ration  of  hay  is  28  lbs.  Let  us  sup- 
August,  and  in  the  mild  seasons  of  pose  it  to  be  25  lbs.  Then,  to  keep 
the  Middle  States  will  produce  toler-  |  the  tive  cows  60  days  would  require 


able  bulbs  in  winter  and  early  in 
spring.  The  frost  will  not  injure  a 
growing  turnip  so  readily  as  one 
which  is  come  to  perfection,  and  the 
leaves  of  which  are  withered.  Some 
varieties,  like  the  yellow  Aberdeen 
and  the  green  round  turnip,  are  hard- 
ier than  others,  and  will  stand  the 
winter  well  in  a  light  and  dry  soil." 
The  method  of  taking  up  t!ie  crop 


7500  lbs.,  or  3  tons  15  cwt.  of  hay, 
which,  at  a  fair  medium  price  of  810 
a  ton,  would  amount  to  §37  50,  ma- 
king a  diflerence  in  favour  of  the  tur- 
nips of  $21  25,  or  nearly  three  fifths. 
Let  us  test  the  relative  profits  in  an- 
other way.  The  average  product  of 
our  grass  lands  is  about  two  tons  the 
acre  ;  say  the  product  of  two  acres 
would  be  7500  lbs.  ;   then  the  prod- 


for  winter  store  is  by  running  a  fur-  j  uct  of  an  acre  in  ruta  baga  would  go 
row  along  the  rows,  and  turning  the    about  as  far  in  feeding  stock  as  the 


product  of  two  acres  in  meadow  ; 
with  the  farther  advantage,  where 
the  turnips  are  sown  upon  a  young 
clover  lay,  that  one  half  the  hay  may 
also  be  cut  from  the  acre  which  pro- 
duces the  600  bushels  of  turnips,  the 
latter  being  raised  as  a  second  crop." 
"  There  are  so  many  varieties  cul- 
tivated that  it  is  difficult  to  enumer- 
ate them.  The  Swedish  turnips  may 
be  classed  according  to  the  colour 
and  size  of  their  tops  and  the  shape 
of  the  bulb.  The  best  have  but  little 
stem  rising  from  the  bulb,  and  a  good 
tuft  of  leaves.  The  substance  of  the 
turnips  is  of  a  bright  yellow,  and  has 
a  strong  smell,  especially  when  they 
have  been  kept  some  time.  No  frost 
w.ll  hurt  them,  if  they  are  kept  dry  ; 
but  alternate  rain  and  frost  will  do 
them  harm  When  they  are  stored, 
it  is  advantageous  that  the  air  should 
have  free  access ;  and  for  this  pur- 
pose it  has  been  recommended  to 
place  them  between  hurdles  set  up- 
right, and  to  slightly  thatch  them 
with  straw  to  keep  out  the  rain.  In 
this  way  they  keep  longer  sound  than 
when  put  in  camps  covered  with 
straw  and  earth. 

"  Of  the  field  turnip  there  are  nu- 
merous varieties.  The  common  Nor- 
folk turnip  is  round  and  flat,  the  bulb 
being  half  buried  in  the  ground ;  it 
and  thrive  upon  two  bushels  a  day  ;  ,  throws  out  no  fibres,  except  from  the 
hence  an  acre  will  afford  300  daily  I  slender  root  which  proceeds  from  the 
rations,  or  maintain  five  cows  60  !  centre  of  the  bulb.  There  is  a  sub- 
days,  at  the  actual  cost  of  $16  25,  |  variety  which  is  reddish  at  the  inser- 
or  $3  25  for  each  the  two  months,  i  tion  of  the  leaves,  and  another  of  a 
8U 


earth  from  the  roots  ;  tlie  turnips  can 
then  be  pulled  by  the  hand,  or  with 
the  hook  {Fig.  8). 


The  following  account  of  the  prod- 
uct and  profits  of  ruta  baga  is  by 
Judge  Buel : 

"  Profits.— From  many  years'  ex- 
perience, we  estimate  as  an  average 
product,  under  good  management, 
600  bushels  to  the  acre.  We  may 
assume  the  following  as  the  average 
expense  of  cultivating  and  harvesting 
an  acre  : 

One  ploughins  and  a  thorough  harrow- 
ing    . $2  50 

20  wagon  loads  manure,  at  "5  cents       .    15  01) 

1  pound  seed 1  J^O 

)  day  spreading  manure  and  drilling  seed  0  75 
3   dressings    with    cultivator,   man   aud 

horse  one  day 1  25 

2  dressings  with  hoe,  six  days,  6«.  .  .  4  50 
5  days  harvesting  and  pulling,  6s.     .  3  75 

$28  75 

which  divided  by  600,  the  number  of 
bushels,  would  bring  the  cost  of  the 
roots  below  five  cents  the  bushel. 
But  if  we  abate  half  the  cost  of  the 
manure  for  the  after  crops,  and  allov/ 
a  fair  consideration  for  the  tops,  say 
$5,  it  will  reduce  the  cost  of  the  roots 
to  less  than  three  cents  a  bushel. 
Now  a  cow  or  bullock  will  do  we 


TURNIPS. 


green  hue  ;  the  latter  is  the  hardiest. 
The  globe  turnip  takes  its  name  from 
its  shape  ;  it  rises  more  out  of  the 
ground,  and  grows  to  a  greater  size  ; 
like  the  last,  it  is  either  entirely  white 
or  red,  or  green  near  the  crown.  It 
is,  on  the  whole,  the  most  productive 
and  hardy.  The  tankard  turnip  rises 
high  out  of  the  ground,  and  approach- 
es in  shape  to  the  mangel  wurzel. 
It  grows  to  the  greatest  size  ;  hut  it 
is  apt  to  become  spongy  if  left  long 
on  the  ground,  and  its  weigiit  is  not 
in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  Tliere  are 
red  tankards  and  green  tankards,  as 
well  as  white.  The  green  round  tur- 
nip is  considered  very  hardy,  and  is 
usually  sown  late,  to  be  consumed 
after  the  winter.  The  yellow  Aber- 
deen, although  somewhat  less,  is 
compact,  and  stands  the  winter  well; 
it  is  a  very  useful  variety. 

''  Next  to  those  above  mentioned 
come  the  smaller  turnips  ot*  quicker 
growth,  which  have  mostly  been  ta- 
ken from  the  garden.  They  should 
not  be  sown  early,  as  they  are  very 
apt  to  run  to  seed  in  dry  weather; 
but  in  a  moist  climate  they  may  be 
sown  at  any  time  in  the  summer,  and 
they  will  be  in  perfection  in  three 
months.  Thus  they  may  be  made  to 
fill  up  the  interval  between  the  early 
rye  or  trifolium  fed  off  in  spring,  and 
tiie  wheat  sown  in  autumn. 

"  Those  who  are  possessed  of  a 
good  variety  will  do  well  to  raise  their 
own  seed,  as  that  which  is  bought 
cannot  always  be  depended  upon  for 
this  purpose  ;  the  best-shaped,  mid- 
dle-sized bulbs  should  be  chosen,  the 
leaves  being  cut  off  not  nearer  than 
an  inch  from  the  crown.  They  should 
be  planted  in  a  mellow  soil,  in  rows 
three  feet  wide,  and  a  foot  from  bulb 
to  bulb  in  the  rows,  about  March  or 
April.  When  the  pods  are  well  filled 
with  seeds,  and  these  are  round  and 
hard,  the  stem  should  be  cut  close  to 
the  root,  and  carefully  laid  under  a 
shed  to  dry.  The  seed  will  ripen 
there  without  shedding,  and  when  the 
pods  are  quite  dry,  the  seed  is  easily 
beaten  out  with  a  stick  or  light  flail. 
Birds  are  so  fond  of  it  that  a  con- 
stant watch  must  be  kept ;  and  this 


is  the  reason  why  so  few  farmers 
grow  their  own  seed.  Turnip  seed 
is  often  raised  in  the  gardens,  and  is 
a  branch  of  industry  which  every 
farmer  should  encourage.  He  can 
readily  see  that  good  bull)s  only  are 
used,  and  he  secures  the  seeds  he 
wants.  If  the  seed  is  kept  in  a  dry 
granary,  it  will  be  good  for  several 
years.  It  is,  however,  best  to  use 
fresh  seed,  as  it  always  germinates 
sooner.  The  seed  is  seldom  steeped, 
but  generally  drilled  in  the  rows  by 
a  drill- barrow  or  more  perfect  sow- 
ing machine.  The  best  farmers,  even 
on  land  well  manured  and  in  good 
heart,  sow  with  tiie  seed  some  artifi- 
cial manure,  as  bones,  rape  cake,  or 
rich  dried  compost,  to  accelerate  the 
first  growth  of  the  plants." 

Diseases. — "The  diseases  and  in- 
juries to  which  turnips  are  liable  are 
various.  At  their  first  appearance 
their  leaves  are  liable  to  the  attacks 
of  tlie  fly  (Aphis  and  Haltica),  the 
caterpillar,  the  slug,  and  the  mildew. 
Their  bulbs  and  roots  are  attacked 
by  worms  of  different  kinds ;  by  a 
singular  tendency  to  monstrosity, 
known  provincially  by  the  name  of 
fingers  and  toes  ;  by  the  anbury  ;  by 
canker,  and  by  wasting  or  gangrene 
from  water  or  frost.  Of  all  or  most 
of  these  injurious  diseases,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  they  admit  neither  of 
prevention  nor  cure  by  art.  Under 
favourable  circumstances  of  soil,  cli- 
mate, culture,  and  weather,  they  sel- 
dom occur ;  therefore,  ail  that  the  cul- 
tivator can  do  is  to  prepare  and  ma- 
nure his  land  properly,  and  in  the 
sowing  season  supply  water  when  the 
weather  is  deficient  in  showers  or 
the  soil  in  humidity. 

"  The  fly  (Hahica)  attacks  the  tur- 
nip when  in  the  seed  leaf,  and  either 
totally  devours  it,  or  partially  eats 
the  leaves  and  centre  bud,  so  as  to 
impede  the  progress  of  the  plants  to 
the  second  or  rough  leaves.  Wheth- 
er the  eggs  of  these  flies  are  deposit- 
ed on  the  plants  or  in  the  soil,  does 
not  appear  to  be  ascertained  ;  in  all 
probability  they  are  attached  to  the 
former,  as  in  the  gooseberry  cater- 
pillar, and  most  cases  of  flies  and  in- 
S15 


TUR 


TUR 


sects  which  feed  on  plants.  Prep- 
arations and  mixtures  of  the  seed,  as 
ah-eady  treated  of,  are  all  that  have 
yet  been  done  in  the  way  of  prevent- 
ive to  this  evil. 

"  The  caterpillar  makes  its  appear- 
ance after  the  plants  have  produced 
three  or  more  rough  leaves  ;  these 
they  eat  througii,  and  either  destroy 
or  greatly  impede  the  progress  of  the 
plants.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  eggs  of  these  caterpillars 
are  deposited  on  the  leaves  of  the 
plants  by  a  species  of  moth,  as  the 
caterpillar  may  be  detected  when  not 
larger  in  diameter  than  a  hair.  As 
preventives  to  the  moths  from  fixing 
on  the  turnips  for  a  depository  for 
their  eggs,  it  has  been  proposed  to 
place  vessels  with  tar  in  different 
parts  of  the  field,  the  smell  of  which 
isknown  to  be  very  offensive  to  moths 
and  all  insects  ;  or  to  cause  a  thick 
offensive  smoke  from  straw  or  weeds 
to  pass  over  the  ground  at  the  time 
when  it  is  supposed  the  moths  or  pa- 
rent flies  are  about  to  commence 
their  operations.  To  destroy  the  cat- 
erpillar itself  watering  with  tobacco 
water,  lime-water,  strong  brine,  and 
laying  on  ashes,  barley  awns,  (Sec, 
have  been  proposed. 

"  The  slug  and  snail  attack  the 
plants  both  above  and  under  ground, 
and  eat  both  the  leaves  and  roots. 
Rolling,  soot,  quicklime,  awns,  &c., 
have  been  proposed  to  annoy  them  ; 
but  the  only  effectual  mode  is,  im- 
mediately after  the  turnips  are  sown, 
to  strew  the  ground  with  cabbage 
leaves,  or  leaves  of  any  of  the  Bras- 
sica  tribe.  On  these,  especially  if 
sweet  from  incipient  decay,  the  slugs 
will  pasture,  and  may  be  gathered  off 
by  women  or  children  every  morn- 
ing. If  as  many  cabbage  leaves,  or 
handfuls  of  decaying  pea  haulm,  or 
any  similar  vegetable,  be  procured  as 
will  go  over  a  ridge  or  two,  say  at 
the  rate  of  a  leaf  to  every  square 
yard,  a  whole  field  may  soon  be 
cleared  by  picking  off  the  slugs  and 
removing  the  leaves  once  in  24  hours. 
This  mode  we  have  found  most  ef- 
fectual, and  it  is  extensively  prac- 
tised by  market  and  other  gardeners. 
816 


"  The  mildew  and  blight  attack  the 
turnip  in  different  stages  of  its  prog- 
ress, and  always  retard  its  growth. 
Its  effects  may  be  palliated  by  wa- 
tering and  strewing  the  leaves  with 
sulphur ;  but  this  will  hardly  be  con- 
sidered applicable  to  whole  fields. 

"  The  worms  attack  the  roots,  and, 
when  they  commence  their  ravages 
at  an  early  period,  impede  their 
growth,  and  ruin  or  greatly  injure 
the  crop.  They  admit  of  no  remedy 
or  prevention. 

"  The  forked  excrescences  known 
as  fingers  and  toes  in  some  places, 
and  as  the  anbury  in  others,  are  con- 
sidered an  alarming  disease,  and  hith- 
erto it  can  neither  be  guarded  against 
nor  cured."     See  Anbury. 

TURNIP  CABBAGE.  The  kohl 
rabi. 

TURNIP  CART.  "  This  is  an  in- 
genious ajdaptation  of  the  disk  turnip 
cutter  to  the  turnip  cart.  The  disk 
is  pat  in  motion  by  a  face-wheel  fixed 
upon  the  nave  of  the  cart-wheel, 
which,  as  it  revolves,  communicates 
by  means  of  cog  wheels  with  the  axis 
of  the  cutting  plate.  It  offers  a  very 
convenient  mode  of  feeding  sheep 
on  pastures  or  lawns,  and  was  intro- 
duced about  the  year  1834  by  Arthur 
Bidden,  farmer,  of  Playford,  the  in- 
ventor o!"  the  well-known  scarifier 
which  bears  his  name." — {Johnson.) 

TURNIP  CUTTERS.  In  feed- 
ing sheep  and  stock  with  turnips,  as 
well  as  other  roots,  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  them  into  small  pieces  to  hinder 
choking  and  facilitate  digestion.  For 
oxen  and  pigs,  it  may  be  better  to 
steam  them  ;  but  for  sheep,  the  com- 
mon practice  is  to  cut  them.  The 
simplest  form  of  vegetable  cutter  is 
like  the  simplest  straw  cutter,  two  or 
more  knives  set  in  a  lever  and  worked 
upon  a  table  {Fig.  1);  but  this  is  a 
slow  machine,  and  has  been,  for  the 
most  part,  superseded  by  implements 
of  the  construction  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
which  consists  of  a  side  hopper,  con- 
taining the  roots,  and  a  wheel  set 
with  blades  on  two  or  more  of  its 
spokes.  As  these  are  revolved  be- 
fore the  bottom  of  the  hopper,  the 
turnips  or  other  roots  are  cut  into 


TUS 

slices  and  fall  below.  The  upright 
position  of  the  hopper  constantly 
brings  down  more  of  the  vegetables. 
In  Gardner's  imoroved  machine,  two 
F.>.  I. 


ULC 

spokes  are  set  with  knives  at  right 
angles  with  the  former,  which  split 
the  slices  into  small  pieces  as  they 
are  cut  by  the  long  knives. 


Fig.  2. 


TTTRNSOL.     Litmus. 

TURPENTINE.  The  resinous  sap 
of  pine-trees,  especially  of  the  Pinus 
aitslralis,  the  long  leaved  or  southern 
pine,  abounding  in  the  sandy  barrens 
of  the  Southern  States.  It  is  pro- 
cured by  making  an  excavation  in 
winter  of  the  size  of  about  three 
pints  in  the  stem,  near  the  ground  ; 
from  the  upper  part  of  this  the  tur- 
pentine exudes  during  spring,  sum- 
mer, and  fall,  and  is  received  into 
gourds  or  other  vessels,  and  emptied 
into  barrels,  which  are  exposed  to  dry, 
and  then  headed  and  shipped.  It  is 
a  useful  application  to  many  wounds. 
The  oil,  or  spirit,  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling crude  turpentine  with  water  ; 
the  spirit  passes  over,  and  common 
rosin  remains  in  the  still.  It  is  rec- 
tified or  redistilled  for  commerce. 

TL'SSAC  GRASS.  Dachjlis  ca- 
spitosa.  Falkland  Island  grass.  A 
large,  sedgy  grass,  growing  on  the 
seashore  of  those  islands.  It  is  very 
nutritious  and  hardy,  150  acres  fat- 
tening 250  cattle  and  70  horses  du- 
ring the  winter.  The  grass  grows  to 
a  great  height,  and  maintains  its  ver- 
dure even  in  winter.  Governor  Moo- 
dy of  the  islands  found  it  would  grow 
on  high  and  dry  land  if  the  stools 
were  set  out  in  spring.  It  bears 
Zzz 


three  cuttings  per  annum  ;  is  peren- 
nial. It'  seed  be  sown,  it  requires 
three  vears  to  arrive  at  maturity. 

TUSSOCKS  OF  GRASS.  Clumps 
or  hillocks  of  growing  grass. 

TYMPANUM.  The  membrane  of 
the  ear  which  receives  the  vibrations 
of  sound. 

TYPES.  In  chemistry,  a  certain 
number  of  elements  combined  to- 
gether, every  one  of  which  may  be 
replaced  by  another,  and,  indeed,  ev- 
ery one  in  its  turn,  the  arrangement 
of  the  elements  in  every  case  re- 
maining always  the  same  with  re- 
gard to  each  other,  the  type  being 
no  precise  compound,  but  the  man- 
ner of  grouping.  The  new  compounds 
(as  when  chlorine  replaces  hydro- 
gen) have  often  the  same  properties 
as  the  original. 

TYPHUS.  Continued  fevers,  at- 
tended with  great  debility.  They 
arise  from  impure  air,  bad  food,  dec, 
and  are  therefore  often  epidemic. 
Typhoid  fevers  are  those  in  which 
there  is  a  tendency  to  great  debilitv. 

TWITCH  GRASS.    Couch  grass. 

U. 
UDDER.      The    milk-secreting 
gland  of  the  cow. 
ULCER.    An  open  sore  dischar- 
817 


UMB 

ging  matter.  Ulcers  sometimes  be- 
come torpid  and  dilRcult  to  heal,  in 
which  case  stimulants  are  used.  Tlie 
application  of  caustic  is  necessary 
vhen  there  is  fungous  growth  ;  ttie 
nitrate  of  silver  or  red  precipitate  is 
best.  Calomel  is  extremely  service- 
able to  heal  healthy  ulcers  :  tar  is  also 
used  for  this  purpose. 

ULTIMATE  ANALYSIS.  The 
determination  of  the  elements  of  an 
organic  body.     See  Organic  Analysts. 

U.MBLL.  In  botany,  a  form  of  in- 
florescence in  which  all  the  pedicels 
proceed  froin  a  single  point.  If  there 
is  no  subdivision,  the  umbel  is  called 
simple  ;  but  if  the  pedicels  produce 
other  umbels,  as  in  parsley,  ihe  um- 
bel is  compound. 

U.MBELLIFER.E,  UMBELLIF- 
EROUS PLANTS.  They  are  a  race 
of  great  frequency  in  all  cool  or 
temperate  climates,  and  even  occur 
in  hot  ones,  though  much  more  rare- 
ly. They  are  known  in  general  by 
their  flowers  being  disposed  in  an 
umbel.  They  have  an  herbaceous 
stem  ;  leaves  usually  much  divided, 
often  inflated  wlien  they  join  the 
stem ;  and  they  have  universally  a 
dry  fruit,  which  divides  into  two  seed- 
like pieces.  Some  of  them  are  poi- 
sonous, as  hemlock,  fool's  parsley, 
and  water  dropwort ;  others  are  es- 
culents, as  celery,  carrots,  and  pars- 
nips ;  many  yield  aromatic  fruits,  as 
caraway,  coriander,  and  anise  ;  a  few 
secrete  a  foetid  gum  resin,  of  which 
asafcEtida,  ammoniacum,  and  galba- 
num  are  examples.  The  species  are 
extremely  numerous,  and  difficult  to 
recognise  with  accuracy  ;  and,  un- 
fortunately, no  general  rule  has  yet 
been  discovered  for  distinguishing 
the  poisonous  from  the  harmless 
kinds;  but  those  whicii  grow  in  damp 
or  wet  places  are  to  be  suspected, 
whereas  those  that  are  aromatic  and 
found  in  dry  soils  are  often  innocuous. 

UMBILICAL  CORD.  In  animals, 
the  cord  of  blood-vessels  which  pass- 
es between  the  placenta  and  foetus  ; 
the  navel  string.  In  botany,  the 
thread  which  attaches  the  seed  to  the 
earpel  or  placenta. 

UMBILICUS.     The  navel. 
818 


URE 

UNCIFORM  BONE.  One  of  the 
bones  of  the  wrist. 

UNCONFORMABLE  STRATA. 
Strata  which  do  not  incline  or  dip  in 
the  satrie  direction  as  those  below  or 
above  them. 

UNDERWOOD.  Coppice,  small 
trees,  or  shoots  from  old  stools. 

UNGUIS.  The  claw  or  small  ex- 
tremity of  a  petal,  where  it  is  insert- 
ed into  the  stem. 

UNGULATES.  Those  quadrupeds 
furnished  witli  a  hoof 

U  N I  L  0  C  U  L  A  R.  Seed  vessels 
which  contain  but  one  cavity. 

UPAS.  A  Javanese  tree,  from 
which  the  upas  poison  is  secreted  ; 
the  Anliaris  toxtcaria. 

UPONG.  Ilex  vomiloria  and  cassi- 
na.  Tlie  black  drink,  medicine,  or 
tea  plant  of  North  Carolina,  used  by 
the  Indians. 

UREA.  A  peculiar  crystallizable 
substance  held  in  solution  in  the  urine. 
When  dried  in  vacuo  it  consists,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Prout,  of, 

Atoms.  Experiment. 

Nitrogen 2  45  65 

Carbon 2  20  07 

Hydrogen 1  6-65 

Okygeu 4  2663 

T  10000 

Urea  is  readily  soluble  in  water, 
tasteless,  inodorous  ;  and  when  mix- 
ed with  the  other  contents  of  the 
urine,  very  prone  to  putrefaction,  the 
principal  result  of  which  is  carbonate 
of  ammonia. 

UREDO.  "As  the  diseases  of 
corn  occasioned  by  fungi  belonging 
to  the  genus  Urcdo  are  of  great  im- 
portance, we  shall  describe  them 
particularly.  In  the  article  Burned 
Ear,  a  diseased  state  of  wheat  is  de- 
scribed, in  which  the  Urcdo  scgctum 
appears. 

"  Urcdo  caries,  De  Candolle  {U. 
fcr/ida,  Bauer),  is  found  on  wheat ; 
the  sporidia  are  included  within  the 
ovary  of  the  fruit,  and  are  exactly 
spherical,  rather  large,  globose,  and 
black.  When  this  plant  appears  on 
wheat  it  is  said  to  have  the  bunt, 
smut-balls,  or  pepper-brand.  The 
sporidia  may  be  detected  in  the  young 
seed  in  the  very  earliest  states  of 
the  flower-bud,  and  when  perfectly 


UREDO. 


ripe  it  occupies  the  whole  interior  of 
the  grain,  but  does  not  burst  the  skin, 
so  that  the  grain  retains  the  charac- 
ter of  being  perfectly  sound.  The 
sporidia  are  frequently  mixed  with 
delicate  tibres,  which  seem  to  consti- 
tute the  niycelia  of  the  plant.  Hens- 
low  calculates  that  a  single  grain 
of  wheat  may  contain  more  than 
4,000,000  of  sporidia.  Each  of  these 
sporidia  probably  contains  millions 
of  sporules  ;  hence  some  idea  may 
be  formed  of  their  minuteness,  as 
well  as  their  capacity  for  spreading 
themselves  in  every  direction.  An- 
other peculiarity  of  this  fungus  is, 
that  it  has  a  very  disgusting  smell, 
and  the  consequence  is  that  flour 
made  from  grains  containing  it  can- 
not be  eaten.  Flour  thus  spoiled  is, 
however,  sold  to  gingerbread-makers, 
who  have  found  out  that  mixing  it 
with  treacle  conceals  its  disagreeable 
odour.  It  does  not  appear  to  act  in- 
juriously when  taken.  In  raising 
wheat  for  seed,  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  that  none  affected 
with  the  smut  fungus  is  used,  as  it 
seems  proved  that  where  the  sporules 
of  the  fungus  are  present  in  the  seed 
sown,  they  will  grow  up  with  the 
plant,  and  be  developed  at  the  period 
of  its  ripening  the  fruit.  Many  rem- 
edies have  been  proposed  for  getting 
rid  of  the  sporules  from  wheat  about 
to  be  sown.  Washing  with  clean 
water  has  been  found  effectual,  and 
with  lime-water  much  more  so,  but 
of  all  applications  a  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  copper  (blue  vitriol)  seems 
to  answer  best.  The  following  is  a 
good  instance  of  the  effect  of  dress- 
ing wheat :  '  Mr.  John  Woolnough, 
of  Boyton,  sowed  a  large  field  in  al- 
ternate breadths  with  wheat  taken 
from  a  good  sample  without  dressing, 
and  wheat  that  had  been  dressed. 
Long  before  the  grain  was  ripe  the 
difference  was  most  distinguishable. 
Upon  those  stretches  sown  with 
dressed  wheat  it  was  difficult  to  find 
any  branded  ears,  while  the  others 
were  so  branded  as  to  make  him  de- 
termine to  carry  the  wheat  at  sep- 
arate times  to  different  places."' — 
(Lain.  Trans.,  vol.  v.) 


The  common  character  of  the  fun- 
gi   of   this    class  f,j.  j. 
is  their  production 
within    the    plant, 
through    the    skin 
of  which  they  ott 
en  break,  as  in  the 
Urcdo  diffusa,  that 
attacks  fruit-trees 
(Fig.  1). 

"  Uredo  ruhigo 
and  linearis  form 
yellow  and  brown 
oval  spots,  and 
blotches  of  an  or- 
ange and  yellow 
colour  upon  the 
stem,  leaf,  and  chaff  of  grain,  and  va- 
rious grasses.  The  sporidia  of  U. 
linearis  are  more  oblong  than  those 
of  U.  ruhigo,  but  they  are  frequently 
found  together.  When  these  plants 
are  present  the  disease  of  the  grain 
is  called  rust,  red  rag,  red  robin, 
and  red  gum.  This  is  the  plant 
which  Honslow  believes  to  be  iden- 
tical with  the  Puccinia  graminis, 
which  occurs  in  wheat  affected  with 
mildew."  Figure  2  represents  the 
Fig-'i. 


Puccinia  graminis,  or  rust:  it  is  of  the 
natural  size  in  the  stem,  a,  magnified 
in  b,  and  the  stem  also  magnified  in  c. 
"  The  mildew  and  the  rust  are  often 
confounded  together  by  farmers,  and, 
as  shown  by  Henslow,  there  is  no 
difference  in  the  essential  character 
of  the  plant  which  is  the  offspring  of 
the  disease.  Rust  and  mildew  are 
819 


URE 


URI 


not  so  certainly  prevented  as  smut, 
although  there  is  reason  to  l)elieve 
that  the  sporules  of  the  V.  rubigo  are 
taken  less  up  by  the  roots,  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  prochicing 
smut.  As  a  dressing,  the  use  of  llie 
lime-water  or  sulphate  of  copper 
should  never  be  neglected  ;  although 
it  may  not  always  prevent  rust,  yet 
there  are  instances  recorded  in  which 
undressed  wheat  has  had  rust,  when 
dressed  wheat  from  the  same  sample 
has  not  had  it. 

"  Connected  with  the  question  of 
blight  in  corn  is  one  that  has  produ- 
ced much  discussion,  and  that  is,  how 
far  the  barberry  {Berberis  vulgaris)  is 
the  cause  of  it.  Tiiere  is  a  very 
general  impression  among  farmers 
that  the  barberry-bush  produces  rust 
in  corn,  and  there  are  numerous  well- 
authenticated  instances  of  blight  oc- 
curring in  the  vicinity  of  barberry- 
bushes  and  hedges.  Botanists,  not 
seeing  how  this  could  occur,  have 
generally  treated  the  fact  as  a  coin- 
cidence, and  acquitted  the  barberry 
altogether  of  the  crime  of  producing 
blight ;  but  the  evidence  of  blight  oc- 
curring as  the  consequence  of  the 
presence  of  the  barberry  is  constant- 
ly increasing.  One  of  the  best  ex- 
planations of  this  curious  circum- 
stance is,  that  the  barberry  itself  is 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  fungus, 
the  JScidium  berbendis,  similar  to  that 
which  produces  the  disease  in  wheat. 
The  specific  characters  of  the  two, 
however,  are  very  different,  and  it 
is  only  by  having  recourse  to  the 
supposition  that  many  of  the  record- 
ed species  of  JEcidium  are  merely 
varieties  changed  in  character  by 
change  of  position,  that  such  an  ex- 
planation of  the  fact  can  be  admitted. 

"  Besides  the  species  of  uredo  men- 
tioned, corn  and  all  other  plants  are 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  large  num- 


ber of  these  fungi.  On  whatever 
plant  they  are  found  they  are  indica- 
tive of  disease,  and  the  produce  of 
the  plant  will  not  be  so  great  as 
when  in  a  state  of  health.  Sir  H. 
Davy  fuund  that  1000  parts  of  good 
wheat  yield,  on  an  average,  95.5  parts 
of  nutritious  matter,  while  specimens 
from  mildewed  wheat  yielded  only 
from  650  to  210  parts  in  the  same 
quantity."     Sec,  also,  Mildew. 

URETERS.  The  tubes  which  con- 
vey urine  from  the  kidneys  to  the 
bladder. 

URETHRA.  The  passage  from 
the  bladder  outward,  for  the  discharge 
of  urine. 

URIU  ACID,  LITHIC  ACID.  An 
acid  occurring  in  large  quantity,  com- 
bined with  ammonia,  in  the  urine  of 
birds  and  reptiles,  and  to  a  small  ex- 
tent only  in  the  urine  of  carnivorous 
(juadrupeds.  In  the  pure  state  it  is  a 
very  insoluble  white  powder  ;  it  dis- 
solves in  nitric  acid,  and  when  evap- 
orated to  dryness  and  mixed  with  a 
little  ammonia,  gives  the  rich  red  col- 
our of  murexide.  The  composition 
of  uric  acid  is  Cio  H4  N4  Or  :  it  is  con- 
verted by  putrefaction  into  bicarbo- 
nate of  ammonia.  Peruvian  guano 
contains  eight  to  twenty  per  cent,  of 
this  acid,  but  the  African  is  usually 
without  it. 

URINE.  The  fluid  excrement  of 
quadrupeds  :  in  birds  and  reptiles  it 
is  solid.  The  urine  contains  the 
greatest  portion  of  the  nitrogenized 
matters  of  the  excrements,  and  is 
therefore  the  most  important  portion 
of  manure.  The  composition  of  hu- 
man urine  is  given  in  the  article 
Night  Soil,  the  management  of  that 
of  the  cow  under  the  article  Flanders 
Husbandry. 

"  The  efficacy  of  urine  as  a  manure 
depends  upon  the  quantity  of  solid 
matter  which  it  holds   in   solution, 


Urine  of 

Water 

1000  parts. 

Solid  matter  in  1000  parts. 

Aver,  quantity 

voided  in  n' 

hours. 

Organic. 

inorganic.    Total. 

Man 

9fi9 

23-4 

7-6      i     31 

3  lbs. 

Horse 

940 

27 

33 

60 

3    " 

Cow 

030 

50 

20 

70 

40*  " 

P.g 

926 

56 

18 

74 

■t 

Sheep      .... 

960 

28 

12 

40 

1 

Not  in  milk.    When  in  milk,  about  half  of  this. 


820 


URINE. 


upon  the  nature  of  this  solid  matter, 
;iiul  especially  upon  the  rapid  changes 
M  hich  liie  organic  part  of  it  is  known 
to  undergo.  The  preceduig  table  ex- 
hibits the  average  proportions  of  wa- 
ter, and  of  the  solid  organic  and  inor- 
ganic matters  contained  in  the  urine 
of  man  and  some  other  animals  in 
their  healthy  state,  and  the  average 
quantity  voided  by  each  in  a  day. 

'•Tiie  numbers  in  the  above  tabic 
show  that  the  urine  of  the  cow,  esti- 
mated by  the  quantity  of  solid  matter 
it  contains,  is  more  valuable  than  that 
of  any  other  of  our  domestic  animals, 
with  the  exception  of  the  pig.  But 
the  quantity  voided  by  the  cow  must 
be  so  much  greater  than  by  the  pig, 
that  in  annual  value  the  urine  of  one 
cow  must  greatly  exceed  that  of  many 
pigs. 

'•  It  might  be  supposed  at  first  that 
in  all  animals  the  quantity  of  urine 
voided  would  have  a  close  connexion 
with  the  quantity  of  water  which  each 
was  in  the  habit  of  drinking.  But  this 
is  by  no  means  the  case.  Thus  it  is 
the  result  of  experiment,  that  in  man 
the  drink  exceeds  the  urine  voided 
by  about  one  tenth  pari  only,  while  a 
horse,  which  drank  35  lbs.  of  water 
in  24  hours,  gave  only  3  lbs.  of  urine 
during  the  same  time  ;  and  a  cow, 
which  drank  132  lbs.  of  water,  gave 
18  lbs.  of  urine  and  19  lbs.  of  milk.— 
{BotissingauU.) 

'^  How  very  large  a  quantity  of  the 
liquid  they  drink  must  escape  from 
the  horse  and  the  cow  in  the  form  of 
insensible  perspiration  I  That  this 
should  be  very  much  greater  indeed 
than  in  man,  we  are  prepared  to  ex- 
pect from  the  greater  extent  of  sur- 
face which  the  bodies  of  these  ani- 
mals present. 

"  Let  us  now  examine  more  closely 
the  composition  of  urine,  the  changes 
which  by  decomposition  it  readily  un- 
dergoes, and  the  effect  of  these  chan- 
ges upon  its  value  as  a  manure. 

"Human  Urine— The  exact  com- 
position of  the  urine  of  a  healthy  in- 
dividual, examined  in  its  usual  state, 
w  as  found  by  Berzelius  to  be  as  fol- 
lows : 

Urea ^^ '■ 

Z  Z  Z  2 


Uric  acid 10 

Free  lactic  acid,  lactate  of  ammonia,  and 

auiiiiul  matter  not  separable  ....  l"'l 

Mucus  of  the  bladder (v3 

Siilphate  of  potash        3'7 

Solphate  of  soda        3-2 

Phosphate  of  soda 2-9 

Phos|)hate  of  ammonia 10 

Coniiiion  salt 4.5 

Sal-ammoniac 1'5 

Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  with 
a  trace  of  silica  and  of  fluoride  of  cal- 
cium   1^^ 

lUOO-0 

"  From  what  I  have  already  had 
occasion  to  state  in  regard  to  the  ac- 
tion upon  living  plants,  of  the  sever- 
al sulphates,  phospliates,  and  other 
saline  compounds  mentioned  in  the 
above  analysis,  you  will  see  that  the 
fertilizing  action  of  urine  would  be 
considerable,  did  it  contain  no  other 
solid  constituents.  But  it  is  to  the 
urea  which  exists  in  it  in  very  much 
larger  quantity  than  any  other  sub- 
stance, that  its  immediate  and  mark- 
ed action  in  promoting  vegetation  is 
chiefly  to  be  ascribed.  This  urea, 
which  is  a  white,  salt-like  substance, 
consists  of, 

per  cent.. 

Carbon 20-0 

Hydrogen <'"6 

Nitrogen       '^^''^ 

0.xygeu 26-7 

100-0 

"  It  is,  therefore,  far  richer  in  nitro- 
gen than  all  other  richly-fertilizing 
substances. 

"But  urea  possesses  this  farther 
remarkable  property,  that  when  urine 
begins  to  ferment,  it  changes  entirely 
into  carbonate  of  ammonia.     Of  the 
ammonia  thus  formed,  a  portion  soon 
[  begins  to   escape  into   the  air,  and 
'  hence  the  strong  ammoniacal  odour 
of  fermenting  urine.     This  escape  of 
ammonia  continues  for  a  long  period, 
theliquid  becoming  weakeraiid  weak- 
er, and  consequently  less  valuable  as 
;  a  manure  every  day  that  passes.    Ex- 
!  perience  has  shown  that  recent  urine 
i  exercises  in  general  an  unfavourable 
i  action  upon  growing  plants,  and  that 
j  it  acts  most  beneficially  after  fermcnt- 
:  ation  has  freely  begun,  hut  the  longer 
time  we  suffer  to  elapse  after  it  has 
:  reached  the  npc  state,  the  greater  the 
i  quantity  of  valuable  manure  we  per- 
'  mit  to  go  to  waste. 

621 


URINE. 

"  T/ie  7<nnc  0/ //le  coio  has  been  an- I  with  the  following   results   in  1000 
alyzed  in  several  states  by  Sprengel,  [  parts  : 

Fresh. 


Water 926-2 

Urea 400 

Mucus 2"0 

Hippuric  and  lactic  acids 61 

Carbonic  acid          .......  "o 

Anmionia 21 

Potash 6-6 

Soda 5-5 

Sulphuric  acid 4'0 

Phosphoric  acid 0'7 

Chlorine 2'7 

Lime 0-6 

Magnesia 0'4 

Alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  and  oxide  of  manganese  .  0*1 

Silica 0"4 

1000-0 


Allowed  to  fer 

ment  for  fu 

weeks  in  the  o|ien  air. 

A. 

B. 

954-4 

934-8 

100 

60 

0-4 

0-3 

7-5 

6-2 

1-7 

15-3 

4-9 

162 

6-6 

6-6 

5-5 

5-6 

3-9 

3-3 

0-3 

1-5 

27 

2-7 

trace 

trace 

0-2 

0-4 

trace 

— 

o-i 

0-1 

99S-2 

999-0 

"  The  first  variety  of  fermented 
urine  (A.)  had  stood  four  weeks  in 
the  air  in  its  natural  state  of  dilution  ; 
the  second  (B.)  had  been  mixed 
while  recent  with  an  equal  bulk  of 
water — which  is  again  deducted  from 
it  in  the  analysis — with  the  view  of 
ascertaining  how  far  such  an  admix- 
ture would  tend  to  retain  the  volatile 
ammonia  produced  by  the  natural  de- 
composition of  the  urea. 

'■  An  inspection  of  these  tables 
shows  three  facts  of  importance  to 
the  agriculturist  : 

1°.  That  the  quantity  of  urea  in 
the  urine  of  the  cow  is  considerably 
greater  than  in  that  of  man.  2^. 
That  as  the  urine  ferments  the  quan- 
tity of  urea  diminishes,  while  that  of 
ammonia  increases ;  and,  3^.  That 
by  dilution  with  an  equal  bulk  of  wa- 
ter the  loss  of  this  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, which  would  otherwise  natu- 
rally take  place,  is  in  a  considerable 
degree  prevented.  The  quantity  of 
ammonia  retained  by  the  urine,  after 
dilution,  was  in  the  same  circumstances 
nearly  three  times  as  great  as  when  it 
was  allowed  to  ferment  in  the  state  in 
which  it  came  from  the  cow. 

"  But  even  by  this  dilution  the 
whole  of  the  ammonia  is  not  saved. 
This  shows  the  necessity  of  causing 
our  liquid  manures  to  ferment  in  cov- 
ered cisterns,  or  of  adopting  some 
other  means  by  which  the  above  seri- 
ous loss  of  the  most  valuable  constit- 
uents may  be  prevented. 

"  The  urine  of  the  horse,  sheep,  and 
822 


pig  have  not  been  so  carefully  ana- 
lyzed as  that  of  the  cow.  They  con- 
sist essentially  of  the  same  constitu- 
ents, and  the  specimens  which  have 
been  examined  were  found  to  contain 
the  three  most  important  of  these  in 
the  following  proportions : 

Horse.  Sheep.  Pig. 

Water      ....     940  960  926 

Urea 7?  28  56 

Saline  substances  .      53  12  18 

1000  lOUO  1000 

"  Some  of  the  saline  substances 
present  in  the  urine,  as  above  stated, 
contain  nitrogen.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  urine  of  the  horse,  so 
that  the  quantity  of  urea  above  given 
is  not  to  be  considered  as  represent- 
ing the  true  ammonia-producing  pow- 
er of  the  urine  of  this  animal.  The 
urine  of  the  pig,  if  the  above  analysis 
is  to  be  relied  upon  as  anything  like 
an  average  result,  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing more  ammonia  from  the  same 
quantity  than  that  of  any  other  of  our 
domestic  animals. 

"  Of  the  Waste  of  Liquid  Manure — 
of  Urate,  and  of  Sulphatcd  Urine. 
Waste  of  Human  Untie. — The  quan- 
tity of  solid  matter  contained  in  tbe 
recent  urine  voided  in  a  year  by  a 
man,  a  horse,  and  a  cow,  and  the 
weight  of  ammonia  they  are  respect- 
ively capable  of  yielding,  may  be  rep- 
resented as  follows  : 


Quantity 


Solid        < 
matter. 

Man   .     1,00011)8.      67  lbs. 
Horse      1,000  60  1 

Cow    .  13,000  900  400 


.  ■  -  And  yield* 
"""'°5  ing  of  am- 
^""^^  nionia. 

30  lbs.      17  lbs. 


230 


URI 


URO 


"  How  much  of  all  this  enriching  I  orating  the  whole  to  dryness.  From 
matter  is  permitted  to  run  to  waste  !  |  the  use  of  tliis  substance  very  favour- 
Tiie  solid  substances  contained  in  ;  able  results  may  be  anticipated.  Still 
urine,  if  all  added  to  the  land,  would  none  of  these  preparations  wdl  ever 
bo  more  fertilizing  than  guano.  If  '  equal  the  urine  itself,  part  of  the  effi- 
we  estimate  the  urine  of  each  indi-  ,  cacy  of  which  depends  upon  tbe  per- 
vidual  on  an  average  at  only  600  lbs.,  ;  feet  state  of  solution  in  which  all  tiie 
then  there  are  carried  into  the  com-  '  substances  it  contains  exist,  and  upon 
mon  sewers  of  a  city  of  15,000  inhab-  i  the  readiness  with  which  in  this  state 
itants  a  yearly  weight  of  600,000  they  make  their  way  into  the  roots 
pounds,  or  270  tons  of  manure,  which    of  plants. 


would,  no  iloubt,  prove  more  fertil- 
izing than  its  own  weight  of  guano, 
and  might  be  expected  to  raise  an  in- 
creased produce  of  not  less  than  8000 
bushels  of  grain. 

"The  saving  of  all  this  manure 
would  be  a  great  national  benefit, 
though  it  is  not  easy  to  see  by  what 
means  it  could  be  etJectually  accom- 
plished. What  is  thus  carried  off  by 
the  sewers,  and  conveyed  ultimately 
to  the  sea,  is  drawn  from  and  lost  by 
the  land,  which  must,  therefore,  to 
a  certain  extent,  be  impoverished. 
Can  we  believe  that  in  the  form  of 
fish,  of  sea-tangle,  or  of  spray,  the 
sea  ever  delivers  back  a  tithe  of  the 
enriching  matter  it  daily  receives 
from  the  land  ! 

"  Urate. — In  order  to  prevent  a 
portion  of  this  waste,  the  practice 
has  been  introduced  into  some  large 
cities  of  collecting  the  urine,  adding 
to  it  one  seventh  of  its  weight  of 
powdered  gypsum,  allowing  the  whole 
to  stand  for  some  days,  pouring  off 
the  liquid,  and  drying  the  powder. 
Under  the  name  of  urate  this  dry 
powder  has  been  highly  extolled,  but 
it  can  contain  only  a  small  portion 
of  what  is  really  valuable  in  urine 


Loss  of  Coirs'"  Urine. — When  left 
to  ferment  for  five  or  six  weeks  alone, 
and  with  the  addition  of  an  equal  bulk 
of  water,  the  urine  of  the  cow  loses, 
as  we  have  seen,  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  volatile  matter,  and  in 
these  several  states  will  yield  in  a 
year, 

Solid  matter. 
900  lbs. 
850    " 


Yieldins 
of  ammonia. 

226  lbs. 


Recent  urine     .... 

.Mi.xed  with  water,  after  )    g^Q    „  20O    " 

SIX  weeks     .     .     .      { 
Unmixed,  after  6  weeks .     550    "  30    " 

"  Those  who  scrupulously  collect 
in  tanks,  and  preserve  the  liquid  ma- 
nure  of  their    stables,    cow-houses, 
and   fold-yards,  will   see,   from    the 
great  loss'  which  it  undergoes  by  nat- 
ural fermentation,  the  propriety  of 
occasionally  washing  out  their  cow- 
houses with  water,  and  by  thus  dilu- 
ting the  liquid  of  their  tanks,  of  pre- 
serving  the    immediately   operating 
constituents  of  their  liquid  manure 
from   escaping  into  the   air.     Even 
when  thus  diluted  it  is  desirable  to 
convey  it  on  to  the  land  without  much 
loss  of  time,  since  even  in  this  state 
there  is  a  constant  slow  escape,  by 
which  Its  value  is  daily  diminished. 
Gypsum,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  sulphu- 
The  liquid  portion  poured  off  must  I  ric  acid  are,  by  some,  added  for  the 
contain  most  of  the  soluble  ammoni-    purpose  oi  fixing  the  ammonia,  but 
acal  and  other  salts,  and  even  were    in  addition  to  diluting  it,  an  admix- 
the  whole  evaporated  to  dryness,  the    ture  of  rich  vegetable  soil,  and  espe- 
gypsum  does  not  act  so  rapidly  in  fi.x-  |  cially  of  peat,  will  be  much  more  eco- 
ing  the  ammonia  as  to  prevent  a  con-  '•  nomical,  and,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
siderable  escape  of  this  compound  as    gypsum  and  sulphuric  acid  themselves 
the  fermentation  oflhe  urine  proceeds.  |  act  as  manures,  nearly  as  effectual." 

URX.  The  small  receptacle  of 
mosses  in  which  the  sporules  are 
placed. 

UROCER.VT.-V.     The  name  of  a 
tribe  of  the  Terchrantta,  or  boring  hy- 
menopterous  insects,  in  which  the  tcr- 
823 


Sulpkatcd  Urme.—A  method  of 
more  apparent  promise  is  that  now 
practised  by  the  .Messrs.  Turnbull  of 
Glasgow,  of  adding  diluted  sulphuric 
acid  to  the  urine  as  the  ammonia  is 
formed  in  it,  and  subsequently  cvap- 


VEB 


VER 


ebra,  Or  borer,  of  the  females  is  some- 
times very  long  and  prominent,  and 
composed  of.  three  filamentary  pro- 
cesses, sometimes  capillary,  and  coil- 
ed in  a  spiral  form  in  the  interior  of 
the  abdomen. 

USTILAGO.  A  name  given  to  cer- 
tain fungi  which  produce  the  appear- 
ance of  burning  on  the  leaves  of 
plants ;  lire  bii^jht.  This  term  was 
formerly  applied  to  the  burned  ear,  a 
disease  of  grain. 

UTERi:s.     The  womb. 

UTRICLE,  UTRICULUS.  A  one- 
celled,  one  or  four  seeded,  superior 
membranous  fruit,  often  bursting  by  a 
transverse  suture.     A  little  bladder. 

U  V  A  U  R  S  I.  Arbutus  uva  ursi 
Bear's  berry.  A  small  shrub,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  used  in  medicine. 

UVULA.  The  pendulous  portion 
of  the  soft  palate  which  hangs  over 
the  cavity  of  the  pharynx. 


VACUUM.  A  void  space.  The 
cavity  of  any  vessel  from  which  air 
has  been  extracted  by  the  air-pump 
is  called  a  vacuum.  A  TorricelHan 
vacuum  is  that  above  the  mercury  of 
a  barometer. 

VAGINA.  A  sheath  :  the  passage 
from  the  uterus  outward. 

VALERIAN.  Valeriana  qfficinalis. 
A  perennial  herb,  the  root  of  which  is 
a  nervous  stimulant. 

VALLESNERIA.  Agenus  of  wa- 
ter weeds. 

VALVE.  In  mechanics  and  zool- 
ogy, a  flap  or  small  door  opening  only 
in  one  direction,  and  serving  to  close 
a  tube  or  passage.  There  are  many 
kinds  of  valves,  as  the  door  valve,  the 
sliding  valve.  In  botany,  the  pieces 
into  which  dry  fruits  or  anthers  burst 
naturally,  are  called  valves. 

VANiLL.\.  The  succulent  fruit 
of  the  Epidcndron  vanilla,  an  orchid- 
eous  climbing  shrub  of  Mexico  and 
tropical  America.  The  seeds  have  a 
delightful  aroma,  and  are  used  in  fla- 
vouring confectionery  and  chocolate. 

VAPOUR.  The  temporary  gase- 
ous condition  of  fluids. 

VEERING.     A  ridge  made  in 
ploughing  where  two  lands  meet. 
824 


VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY. 
The  chemical  examination  of  all  prod- 
ucts of  the  vegetable  world,  as  well 
as  the  functions  of  plants. 

VEGETABLE  OYSTER.  See 
Salsify. 

VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY. 
An  examination  of  the  growth  and 
functions  of  plants. 

VEIL.  Calyptra.  A  membrane 
connecting  the  pileus  with  tlie  stem 
of  some  mushrooms. 

VEINS.  The  vessels  which  con- 
vey blood  that  has  circulated  through 
the  body  back  to  the  heart. 

VEN.\  CAVA.  The  great  veins 
which  discharge  the  venous  blood  into 
the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 

VENTER.  In  entomology,  the 
lower  part  of  the  abdomen. 

VENTILATION.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  current  of  air  through  any 
room  or  place. 

VENTRICLE.  A  cavity  of  the 
heart,  brain,  &c. 

VENTRICOSE.  Any  part  which 
appears  blown  out. 

VERATRIA.  An  active  alkaloid 
principle,  from  the  Veratrum  album, 
or  white  hellebore. 

VERBENA.  The  vervain  {Verbe- 
na teuerioides),  a  shrubby  plant,  with 
leaves  of  a  delightful  lemon  odour, 
and  which  are  distilled  for  perfumery. 
It  is  propagated  by  slips. 

VERJUICE.  The  juice  of  green 
grapes  or  apples,  from  which  a  vine- 
gar is  made. 

VERMIN.  Destructive  animals  or 
insects. 

VERNATION.  The  manner  in 
which  the  leaflets  of  a  bud  are  folded. 

VERRUCOSE.  Having  a  wart- 
like appearance. 

VERTEBR/E.  The  bones  of  the 
spine,  which  is  also  called  the  verte- 
bral column. 

VERTEBRATES,  VERTEBRA- 
TA.  All  animals  having  a  spinal  col- 
umn. 

VERTICAL.  Upright,  pointing  to 
the  vertex,  or  uppermost  point  over- 
head. 

VERTICELLUS.  A  whorl.  Vcr- 
tiecllate  is  a  derivative  ;  disposed  in  a 
whorl. 


VIN 


VIN 


VERTIGO.     Giddiness. 

VESICANT.S.  Substances  which 
produce  blistering. 

VESICLE.     A  small  bladder. 

VESPID-'E.     The  family  of  wasps. 

VESTIBULE.  A  porch  or  ante- 
room. 

VETCH.  The  genus  FiWa, 'sev- 
eral of  which  bear  pretty  leguminous 
flowers.  The  V.  sativa  is  the  com- 
mon tare. 

VETCIILING.  The  genus  Lalhy- 
rns,  leguminous  plants,  frequently  of 
great  beauty,  as  the  L.  latifolms,  or 
sweet  pea. 

VEXILLUM.  The  standard  :  the 
upper  petaiof  a  papilionaceous  or  pea- 
like flower. 

VIBRISSA.  The  pointed  bristles 
which  grow  from  the  upper  lip  of  an- 
imals, or  from  the  jaws  of  birds,  and 
are  used  as  feelers. 

VILLOSE.  Woolly,  covered  with 
soft,  fle.xible  hairs  closely  set. 

VILLOU.S.  Having  the  appear- 
ance of  the  pile  of  velvet. 

VINE.  Vilis  vimfera,  the  Syrian 
vine,  from  which  the  numerous  Eu- 
ropean varieties  are  produced  ;  but 
in  the  United  States  there  are  indi- 
genous the  V.  labrusca,  or  fo.K  grape, 
of  which  the  Isabella,  Catawt)a,  and 
Alexander  grapes  are  supposed  to 
be  hybrids ;  the  V.  crslivalis,  or  little 
summer  grape  ;  F.  riparia,  the  odorif- 
erous grape.  In  the  South  there  are 
also  the  bullet  grape,  V.  rotundifolia, 
and  the  V.  palmala. 

Varieties.  —  Tlie  kinds  of  vines 
more  or  less  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
divisible  into  two  classes,  foreign  and 
domestic  grapes. 

Of  the  foreign  kinds,  most  are  cul- 
tivated for  the  table,  and,  according 
to  the  evidence  of  many  speculators 
in  the  Nortii,  cannot  bo  profitably  cul- 
tivated north  of  Maryland  except  un- 
der glass,  every  effort  to  acclimate 
them  in  vineyards  having  failed,  and 
few  vines  succeeding  except  in  warm, 
sheltered  spots,  or  in  cities.  These 
kinds  are,  however,  of  such  remark- 
able excellence,  and  so  superior  to 
the  native  varieties,  that  they  are  ob- 
tained wherever  the  means  of  culti- 


vation exist.  The  best  are  the  hiack 
Hamburgh,  black  Muscadine,  .Miller's 
Burgundy,  black,  grizzly,  and  white 
Frontignan,  royal  Muscadine  {Chas- 
selas),  early  white  .Mu.scadine,  white 
Sweetwater  {iclntc  Chassdas),  Muscat 
of  Alexandria,  white  and  red  .Malaga, 
white  St.  Peter,  and  white  Tokay. 
Of  these,  the  sweetwatcr  is  acclima- 
ted in  Virginia  and  South,  and  the 
black  Hamburgh  will  stand  the  open 
air  in  Pennsylvania. 

Of  the  American  grapes,  the  Alex- 
ander (V'evay,  Madeira  of  York),  the 
Catawba,  Cunningham,  Elsinburgh, 
Norton's  Virginia,  black  Scuppernong, 
and  Warren's  Madeira,  are  best : 
most  of  them  are,  however,  southern, 
the  Isabella,  Catawba,  Alexander,  and 
Elsinburgh  growing  north  of  Penn- 
sylvania. Of  these, the  Scuppernong 
is  used  for  wine  in  North  Carolina. 
The  Catawba  and  Cunningham  also 
yield  good  wine  in  Virginia ;  the  Alex- 
ander (or  Vevay)  and  Warren's  Ma- 
deira are  cultivated  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio  for  wine.  Several  seedlings 
are  also  of  good  repute  from  Ohio  ; 
but,  on  the  whole,  the  Scuppernong 
and  Catawba  appear  to  be  in  the  high- 
est esteem  of  all  native  grapes  for 
wine. 

Training. — The  favourite  method 
of  training  vines  which  require  no 
wall  is  along  espaliers  ;  but  in  North 
Carolina  they  are  carried  over  flat 
arbours,  rising  eight  to  twelve  feet 
above  the  ground.  The  short  bush 
methodof  pruning,  by  which  the  plant 
is  stunted  to  a  small  bush  of  three  or 
four  feet,  is  common  in  some  parts 
of  France.  In  Italy  they  are  allowed 
to  grow  over  mulberry  trees.  Mr. 
Hoare's  treatise  is  the  text-book 
of  the  vine  cultivator  ;  we  therefore 
abstract  the  following,  which  is  the 
plan  pursued  by  the  principal  dress- 
ers in  New-York  and  Penn.sylvania  : 

"  Aspect. — The  warmer  the  aspect, 
the  greater  perfection  does  the  grape 
attain  in  the  North,  provided  all  oth- 
er circumstances  are  alike ;  and  if 
the  greatest  quantity  of  the  sun's 
rays  shining  on  the  surface  of  a  wall 
were  alone  to  be  considered  as  con- 
stituting the  best  aspect,  there  would, 
825 


VINE. 


of  course,  be  no  difliculty  in  naming  ' 
a  due  soutliern  one  ;is  better  than  <'iny 
other.     But  varinth  alone  is  not  suf- 
ficient ;  shelter  from  the  wind  is  ('(jual- 
ly  necessary.     The  best  aspects  are  j 
those   that  range  from  the  eastern  ; 
to  the  southeastern,  botli  inclusive. 
The  next  best  arc  those  from  south-  . 
east  to  south  ;  but  this  depends  some-  : 
what  on  local  peculiarities.  ! 

"  Hoil. — The  natural  soil  which  is  ! 
most  congenial  to  the  growth  of  the 
vine,  and  to  the  perfection  of  its  fruit 
in  this   country,  is  a  light,  jiorous,  ; 
rich,  sandy  loam,  not  more  than  IS 
inches  in  deptii,  on  a  dry  bottom  of  : 
gravel,  stones,  or  rocks.     A  strong 
argillaceous  soil  is  injurious  to  the 
vine  ;  it  checks  the  expansion  of  the  ■ 
roots,  and  retains  too  mucli  moisture. 
In  calcareous  soils  the  vine  always  I 
flourishes,  especially  if  the  bottom  ' 
be  stony  or  gravelly.     No  subsoil  can 
possess  too  great  a  quantity  of  these  ; 
materials  for  the  roots  of  the  vine,  ' 
which  run  with  eagerness  into  all  [ 
the  clefts,  crevices,  and  openings  in  l 
which  such  subsoils  abound.   In  these  j 
dry  and  warm  situations,  the  fibrous  ' 
extremities,  pushing  themselves  with  { 
the  greatest  avidity,  and  continually  ! 
branching  out  in  every  possible  direc-  I 
tion,  lie  secure  from  that  excess  of  | 
moisture  which  frequently  accumu-  j 
lates  in  more  compact  soils  ;    and, 
clinging  like  ivy  round  the  porous  sur-  i 
faces  of  their  retreats,  extract  there- 
from a  species  of  food  more  nourish-  | 
ing  than  that  obtained  by  them  under  i 
any  other  circumstances  whatever,  i 
All  borders,  therefore,  made  express- 
ly for  the  reception  of  vines  ought  1 
to  be  composed  of  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  dry  materials,  such  as  stones 
and    brickbats,    broken    moderately 
small,  lumps  of  old  mortar,  broken 
pottery,  oyster  shells,  &c.,  to  enable 
the  roots  to  extend  themselves  free- 
ly in  their  search  after  food  and  nour- 
ishment ;  to  keep  them  dry  and  warm 
by  the  free  admission  of  air  and  so- 
lar heat,  and  to  admit  of  heavy  rains 
passing  quickly  through,  without  be- 
ing retained  sufficiently  long  to  sat- 
urate the  roots,  and  thereby  injure 
their  tender  extremities.  The  sweep- 
826 


ings  obtained  from  a  turnpike  road, 
or  from  any  other  high  road  kept  in  a 
good  state  of  repair  by  tiie  frequent 
addition  of  stones,  and  on  which 
there  is  a  considerable  traffic  of  hor- 
ses or  other  cattle,  is  the  very  best 
compost  that  can  be  added  Xo  any 
border  intended  for  the  reception  of 
vines.  Its  com|Jonenl  parts,  consist- 
ing chielly  of  sand,  gravel,  pulverized 
stones,  and  the  residuum  ol  dung  and 
urine,  afford  a  greater  quantity  of 
food,  and  of  a  riciier  and  more  last- 
ing nature,  than  can  i)e  found  in  any 
other  description  of  compost  that  I 
have  ever  seen  or  heard  of  being 
used  for  that  purpose.  Borders  in 
which  vines  are  planted  should  nev- 
er be  cropped  nor  digged. 

"■Manure. — The  best  species  of 
manure  for  the  vine  are  those  which 
afford  a  considerable  degree  of  nour- 
ishment, but  at  the  same  time  slowly 
decompose  in  the  soil.  Such  are 
bones,  whole  or  crushed,  the  horns 
and  hoofs  of  cattle,  the  entire  car- 
casses of  animals,  cuttings  of  leath- 
er, woollen  rags,  feathers,  and  hair, 
and  the  leaves  of  the  vines  them- 
selves. Liquid  manures  are  also  val- 
uable, and  forcing  in  their  eftect ;  of 
this  class  the  most  powerful  are 
urine,  soot  water,  blood,  the  drain- 
ings  of  dung  heaps,  and  soap  suds. 
It  should,  however,  always  be  recol- 
lected that  the  more  manure  is  used 
the  poorer  the  wine  procured  from 
the  grapes.  As  a  top-dressing,  and 
to  be  forked  into  the  border,  night- 
soil,  refuse  lish,  stable  manure,  and 
the  excrements  of  all  birds  and  ani- 
mals, will  be  found  highly  enriching 
substances  as  fertilizers,  and  their 
nutritive  and  stimulating  properties 
have  been  frequently  alluded  to  in 
the  progress  of  this  work  ;  but  if  rich 
manures  are  used,  they  should  be 
mixed  with  turf  and  sand.  In  the 
Alto  Douro  is  a  law  which  prohibits 
the  vine  being  'littered,'  as  this  op- 
eration, though  it  considerably  aug- 
ments the  produce,  tends  to  deterio- 
rate the  quality  of  the  wine. 

"  On  the  Construction  of  Walls. — 
No  general  rule  can  be  laid  dow-n  as 
to  the  height  of  the  wall,  which  must 


I 


VINE. 


necessarily  vary  under  different  situ- 
ations and  circuuistances.  Mr.  Hoare 
states  that  in  uuslielterod  situations 
and  exposed  aspects  he  has  never 
seen  fine  grapes  produced  nuich  high- 
er tlian  eight  feet  from  the  ground  ; 
but  in  favourable  situations  height 
is  of  no  consequence.  If  built  for  the 
express  purpose  of  rearing  grapes, 
low  walls  of  not  more  than  six  feet 
are  to  be  preferred,  as  more  conveni- 
ent for  pruning  and  training  the  vines. 
Brick  walls  are  undoubtedly  the  best, 
the  surface  being  smooth  and  even. 
A  considerable  heat  is  obtained  by 
blackening  the  walls. 

"  Propaoation. — Vines  are  propa- 
gated in  the  open  ground  by  layers 
and  by  cuttings.  The  former  is  the 
most  expeditious  mode,  provided  the 
shoots  be  laid  down  in  pots  and 
planted  out  the  same  summer.  The 
latter  mode  is  much  the  best.  To 
provide  cuttings  to  be  planted  at  the 
proper  season,  select,  at  the  autum- 
nal pruning,  a  sufficient  number  of 
shoots  of  the  preceding  summer's 
growth.  Choose  such  as  are  well 
ripened,  of  a  medium  size,  and  mod- 
erately short  jointed.  Cut  them  into 
convenient  lengths  of  six  or  eight 
buds  each,  leaving  at  the  ends  not 
less  than  a  couple  of  inches  of  the 
blank  wood  for  the  protection  of  the 
terminal  buds.  Stick  these  tempo- 
rary cuttings  about  nine  inches  in 
the  ground,  in  a  warm  and  sheltered 
situation,  where  they  will  be  effectu- 
ally protected  from  the  severity  of 
the  winter.  The  best  time  to  plant 
them  out  is  about  the  middle  of 
March,  but  any  time  from  the  1st  of 
that  month  to  the  10th  of  April  will 
do  very  well. 

"  Prvninir  and  Iraining  are  so  close- 
ly connected  together,  and  so  mutual- 
ly dependant  on  each  other,  that  they 
almost  constitute  one  oi)eration.  The 
judicious  pruning  of  a  vine  is  one  of 
the  most  important  points  of  culture 
throughout  the  whole  routine  of  its 
management.  The  object  is  to  get 
rid  of  all  the  useless  and  superabun- 
dant wood  ;  for  those  shoots  of  a 
vine  which  bear  fruit  one  year  never 
bear  any  afterward.    There  are  three 


methods  of  pruning  vines  in  practice 
among  gardeners,  namely,  the  long 
jn-unitig,  spur  pruning,  and  the  fan  or 
fruit-tree  method.  The  first  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  eligible  meth 
od,  and  is  that  which  is  practised  and 
recommended  by  Mr.  Hoare.  As  the 
sole  object  in  view  in  pruning  a  vine 
is  to  increase  its  fertility,  the  best 
method  to  accomplish  this  is  to  leave 
a  sufficient  supply  of  bearing  shoots 
on  the  least  possible  proportionate 
quantity  of  old  wood. 

"  Long  pruning  appears  to  recom- 
mend itself  by  its  simplicity  ;  by  the 
old  wood  of  the  vine  being  annually 
got  rid  of;  by  the  small  number  of 
wounds  inflicted  in  the  pruning  ;  by 
the  clean  and  handsome  appearance 
of  the  vine  ;  and  by  the  great  ease 
with  which  it  is  managed,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  occupying  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  wall. 

"  1st.  In  pruning,  always  cut  up- 
ward, and  in  a  sloping  direction. 

"  2d.  Always  leave  an  inch  of  blank 
wood  beyond  the  terminal  bud,  and 
let  the  cut  be  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  bud. 

'•3d.  Prune  so  as  to  leave  as  few 
wounds  as  possible,  and  let  the  sur- 
face of  every  cut  be  perfectly  smooth. 

"4th.  In  cutting  out  an  old  branch, 
prune  it  even  with  the  parent  limb, 
that  the  wound  may  quickly  heal. 

"  5ih.  Prune  so  as  to  obtain  the 
quantity  of  fruit  desired  on  the  small- 
est number  of  shoots  possible. 

'•  6th.  Never  prune  in  frosty  weath- 
er, nor  when  a  frost  is  expected. 

"  7th.  Never  prune  in  the  months 
of  March,  April,  or  May.  Pruning  in 
either  of  these  months  causes  bleed- 
ing, and  occasions  thereby  a  waste- 
ful and  an  injurious  expenditure  of 
sap. 

"  8th.  Let  the  general  autumnal 
pruning  take  place  as  soon  after  the 
1st  of  October  as  the  gathering  of  the 
fruit  will  permit. 

"  Lastly,  use  a  pruning  knife  of  the 
best  description,  and  let  it  be,  if  pos- 
sible, as  sharp  as  a  razor. 

"  Training. — To  train  a  vine  on  the 
surface  of  a  wall  is  to  regulate  the 
position  of  its  branches,  the  principal 
827 


VINE. 


objects  of  which  are,  to  protect  them 
from  the  influence  of  tlie  wiiul  ;  to 
bring  then)  into  close  contact  with 
the  wall,  for  the  jiurpose  of  receivinjr 
the  benetit  of  its  warmth  ;  to  spread 
them  at  proper  distances  from  each 
other,  that  the  foliage  and  fruit  may 
receive  the  full  ellect  of  the  sun's 
rays,  and  to  retard  the  motion  of  the 
sap,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  the 
formation  of  fruit  huds.  The  flow  of 
sap,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  al- 
ways strongest  in  a  vertical  direc- 
tion, and  weakest  in  a  downward 
one.  For  this  reason,  the  method 
of  serpentine  training  may  be  con- 
sidered preferable  to  every  other,  be- 
ing calculated  in  a  greater  degree  to 
check  the  too  rapid  ascent  of  the  sap, 
and  to  make  it  tlow  more  equally  into 
the  fruiting  shoots,  and  those  intend- 
ed for  future  bearers.  On  walls  that 
are  much  less  than  five  feet  high,  a 
portion  of  the  shoots  must  be  trained 
horizontally." 

In  respect  to  the  making  of  wine 
much  is  to  be  learned  ;  it  seems  that, 
in  order  to  preserve  it,  an  addition  of 
sugar,  brandy,  or  spirits  is  universal- 
ly made ;  this  is  not,  however,  making 
wine  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word. 
I  am  informed  by  the  largest  wine 
maker  in  North  Carolina,  that  one 
fourth  part  brandy  or  spirits  is  added 
to  each  gallon  of  scuppernong  wine, 
or  that  two  pounds  of  sugar  are  fer- 
mented with  a  gallon  of  the  must. 
Mr.  Weller,  of  North  Carolina,  breaks 
his  grapes  by  passing  them  between 
rollers,  and  then  strains  the  juice 
through  flannel,  to  deprive  it  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  extraneous  matters.  Gen- 
eral Van  Ness,  of  Washington,  pro- 
duced a  wine  resembling  hock,  by 
mixing  equal  parts  of  Isabella  and 
Catawba  grapes,  and  adding  1  lb.  7 
ounces  of  flue  unrehned  sugar  to  each 
gallon  of  must ;  but  no  spirits  to  the 
wine.  The  following  particulars  of 
the  culture  and  management  of 
grapes  are  from  Mr.  llham  and  M. 
Boussingault : 

"  It  may,  however,  be  interesting  to 

know  how  the  vine  is  cultivated  in  the 

countries  which  produce  good  wine, 

of  which  France  is  one  of  the  principal. 

828 


The  vine  grows  best  in  a  soil  where 
icw  other  shrubs  or  plants  would 
thrive.  The  vine  delights  in  a  deep, 
loose,  rocky  soil,  where  its  roots  can 
penetrate  deep  into  Assures,  so  as  to 
ensure  a  supply  of  moisture  when  the 
surface  is  scorched  by  the  sun's  rays. 
On  the  deep  slopes  of  hills  towards 
the  south,  and  sheltered  from  the 
northeast,  the  grapes  attain  the 
greatest  maturity,  and  the  vintage  is 
most  certain.  So  great  an  influence 
has  a  favourable  exposure,  that  in  the 
same  vineyard  the  greatest  difference 
exists  between  the  wine  made  from 
one  part  and  that  made  from  another, 
merely  because  there  is  a  turn  round 
the  hill,  and  the  aspect  varies  a  very 
few  degrees.  A  change  of  soil  pro- 
duces a  similar  eflfect.  The  famous 
Rhine  wine  called  Johannisberg, 
when  made  from  the  grapes  which 
grow  near  the  castle,  is  worth  twice 
as  much  as  that  made  a  few  hundred 
yards  farther  off  Here  both  soil  and 
aspect  change.  The  Clos  dc  Vovgeau, 
which  produces  the  finest  Burgundy, 
is  confined  to  a  few  acres  ;  beyond  a 
certain  wall  the  wine  is  a  common 
Burgundy,  good,  but  without  extra- 
ordinary merit. 

"The  best  vineyards  in  Europe 
formerly  belonged  to  monasteries,  and 
the  quality  was  then  thought  of  more 
importance  than  the  quantity  ;  of  late 
the  demands  of  commerce  have  made 
the  quantity  the  principal  object,  and 
to  this  the  quality  is  frequently  sacri- 
ficed. 

"  When  a  vine  is  first  established 
on  any  spot  where  none  grew  before, 
the  first  thing  is  to  prepare  the  ground 
for  planting.  In  steep  places,  where 
the  soil  might  be  earned  away  by 
rains  in  winter  or  spring,  terraces  are 
formed  by  building  massive  stone 
walls  along  the  slope,  and  levellir.g 
the  soil  behind  them.  The  walls 
serve  to  reflect  the  heat,  and  form  a 
shelter  to  the  vine  below.  Thus  a 
whole  hill  is  sometimes  covered  with 
terraces  from  top  to  bottom,  and 
there  the  wine  is  generally  good,  if 
the  exposure  is  favourable.  Lime- 
stone, gravel,  or  coarse  sand,  with  a 
small  mixture  of  clay,  form  a  good 


VINE. 


soil  for  a  vine  ;  venretable  substances 
alone  should  be  used  to  enrich  it,  such 
as  the  leaves  and  tendrils  of  the  vine, 
the  residue  of  the  grape  when  press- 
ed, and,  failing  these,  the  leaves  of 
trees  collected  when  green,  and  form- 
ed into  a  compost  with  earth.     The 
ground  should  be  well  trenched,  if  it 
will  admit  of  it,  or  loosened  with  the 
mattock  and  pickaxe,  as  we  should 
do  a  mass  of  gravel  which  was  to  be 
spread  on  a  road,  and  which  was  too  ' 
hard  for  the  shovel  or  spade.     The  1 
ditTerent  parts  of  the  soil  should  be  ' 
intimately  mixed,  keeping  some  fine 
earth  or  soil  at  top  to  set  the  plants 
in.     When  the  ground  is  prepared, 
holes  are  dug  in  rows  four  or  five  ' 
feet  wule,  at  the  same  distance  from  , 
each  other,  so  as  to  alternate  ;  some 
of  the  finest  of  the  soil  is  put  mto 
each  hole,  and  the  vine  plants  which  ' 
have  been  rooted  in  a  nursery,  or  else  [ 
simple  cuttings,  are  carefully  insert-  i 
ed,   pressing   the    mould   round   the 
roots,  and  levelling  the  earth  round 
them.     Rooted  plants  will  bear  the 
second   or  third   year,  but  cuttings 
take  a  much  longer  time.     The  sea- 
son for  planting  is  during  the  winter, 
when  the  weather  is  open.     If  cut- 
tings are  used,  they  are  taken  off  the 
vine  on  which  they  grew  at  the  usual 
time  of  pruning  after  the  vintage  ;  a 
piece  of  the  preceding  year's  wood  is 
left  on  the  cutting,  and  when  it  is 
planted,  the  end  where  the  old  wood 
is  left  is  bent  or  twisted  to  facilitate 
its  striking  :  three  or  four  eyes  are 
buried,  so  that  the  end  is  at  least  a 
foot  underground.     If  the  plant  is  al- 
ready rooted,  care  is   taken   not  to 
wound   or   bend   the    roots,    but   to 
spread  them  out  and  cover  them  with 
mould.     During  all  the  time  that  the 
vine  is  growing,  the  ground  must  be 
regularly  cultivated  and  kept  perfect- 
Iv^clear  of  all  weeds.     The  usual  in- 
strument of  tillage  in  stony  and  rocky 
soils  is  a  two-pronged  fork  fixed  in  a 
short  handle,  at  an  angle  less  than  a 
right  angle  with  the  prongs,  which 
afe  a  foot  long  and  very  strong,  like 
a  double  pickaxe  (see  Fig.)-     This  is 
struck    into    the    ground    and    then 
drawn  towards  the  workman,  while 
4  A 


the  handle  is  lifted,  w^hich  acts  as  a 
lever  in  raising  the  soil.  The  roots 
are  by  this  means  enabled  to  spread 
through  the  soil  in  search  of  moisture 
and  food.  The  next  year  it  is  usual 
to  prune  the  young  vine  down  to  one, 
or,  at  most,  two  eyes  or  buds  ;  but 
some  experienced  vine  dressers  rec- 
ommend deferring  this  operation  to 
the  second  year,  by  w^hich,  although 
the  vine  will  not  be  so  forward  in 
fruitinn,  it  will  be  much  strengthen- 
ed, and  fully  repay  the  apparent  loss 
of  time  in  the  end. 

"  In  the  third  year  the  vine  is  train- 
ed, that  is,  the  shoots  are  tied  to  up- 
right stakes  planted  at  each  root,  or 
they  are  laid  in  an  arch  and  tied  from 
one  root  to  another  along  the  ground. 
In  southern  climates  trees  are  plant- 
ed at  a  certain  distance  from  each 
other,  and  the  vine,  planted  at  their 
foot,  is  allowed  to  run  up  their  branch- 
es, from  which  it  is  led  in  festoons 
from  tree  to  tree,  while  the  head 
and  branches  of  the  tree  are  cut  off 
to  prevent  too  much  shade.  This  is 
by  far  the  most  elegant  mode  of 
training  the  vine  ;  but  in  France  the 
stakes  and  the  low  training  are  the 
only  methods  suitable  to  the  climate. 
The  pruning  is  generally  done  in  the 
beginning  of  winter. 

"  When  vineyards  are  established 
in  the  plains,  where  sometimes,  as 
those  of  Medoc,  they  produce  very 
good  wine,  the  intervals  between  the 
plants  can  be  stirred  by  the  plough, 
although  forking  and  digging  by  hand 
'  is  more  common  ;  hoemg  is  as  ne- 
cessary   in    a    vineyard    to    destroy 
.  weeds  as  it  is  in  a  field  of  turnips  or 
any  other  crop  sown  in  rows.  Wher- 
'  ever   a    vineyard    is    overrun   with 
weeds,  you  may  be  sure  that  there  is 
no  good  wine,  and  much  poverty  in 
the   proprietor.     The   pruning  of  a 
vine  in  bearing,  the  object  of  which 
829 


VINE. 


is  to  produce  much  fruit  without 
weakening  the  plant,  can  only  be 
learned  by  experience  and  practice  ; 
much  of  the  success  of  a  vineyard 
depends  on  this  operation.  In  the 
best  vineyards  no  manure  is  used  ex- 
cept that  which  we  mentioned  before, 
of  leaves  and  tendrils  ;  but  some  soils 
require  to  be  recruited,  and  without 
manure  would  produce  little  or  no 
wine.  In  this  case  there  is  no  alter- 
native, and  composts  must  be  formed, 
as  is  done  in  common  cultivation, 
with  animal  and  vegetable  substan- 
ces mixed  and  decomposed.  Horse 
dung  should  be  avoided,  if  possible  ; 
cow  dung  is  cooler  and  more  nearly 
of  a  vegetable  nature  ;  this  should  be 
mixed  with  as  much  virgin  earth  from 
pastures  and  meadows  as  can  be  pro- 
cured, and  laid  in  small  heaps  in  the 
intervals  between  the  row^s.  It  may 
be  left  a  little  while  if  it  has  any  rank 
smell,  and  then  forked  in  round  tlie 
roots  ;  the  more  it  is  decomposed  the 
better.  Many  a  vineyard  has  lost  its 
reputation  after  having  been  abun- 
dantly manured.  The  Johannisberg 
was  much  reduced  in  value  after  hav- 
ing been  dunged,  while  in  the  pos- 
session of  General  Kellennan.  and  it 
has  not  yet  regained  all  its  former 
reputation. 

"  After  a  certain  time,  which  dif- 
fers in  different  situations,  the  vine 
becomes  less  productive  from  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  soil,  as  is  the  case 
when  the  same  crops  are  repeatedly 
sown  in  the  same  ground:  this  de- 
pends on  the  depth  of  the  soil.  All 
perennial  plants  shoot  out  their  roots 
farther  and  farther  every  year  in 
search  of  fresh  earth,  and  it  is  by 
this  means  that  trees  flourish  for  a 
long  time  on  the  same  spot ;  but  if 
the  roots  are  prevented  from  spread- 
ing, or,  the  plants  being  too  crowded, 
tbeir  roots  interfere,  a  diminution  of 
vigour  is  the  consequence.  So  it  is 
with  the  vine.  In  some  situations, 
w'liere  the  roots  strike  in  crevices  of 
rocks  in  which  rich  earth  is  accumu- 
lated, the  vines  will  continue  in  vigour 
for  many  years  ;  but  where  their  prog- 
ress is  arrested  by  a  solid  rock  or 
substratum,  they  will,  in  time,  show 
830 


signs  of  exhaustion.    In  this  case  the 
remedy  is  the  same  as  for  land  bear- 
ing corn.     A  fallow,  or  rest,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  is  necessary,  together 
with  the  addition  of  such  manures  as 
shall  restore  the  lost  fertility.     For 
this  purpose,  a  portion  of  the  oldest 
roots  are  dug  up  every  year,  and  the 
ground  trenched  or  loosened  two  feet 
deep  or  more  with  the  mattock,  to 
expose  it  to  the  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere.    A   compost   is  prepared 
with  sods  taken  from  pastures,  or  any 
virgin  earth  which  can  be  procured  ; 
this  is  mixed  with  some  lime  and 
turned  over  several  times,  to  rot  all 
the  roots  and  grass  which  may  be  in 
it,  and  to  make  it  a  uniform  and  rich 
mould.     Holes  are  now  made,  exact- 
ly as  when  a  new  vine  is  planted,  and 
in  each  of  them  a  basket  or  barrow- 
ful  of  earth  is  thrown;  in  this  the 
new  plants  or  cuttings  are  planted  to 
produce  new  vines  in  due  time  :  thus 
the  vineyard  is  gradually  renovated. 
The  proportion  thus  fallowed  every 
year  depends  on  the  natural  duration 
of  the  vine  in  that  particular  situa- 
tion.   In  inferior  soils  one  seventh  is 
thus  renewed  every  year  ;  in  some  a 
twentieth  part  is  sufficient ;  and  there 
are  vineyards  which  have  never  been 
renewed  in  the  memory  of  the  pres- 
ent generation,  but  these  are  few  in 
proportion  to  the  rest." 

"  Grape  juice  contains,  1st,  grape 
sugar;  2d.  albumen  and  gluten;  3d, 
pectine  ;  4th,  a  gummy  matter  ;  5th, 
a  colouring  matter  ;  Gth,  tannin  ; 
7th,  bitartrate  of  potash  ;  Stli,  a  fra- 
grant volatile  oil,  cream  of  tartar  ; 
9th,  water.  It  is  obvious,  thereibre, 
that  grape  juice  contains  within  it- 
self the  elements  necessary  for  the 
production  of  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion. The  relative  proportions  of 
these  dilferent  elements,  however, 
are  singularly  modified,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  vine,  the  quality  of 
the  soil,  and  especially  the  heat  of 
the  climate.  The  limits  to  the  cul- 
ture of  the  vine  in  Europe  are  gen- 
erally fixed  where  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  from  50°  to  52-  Fahr.  Under 
a  colder  climate  no  drinkable  wine  is 
produced.      To   this   meteorological 


VINE. 


datum  must  be  added  the  farther  fact 
that  the  mean  heat  of  the  cycle  of 
vegetation  of  tlie  vine  must  be  at 
least  59^  P'ahr.,  and  that  of  the  sum- 
mer from  65  '  to  G7  '  Fahr. 

"As  the  quality  of  wine  depends 
mainly  on  the  ripeness  of  the  grapes, 
the  vintage  does  not  take  place  until 
this  is  complete,  or  until  there  is 
no  longer  any  prospect  of  improve- 
ment. 

"  The  must  of  the  grape  is  procu- 
«  red  by  treading  and  pressing  the 
fruit  ;  the  juice  is  run  into  vats,  and 
the  fermentation  takes  place  in  cel- 
lars :  different  procedures,  however, 
are  followed  in  different  places.  The 
fermentation  havuig  subsided  in  the 
larger  vessels,  the  wine  is  drawn  off 
into  smaller  casks,  which  are  care- 
fully filled  up  from  time  to  time,  and 
in  which  it  is  preserved. 

"  Wine  may  be  defective,  especial- 
ly by  wanting  strength  and  being  too 
acid.  Sharp  wine  contains  an  ex- 
cess of  cream  of  tartar  and  free  ve- 
getable acids,  and  is  always  the  prod- 
uce of  grapes  which  have  not  been 
completely  ripe.  The  deficiency  of 
strength  is  due  to  the  same  cause, 
for  it  is  well  known  that  as  the  grape 
ripens,  its  acids  disappear  and  are  re- 
placed by  sugar.  Tliis  deficiency  of 
saccharine  matter  in  the  must  is  now 
habitually  supplied  by  the  addition  of 
a  quantity  of  artificial  grape  sugar, 
prepared  from  starch.  In  warm  coun- 
tries, where  the  grape  always  ripens, 
the  quantity  of  tartar  is  small  ;  the 
sugar  then  predominates  greatly — 
sometimes  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
azotized  substance  of  the  must  is  in- 
sufficient as  a  ferment,  and  it  is  then 
that  we  have  wines  of  too  sweet  a 
flavour,  such  as  those  of  Lunei  and 
of  Frontignac.  When  these  musts, 
which  are  so  rich  in  sugar,  contain 
the  proper  quantity  of  ferment,  they 
produce  very  strong  wines,  in  which, 
of  course,  the  sweet  flavour  no  long- 
er predominates.  Such  are  tiie  dry 
wines  of  southern  vineyards,  of  which 
that  of  Madeira  may  be  taken  as  the 
type.  There  are  some  wines  which 
participate  at  once  in  the  properties 
that  distinguish   the   two  varieties 


that  I  have  mentioned,  or  that  show 
one  of  them  in  excess,  according  to 
circumstances  ;  such  are  the  wines 
of  Xeres,  Alicant,  and  Malaga.  Some 
of  these  wines  are  what  are  called 
boiled  wines,  that  is  to  say,  a  por- 
tion of  the  must,  as  it  flows  from  the 
press,  is  concentrated  to  a  fourth  or 
a  fifth  of  its  original  bulk  by  boiling  ; 
and  this  being  added  to  the  rest,  the 
strength  of  the  resulting  wine  is  in- 
creased. Sometimes  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  juice  is  effected  by  drying 
the  grapes  partially.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  the  celebrated  Hungarian 
wine,  called  Tokay,  is  prepared  ;  the 
clusters  arc  left  upon  the  vines  after 
they  are  ripe,  and  alternately  exposed 
to  the  cold  of  the  night,  which  prob- 
ably decomposes,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  texture  of  the  grapes,  and  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  They  shrivel  and 
become  partially  dry.  In  this  state 
the  grapes  are  subjected  to  pressure, 
and  a  very  sweet  must,  as  may  be 
conceived,  flows  from  them.  In  less 
favourable  climates,  where  the  rains 
of  autumn  prevent  the  drying  of  the 
clusters  upon  the  vine  stocks,  the 
same  thing  is  effected  by  laying  the 
bunches  upon  straw  in  open  or  well- 
aired  granaries  or  sheds.  It  is  with 
the  must  procured  from  grapes  so 
treated,  that  the  sweet  and  often 
strong  wines,  which  are  called  vtns 
dc  paille,  are  obtained.  Wines,  when 
stored  in  the  cask,  always  deposite 
with  time  a  copious  sediment,  the 
lees.  This  sediment,  in  which  tar- 
tar predominates,  appears  to  be  the 
consequence  of  an  increase  in  the 
proportion  of  alcohol  in  the  liquor. 
The  alcohol  may  increase  from  two 
causes  :  first,  by  the  fermentation 
which,  though  nearly  insensible,  goes 
on  in  most  wines  so  long  as  there  is 
any  sugar  left  unchanged  ;  and  next, 
from  mere  keeping.  It  is  well  known, 
in  fact,  that  wine  put  into  the  liest 
casks,  and  kept  in  a  well-ventilated 
cellar,  loses  a  very  perceptihle  quan- 
tity by  evaporation.  It  is  found  ne- 
cessary to  fill  up  the  casks  from  time 
to  time.  The  loss  has  taken  place 
through  the  pores  of  the  wood,  in 
virtue  of  an  attraction  exerted  be- 
831 


VINE. 


twecn  the  substance  of  the  wood  and 
llie  iiichnlcd  liqiiid  ;  ami  as  this  at- 
traction IS  niiicli  greater  l)et\veeii  tlie 
organic  matter  and  water  than  be- 
tween organic  fibre  and  alcolioi,  it  is 
easy  to  conceive  how  wine  kept  in 
wood  should  improve.  The  very  same 
thing,  in  tact,  a|)pears  to  go  on  in  re- 
gard to  wine  in  corked  bottles  :  the 
cork  does  not  opjjose  all  evaporation, 
and  it  seems  probable  that  it  is  not 
merely  upon  some  new  and  little 
known  change  of  a  chemical  nature 
in  the  constitution  of  tiie  wine  that 
its  improvement  and  mellowing  in 
bottle  depend,  but  also  ujjKn  tiie  loss 
*)f  a  certain  quantity  of  its  water 
through  the  pores  of  the  cork. 

"  Throwing  quality,  flavour,  &c., 


out  of  the  question,  it  is  well  known 
that  a  vineyard,  cultivated  in  the 
same  way,  year  alter  year,  receiving 
the  same  quantity  of  the  same  kind 
of  manure,  of  which  the  vintage  is 
managed  m  the  same  manner,  the 
wine  made  by  the  same  method,  &c., 
yields  a  produce  which  difiers greatly 
in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  alcohol  it 
contains  in  diflerent  years.  The  vine- 
yard of  Schmalzberg,  for  example, 
near  Lainpertsloch,  which  has  been 
under  my  management  for  several 
years,  yields  wines  of  the  most  dis- 
similar characters  from  one  year  to 
another.  Some  idea  of  this  may  be 
formed  from  the  different  quantities 
of  alcohol  which  the  wine  of  diiferent 
years  contains : 


Mean  temperature. 

Pure  al- 

Of tbe  whole  tirm  of 

Wine 

Pure  alco- 

cohol 

Years. 

tlie  growtU  ot  the 

Of  the  beginning  of 

per  acre 

hol 

per  .icre 

vines. 

autumn. 

in  gallons. 

per  cent. 

in  galloha. 

deg.           Jeg. 

>i^K.          .le^. 

deg.           deg. 

1833 

)4-7C.    5&4F. 

17-3C.   63-lF. 

11-4C.  51-5F. 

311 

5-0 

11-4 

1834 

17-3        631 

20-3        68-i 

170       63 

314 

11-2 

40-3 

1835 

]5-8        60-2 

19-5        07 

12-3      54 

621 

8-1 

50-0 

1836 

15-8        60-2 

21-5        71 

12-2      54 

544 

7-1 

38-6 

1837 

15-2        59  5 

18-7       0(3 

11-9       54 

184 

7-7 

]40 

"  If  we  now  inquire  how  the  me- 
teorological circumstances  of  each  of 
these  five  years  influenced  the  pro- 
duction of  our  wine,  we  see  at  once 
that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  days 
which  make  up  the  period  of  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  wine  has  a  perceptible 
influence.  The  temperature  of  the 
summer  was  G3  1^  of  tlie  year  which 
yielded  the  strongest  wine,  and  only 
68-4°  in  1833,  the  wine  of  which  was 
scarcely  drinkable. 

"The  produce  of  a  vineyard  also 
depends  upon  its  age ;  and  it  would 
be  curious  to  examine  the  progress- 
ive increase  of  the  quantity  of  wine 
yielded.  This  information!  am  able 
to  give  in  connexion  with  a  vineyard 
established  in  Flanders.  I  only  re- 
gret that  I  have  no  means  of  present- 
ing parallel  observations  from  a  coun- 
try more  favourable  to  the  vine.  The 
vineyard  of  Schmalzberg  was  plant- 
ed in  1822,  with  new  cuttings  from 
France,  and  from  the  borders  of  the 
Rhine.  The  vines  are  trained  as  es- 
paliers, and  are  now  rather  more 
832 


than  four  feet  in  height.  The  vine- 
yard began  to  yield  wine  in  1825,  and 
the  following  table  shows  the  re- 
sults in  the  successive  years  up  to 
1837: 

v»,^  Wine  per  acre  in 

''^^"-  gallons. 

1825 68-75 

1826 192-0 

1827 0-0 

1828 115-0 

18'29 55-9 

1830 0-0 

1831 1530 

1632 2(J9-9 

1833 31]-6 

1834 413-4 

1835 6200 

1836 544  5 

1837 184-4 

"  The  mean  quantity  of  wine  fur- 
nished by  this  vineyard  from  the  date 
of  its  plantation  is  224^  gallons  per 
acre.  M.  Villeneuve  reckons  the 
mean  produce  of  many  vineyards  in 
the  southwest  of  France  at  from 
about  146  to  192  gallons  per  acre  : 
considerably  less,  consequently,  than 
our  vineyard  at  Schmalzberg ;  and 
official  documents,  while  they  give 


VIN 

the  mean  produce  of  the  vine  for  the 
whole  of  France  as  170  9  gallons  per 
acre,  state  the  whole  of  the  wine  pro- 
duced over  the  country  at  976,906,414 
gallons." — (Boussiitgault.) 

VINEGAR.  "This  term  is  ap- 
plied to  various  moditications  of  the 
acetic  acid.  The  simplest  mode  of 
obtaining  vinegar  is  to  excite  a  sec- 
ond or  acetous  fermentation  in  wine, 
beer,  or  cider.  In  this  case  oxygen  is 
absorbed,  a  variable  proportion  of  car- 
bonic acid  is  generally  evolved,  and  the 
alcohol  of  the  wine  passes  into  acetic 
acid.  \'ery  good  vinegar  is  also  made 
from  a  wort  or  infusion  of  malt  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose,  or  from  a  de- 
coction of  common  raisins,  or  from  a 
mixture  of  about  one  part  of  whis- 
key with  eight  of  water,  and  some 
sugar  and  yeast.     See  Cider. 

"  When  vinegar  is  distilled,  various 
impurities  which  it  contains  remain 
in  the  still,  and  the  liquid  which  pass- 
es  over  is   the   acetic   acid,  nearly 
pure,  but  largely  diluted  with  water. 
In  this  state  it  is  usually  called  dis- 
tiUcd  vinegar,  and  is  chiefly  used  in 
pharmacy ;  but  the  market  is  chiefly 
supplied  from  another  source,  which 
is  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  when 
certain  kinds  of  dry  wood,  especially 
beech  and   such  woods  as   are  not 
resinous,  instead  of  being  burned  in 
the  open  air,  are  converted  into  char- 
coal in  close  vessels,  so  as,  in  fact, 
to  be  submitted  to  distillation,  that 
the    vapours  which   pass   off  yield, 
when  condensed,  a  large  quantity  of 
tar  and  of  very  acid  w^ater :  the  lat- 
ter  is,  in   fact,  an  impure  vinegar.  I 
\Vhen  this  nnpure  acetic  acid  is  freed  1 
from  the  tar  and  empyreumatic  oils  j 
with  which  it  is  mixed,  it  is  called  i 
crude  pt/roltgneous  acid.     To  convert ; 
it  into  pure  acetic  acid,  that  is,  to 
separate  from  it  the  empyreumatic  , 
products  with  which  it  is  intimately 
combined,  is  a  somewhat  circuitous 
process.     It  is  first  distilled,  by  which  j 
j/l/roxiiic  acid  and  oil  of  tar  first  pass  • 
over,  and  these   are  foHowed  by  a! 
quantity  of  impure  or  rough  acetic ; 
acid.     This  rough  acid  is  used  bydy-  j 
ers  and  calico  printers,  and  by  ma- 1 
4  A2 


VIT 

kers  of  sugar  of  lead.  The  pure  ace- 
tic acid,  in  its  most  concentrated  state, 
is  extremely  acrid,  sour,  and  pun- 
gent, and  is  often  called  radical  vine- 
\gar,  or,  when  perfumed,  arowa/ic  i-in- 
;  egar ;  it  is  also  occasionally  termed 
glacial  acetic  acid,  from  its  property 
of  congealing  at  a  low  temperature, 
and  remaining  frozen  at  temperatures 
below  50^.  In  this  state  it  is  a  com-i 
pound  of]  atom  of  real  acetic  acid  =: 
51,  and  1  of  water  =  9,  the  real  or 
anhydrous  acid,  as  it  exists  in  the 
dry  acetates,  being  composed  of 

Carbon 4 

llvtirogen 3 

O.tygen 3 

"  When  this  strong  acetic  acid  is 
diluted  with  water  and  slightly  col- 
oured, it  forms  a  very  pure  and  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  common  vine- 
gar, and  is  cheaper  than  acid  of  the 
same  strength  prepared  in  any  other 
way. 

"  The  combinations  of  acetic  acid 
with  various  bases  are  called  acetates; 
and  of  these  salts  some  are  impor- 
tantly useful  in  the  arts  :  such,  espe- 
cially, are  the  acetates  of  lead,  copper, 
iron,  and  alumina,  which  are  chiefly 
employed  in  dyeing  and  calico  print- 
ing ;  the  acetates  of  ammonia  and  of 
potash,  which,  as  well  as  acetate  of 
lead,  are  used  in  medicine  ;  and  the 
acetates  of  lime  and  of  soda,  which 
have  been  mentioned  as  steps  in  the 
preparation  of  strong  acetic  acid.  The 
acetates  are  recognised  by  their  sol- 
ubility in  water,  and  by  the  fumes  of 
acetic  acid  which  they  evolve  when 
acted  upon  by  sulphuric  acid.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  strongest  liquid 
acetic  acid  is  10629  ;  that  of  good 
malt  vinegar  is  10200  ;  and  that  of 
distilled  vinegar  about  10023.  The 
strength  or  value  of  vinegar,  and  of 
acetic  acid,  can  only  be  learned  by  its 
saturating  power." 

VINE  Y  A  II  D.  A  plantation  of 
grapes.  The  vines  are  set  in  rows, 
four  to  six  yards  apart,  and  usually 
sustained  against  trellises  or  stakes. 

VIOLET.  The  genus  Vwla,  of 
which  V.  odorata  is  the  perfumed  vio- 
let, and  V.  tricolor  the  heart's  ease. 

VITELLUS.  An  occasional  cov- 
833 


WAG 


WAI 


cring  of  the  embrj'o  in  seeds.  The 
white  of  the  egg. 

VITREOUS  HUMOUR.  The  fluid 
or  luiinour  wliich  fills  the  posterior 
chamber  of  the  eye. 

VITRIOL.  An  old  name  for  the 
sulphates. 

VITRIOL,  OIL  OF.  Sulphuric 
acid. 

VIVES.  A  disease  in  horses,  con- 
sisting of  an  enlargement  of  the  glands 
at  the  curve  of  the  jaw,  and  nearly 
resembling  strangles.  It  is  treated 
by  slight  bleeding  and  purging  ;  and  if 
it  does  no t  give  way,  becomes  changed 
into  strangles. 

VIVIPAROUS.  Producing  living 
young,  and  not  eggs. 

VOLATILE  ALKALI.  Ammonia. 
See  Nitrogen. 

VOLTAIC  ELECTRICITY.  Gal- 
vanism. 

VOLUTE.  In  architecture,  a  scroll. 

VOLVA.  The  wrapper  or  veil  of 
certain  fungi,  as  the  agaricus. 

V  0  U  S  S  0  I  R  S.  "  In  bridges, 
the  stones  which  immediately  form 
the  arch,  being  of  the  shape  of  a 
truncated  wedge.  Their  under  sides 
form  the  intrados,  or  soffit.  The 
length  of  the  middle  voussoir,  or  key- 
stone, ought  to  be  about  one  fifteenth 
or  one  sixteenth  of  the  span,  and  the 
rest  should  increase  all  the  way  down 
to  the  imposts.  Their  joints  should 
be  cut  perpendicular  to  the  curve  of 
the  intrados  ;  consequently,  the  an- 
gle of  the  sides  is  determined  by  the 
curvature." — {Huttons  Tracts,  vol.  i.) 

W. 

WACKE.  A  hard  rock  of  the  ba- 
saltic kind. 

WAGON.  "  A  wheel-carriage,  of 
which  there  are  several  varieties,  ac- 
commodated to  the  different  uses 
which  they  are  intended  to  serve. 

"  In  the  business  of  husbandry, 


;  wagons    constructed    in     different 
I  forms,   and   of  various   dimensions, 
are  made  use  of  in  different  districts, 
i  and  mostly  withoiit  much  attention 
I  to  the  nature  of  the  roads,  or  the  ar- 
ticles which  are  to  be  conveyed  by 
them,  being  in  general  heavy  and  in- 
convenient. 

"  Wagons  require  more  power  in 
the  draught  than  carts,  which  is  cer- 
tainly an  objection,  though  they  carry 
a  much  greater  load,  and  are  far  from 
being  so  handy  and  convenient  ;  and 
Mr.  Parkinson  is  of  opmion  that  more 
work  may  be  done  in  any  particular 
time,  with  the  same  number  of  hor- 
ses, by  carts  than  by  wagons,  on  level 
land,  in  the  general  run  of  husbandry 
business,  especially  where  the  dis- 
tance is  small  between  loading  and 
unloading ;  a  fact  which  has  long 
been  known  and  attended  to  m  Scot- 
land. 

"  Where  wagons  are  used  for  hus- 
bandry, they  should  be  made  wide 
and  low.  Alanures  may  be  carried 
in  this  sort  of  wagon  almost  as  well 
as  in  carts.  Broad  wheels  are  im- 
proper for  passing  and  repassing  upon 
tillage  lands  ;  for,  if  in  fallow,  they 
press  the  land  too  much,  and  make 
it  so  hard  as  to  prevent  its  being 
ploughed ;  but  on  grass  land  broad 
wheels  are  projjcr  for  all  uses,  as 
there  they  operate  as  rollers. 

"  Wagons  are  probably  the  best 
conveyances  for  different  sorts  of 
heavy  loads  to  a  distance  ;  but  for 
home  business,  especially  harvest, 
and  other  work  which  requires  to  be 
speedily  performed  in  the  field,  carts 
with  proper  shelving  will  be  found 
preferable."' 

WAIN.  A  light  harvest  wagon.  The 
following  {Fig.),  which  is  called  the 
Cornwall  wain,  is  an  excellent  kind. 

WAINSCOT.  A  panelled  framing 
between  rooms  or  against  a  wall. 


834 


WAR 


WAR 


WALL.  For  its  uses  in  horticul- 
ture, see  Hot-icall. 

WALL  EYE.  Opacity  of  the  cor- 
nea or  glaucoma 

WALL-PLATE.  A  timber  lying 
on  a  wall  on  which  girders,  joists, 
&c.  rest. 

WALNUT.  The  European,  or 
Madeira  nut,  is  the  fruit  of  the  im- 
proved Juglans  rcgia,  a  very  large 
tree.  It  does  not  bear  well  until  some 
15  or  20  years  old.  It  is  suggested 
to  graft  them  by  approach  with  bear- 
ing branches  of  an  older  tree.  The 
wood  is  very  valuable  for  cabinet  pur- 
poses, and  especially  sought  for  gun 
stocks  ;  it  is  not,  however,  of  the  rich 
colour  of  the  American  walnut  (J. 
nigra),  or  black  walnut.  The  hulls 
of  the  fruit  are  rich  in  tannin,  and 
used  in  France  to  dye  brown  col- 
ours. 

The  black  walnut  is  not  found  north 
of  New- Jersey,  but  exists  in  immense 
quantities  in  the  woods  of  Virginia, 
Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  in  rich  soils, 
where  it  attains  an  altitude  of  70  feet, 
and  a  circumference  of  five  to  seven 
feet.  The  fruit  is  well  known,  but 
rather  inferior  to  that  of  the  Europe- 
an tree ;  the  wood  is,  however,  bet- 
ter, and  extensively  employed. 

WARBLES.  Black  sores,  sitfast. 
See  Galls. 

WARP.  The  sediment  of  rivers 
or  the  sea.  In  weaving,  the  long 
threads  which  run  the  lengthway  of 
the  fabric. 

WARPING.  "  A  mode  of  produ- 
cing a  deposition  of  the  earthy  mat- 
ter suspended  in  rivers  of  which 
the  current  is  frequently  changed 
by  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  tide. 
This  causes  a  stirring  of  the  water, 
which  prevents  the  finer  particles 
from  being  deposited.  It  is  only  ne- 
cessary to  produce  a  stagnation  of 
the  water  for  a  few  hours  to  have  a 
copious  deposite,  leaving  the  water 
clear  over  it. 

"  On  the  low  flats  which  border  the 
mouths  of  rivers  occasional  inunda- 
tions often  cause  a  deposite  which  is 
hijilily  fertilizing.  Thus,  the  polders 
ill  iloihind  and  Flanders  have  been 
Icrii.ed  of  the  mud  of  large  rivers, 


and,  being  drained  and  kept  dry  by 
dikes  and  sluices,  have  formed  the 
most  fertile  soils. 

"  ^\'arping  is  an  imitation  of  this 
natural  process  :  a  bank  of  earth  is 
raised  along  the  course  of  the  river, 
so  high  that  the  floods  cannot  pass 
over  it.  In  some  part  of  this  dike  is 
a  sluice  for  the  double  purpose  of  let- 
ting in  the  water  and  letting  it  out  at 
pleasure.  When  the  tide  is  setting 
in  and  counteracting  the  natural  cur- 
rent of  the  river,  the  sluice  is  opened, 
and  the  water  flows  in  by  one  or 
more  channels  made  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  it  over  the  lower  land, 
and  covers  it  to  the  depth  of  high 
water.  The  sluice  is  now  shut,  and 
the  imprisoned  water,  becoming  stag- 
nant, deposites  all  the  mud  which  it 
held  suspended  before.  The  sluice 
is  opened  at  low  water,  and  the  wa- 
ter is  allowed  to  run  out  slowly ;  it 
leaves  a  coating  of  mud  or  sediment, 
which  hardens  and  dries  rapidly.  This 
operation  is  repeated  until  a  thick- 
ness of  several  inches  of  new  soil  has 
thus  been  warped,  when  it  is  allowed 
t!)  dry,  and  then  ploughed  and  cultiva- 
ted like  any  other  field.  It  takes  some 
time  before  any  corn  will  grow  on 
the  new  warp :  at  first  it  looks  like 
barren  mud,  but  it  soon  dries  to  a 
better  texture,  and  ultimately  produ- 
ces very  extraordinary  crops.  If  its 
fertility  decrease,  and  its  surface  is 
still  below  high-water  mark,  a  slight 
warping,  like  the  inundations  of  the 
Nile,  immediately  restores  the  fertil- 
ity. What  is  curious  is  the  almost 
total  absence  of  organic  matter  in  the 
warp  soils,  or,  rather,  its  intimate 
combination  with  the  earths,  so  that 
it  is  not  readily  separated  from  them. 
It  is  neither  like  clay  nor  sand,  but 
something  between  the  two,  soft  to 
the  touch,  but  not  hardening  into 
lumps  when  dry  ;  neither  very  porous 
nor  very  retentive  of  moisture.  The 
principal  earth  is  silica  in  a  very  fine 
state.  It  generally  contains  a  portion 
of  calcareous  matter,  probably  from 
j  comminuted  shells.  It  produces  oats, 
beans,  potatoes,  and  wheat  in  abun- 
!  dance,  without  any  manure.  It  is 
j  admirably  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
835 


WAS 


WAT 


flav,  especially  when  the  warp  is  of 
a  good  depth. 

"  'i'lie  principal  expense  in  warpin<f 
is  the  sluice,  and  the  canal  through 
which  the  water  is  conducted  over 
the  land  ;  the  longer  this  latter  is, 
the  slower  the  process,  as  much  warp 
is  deposited  in  the  canal,  which  has 
sometimes  to  he  dug  out.  Accurate 
levels  must  be  taken,  or  much  ex- 
pense may  be  incurred  uselessly,  if 
the  water  will  not  cover  the  surface 
to  a  sufficient  depth. 

"It  is  of  little  consequence  what 
the  soil  was  originally,  for  a  new  soil 
is  deposited  over  it.  It  should,  how- 
ever, not  be  too  wet  nor  marshy  :  a 
porous  soil  is  best,  as  this  becomes 
the  subsoil.  All  the  inequalities  which 
existed  before  are  obliterated  by  the 
warping,  whicli  tills  up  all  cavities, 
and  leaves  a  perfectly  level  surface." 

WARREN.  A  place  in  which  rab- 
bits or  other  game  are  preserved,  or 
in  which  they  are  naturally  found. 

W  A  S  H.  The  fermented  liquor 
from  which  the  spirit  is  distilled. 

WASHER.  In  building,  a  plate  of 
iron  set  between  a  wall  and  timber, 
and  the  nut  of  a  screw. 

WASPS.  The  genus  Vcspa:  the 
V.  crabro  is  the  hornet.     They  are  in- 


jurious to  agriculture,  inasmuch  as 
they  destroy  bees  and  eat  fruits,  es- 
pecially grapes,  and  those  of  thin 
skins.  The  greater  number  die  at 
the  approach  of  winter,  only  a  few 
females  surviving  in  the  nests. 

WATER.  That  of  rivers  and  wells 
is  impure,  from  containing  mineral 
matters  drawn  from  the  soil.  Melted 
snow  and  rain  water  are  purer,  but 
contain  ammonia,  gases,  and  a  small 
amount  of  salts.  It  is  only  to  be  ob- 
tained pure  by  frequent  distillation, 
and  then  consists  of  one  equivalent 
of  hydrogen  and  one  of  oxygen,  or 
one  part  by  weight  of  the  former  and 
eight  of  the  latter.  Its  influence  on 
vegetables  need  not  be  dwelt  upon. 

WATER  CHESTNUT.  The  Sdr- 
pus  tuhcrosus,  a  rush  cultivated  in  Chi- 
na and  Italy  for  its  root,  which  resem- 
bles a  chestnut.  It  grows  in  ponds 
and  ditches. 

WATER-CRESS.     See  Cress. 

WATERING  CART.  This  is  no 
more  than  a  common  barrel,  of  large 
size,  set  on  a  cart  or  on  wheels  (Fig.), 
and  furnished  with  a  tin  tube,  a,  bored 
with  numerous  holes,  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  water.  A  valve,  b,  is  placed  be- 
tween the  distributing  tubes  and  the 
interior  of  the  barrel.     The  water  is 


836 


WAX 

introduced  by  a  hose  at  c,  the  tubes 
for  dislrihulion  are  supported  by  the 
rod,  d,  and  tlie  water  tiovvs  from  the 
barrel  bv  e  and  e. 

WATER  MEADOWS.  See  Irri- 
gation. 

WATERMELON.  See  Mc^on, 
Water. 

WATER  OF   CRYSTALLIZA- 
TION.    Water  contained  in  crystals. 
WATER  PLANTAIN.  The  genus 
Alisma,  consisting  of  useless  water 
weeds.  I 

WATERING  PLANTS.  The  ap- 
plication of  water  by  the  common 
watering-pot  to  garden  vegetables  is 
not  a  practice  altogether  safe  or  use- 
ful. Where  it  is  persevered  in,  and 
the  soil  is  well  worked,  it  may  pro- 
duce good  results  ;  but  if  not  cau- 
tiously applied,  the  soil  is  rendered 
stiff.  It  is  cooled  by  the  water,  and, 
should  it  want  drainage,  stagnant 
water  is  accumulated.  It  should  only 
be  done  after  sunset,  and  with  rain 
water  collected  in  tanks  and  exposed 
to  the  air.  Newly-planted  vegetables 
require  watering.  ' 

WATER  WHEEL.  An  engine  ' 
for  raising  water  in  large  quantities. 
Also,  a  wheel  turned  by  the  force  of 
running  water.  Of  these  there  are 
two  kinds  :  the  undershot  icheel,  and  . 
the  overshot  wheel.  In  the  case  of 
the  undershot  wheel,  the  water  strikes 
the  float  boards  below  the  axle,  and 
acts  by  the  impulse  due  to  its  veloci- 
ty ;  in  the  case  of  tlie  overshot  wheel, 
the  water  is  brought  over  the  top  of 
the  wheel,  received  in  buckets,  and 
acts  solely  by  its  weight. 

WAVELLITE.  A  mineral  of  a 
radiated  or  stellated  character,  con- 
sisting of  a  hydrated  phosphate  of 
alumina. 

WAX.  A  hydrocarbon,  composed 
of  0:3  H:o  Oi.  insoluble  in  water,  and 
but  slightly  affected  by  most  acids. 
It  is  obtained  from  plants  and  from 
bees'  wax.  It  is  prepared  by  drain- 
ing and  then  washing  the  honeycomb, 
and  finally  melting  m  hot  water.  The 
yellow  product  is  bleached  by  being 
run  into  strips,  and  exposed  to  the 
air  until  whitened  sufticientlv. 
WAX  MOTH.     See  Bee  Moth. 


WEA 

WAYFARING-TREE.  The  guel- 
der rose.      Virhurnum  opulus. 

W  E  A L D  E  N  FOK.MATION.  A 
portion  of  the  upper  secondary,  con- 
sisting of  heavy  clays  and  green  sand. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  great  number 
of  large  saurians  it  contains. 

WEANING.      "  The   means   cm- 
ployed  to  reconcile  a  young  animal  to 
the  loss  of  its  mother's  milk  and  ha- 
bituate it  to  take  common  food.     The 
process  of  weaning  calves  is  vari- 
ously managed  by  different  farmers. 
When  not  let  run  with  the  cow,  the 
most  advisable  mode,  as  it  regards 
the  calf,  is  to  place  it  loose  in  a  crib, 
and  to  suckle  it  by  hand  with  the 
mother's  new  milk,  of  which  it  will 
consume  for   some   time   not   more 
than  about  four  quarts  per  day  :  the 
quantity,  however,  must  then  be  grad- 
ually  increased,   as   it   will,   in   the 
course  of  a  few  weeks,  require  as 
much  as  three  gallons.     If  the  weath- 
er be  fine,  it  should  be,  within  a  fort- 
night or  three  weeks,  turned  out  dai- 
ly in  the  orchard,  or  some  well-shel- 
tered enclosure   of  sweet  herbage  ; 
'  and,  as  it  will  in  the  course  often  or 
twelve  weeks   have   acquired   some 
relish  for  the  pasture,  it  may  be  reg- 
ularly weaned  by  gradually  diminish- 
ing the  quantity  of  milk,  and  then 
substituting  the  skimmed  for  the  new. 
Calves  may,  however,  be  reared  with 
i  skimmed  milk  and  meal,  without  any 
portion  of  new  rnilk  except  the  first 
few  days'  biestings,  and  many  per- 
'  sons  give  them  nothing  but  water- 
I  gruel  and  hay  tea  within  a  fortnight 
j  after  they  have  been  remo%^ed  from 
I  the  cow.     Sago  and  linseed  jelly  are 
also  very  nutritious,  and  calves  may 
'  be  weaned  on  them  without  any  oth- 
er food. 

1  "  The  time  of  weaning  lambs  dif- 
fers materially,  according  to  the  lo- 
cality of  the  farms  and  the  quality  of 
the  pasture.  Four  months  old  is 
about  the  period  usually  selected. 

"  The  lambs  should  be  turned  into 
somewhat  better  pasture  than  that  to 
which  they  had  been  accustomed,  in 
order  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of 
the  mother's  milk.  Many  farmers 
are  very  fanciful  as  to  the  provision 
837 


WEA 


WEA 


for  the  weaned  lambs.  The  clover, 
or  the  sainfoin,  or  the  aftcr-nialli  are 
selected  by  some;  otiiers  put  their 
smaller  and  more  weakly  lambs  to 
weed  the  turnip  crops  ;  but  there  can 
be  notiiing  more  desirable  than  a  fresh 
pasture,  not  too  luxuriant,  and  yet 
sufficient  to  maintain  and  increase 
their  condition." — (Yuualt  on  Sheep.) 

WEAR.  A  fence  or  dam  made  of 
twigs  and  set  in  a  stream. 

WEATHER.  "  The  state  or  condi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  with  respect 
to  heat,  cold,  dryness,  moisture,  wind, 
rain,  snow,  fogs,  &c.  The  apprecia- 
tion of  the  various  causes  wliich  de- 
termine the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  produce  those  changes  which  are 
incessantly  taking  place  in  its  condi- 
tion, and  which  are  popularly  called 
the  weather,  forms  the  subjects  of 
Meteorology  and  Climate.  (See  those 
terms  ;  also,  Atmo.sphere,  Barometer, 
Cloud,  Dew,  Hail,  Rain.) 

"  In  all  ages  of  the  world,  mankind 
have  attempted  to  explain  and  prog- 
nosticate the  changes  of  the  weather ; 
but  such  is  the  complication  of  the 
subject,  and  the  vast  multitude  of 
circumstances  to  be  taken  account 
of,  that  no  theory  can  furnish  rules 
for  determining  the  order  in  which 
they  succeed  each  other,  or  for  pre- 
dicting the  state  of  the  weather  at  a 
future  time,  with  any  approach  to  cer- 
tainty. Nevertheless,  all  the  differ- 
ent modifications  of  the  atmosphere 
are  the  necessary  results  of  princi- 
ples not  only  fixed  and  unalterable 
in  their  nature,  but  (many  of  them  at 
least)  well  known  in  their  separate 
and  individual  operation.  The  diffi- 
culty of  tracing  the  results  of  their 
combined  influences  arises  chiefly 
from  their  complexity  and  endless 
concatenation. 

"  The  principal  cause  of  all  the  va- 
riations which  take  place  in  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere  is  the  heating  ac- 
tion of  the  sun's  rays  ;  but  in  order 
to  appreciate  correctly  its  effect,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  not  only  the  ex- 
tent of  the  atmosphere,  but  the  prop- 
erties of  all  the  substances  of  which 
it  is  composed.  Modern  science  has 
discovered  that  the  atmosphere  is 
833 


composed  of  three  different  gaseous 
fluids,  everywhere  combined  in  the 
same  proportions,  and  penetrated  by 
an  ever-varying  quantity  of  elastic 
vapour.  These  two  distinct  enve- 
lopes of  air  and  vapour  mechanically 
mixed  have  difl^erent  relations  to  heat ; 
and  therefore,  in  consequence  of  the 
unequal  temperature  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  with  which  they  are  in 
contact,  they  cannot  both  be  in  a 
state  of  equilibrium  at  the  same  time. 
In  consequence  of  the  diurnal  rota- 
tion, the  different  parts  of  the  atmo- 
sphere are  constantly  receiving  differ- 
ent quantities  of  heat,  as  the  solar 
rays  penetrate  more  or  less  obliquely. 
This  inequality  of  temperature  pro- 
duces winds,  which,  if  the  surface  ol 
the  earth  were  perfectly  regular  and 
homogeneous,  would  always  blow  ia 
the  same  direction  ;  but  the  surface 
of  the  earth  being  composed  of  ma- 
terials of  various  kinds,  and  irregu- 
larly disposed,  the  distribution  of  heat 
over  it  is  extremely  irregular.  The 
winds,  sweeping  along  the  surface, 
acquire  its  temperature  ;  and  hence 
the  atmosphere  also  becomes  irregu- 
larly heated.  This  produces  an  ac- 
cumulation of  air  at  one  place,  and  a 
deficiency  at  another  ;  and  hence  a 
subsequent  rush  to  restore  the  equi- 
librium. As  the  air  is  cooled  it  be- 
comes also  incapable  of  holding  the 
same  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour,  a 
portion  of  which  is  therefore  set  free, 
and  gives  rise  to  clouds,  mist,  rain, 
dew,  snow,  &;c.  Besides  all  this, 
there  is  to  be  taken  into  account  the 
development  of  electricity  ;  the  influ- 
ences of  light  and  galvanism  ;  the  agi- 
tation of  the  atmosphere  produced 
by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  ;  and 
probably  a  variety  of  other  circum- 
stances with  which  we  are  entirely 
unacquainted.  This  very  imperfect 
enumeration  may  serve  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome 
in  forming  a  theory  of  the  weather. 

"  It  has  always  been  a  favourite 
prejudice  that  the  weather  is  influ- 
enced in  some  mysterious  manner  by 
the  moon.  The  moon  can  be  sup- 
posed to  act  on  the  earth  only  in  one 
of  three  ways  ;  namely,  by  the  light 


WEE 


WEE 


which  it  reflects ;  by  its  attraction  ;  or 
by  an  emanation  of  some  unknown 
kind.  Now,  the  light  of  the  moon 
does  not  amount  to  the  100,000lh  part 
of  that  of  the  sun  ;  and  the  heat  wliich 
it  excites  is  so  small  as  to  l)e  alto- 
gether inappreciable  by  the  most  del- 
icate instruments,  or  the  best  devised 
experiments.  No  effect  can  be  at- 
tributed, therefore,  to  the  moon's 
light.  With  a  regard  to  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  moon,  we  see  its  influence 
on  the  tides  of  the  ocean,  and  might 
therefore  be  disposed  to  allow  it  a 
similar  influence  on  the  atmosphere  ; 
but  when  we  take  into  accoimt  the 
small  specific  gravity  of  atmospheric 
air  in  comparison  with  water,  and  the 
consequent  smallness  of  the  mass  of 
matter  to  be  acted  upon,  it  will  read- 
ily be  perceived  that  this  influence 
also  must  be  extremely  feeble.  In 
fact,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  La- 
place that  the  joint  action  of  the  so- 
lar and  lunar  attraction  is  incapable 
of  producing  more  than  an  atmospher- 
ic tide  flowing  westward  at  the  rate 
of  about  four  miles  a  day,  and  con- 
sequently scarcely,  if  at  all,  appreci- 
able. As  to  the  remaining  supposi- 
tion, that  the  moon  may  act  on  the 
atmosphere  by  some  obscure  emana- 
tion, it  is  sufficient  to  remark  that  no 
meteorological  observations  that  have 
yet  been  made  afibrd  the  slightest 
traces  of  any  such  connexion  be- 
tween the  earth  and  its  satellite.  The 
registers  which  are  now  kept  in  va- 
rious observatories  and  other  places 
also  prove,  contrary  to  the  popular 
belief,  that  the  changes  of  weather 
are  in  no  way  whatever  dependant 
on  the  lunar  phases." 

WEATHER-BOARDING.  Board- 
ing nailed  either  upright  or  horizon- 
tally, and  lapping  on  the  outside  of 
the  framing. 

WEATHER  GLASS.  See  Barom- 
eter. 

WEDGE.  One  of  the  simple  me- 
chanical powers,  the  efficiency  of 
which  is  proportional  to  the  length 
of  the  side.     Knives  are  wedges. 

WEED  S.  "  Every  plant  which 
grows  in  a  field  other  than  that  of 
which  the  seed  has  been  sown  by  the 


husbandman  is  a  weed,  and,  inas- 
much as  it  interferes  with  the  in- 
tended crop,  should  be  carefully  erad- 
icated. It  is  a  proof  of  good  culti- 
vation when  few  weeds  appear  among 
the  growing  crops,  and  many  of  the 
operations  of  tillage  are  intended 
chiefly  for  their  destruction.  One  of 
the  principal  uses  of  summer  fallows 
is  to  destroy  the  weeds  which  come 
up  in  spring,  and  which  would  shed 
their  seeds  in  summer  if  they  were 
not  destroyed  before  the  seeds  ripen. 
When  roots  are  sown  in  drills  and 
carefully  hoed,  they  produce  the 
same  cleansing  efTect,  and  supersede 
the  fallow  ;  but  in  heavy  loams  which 
have  been  neglected  and  overrun 
with  weeds,  a  clean  fallow  is  some- 
times indispensable,  before  any  im- 
proved method  can  be  adopted.  When 
a  farmer  enters  on  lands  which  are 
in  a  foul  state,  it  is  the  cheapest 
way,  in  the  end,  to  sacrifice  a  crop, 
and  thoroughly  purge  his  fields  from 
weeds,  especially  those  which  have 
vivacious  roots,  and  cannot  be  e.xtir- 
pated  by  simple  ploughing.  The 
mode  of  doing  this  must  depend  on 
the  nature  and  duration  of  the  weeds, 
whether  their  roots  are  perennial,  or 
die  off  after  the  plant  has  borne  seed. 
Annual  weeds  are  most  readily  ex- 
tirpated by  repeated  harrowings,  by 
which  the  seeds  are  brought  within 
the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
when  they  have  fairly  vegetated  may 
be  buried  or  rooted  out,  and  by  ex- 
posing their  roots  to  the  influence  of 
a  hot  sun  they  are  effectually  destroy- 
ed. The  seeds  of  annual  weeds  are 
chiefly  brought  on  the  land  in  the 
manure  which  is  made  in  the  yards, 
where  the  cattle  fed  on  hay  or  straw 
swallow  the  seeds,  which  pass 
through  them  undigested.  By  exci- 
ting a  great  degree  of  fermentation 
in  the  mixture  of  dung  and  litter 
some  of  the  seeds  may  be  destroyed, 
but  many  of  them  will  keep  their 
vegetative  powers  even  after  having 
been  exposed  to  a  considerable  heat ; 
and  as  it  is  not  advisable  to  let  the 
manure  undergo  a  great  degree  of 
decomposition  before  it  is  carried  on 
the  land,  many  seeds  always  escape 
839 


WEEDS. 


destruction,  and  vegetate  as  soon  as 
they  are  placed  in  a  favourable  situ- 
ation. Those  wiiich  are  buried  deep 
lie  dormant  for  a  long  time,  and  ve- 
getate as  soon  as  the  plough  brings 
them  up  again. 

"The  experienced  farmer  knows 
well  what  peculiar  species  of  weeds 
infest  his  fields,  according  to  the  soil 
and  situation  ;  and  by  studying  their 
habits,  time  of  flowering,  and  of  ri- 
pening their  seed,  he  learns  the  best 
mode  of  destroying  tliem. 

"  One  of  the  greatest  advantages 
of  composts  made  with  human  excre- 
ments mixed  with  earths  and  mmeral 
substances  is,  that  they  introduce  no 
weeds  into  the  soil.  It  is  reported 
that  in  China,  where  the  dung  of  cat- 
tle is  little  used,  in  comparison  with 
human  excrements,  no  weeds  are  to 
he  found  in  the  fields  ;  and  if  more 
attention  were  paid  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  this  highly  enriching  manure, 
and  its  proper  application  to  the  soil, 
much  expense  would  be  saved  which 
is  now  unavoidably  incurred  in  de- 
stroying weeds. 

"  Feeding  slieep  on  roots  and  corn, 
while  they  are  folded  on  the  land,  is 
another  mode  of  manuring  a  field, 
without  introducing  weeds,  especially 
if  no  hay  is  given  them,  except  clo- 
ver hay  of  the  second  crop,  which  is 
generally  most  free  from  the  seeds 
of  weeds.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
enumerate  all  the  various  weeds 
which  may  infest  our  fields.  This 
would  be  giving  a  flora  of  all  the 
British  plants ;  but  we  will  select 
some  of  the  most  common  and  troub- 
lesome to  the  farmer,  with  such  an 
account  of  each  as  may  suggest  the 
most  ready  means  of  destruction. 

"  Of  the  annual  weeds,  we  may 
mention  the  following,  noticed  by 
Professor  Low,  in  his  Elements  of 
Practical  Agriculture  : 

"  Sinapis  arvensis,  or  wild  mustard, 
usually  called  charlock,  is  a  weed  the 
seeds  of  which,  being  of  an  oily  na- 
ture, will  remain  dormant  in  the  soil 
for  an  indefinite  time,  if  buried  above 
six  inches.  Hence  some  farmers 
fear  to  deepen  their  ploughings, 
which  otherwise  would  be  very  ad- 
840 


vantageous,  because  they  have  found 
that,  in  some  soils,  a  ploughing  be- 
yond six  inches  deep  will  cause  the 
crop  to  be  overrun  with  charlock,  so 
as  to  choke  it  with  its  yellow  flowers. 
It  only  requires  a  little  resolution, 
and  an  outlay  which  will  be  well  re- 
paid in  the  end,  to  destroy  this  enemy 
Hoed  crops  will  destroy  the  plants  as 
they  come  up.  Winter  tares,  which 
may  be  cut  before  the  charlock  per- 
fects its  seeds,  will  help  to  destroy 
it,  and  if  they  arc  succeeded  by  tur- 
nips, there  will  be  little  charlock  left 
in  autumn.  Wherever  it  appears 
and  raises  its  yellow  flower  it  must 
be  pulled  out,  whatever  be  the  cost, 
and  care  must  be  taken  to  carry  the 
plants  out  of  the  field  to  burn  or  rot 
them  ;  for  the  seeds  will  vegetate 
when  they  are  but  half  ripe  in  the 
pods.  We  have  dwelt  at  length  on 
this  weed,  because  it  is  one  which 
infests  many  of  our  best  soils,  and 
which  must  be  eradicated  before  the 
land  can  be  properly  cultivated. 

"  Somewhat  allied  to  the  last  is 
the  wild  radish  {Raphanus  raphanis- 
tium),  which  is  often  also  called  char- 
lock :  the  mode  of  destruction  is  the 
same. 

"  Papaver  rhccas,  or  corn  poppy, 
infests  some  soils  in  particular  sea- 
sons. If  the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen 
and  shed,  it  will  increase  rapidly ; 
good  tillage,  however,  soon  destroys 
it ;  clover  and  tares  which  are  cut 
while  the  poppy  is  in  flower  general- 
ly eradicate  it.  In  some  seasons  it 
will  appear  in  great  profusion,  and  in 
others  not  a  plant  will  be  seen. 

"  Centaurea  cyamts,  or  blue-bottle, 
is  seldom  found  in  any  quantity,  ex- 
cept where  there  is  a  slovenly  cul- 
ture, or  two  white  crops  are  taken  in 
succession,  a  practice  which,  it  is 
hoped,  will  soon  be  obsolete. 

"  Chnjsantkemum  scgetum,  corn 
marigold,  infests  some  soils,  and 
must  be  eradicated  by  careful  weed- 
ing ;  when  the  crops  are  drilled,  this 
is  not  a  difficult  task. 

"  Pyrethrum  inodorum,  corn  fever- 
few, often  called  May-weed,  as  is 
also  the  wild  camomile,  often  infests 
the  crops  of  grain,  and  with  every 


WEEDS. 


care  in  weeding,  some  of  the  seeds 
vill  be  carried  to  the  barn.  We  may 
here  observe,  generally,  that  where 
the  grain  is  reaped  by  the  sickle  and 
a  long  stubble  is  lelt,  the  seeds  of 
weeds  remain  on  the  land,  and  al- 
though some  of  them  are  eaten  by 
birds,  yet  many  are  ploughed  in  after 
the  stubble  has  been  raked  off  or 
mown  ;  whereas,  if  the  corn  is  mown 
or  cut  close  to  the  ground,  which  is 
called  fagging  or  bagging  it,  all  the 
weeds  are  tied  up  with  the  corn,  and 
go  into  the  barn  or  stack  ;  and  if  care 
be  taken  in  the  winnowing  and  sift- 
ing of  the  corn  to  separate  the  small- 
er seeds  from  the  straw  and  burn 
them  in  a  heap,  the  straw  will  be 
clean  and  the  dung  of  the  cattle  will 
contain  no  seeds  of  weeds.  This  is 
by  far  the  best  mode  of  proceeding ; 
and  by  careful  hoeing  and  weeding, 
and  burning  the  small  seeds,  the  land 
may  be  kept  tolerably  free  from  seed 
weeds. 

"  The  sow  thistle  (Sonchus  olerace- 
us)  often  raises  its  head  above  the 
oat.  The  seeds  are  blown  about  by 
the  winds,  and  if  the  hedges  and  head- 
lands are  not  kept  clear  of  them,  they 
will  sow  themselves  in  all  directions  ; 
but  it  is  a  conspicuous  plant,  and  ea- 
sily pulled  out  by  hand  before  its 
flower  expands.  To  destroy  thistles, 
in  general,  it  is  only  necessary  to  cut 
them  down  just  as  the  flower  is  ex- 
panding ;  the  roots  will  then  die,  and 
in  a  few  years,  by  the  united  atten- 
tion of  tlie  farmers  in  a  district,  this- 
tles may  easily  be  eradicated.  In 
some  places  the  infirm  paupers  are 
employed  in  pulling  up  all  the  thistles 
in  the  hedges  which  border  the  roads, 
and  wherever  they  make  their  appear- 
ance in  the  highways  and  lanes  of  a 
parish.  This  practice  cannot  be  too 
generally  recommended,  for  the  hedg- 
es and  ditches,  and  the  sides  of  roads 
and  lanes,  are  often  perfect  nurseries 
of  weeds. 

"  Arctium  lappa  (burdock)  is  a  very 
common  weed  in  fields  ;  but  with  a 
little  care  it  is  easily  e.\tirpated. 

'•  Asrostcmma     gilhago,     or     corn 
cockle,  is  a  very  injurious  weed,  be- 
cause its  seeds  ripen  about  the  tiii^e 
4B 


I  of  harvest,  and,  from  its  size,  cannot 
be  easily  separated  from  the  wheat  by 
'  sifting  ;    it  contains  a  farina,  which 
is  oily,  and,  when  ground  with  the 
corn,  greatly  deteriorates  the  flour. 
:  The  only  mode  of  extirpation  is  by 
hand-weeding. 
j      "  Stellana  media,  or  common  chick- 
!  weed,  is  a  small  plant  which  grows 
profusely  on  light  soils  which  have 
been  abundantly  manured.     If  it  be 
i  allowed  to  overspread  the  ground,  it 
will  choak  the  young  crops,  especial- 
I  ly  turnips,  carrots,  and  all  slow-grow- 
j  ing  seeds.     Drilling  the  crops  and 
j  early  hoeing  them  is  the  best  means 
of  destroying  this  weed  ;  as  soon  as 
the  crop  gets  above  the  chickweed, 
it  is  soon  destroyed,  if  the  latter  cov- 
ers the  ground  well.     It  often  does 
harm  to  young  clover,  but  the  latter 
soon  overpowers  it.     Tares  smother 
it  readily.     The  same  observations 
are  applicable  to  the  Spe.rgula  arven- 
sis,  or  corn  spurrey,  a  larger  variety 
of  which,  however,  is  cultivated  as 
excellent  food  for  milch  cows. 

"  Galium  aparine,  or  goose  grass, 
also  called  cleavers,  is  a  weed  which 
is  dispersed  by  the  seeds  attaching 
themselves  to  the  wool  of  sheep  by 
means  of  hooks  with  which  they  are 
provided.  They  increase  rapidly  ia 
some  soils,  if  they  are  not  carefully 
pulled  up  and  the  hedges  cleared  of 
them. 

"  Urlica  urens,  stinging  nettles, 
generally  grow  where  the  ground 
has  been  strongly  manured,  especial- 
ly where  heaps  of  dung  have  lam. 
They  are  seldom  very  troublesome, 
and  are  easily  eradicated  by  repeated 
ploughing  ;  they  infest  gardens  more 
than  fields. 

"  Polygonum  convolvulus,  climbing 
buckwheat,  is  a  very  troublesome 
weed,  which  winds  round  the  stems 
of  the  corn,  and  often  overtops  them. 
The  seeds  are  said  to  be  nutritious, 
and  not  to  injure  the  oats  when  mix- 
ed with  them  ;  but  in  wheat  it  is  very 
destructive,  and  diminishes  the  prod- 
uct while  it  injures  the  quality  of  the 
corn. 

"All    the    common    grasses    are 
weeds  in  cornfields,  and  in  the  al- 
841 


WEEDS. 


tcrnate  husbandry  are  introduced  in 
the  regular  cultivation.  Wiien  tlie 
grass  is  plougiied  up,  if  the  sods  are 
not  covered  sulficienlly  so  as  to  rot, 
tufts  of  grass  remain,  which  greatly 
increase,  to  the  injury  of  the  next 
crop.  However  carefully  the  land 
may  be  ploughed,  if  it  be  sown  im- 
mediately, the  roots  of  grass  will  be 
raised  to  the  surface  by  the  harrows. 
Tlie  only  remedy  is  to  have  them 
carefully  forked  out,  and  carried  to 
some  corner  or  waste  spot,  there  to 
form  the  foundation  of  a  dung  heap 
or  compost.  When  the  land  is  plough- 
ed up  before  winter,  and  the  seed 
sown  in  spring,  the  grass  will  be 
rotten  and  have  lost  its  vegetative 
power. 

"The  bearded  wild  oat  {Arena  fa- 
tua)  is  a  very  troublesome  plant,  and 
sometimes  almost  exceeds  the  true 
oat  in  quantity  ;  but  this  can  only  be 
the  case  with  very  slovenly  farmers. 
It  ripens  sooner  than  the  corn,  and 
sheds  its  seeds  before  harvest.  Crops 
cut  green  for  fodder,  such  as  rye, 
winter  barley,  and  tares,  repeated  if 
necessary,  soon  destroy  this  weed, 
which  has  no  perennial  root. 

"  Tiiese  are  some  of  the  most 
common  annual  and  biennial  weeds. 
They  may  all  be  easily  destroyed  by 
weeding  at  the  time  when  they  have 
pushed  up  their  seed  stems  and  the 
flower  is  about  to  expand  ;  if  they 
are  cut  up  at  that  time  they  seldom 
recover.  Hoeing  them  when  very 
young,  unless  the  weather  be  dry 
enough  to  scorch  the  roots  exposed, 
often  increases  them  instead  of  kill- 
ing them.  But  the  last-mentioned 
weeds  are  easily  got  rid  of  in  com- 
parison with  those  which  have  peren- 
nial roots,  and  some  of  which  in- 
crease the  faster  the  more  the  roots 
are  divided.  It  may  be  proper  to  ob- 
serve, that  too  little  attention  is  paid 
to  the  weeds  in  our  upland  meadows 
and  pastures.  One  would  imagine 
that  every  plant  which  increases  the 
weight  of  the  hay  or  covers  the 
groiuid  in  spring  is  wholesome  for 
cattle,  whereas  many  are  detrimen- 
tal when  they  are  eaten  for  want  of 
better  food.  Of  this  kind  are  the  ra- 
842 


I  nunculi,  commonly  called  butter-  rups, 
'  which,  far  from  deserving  this  name, 
are  never  touched  by  the  cows,  so 
long  as  they  can  find  other  food. 
Vv'ithout  going  the  length  of  ascribing 
to  the  butter-cups  the  power  of  caus- 
ing epidemic  diseases  in  cattle,  and 
even  in  men  who  eat  of  the  milk  and 
butter  of  cows  who  have  eaten  them, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  where  the 
cows  are  forced  by  hunger  to  eat 
many  of  them,  they  may  be  very  in- 
jurious to  their  health,  and  to  the 
production  of  good  milk.  As  these 
plants  have  strong  perennial  roots, 
they  take  possession  of  rich,  moist 
soils,  to  the  exclusion  of  good  grass- 
es. When  not  very  abundant,  the 
plants  may  be  weeded  out  by  means 
of  a  sharp  spud  or  hoe,  and  the  ex- 
pense will  be  well  repaid  in  the  qual- 
ity of  the  hay  or  pasture.  Wliere 
they  are  very  abundant,  the  only 
remedy  is  to  break  up  the  grass  in 
autumn,  let  it  be  exposed  to  the  frost 
in  winter,  take  a  crop  of  corn  next 
season,  and  lay  it  rough  again  the 
winter  after.  In  the  succeeding 
spring  the  land  may  be  inoculated 
with  good  tufts  of  grass,  and  before 
the  next  year  an  improved  pasture 
will  have  been  formed  ;  or,  if  this  is 
too  much  trouble,  it  may  be  summer 
fallowed,  and  sown  in  August  with 
pure  seed  of  the  best  grasses.  This 
is  expensive,  as  a  whole  year's  prod- 
uce is  lost,  but  the  subsequent  pas- 
ture will  be  so  much  better,  that  the 
expense  may  be  considered  as  a  prof- 
itable investment.  The  most  com- 
mon species  of  butter-cup  are  the 
Ranunculus  acris,  7cpcn.i,  and  hulbo- 
sus  :  the  R.  Jlannnnla  is  highly  poi- 
sonous, but  not  common,  except  in 
marshy  pastures. 

"  Senecio  Jacolcca,  or  rag  wort,  is 
another  troublesome  weed ;  but  as 
sheep  eat  it  readily  when  young,  it 
is  easily  kept  down  by  jiasturing  and 
folding.  In  moist  weather,  also,  it 
is  easily  pulled  up  by  hand. 

"  Tussilago  farfara,  colt's  foot.  By 
its  large  leaves  it  kills  the  finer  grass- 
es under  it.  As  moisture  is  essen- 
tial to  its  luxuriance,  draining  tends 
to  diminish  its  growth  ;  careful  ma- 


WEEDS. 


nnnng,  also,  makes  the  grasses  get 
the  better  of  it,  and  choke  it  when 
young. 

"  C hrysanlhcmum  Iciicanlhcmum,  or 
great  white  one  eye,  sometimes 
abounds  in  inferior  pastures,  and  is 
only  extirpated  by  tillage  and  impro- 
ving the  soil  by  manuring  it  well. 

"  \^'e  have  already  mentioned  an- 
nual and  biennial  thistles,  but  the  per- 
ennials, such  as  the  Cnicus  artensis 
and  Sonckus  arvcnsis,  or  corn  thistle 
and  sow  thistle,  arc  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  eradicate,  as  the  roots  strike 
deep  in  the  ground  and  throw  up 
fresh  shoots  every  year.  The  most 
effectual  mode  of  destroying  them  is 
to  draw  them  out  with  an  instrument 
like  large  pincers,  made  of  wood  or 
iron,  and  called  'a  thistle-drawer,' 
the  form  of  which  is  well  known,  and 
which  may  be  bad  in  most  ironmon- 
gers' shops.  The  lime  to  draw  the 
thistles  is  when  the  stem  is  grown 
sufficiently  to  give  a  good  hold  of  the 
crown  of  the  root.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  break  the  root  too 
near  the  ground,  but  to  draw  it  out 
completely.  In  ploughing,  also,  a 
broad  and  sharp  share,  cutting  hori- 
zontally seven  or  eight  inches  below 
the  surface,  will  cut  off  the  long  roots, 
BO  as  to  prevent  their  making  fresh 
shoots  ;  and  when  this  is  done  while 
the  thistle  is  in  a  growing  state,  the 
root  will  bleed  and  be  destroyed.  In 
grass  land  they  are  soon  destroyed, 
if  they  are  carefully  cut  down  with 
a  scythe  just  as  the  llower  is  expand- 
ing, and  before  the  seed  is  formed. 
If  this  is  done  for  two  or  three  years,  , 
not  a  thistle  will  be  seen  ;  but  then  i 
all  the  neighbouring  farmers  must 
agree  in  a  general  war  upon  thistles, 
whether  on  the  land  or  in  the  liedge- 
rows. 

"  The  dock  {Rumcx  oblusjfoUus  and 
others)  is  another  most  troubleson^e 
weed,  both  in  fields  and  pastures,  and 
is  only  to  be  eradicated  by  similar 
means  with  the  thistle.  Docks  are 
often  left  in  the  field  after  harvest, 
where  they  shed  their  seed  at  leisure, 
whereas  they  should  be  collected 
with  as  great  care  as  the  corn  itself, 
and  invariably  be  burned  in  heaps ; 


this  is  the  only  sure  means  of  de- 
stroying the  seed.  They  are  often 
thrown  into  the  roads,  supposing  tha* 
they  will  bo  crushed  by  the  wheels 
of  carts  passing  over  them  ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  birds  may 
swallow  them,  and  void  them  again 
with  their  vegetative  powers  unin- 
jured, if  not  improved  ;  and  that  thus 
they  are  again  sown  on  the  land. 
Nothing  but  burning  is  a  sure  de- 
struction of  the  seeds. 

"  Ccntaurca  nigra,  black  knapweed 
or  horse-knot,  is  a  coarse  plant  which 
chiefly  infests  pastures,  and  takes  up 
the  room  of  useful  grasses,  most  an- 
imals refusing  to  eat  it.  It  is  only 
to  be  eradicated  t)y  pulling  the  plants 
up  iiy  the  roots  or  cutting  them  close 
to  the  ground  wherever  they  appear. 
Manuring  the  surface  highly  and 
mowing  the  grass  soon  makes  them 
disai)pear. 

"  Pohigonum  amphihinm,  commonly 
called  amphibious  pcrsicaria,  is  found 
on  very  wet  land,  and  is  best  destroy- 
ed by  draining. 

"  Besides  the  common  conch  grass 
{Triticum  rcpcns),  which  is  the  pest  of 
farmers  on  light  soils,  there  are  a  va- 
riety of  plants  which  spread  both  by 
the  roots  and  by  creeping  along  the 
surface  ;  of  this  kind  are  the  differ- 
ent sorts  oi  quitches,  as  they  are  pro- 
vincially  called,  which  grow  in  wet 
soils.  Of  these,  the  Agrostis  stolonif- 
era,  once  so  highly  praised  as  fodder 
under  the  name  of  fwrin,  and  the 
Agrostis  alba  (March  bent  grass),  are 
the  most  common  ;  when  they  take 
possession  of  a  spot  they  exclude  all 
other  grasses.  The  only  mode  of 
extirpating  these  last  is  draining  and 
careful  tillage.  But  to  return  to  the 
common  couch.  This  weed  sonie- 
times  takes  such  possession  of  the 
soil  that  nothing  else  can  thrive  in  it. 
It  is  not  a  single  fallow  or  cleaning 
which  will  get  rid  of  it,  but  a  regular 
system.  Ploughing  does  often  more 
harm  than  good,  by  dividing  the  root 
(which  is,  in  fact,  an  underground 
stem),  and  thus  increasing  the  num- 
ber of  plants.  The  most  effectual 
means  of  destruction  is  by  the  fork. 
If,  after  the  ground  has  been  once 


WEE 


WEI 


plougned,  it  be  forked  up  carefully  in 
dry  woalhor,  and  liie  lulls  of  c()ut;li, 
with  their  roots,  be  exposed  to  the 
hot  sun,  they  may  be  rakeil  ofl"  and 
burned  ;  but  as  tliese  roots  contain 
mucii  nutritive  saccliarine  matter,  it 
is  often  wortli  while  to  wash  them, 
if  the  adhering  earth  cannot  be  beat 
out,  and  to  give  tlicm  to  liorscs  and 
cattle  to  cat,  taking  care  that  the 
litter  and  dung  made  at  that  time  be 
reserved  to  manure  grass  land,  and 
not  arable  fields.  Heaps  of  couch 
may  be  rotted  by  pouring  urine  or 
the  drainings  of  dunghills  over  them ; 
and  if  they  are  frequently  turned,  will 
produce  a  rich  compost.  Any  incon- 
venience from  the  extreme  vitality 
of  the  roots  is  obviated  by  using  this 
compost,  mixed  with  earth,  as  a  top- 
dressing  for  pastures. 

"  Another  weed  with  perennial 
and  very  vivacious  roots  is  the  Ar- 
rhcnatherum  arcnaceum,  common  oat- 
like grass.  The  root  is  bulbous,  and 
the  bulbs,  separated,  grow  again.  It 
is  difficult  to  eradicate,  but  the  means 
employed  to  get  rid  of  the  couch 
grass  will  succeed  with  this  and  most 
otlier  perennial  roots.  These  troub- 
lesome weeds  may  have  been  wisely 
dispersed  through  the  soil  by  Provi- 
dence, to  induce  the  cultivator  to 
give  his  land  a  more  perfect  tillage 
than  he  might  have  done  otherwise. 
The  expense  of  forking,  and  what 
is  usually  called  couching,  is  gener- 
ally amply  repaid  by  the  finer  tilth  it 
gives  to  the  land,  and  the  crops  are 
more  certain  and  abundant  in  conse- 
quence. 

"  There  are  many  other  weeds, 
both  in  arable  and  pasture  land,  which 
indicate  slovenly  culture,  and  which 
disappear  on  careful  cultivation  ; 
such  as  briars,  furze,  broom,  and 
rushes,  the  last  being  a  well-known 
sign  of  superabundant  moisture,  and 
only  to  be  destroyed  by  under-drain- 
ing. The  whole  process  of  cultiva- 
tion is  a  continual  struggle  between 
the  farmer  and  the  weeds  natural  to 
the  soil  he  cultivates.  The  sooner 
he  subdues  them  entirely,  the  less 
will  be  his  subsequent  trouble  ;  and 
the  perfection  of  agriculture  is  to 
84'i 


produce  crops  of  such  vegetables  as 
are  useful  and  piofitaiile,  and  are 
suited  to  the  soil  which  is  cultivated, 
while  all  others  are  excluded  which 
might  interfere  with  the  crops  to  be 
raised.  That  much  remains  yet  to 
he  done  in  this  respect  on  farms 
which  are  looked  upon  as  models  of 
cultivation  will  be  acknowledged  on 
sinqjle  ins[)ection.  The  almost  uni- 
versal adoption  of  tiie  system  of  drill- 
ing and  hoeing  the  crops  tends  great- 
ly to  the  destruction  of  useless  plants 
on  arable  land  ;  much  yet  may  be 
done  by  way  of  improving  the  prod- 
uce of  meadows  and  pastures  by  the 
destruction  of  all  noxious  and  useless 
plants,  and  th(>  introduction  of  those 
wliich  are  nutritious  and  improve  the 
herbage,  whether  depastured  or  made 
into  hay  ;  and  nothing  is  so  likely  to 
do  so  as  a  good  system  of  alternate 
husbandry,  where  the  best  grasses 
are  cultivated  as  carefully  as  the 
plants  which  are  immediately  appli- 
ed to  the  food  of  man." 

WEEVILS.  The  true  weevils  are 
coleopterans  of  the  family  Rhyncho- 
phondc^,  distinguished  by  the  head 
being  prolonged  into  a  snout,  and 
sometimes  into  a  narrow  tube.  The 
grain  weevils  will  he  found  figured  in 
the  article  on  Insects.  The  weevils 
are  all  destructive  to  grain  and  trees, 
the  Hylohius  pales,  picivorvus,  &,c.,  be- 
ing particularly  injurious  to  pine- 
trees.  They  are,  however,  the  food 
of  numerous  woodpeckers,  which 
keep  down  their  numbers.  Tlie  pine 
weevils  appear  in  the  fall,  from  Au- 
gust to  October. 

W'EIGH.  A  common  term  for  a 
certain  quantity  of  produce,  which  is, 
however,  indeterminate. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 
"  St/stcm  of  Lineal  Measures. — The 
unit  of  lineal  measure  is  the  yard,  all 
other  denominations  being  either  mul- 
tiples or  aliquot  parts  of  the  yard. 
The  yard  is  divided  into  3  feet,  and 
the  foot  subdivided  into  12  inches. 
The  multiples  of  the  yard  are  the  pole 
or  perch,  the  furlong,  and  the  mile ; 
5^  yards  being  a  pole,  40  poles  a  fur- 
long, and  8  furlongs  a  mile.  But  the 
pole  and  furlong  arc  now  scarcely 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


ever  used,  ilinerary  distances  being 
reckoned  in  nules  and  yards. 

"The  relations  of  these  different 


drnnminations  are  exhibited   in  tno 
following  table  ; 


In.-lies. 

Keet. 

Yiirds. 

Poles. 

Furlongs. 

Mile-. 

I 

0Ub3 

0.028 

0  00505 

0-000 121126 

0,0000157828 

12 

1 

0333 

DOB060 

0-00I5I515 

0-00(IIh'J39 

3li 

3 

1 

01818 

0004545 

0-(J0(l5nS18 

198 

10-5 

55 

1 

0025 

0003125 

7920 

fi60 

220 

40 

1 

0125 

63300 

5280 

1760 

320 

8 

1 

"  Of  the    different    measures    of  |  es  ;  144  square  inches  being  equal  to 


length  used,  the  foot  is  the  most  uni 
versally  prevalent.  We  subjoin  the 
relation  between  the  foot  of  different 
countries  and  the  English  foot. 

English  foot 

Russian  foot !• 

Paris  foot 1  065765 

Prussian  and  Danish  foot  .  1  029722 

Austrian  foot 1037128 

'' Mcasuresof  Superficies. — In  square 
measure  the  yard  is  subdivided,  as  in 
general  measure,  into  feet  and  inch- 


a  square  foot,  and  9  square  feel  to  a 
square  yard.  For  land  measure,  the 
multiples  of  the  yard  a/e  the  pole, 
the  rood,  and  the  acre  ;  3();J  (the 
square  of  5^)  square  yards  being  a 
pole,  40  poles  a  rood,  and  4  roods  an 
acre  (see  Acre).  Very  large  surfaces, 
as  of  whole  countries,  are  expressed 
in  square  miles. 

"  The  following  are  the  relations 
of  square  measure  : 


q.,,,re  Fe,-:. 

Squaiv    V;irJ<. 

P.ilc*. 

Kood<. 

Acres. 

1 

0-1111 

0-00:5!i7309 

o-ooo«yi«27 

0  000022957 

9 

1 

0-03305798 

0(100826448 

0000-20i;(512 

272-25 

30-2O 

1 

O-O-io 

000620 

10,«90 

1210 

40 

1 

025 

435G0 

4.340 

160 

-  4 

1 

"Land   is  usually  measured   by  a 
chain  of  4  poles,  or  22  yards,  which  is 
divided  into  100  links.     Three  chains 
in  length,  and  one  in  breadth,  make 
an    acre,   w-hicb    equals    1G9   square 
perches,  or  4840  square  yards. 
Square,  or  Superficial  Measure. 
144  square  inches  =  1  square  foot. 
9      "        feet        =    1      "        yard. 

304  "      ^""'s    =  1     "      ■■"''• 

40     "        rods       =1      "        acre. 
640      "        acres     =   1      "        mile. 

''Measures  of  Volume. — Solids  are 
measured  by  ci.bic  yards,  feet  and 
inches ;  1728  cubic  inches  making  a 
cubic  foot,  and  27  cubic  feet  a  cubic 
yard.  For  all  sorts  of  liquids,  corn, 
^nd  other  dry  goods,  the  standard 
measure  is  declared  by  the  act  of 
1824  to  be  the  imperial  gallon,  the  ca- 
pacity of  which  is  determined  imme- 
diately by  weight,  and  remotely  by 
the  standard  of  length. 

"  The  parts  of  the  gallon  are  quarts 
and  pints,  2  pints  being  a  quart,  and 
4  quarts  a  gallon.  Its  multiples  are 
the  peck,  the  bushel,  and  the  quarter  ; 
the  peck  being  2  gallons,  the  bushel  4 
pecks,  and  the  quarter  8  bushels. 
4  B  2 


Pmt^. 

•en:irts. 

Gatlotis. 

I'ecks. 

Itusi.els. 

Quarters. 

1 

Uo 

0-1  io 

U-0t)-21 

OOl.itH.-) 

0-001');Vii:,i 

2 

I 

0-25 

01 25 

01131-25 

O0ai>lli(i:.i 

8 

1- 

0-5 

0-1-25 

001.-)lv2ft 

ir. 

S 

2 

1 

0-23 

0^5125 

m 

3S 

8 

4       - 

1 

0-1-23 

I3l-i 

25li 

« 

.T2 

8 

' 

Ciiliic,  or  Solid  Measure. 
17-23  cubic  inches  make  .     .     1  cul)ic  foot. 

27  ciibii;  feet 1  cubic  yard 

40  feet  of  rough  timiier  , 
50  feel  of  hewn  timber 


1  load. 


"This  comprehends  length, breadth, 
and  thiL-kness. 

"And  108  solid  feet,  that  is,  12  feet 
in  length,  3  feet  in  l)ieadth,  and  3  feet 
deep,  or,  commonly,  14  feet  h'ng,  3 
(eet  1  inch  broad,  and  3  feet  1  inch 
deep,  are  a  stack  of  wood. 

"  .Vnd  128  solid  feet,  that  is,  8  feet 
long,  4  feel  broad,  and  4  feet  deep, 
are  a  cord  of  wood. 

Grain  Pleasures. 


No.  of  efjual 

Name  of 

Countries. 

BusheU 

to  English 

Quarters. 

Kngland    . 

1-000 

b-000 

SrotlanJ    . 

l-O-.'-l 

France 

H-427 

1-S07 

Seller. 

Holl'iil'l     . 

3-117 

2  5.14 

Mu.l.le. 

14;<> 

5-409 

Spain     .    . 
Poland  .     . 

1-.599 

5003 

FanngA. 

1-451 

5-313 

Ktfraee. 

845 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


English  Corn  Measures. 

4  gills         =^  1  pint  =        34!  cubic  in. 

2  pints         =  I  quart  =         69i         '^' 

4  quarts       =  1  gallon  =  277^         " 
2  irallons     =  1  peck  =  5444 

8  .rullMiis     =  1  bushel  =  2218i 

8  bushels    =  I  quurtcr  =         JOi  cubic  ft. 

5  quarters  =  1  load  =         51^ 

"  Tlie  Wincliestcr  quarter  is  more 
than  the  imperial  quarter,  being  in 
the  proportion  of  1  to  0  96945.  The 
English  imperial  quarter,  in  estima- 
ting weight,  means  the  ith  of  a  ton  of 
2340  lbs. =560  lbs.,  or  1  quarter. 

"  Measures  of  Wood  and  other  Fuel. 
— Cord-wood,  being  the  bigger  sort 
of  fire-wood,  is  measured  by  a  cord 
or  line,  whereof  there  are  two  meas- 
ures :  that  of  14  feet  in  length,  3  feet 
in  breadth,  and  3  feet  in  height  ;  the 
other  is  8  feet  in  length,  4  feet  in 
breadth,  and  4  feet  in  height,  which 
is  generally  employed. 
Table  of  Weights  and  Mea.sures  ac- 
cording to  the  Imperial  Standard. 

Avoirdupois  weigbt.  French  grammes. 

1  drachm  =:  1771 

16  drachms  1  ounce  =:  2S'346 

16  ounces      1  pound  =  453-544 

28  pounds     1  qr.  cwt.  =  l-2-69a  kilogram. 

4  quarters   1  cwt.  =  50~96 

20  cwt.          1  ton  =  1015-920 

"  The  Stone  is  generally  14  lbs. 
avoirdupois  weight,  but  for  butcher's 
meat  or  fish  it  is  8  lbs.  Hence  the 
cwt.  equals  8  stone  of  14  lbs.,  or  14 
stone  of  8  lbs. 

''Wool  Weight.  —  Like  all  other 
bulky  articles,  wool  is  weighed  by 
avoirdupois  weight,  but  the  divisions 
differ  thus : 

7    pounds        =:         1  clove. 

2    cloves  ==         1  stone. 

2    stone  ^         1  t"d. 

ei  tods  =  1  wey. 

2"  weys  =         1  sack. 

12    sacks  =;         1  last. 

"  Cheese  and  butter, 

8  pounds  =  1  clove. 

32  cloves  =  1  wey  in  Essex. 

42  cloves  =  1  w-ey  in  Suffolk. 

56  pounds  =  1  firkin  of  butter. 


A  cubic  foot  of  lallovr 
"        "         oak 

"         brick 
"        "         air 


weiihs 


59  lbs. 
73  15 
125 
-0753 


"  The  quintal  is  100  lbs.  ;  the  torn 
2240  lbs. 

"  The  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  dis- 
tilled water,  in  air,  is  252-458  grains. 

"The  Turkish  pound  is  7578grains ; 
the  Danish,  6941  ;  the  Irish,  7774  ; 
the  Neapolitan,  4952 ;  the  Scotch 
pound  troy,  7620-8. 

"The  imperial  gallon  contains  10 
lbs.  avoirdupois  of  distilled  water, 
weighed  in  air  at  62  =  ,  with  the  ba- 
rometer at  30  inches.  2  gallons  are 
equal  to  a  peck,  8  gallons  to  a  bush- 
el, and  8  bushels  to  a  quarter. 

"  Heaped  measure,  per  bushel,  is 
28154;  cubic  inches  clear. 

"The  Winchester  bushel  is  18^ 
inches  in  diameter,  and  8  inches  deep, 
containing  21.54  42  cubic  inches. 

"  1000  ounces  of  rain  water  are 
equal  to  about  7^  gallons  wine  meas- 
ure, or  to  a  cubic  foot. 

"  7  pounds  avoirdupois  are  a  gallon 
of  flour. 

"  A  chaldron  of  coals  is  58|  cubic 
feet. 

"  12  wine  gallons  of  distilled  water 
weigh  100  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

"The  imperial  dry  bushel,  when 
not  heaped,  is  2218  192  cubic  inches  ; 
the  peck,  5.54  548  ;  gallon,  277  274  ; 
and  quart,  69  3185.  The  bushel  is  8 
inches  deep,  and  18  8  wide,  with  a 
heap  6  inches  high. 

"  A  bushel  of  wheat  is  60  lbs.  ; 
rye,  53  lbs.  ;  barley,  47  lbs.  ;  oats,  38  ; 
pease,  64 ;  beans,  63 ;  clover  seed, 
68  ;  rape,  48  lbs. 

"  A  Scotch  pint  is  equal  to  4  Eng- 
lish pints. 

"A   Scotch  quart  is  208-6   cubic 

inches. 

"  There  are  545,267,000  cubic  yards 

in  a  cubic  mile. 

According  to  usage,  in  Philadel- 


^-     r    .     c  ^  -i    ....   phia  and  other  parts  of  the  United 

A  cubic  foot  of  loose  ear.h  or  ,  ^^^^_   K„ii,iin.r.«tnnP   u-l.Pn  niled  or 


sand  weighs  95  lbs. 

K  cubic  ft.  of  common  soil  weighs  124 

"       "       strong  soil  "  127 

"      "       clar  "  135 

"      "      distilled  water  "         62-5 

"      "       cast  iron  "  450-45 

"      "      lead  "  709  5 

"      "      copper  "  466-75 

846 


States,  building-stone,  when  piled  or 
'  perched,'  as  it  is  usually  termed,  is 
measured  by  allowing  25  cubic  feet  to 
the  perch  ;  but  when  placed  in  the 
wall,  only  22  feet  are  allowed  to  the 
perch.  In  measuring  stone  wall,  14 
inches  of  thickness  is  usually  allow- 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


ed.  When  the  thickness  of  the  wall 
exceeds  14  inches,  the  extra  thick- 
ness is  estimated,  and  made  an  addi- 
tional charge.  This  is  the  common 
rule  when  the  walls  have  only  one 
face.  In  double-faced  walls  there  is 
commonly  an  allowance  of  about  one 
third  more.  3  pecks  of  good  lime 
will  generally  sufiice  to  lay  1  perch 
of  stone  wall.  About  2  one-horse 
loads  of  sand  are  allowed  to  make 
mortar  for  3  perciies  of  stone  wall. 

"To  convert  cubic  feet  into  perch- 
es, divide  by  25  ;  or,  what  is  still 
more  easy,  multiply  by  01. 

"  In  brick-work,  14  bricks  are  usu- 
ally allowed  to  the  cubic  foot :  some- 
times only  13  are  allowed.  To  con- 
vert cubic  feet  into  cubic  yards,  di- 
vide by  3,  and  the  product  by  9. 

"  Lumba-  Measure. — In  estimating 
the  number  of  feet  in  a  board,  the 
length  in  feet  is  to  be  multiplied  by 
the  width  in  inches,  and  the  result, 
divided  by  12,  shows  the  contents  in 
feet.  When  boards  are  more  than  1 
inch  thick,  all  over  is  added.  A 
board  12  feet  long  and  U  inch 
tliick  would  of  course  be  estimated 
to  contain  one  fourth  more  than  a 
board  only  1  inch  thick. 

"  Capacity  Measures. — Wine  gal- 
lon, 231  cubic  inches :  beer  gallon,  2S2 
cubic  inches  ;  bushel,  2150  42  cubic 
inches  ;  lime  bushel,  131  inches  diam- 
eter at  bottom,  15  inches  at  top,  and 
13-47  inches  deep.  A  cord  of  wood 
contains  128  cubic  feet.  A  hogshead 
of  cider  1 10  wine  gallons. 

"  Weights. — A  Troy  pound  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  United  States  mint,  and 
the  avoirdupois  pound  bears  to  it 
the  ratio  of  7000  to  576. 

6U  lbs.  of  wheat  pass  for  a  bushel. 
58   "         rye. 
58   "         corn. 
48   "         buckwheat. 
47    "  barley. 

32   "         oats. 

85   "         coarse  salt  (foreign). 
70   "         ground  salt. 
62   "         fine. 

60   "         anthracite  coal,  112  lbs.  make  1 
owl.,  and  2240  lbs.  =  1  ton. 

"  If  the  square  of  the  diameter  of 
a  circle  be  multiplied  by  -7854,  the 
product  is  the  area.     If  the  diameter  ' 
of  a  sphere  be  cubed  and  multiplied  1 


by  -6236,  the  product  is  the  solidity ; 
and  tlie  square  of  tiie  diameter,  mul- 
tiplied by  314159,  is  the  surface  of 
the  sphere. 

"  To  find  the  contents  of  a  cask, 
add  double  the  square  of  the  bung  di- 
ameter to  the  square  of  the  head  di- 
ameter, and  multiply  this  sum  by  tlie 
head  of  the   cask  ;    then  divide  tiie 
product  by    1077  for  ale  gallons  of 
280  cubic  inches  each,  or  by  882  for 
wine  gallons  of  231  cubic  inches  each. 
"  Method  of  ascertaining  the  Weight 
of  Cattle  while  living. — Tliis  is  of  the 
utmost  utility  for  all  those  who  are 
not  experienced  judges  liy  the  eye, 
and  by  the  following  directions  llie 
weight  can  be  ascertained  witliin  a 
mere   trifle.     Take  a  string,  put  it 
round  the  beast,  standing  square,  just 
behind  the  shoulder-blade  ;  measure 
on  a  foot-rule  the  feet  and  inches  the 
animal   is   in  circumference  ;  this  is 
called  the  girth  ;  then  with  the  string 
measure  from  the  bone  of  the  tail, 
which  plumbs  the  line  with  the  hind- 
er part  of  the  buttock  ;  direct  the  line 
along  the  back  to  the  fore  part  of  the 
shoulder-blade  ;  take  the  dimensions 
with  the  foot-rule,  as  before,  which 
is  the  length,  and  work  the  figures  in 
the  following  manner:  Girth  of  the 
bullock,  6  feet  4   inches ;    length,  5 
feet  3  inches  ;  which,  multiplied  to- 
gether,   make  31   square  superficial 
feet ;  that,   again,   multiplied   by   23 
(the   number  of  pounds  allowed   to 
each   superficial    foot   of  all    cattle 
measuring  less  than  7  and  more  than 
five  feet  in  girth),  makes  713  lbs.  ; 
and  allowing  14  pounds  to  the  stone, 
is  50  stone  13  lbs. ;  and  where  the 
animal  measures  less  than  9  and  more 
than  7  feet  in  girth,  31  is  the  number 
of  pounds  to  each  foot.     Again,  sup- 
posing a  pig  or  any  small  beast  should 
measure  2  feet  in  girth,  and  2  feet 
along  the  back,  which,  multiplied  to- 
gether, make  4  square  feet,  that  mul- 
tiplied by  11,  the  number  of  pounds 
allowed  for  each  square  foot  of  cattle 
measuring  less  than  3  feet  in  girth, 
makes  44  lbs.  ;  which,  divided  by  14, 
to  bring  it  to  stones,  is  3  stones  2 
lbs.     Again,  suppose  a  calf,  sheep, 
&c.,  should  measure  4  feet  6  inches 
847 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


in  girth,  and  3  foot  9  inches  in  length, 
which,  niiiltiphcd  togetiicr,  make  1G| 
square  feet  ;  tliat  niultiphcd  hy  IG, 
th,e  numher  of  j)ounds  allowed  to  all 
cattle  measuring  less  than  5  feet  and 
more  than  3  in  girth,  makes  2G4  lbs.  ; 
which,  divided  by  14,  to  bring  it  to 
stones,  is  18  stones  12  lbs.  The  di- 
mensions of  the  girth  and  length  of 
black  cattle,  sheep,  calves,  or  hogs, 
may  be  as  exactly  taken  this  way  as 
it  is  at  all  necessary  for  any  compu- 
tation or  valuation  of  stock,  and  will 
answer  exactly  to  the  four  quarters, 
sinku)g  the  offal,  and  which  every 
man  who  can  get  even  a  bit  of  chalk 
may  easily  perform.  A  deduction 
must  be  made  for  a  half-fatted  beast 
of  1  stone  in  20  from  that  of  a  fat 
one,  and  for  a  cow  that  has  had  calves 
1  stone  must  be  allowed,  and  another 
for  not  being  properly  fat." 

"  French  Si/stcm  of  Weights. — The 
French  denominations  of  weight  oc- 
cur so  frequently  in  works  connected 
with  the  physical  sciences,  that  it  is 
convenient  to  be  acquainted  with  their 
values.  The  unit  of  weight  is  the 
gramme,  which  is  the  weight  of  the 
100th  part  of  a  cubic  metre  of  distil- 
led water  at  the  temperature  of  melt- 
ing ice.  A  gramme  is  equal  to  15  434 
Troy  grains  ;  whence  the  following 
comparative  table  of  French  with 
Troy  weight : 


Dyers'  weed,  or  yellow  rocket,  an 
annual  used  for  dyeing  purposes,  es- 


Milligramme    =: 

•001  = 

•01543 

Centigramme  = 

•01    = 

•15434 

Decigramme    = 

•1      = 

15434 

Gramme             =: 

1         = 

15-434 

Decagramme    =: 

10         — 

154-34 

Hectogramme  =: 

100            =: 

1543-4 

Kilos;rarame     = 

1000         = 

15434 

Myriagramrae  = 

lOUOO         = 

154340 

"The  kilogramme  is  equal  to  2 
lbs.  3  oz.,  4-428  drachms  avoirdupois 
weight.  In  the  Sf/slemc  Usucl  the 
standards  are  the  same  as  the  above, 
but  the  denominations  are  those 
which  were  anciently  in  use.  It  was 
found  impossible  to  introduce  the 
new  terms.  The  divisions  are  bina- 
ry. Half  the  kilogramme  forms  the 
livre  usuel,  which  is  divided  into 
halves,  quarters,  eighths,  &c.,  down 
to  the  gros,  which  is  the  eighth  of 
the  once,  or  the  fljih  of  the  livre. 

WELD.  Reseda  luteola  {Fig.). 
843 


pecially  for  yellow  dyes.  The  fol- 
lowing is  Loudon's  account  of  its 
cultivation  : 

"  The  soil  being  brought  to  a  fine 
tilth,  the  seed  is  sown  in  April  or  the 
beginning  of  May,  generally  broad- 
cast. Tiie  quantity  of  seed  is  from 
two  quarts  to  a  gallon  per  acre,  and 
it  should  either  be  fresh,  or,  if  two  or 
three  years  old,  steeped  a  few  days 
in  water  previously  to  being  sown. 
Being  a  biennial,  and  no  advantage 
obtained  Irom  it  the  first  year,  it  is 
sometimes  sown  with  corn  crops  in 
the  manner  of  clover,  which,  when 
the  soil  is  in  a  very  rich  state,  may 
answer,  provided,  also,  that  hoeing, 
weeding,  and  stirring  take  place  as 
soon  as  the  corn  crop  is  cut.  The 
best  crops,  however,  will  obviously 
be  the  result  of  drilling  and  cultiva- 
ting the  crop  alone.  The  drills  may 
be  a  foot  asunder,  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  six  inches  in  the  row.  In 
the  broad-cast  mode  it  is  usual  to 
thin  them  to  six  or  eight  inches'  dis- 
tance every  way ;  often,  when  weld 
succeeds  corn  crops,  it  is  never  either 
thinned,  weeded,  or  hoed,  but  left  to 
itself  till  the  plants  are  in  full  blossom. 

"  The  crop  is  taken  by  pulling  up  the 
entire  plant,  and  the  proper  period 
for  this  purpose  is  when  the  bloom 
has  been  produced  the  whole  length 
of  the  stems,  and  the  plants  are  just 


WEL 

beginning  to  turn  of  a  light  or  yellow- 
isli  colour ;  as  in  the  beginning  or 
middle  of  July  in  the  second  year. 
The  plants  are  usually  from  one  to 
two  and  a  half  feet  in  height.  It  is 
tiiought  by  some  advantageous  to 
pull  it  rather  early,  without  waiting 
for  the  ripening  of  the  seeds,  as  i)y 
this  means  tiiere  will  not  only  be  the 
greatest  projjortion  of  dye,  but  the 
land  will  be  left  at  liberty  for  the  re- 
ception of  a  crop  of  wheat  or  turnips  ; 
but  in  this  case  a  small  part  must  be 
Icl't  solely  for  tlie  purpose  of  seed. 
In  the  execution  of  the  work,  the 
plants  are  drawn  up  l)y  the  roots  in 
small  handfuls,  and  set  up  to  dry  after 
each  handful  has  been  tied  up  by  one 
of  the  stalks,  in  tlie  number  of  four 
together  in  an  erect  position  against 
each  other.  Sometimes,  however, 
they  become  sufficiently  dry  by  turn- 
ing without  being  set  up.  After  they 
have  remained  till  fully  dry,  which 
is  mostly  effected  in  the  course  of 
a  week  or  two,  they  are  bound  up 
into  larger  bundles  that  contain  each 
CO  handfuls,  and  wiiich  arc  of  the 
^veight  of  50  lbs.  each,  60  of  these 
bundles  constituting  a  load.  These 
last,  in  places  where  this  kind  of  crop 
is  much  grown,  are  tied  up  by  a  string 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  sold  under 
the  title  of  weld  cord. 

"  The  produce  of  weld  depends  much 
on  the  nature  of  the  season  ;  but  from 
half  a  load  to  a  load  and  a  lialf  is  the 
quantity  most  commonly  afforded.  It 
is  mostly  bought  by  persons  who  af- 
terward dispose  of  it  to  the  dyers  oc- 
casionally as  they  find  it  convenient. 
The  demand  for  it  is  sometimes  very 
little,  while  at  others  it  is  so  great  as 
to  raise  the  price  to  a  high  degree. 
It  i-s  sometimes  gathered  green,  and 
treated  like  woad  or  indigo  ;  but  in 
general  the  dried  herb  is  used  by  the 
dyers  in  a  state  of  decoction. 

"  The  use  of  weld  in  dyemg  is  for 
giving  a  yellow  colour  to  cotton, 
woollen,  moliair,  silk,  and  linen.  Blue 
cloths  are  dipped  in  a  decoction  of  it, 
which  renders  them  green  ;  and  the 
yellow  colour  of  the  paint  called  Dutch 
pink  is  obtained  from  weld.  It  yields 
a  brownish  yellow  decoction,  the  col- 


WEL 

our  of  which  is  rendered  paler  by 
acids,  and  richer  and  deeper  by  alka- 
lies. Alum  tiiruws  down  a  yellow 
precipitate,  and  leaves  the  clear  liquor 
of  a  fine  lemon  yellow  ;  tartar  also 
brightens  its  colour  ;  and  solution 
of  tin  gives  it  a  dilute  green  lint. 
When  a  ini.xture  of  whiting  and  alum 
is  added  to  a  hot  decoction  of  wvM,  a 
yellow  precipitate  is  obtained,  which, 
when  collected,  washed,  and  dried,  is 
of  a  fine  delicate  colour,  and  much 
employed  by  pa[)er-stainers. 

"  To  save  seed,  select  a  few  of  the 
largest  and  healthiest  plants,  and 
leave  them  to  ripen.  The  seed  i-s 
easily  separated. 

"  The  chief  disease  of  weld  is  the 
mildew,  to  which  it  is  very  liable 
when  young,  and  this  is  one  reason 
that  it  is  often  sown  with  other  crops." 

W  E  L  D I N  G.  The  union  of  two 
pieces  of  metal  at  a  white  heat  by 
hammering;  iron,  steel,  and  platinum 
are  the  only  metals  susceptible  of 
welding.  The  surfaces  are  cleaned 
by  borax  in  welding  steel. 

\V  E  L  L.  "  Before  proceeding  to 
dig  a  well,  it  ougtit  first  to  be  deter- 
mined on  whether  a  mere  reservoir 
for  the  water  which  oozes  out  of  the 
surface  soil  is  desired  or  obtainable, 
or  a  perpetual  spring.  If  the  former 
is  the  object  in  view,  a  depth  of  fifteen 
or  twenty  feet  may  probably  suflice, 
though  tills  cannot  be  expected  to 
alford  a  constant  supply  unless  a 
watery  vein  or  spring  is  hit  on  :  if 
the  latter,  the  depth  may  be  various, 
tliere  being  instances  of  300  and  500 
feet  having  been  cut  through  before 
a  permanent  supply  of  water  was 
found. 

"  The  art  of  well-digging  is  gener- 
ally carried  on  by  persons  who  de- 
vote themselves  exclusively  to  that 
department.     The  site  being  fixed  on, 
the  ground-plan  is  a  circle,  generally 
of  not  more  than  six  or  eight  feet  in 
diameter  :    the    digger    then    works 
j  down  by  means  of  a  small  short-han- 
!  died  spade,  and  a  small  implement  of 
I  the  pickaxe  kind,  the  earthy  iiaate- 
i  rials  being  drawn  up  in  i)uckets  by 
1  the   hand  or  a  windlass  fixed  over 
the  opening  for  the  purpose.     Where 
849 


WEL 


WHE 


persons  conversant  with  this  sort  of 
business  are  employed,  they  usually 
nianai,'e  the  whole  olthc  work,  brick- 
ing round  the  sides  with  great  facility 
and  readiness  ;  but  in  otlicr  cases  it 
will  be  necessary  to  have  a  bricklayer 
to  execute  this  part  of  the  business. 

"  There  are  two  methods  of  build- 
ing the  stone  or  brick  within  the  well, 
which  is  called  the  steening.  In  one 
of  these  a  circular  ring  is  formed,  of 
the  same  diameter  as  the  intended 
well  ;  and  the  timber  of  which  it  is 
composed  is  of  the  size  of  the  brick 
courses  with  which  the  well  is  to  be 
lined.  The  lower  edge  of  this  circle 
is  made  sharp,  and  shod  with  iron,  so 
that  it  has  a  tendency  to  cut  into  the 
ground  ;  this  circular  kirb  is  placed 
flat  upon  the  ground,  and  the  bricks 
are  built  upon  it  to  a  considerable 
height,  like  a  circular  wall.  The 
well-digger  gels  within  this  circle, 
and  digs  away  the  earth  at  the  bot- 
tom ;  the  weight  of  the  wall  then  for- 
ces the  kirb  and  the  brick-work  with 
which  it  is  loaded  to  descend  mto  the 
earth,  and  as  fast  as  the  earth  is  re- 
moved it  sinks  deeper,  the  circular 
brick  wall  being  increased  or  raised 
at  top  as  fast  as  it  sinks  down  ;  but 
when  it  gets  very  deep,  it  will  sink 
no  longer,  particularly  if  it  passes 
through  a  soft  stratum  :  in  this  case, 
a  second  kirb  of  a  smaller  size  is 
sometimes  begun  within  the  first. 
When  a  kirb  will  not  sink  from  the 
softness  of  the  strata,  or  when  it  is 
required  to  stop  out  water,  the  bricks 
or  stones  must  be  laid  one  by  one  at 
the  bottom  of  the  work,  taking  care 
that  the  work  is  not  left  unsupported 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  let  the  bricks 
fall  as  they  are  laid ;  this  is  called 
underpinning. 

"  AVell-diggers  experience  some- 
times great  difficulty  from  a  noxious 
air  which  fills  the  well,  and  suffocates 
them  if  they  breathe  it.  The  usual 
mode  of  clearing  wells  of  noxious  air 
is  by  means  of  a  large  pair  of  bellows 
and  a  long  leathern  pipe,  which  is 
hung  down  into  the  well  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  fresh  air  forced  down  by 
working  the  bellows. 

"The  use  of  the  auger  is  common 
85.0 


in  well-digging,  both  in  ascertaining, 
before  commencement,  the  nature  of 
the  strata  to  be  dug  into,  and  also  in 
course  of  digging  tor  the  same  pur- 
pose ;  and  because,  by  boring  in  the 
bottom  of  a  well  to  a  considerable 
depth,  the  spring  is  sometimes  hit 
upon,  and  digging  rendered  no  longer 
necessary. 

"  The  use  of  the  borer  alone  may 
procure  an  adequate  supply  of  water 
in  particular  situations.  This  mode 
ajipears  to  have  been  long  resorted 
to  in  this  and  other  countries.  From 
what  we  have  already  stated  as  to 
the  disposition  of  strata,  the  C(rndi- 
tions  requisite  for  its  success  will  be 
readily  conceived ;  viz  ,  watery  strata 
connected  with  others  on  a  higher 
level  :  the  pressure  of  the  water  con- 
tained in  the  higher  parts  of  such 
strata  on  that  in  the  lower  will  read- 
ily force  up  the  latter  through  any 
orifice,  however  small.  All  that  is 
necessary,  therefore,  is  to  bore  down 
to  the  stratum  containing  the  water, 
and,  having  completed  the  bore,  to 
insert  a  pipe,  which  may  either  be 
left  to  overflow  into  a  cistern,  or  it 
may  terminate  in  a  pump.  In  many 
cases,  water  may  be  found  in  this 
way,  and  yet  not  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity and  force  to  rise  to  the  surface  ; 
in  such  cases  a  well  may  be  sunk  to 
a  certain  depth,  and  the  auger-hole 
made,  and  the  pipe  inserted  in  it  at 
the  bottom  of  the  w-ell.  From  the 
bottom  it  may  be  pumped  up  to  the 
surface  by  any  of  the  usual  modes  " 

WETHER.  The  castrated  ram  : 
it  yields  the  best  mutton,  especially 
at  three  to  five  vears  old. 

WHALEBONE  SCRAPING  S. 
They  form  a  manure  very  similar  to 
woollen  rags :  half  a  ton  is  applied 
to  the  acre. 

WHALE-OIL  SOAP.  A  solution 
of  this  substance,  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound  in  four  or  five  gallons  of  water, 
is  found  the  best  application  for  de- 
stroying plant  lice,  whether  on  the 
stem  or  roots  of  trees.  A  weaker 
solution,  sprinkled  over  vegetables 
attacked  with  lice,  will  also  be  found 
serviceable. 

WHEAT.       Triticum   hybernum. 


WHEAT. 


"  Some  botanists  have  divided  wheats 
into  different  species,  from  some 
marked  peculiarity  in  their  formation. 
Others,  eoiisideriiig  tiiat  they  mostly 
form  hybrids  when  mixed  in  the  sow- 
in<T,  and  that  their  pt'culiarities  vary 
with  the  soil  and  climate,  have  look- 
ed upon  all  the  cultivated  wheats  as 
mere  varieties.  There  are,  however, 
three  jirincipal  varieties,  so  ditierent 
in  appearance  that  they  claim  pecu- 
liar attention.  These  are  the  hard  or 
liint  wheats,  the  soft  wheats,  and  the 
Polish  wheats.  The  hard  wheats  are 
the  produce  of  warm  climates,  such 
as  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Barbary.  The 
soft  wheats  grow  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe.  The  Polish  wheats 
grow  in  the  country  from  which  they 
derive  their  name,  and  are  also  hard 
wheats.      It  is  from  their  external 


form  that  they  are  distinguished  from 
other  wheats.  The  hard  wheats  have 
a  compact  seed  nearly  transparent, 
which,  when  bitten  through,  breaks 
short,  and  shows  a  very  white  flour 
within.  The  soft  wheats  have  an 
opaque  coat  or  skin,  and  which,  when 
first  reaped,  give  way  readily  to  the 
pressure  of  the  finger  and  thumb. 
These  wheats  require  to  be  well  dried 
and  hardened  before  they  can  be 
conveniently  ground  into  flour.  The 
Polish  wheat  has  a  chaff  which  is 
much  longer  than  the  seed,  a  large, 
oblong,  hard  seed,  and  an  ear  cylin- 
drical in  appearance.  It  is  a  delicate 
spring  wheat,  and  not  very  produc- 
tive ;  hence  it  has  only  been  occa- 
sionally cultivated  by  way  of  exper- 
iment. 

"  The    following    cuts    represent 


,  Eapfi>n»t'e.-'t  {  TrU,cum  Eg„p,.acim):  2.  Spelter  wheat  { Tr.<.T.,m  tp.UayZ.  -^^^-^^^f,  T  "I'^l.m'l^rVL^'f""  '"'"^ 
icum];  4SuigledK™^whc«U3Vi<icummom)coc«im);  5.  Common beardeJwUeal  (Truicum  I..rf.^»m). 

851 


WHEAT. 


some  peculiar  species  of  wheat.  Tiie 
first  is  a  eonipoiind  ear,  i)roduced  by 
very  liixurianl  vegetation,  and  is  com- 
mon in  Ejjypt.  The  second  is  tiie 
spelter  wheat,  of  which  the  chafl"  is 
so  strongly  attaclied  to  the  ^n-ain  as  to 
be  separated  only  hy  passing  throngh 
a  mill.  It  is  an  inferior  variety,  hut 
grows  in  less  fertile  soils.  The  third 
is  the  Polish  wheat,  with  very  long 
chaff  and  hard  grains.  The  fourth  is 
a  variety  which  only  ripens  one  seed 
in  each  spikelet,  and  is  not  much  cul- 
tivated. The  fifth  is  common  soft- 
bearded  wheat.  If  the  awns  of  this 
kind  are  obliterated,  it  forms  our 
common  soft  wheat.  The  existence 
of  awns  seems  not  to  affect  the  na- 
tiir(^  of  the  wheat,  and  they  differ  so 
much  in  length  that  tiie  varieties  of 
smooth-eared  and  bearded  wheats  run 
insensibly  into  each  other. 

"The  hard  wlieats  contain  much 
more  gluten,  a  tough,  viscid  substance, 
which  is  very  nutritious,  and  which, 
containing  a  portion  of  nitrogen,  read- 
ily promotes  that  fermentation,  or  )(- 
sing,  as  it  is  called,  of  the  dough, 
which  is  essential  to  good,  light  bread 
The  soft  wheats  contain  the  greatest 
quantity  of  starch,  which  fits  them 
for  the  vinous  fermentation,  by  its 
conversion  into  sugar  and  alcohol ; 
for  brewing  or  distijling,  therefore, 
the  soft  wheats  are  the  best."' 

VARIETIES   OP  WHE.iT. 

White  Flint. — This  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  kinds  in  the  Northern 
Stales.  The  heads  are  not  long,  but 
well  filled,  with  thirty  to  forty  grains  ; 
the  kernel  is  white  and  flinty,  large, 
and  with  thin  bran.  They  are  firm- 
ly attached  to  the  chaff,  and  do  not 
shell  out  except  when  very  ripe.  Tlie 
heads  are  rather  drooping,  with  few 
awns,  the  straw  medium  length,  and 
very  white  and  strong.  The  flour  is 
very  superior  :  the  perfect  wlieat 
weighs  from  63  to  67  pounds  the 
bushel. 

Harmon's  While  Flint. — A  variety 
improved  from  the  above,  in  which 
the  berry  is  larger,  bran  very  thin, 
and  the  flour  equally  good,  if  nc.'l  su- 
perior :  weighs  64  pounds  the  bush- 
852 


el.  This  and  the  above  are  little  in- 
jured by  the  Hessian  fly,  and  will 
stand  a  good  deal  of  wet  weather 
without  injury. 

White  I'rorcncr. — Heads  middling 
and  bald;  chaff  bluish  ;  berry  large 
and  white;  bran  thin;  flour  good.  It 
is  early,  but  the  straw  is  small,  long, 
and  soft,  and  very  liable  to  fall. 

Old  Red  Chaff. — An  old  and  favour- 
ite kind,  but  now  liable  to  rust  and 
the  fly.  Red  chaff,  bald  ;  long  straw ; 
berry  v/hite,  large,  weighing  62  pounds 
the  bushel ;  bran  tliin  ;  superior  flour. 

Kentucky  White -bearded,  Canada 
Flint. — White  chaff,  bearded  ;  heads 
short  and  heavy,  well  filled;  shells 
readily  ;  berries  round,  short,  and 
while  ;  weighs  60  to  6o  pounds  the 
bushel ;  flour  very  good,  but  not  equal 
to  the  white  flint.  It  tillers  little  ;  the 
straw  is  strong,  but  liable  to  injury 
from  insects. 

Indiana  Wheat. — White  chaff,  bald ; 
berry  u'hite  and  large  ;  bran  thin  ;  the 
berry  not  as  flinty  as  the  white  flint, 
some  of  the  best  quality  weighing  six- 
ty-four pounds  to  the  bushel,  produ- 
cing flour  of  superior  quality  and 
quantity  ;  straw  is  larger  and  longer 
than  the  white  flint ;  shells  easily,  so 
that  there  is  considerable  loss  if  it  re- 
mains in  the  field  till  fully  ripe.  In- 
sects have  attacked  it  more  than  the 
flint,  and  it  is  more  liable  to  be  win- 
ter-killed. 

A  variety  of  while  wheat  is  much 
esteemed  in  western  New -York, 
which  resembles  an  improved  Indi- 
ana.    It  is  called  Scotch  u-hcat. 

Virginia  White  May. — It  has  a  white 
chaff, bald,  much  resemi)lingthe  white 
flint  in  its  growth  and  straw  ;  the 
heads  are  more  clumped  ;  the  berry 
standing  out  more,  and  shells  easier. 
The  berry  is  white,  with  a  very  hard 
and  flinty  appearance,  weighing  from 
63  to  60  pounds  to  the  bushel  ;  bran 
of  a  medium  thickness,  producing 
flour  of  a  good  quality.  Its  early  ma- 
turity makes  it  valuable. 

Wheatland  Red. — This  is  a  new  va- 
riety which  originated  with  General 
Harmon,  from  the  Virginia  May.  It 
has  a  red  chaff,  bald  ;  heads  of  medium 
length,  and  well  filled  with  a  red  her- 


I 


WHEAT. 


r>'.  weighing  66  pounds  to  the  bushel, 
and  producing  tiour  of  good  quality. 
Tliis  is  a  very  hardy  variety  ;  straw 
of  good  size,  and  very  bright ;  it  has 
the  quality  of  the  Virginia  May  in  its 
early  ripening. 

Red  Bearded. — Red  chaff,  bearded  ; 
beards  standing  out  from  the  head ; 
berry  white,  weighing  from  60  to  62 
pounds  the  bushel ;  yields  Hour  well, 
and  of  good  (juality  ;  this  is  a  hardy 
variety;  succeeds  well  after  corn,  or 
on  light  soils.  Straw  not  large  or  very 
stiff.  This  variety  would  be  more 
extensively  cultivated  if  its  beard 
were  not  objectionable. 

Mediterranean. — This  was  introdu- 
ced into  .Maryland  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  It  is  a  light  red  chaff, 
bearded ;  berry  red  and  long ;  very 
flinty  ;  bran  thick,  producing  flour  of 
an  inferior  quality.  This  variety  may 
prove  valuable  at  the  South,  being 
seldom  affected  with  the  fly,  and  its 
early  ripening  is  favourable  on  ac- 
count of  rust.  Its  long,  stiff  beards, 
heads  short,  shelling  very  easy  (so 
much  so,  that  if  it  is  not  cut  while 
in  its  doughy  state,  there  will  be  a 
great  loss),  and  the  inferior  quality 
of  its  flour,  are  strong  objections  to 
its  culture,  where  wheat  of  superior 
quality  succeeds  well. 

Blue  Stem. — Has  been  cultivated  in 
Virginia  for  about  thirty  years  ;  white 
chaff,  bald  ;  berry  white  ;  weighs  64 
pounds  to  the  bushel  ;  bran  thin  ; 
produces  flour  of  .superior  quality. 
Formerly  this  was  a  rod  wheat,  now 
it  is  changed  to  a  beautiful  white. 
Straw  fair  size,  producing  well.  It 
is  now  one  of  the  most  productive 
varieties  cultivated  in  Virginia. 

Besides  these  well-known  varieties 
of  winter  wheats,  several  are  of  local 
reputation  and  worthy  of  trial.  Some, 
as  the  Valparaiso  and  Humes's  white, 
are  of  great  promise,  but  remain  to 
be  fully  tested.  The  choice  English 
varieties,  as  the  Talavera,  golden 
drop,  are  found  too  tender  for  our  se- 
vere winters  in  Xew-York. 

Of  spring-  wheats,  the  Tea,  or  Sibe- 
rian, bald,  and  Black  Sea  are  the  best. 
The  Italian  sprmg.  formerly  in  great 
demand,  has  much  degenerated. 
4C 


"  The  distinction  between  the  win- 
ter and  summer  wheats  is  one  which 
arises  entirely  from  the  season  in 
which  they  have  been  usually  sown  ; 
for  they  can  readily  be  converted  into 
each  other  by  sowing  earlier  or  later, 
and  gradually  accelerating  or  retard- 
ing their  growth.  The  difference  in 
colour  between  red  and  white  wheats 
is  owing  chiefly  to  the  soil  ;  white 
wheats  gradually  become  darker,  and 
ultimately  red  in  some  stiff,  wet  soils, 
and  the  red  wheats  lose  their  colour 
and  become  flrst  yellow  and  then 
white  on  rich,  light,  and  mellow  soils. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  grain  soon- 
er changes  colour  than  the  chaff  and 
straw  :  hence  we  have  red  wheats 
with  white  chaff,  and  white  wheats 
with  red  chaff,  which  on  the  forego- 
ing principle  is  readily  accounted  for. 
The  chaff  retains  the  original  colour 
when  the  skin  of  the  grain  has  al- 
ready changed  to  another.  We  state 
this  on  our  own  experience.  The 
soil  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
wheat  is  a  deep  loam  inclined  to  clay 
with  a  dry  subsoil.  If  this  is  not  so 
naturally,  it  must  be  drained  artifi- 
cially, to  ensure  good  crops  of  wheat. 
In  such  a  soil,  wheat  may  be  sown 
every  third  year,  with  proper  inter- 
mediate crops.  Formerly,  the  prep- 
aration for  a  wheat  crop  was  gener- 
ally by  a  clean,  naked  fallow,  with  a 
certain  addition  of  manure,  the  re- 
mains of  which  were  thought  suffi- 
cient for  a  crop  of  barley  or  oats  ; 
after  which  the  fallow  recurred.     It 

,  was  soon  found  out  that,  by  this 
means,  a  crop  of  wheat  could  never 
be  forced  beyond  a  certain  average ; 

I  for  if  more  than  the  usual  portion  of 
manure  was  carried  on  the  land,  the 
wheat  failed,  by  being  laid  before  it 
arrived  at  maturity.  Thus  a  limit 
appeared  to  have  been  set  to  its  in- 
crease. New  modes  of  cultivation 
have  shown  that  this  was  not  with- 
out its  remedy,  and  that  it  was  recent 
manuring  which  caused  the  wheat  to 
lodge  ;  but  that  an  increased  fertility, 
produced  by  judicious  preparation,  en- 
abled the  land  to  bear  crops  of  wheat 
far  superior  to  what  it  ever  could  be- 

.  fore.  Wheat  requires  a  soil  in  which 
853 


WHEAT. 


the  organic  matter  is  intimately  mix- 
ed with  the  earthy  inij^redioiils,  wliere 
it  can  liave  a  firmer  hold  hy  its  roots, 
and  can  at  ilie  same  time  striki'  the 
fibres  of  tliem  downward  as  well  as 
around,  in  search  of  food.  When  it 
meets  with  such  a  soil,  and  is  depos- 
ited at  a  proper  depth,  it  vegetates 
slowly,  pusliing  to  tlie  surface  one 
cylindrical  filament,  while  numerous 
fibres  strike  into  the  soil  from  tlie 
seed.  These  supply  the  plant  with 
regular  nourishment,  and  in  due  time 
a  knot  is  formed  at  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  from  which  several  roots  and 
stems  branch  out.  This  is  called  the 
tillering  of  the  wheat.  The  new  roots 
near  the  surface  soon  become  the 
chief  source  of  nourishment,  and  in 
a  rich,  compact  soil,  where  there  is 
room,  numerous  stems  arise,  forming 
a  tuft,  and  each  of  these  in  time  bears 
a  large  ear  well  tilled  with  seeds  ;  so 
that,  from  a  very  moderate  quantity 
of  seed,  a  great  return  is  produced. 
The  strong  stems  supporting  each 
other  are  well  able  to  resist  the  ef- 
fect of  storms  and  rains,  which  would 
lay  weaker  plants  level  with  the 
ground.  The  effect  of  abundant  ma- 
nuring immediately  before  the  seed 
is  to  produce  too  rapid  a  growth, 
weakening  the  straw,  and  increasing 
its  quantity  at  the  expense  of  the  ear, 
which  does  not  attain  its  proper  de- 
velopment. This  is  called  running 
to  straw.  All  strong  manures,  which 
contain  manyazotized  particles,  have 
this  effect,  which  is  corroborated  by 
late  experiments  with  saltpetre  and 
nitrate  of  soda.  They  produce  more 
straw  and  less  corn,  and  hence  are 
not  found  of  the  same  use,  when  ap- 
plied to  crops  which  are  cultivated 
for  their  seed,  as  they  are  on  grasses. 
"  Decayed  vegetable  matter,  or  hu- 
mus, seems  essential  in  a  good  wheat 
soil ;  and  it  may,  in  the  slow  prog- 
ress of  its  entire  decomposition, 
when  it  is  continually  absorbing  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  have  some  chem- 
ical effect  on  the  nitrogen  also,  so  as 
to  make  it  of  use  in  the  vegetation, 
whether  hy  first  forming  ammonia,  or 
in  any  other  way.  Farther  experi- 
ments may,  perhaps,  throw  a  light  on 
854 


this  subject.  It  is  well  known,  howev- 
er, that,  provided  a  soil  be  conii)act,  its 
fertility  is  very  nearly  proportioned 
to  th(!  quantity  of  humus  which  it 
contains,  especially  if  there  be  calca- 
reous earth  or  carbonate  of  lime  in 
its  composition.  Lime  has  been  oft- 
en considered  as  the  most  efficacious 
manure  for  wheat,  even  more  than 
dung.  As  long  as  there  is  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  lime  acts  benefi- 
cially ;  and  tlie  richer  the  land  which 
does  not  contain  carbonate  of  lime 
already,  the  more  powerful  the  effect 
of  liming.  But  experience  has  pro- 
ved that  lime  has  little  effect  on  poor 
soils  in  wheat,  until  they  are  first  ma- 
nured with  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. To  produce  good  wheat, 
then,  the  land  should  be  gradually 
brought  to  the  proper  degree  of  fer- 
tility, by  abundant  manuring,  for  pre- 
paratory crops,  which  will  not  suffer 
from  an  over-dose  of  dung,  and  will 
leave  in  the  soil  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  humus,  intimately  blended  with  it, 
for  a  crop  of  wheat.  Clover  is  a 
plant  which  will  bear  a  considerable 
forcing,  and  so  are  beans,  and  both 
are  an  excellent  preparation  for 
wheat.  The  roots  left  in  the  ground 
from  a  good  crop  of  either  decay 
slowly,  and  thus  furnish  a  regular 
supply  of  food  for  the  wheat  sown  in 
the  next  season.  Potatoes,  also, 
admit  of  much  forcing,  but  the  neces- 
sary loosening  of  the  soil  for  this  crop 
renders  it  less  fit  as  a  preparation  for 
wheat.  Experience  has  fully  proved 
that,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  better  to 
sow  barley  and  clover  after  potatoes, 
and  let  the  latter  be  succeeded  by 
wheat. 

"  Improved  chemical  analysis  has 
discovered  various  substances  in  mi- 
nute quantities  in  the  grains  and 
straw  of  wheat ;  and  this  has  led  to 
the  doctrine  that  these  substances, 
being  essential  to  its  formation,  must 
be  excellent  manures  for  it,  if  they 
do  not  already  exist  in  the  soil  in 
sufficient  quantities.  Most  of  these 
substances  are  found  in  all  soils 
which  contain  a  due  proportion  of 
clay.  Silica,  in  a  very  minutely-divi- 
ded state,  and  probably  in  combina- 


WHEAT. 


tion  with  soda  or  potass,  seems  one 
of  the  most  important  to  give  due 
strengtl)  to  the  straw  ;  and  licnce,  in 
some  soils,  potashes  or  wood-ashes 
whicii  contain  it  may  l)c  advanta- 
geously used  as  irianures  to  the  wheat. 
The  analysis  ol'  the  ashes  of  grains 
of  wheat  chosen  out  of  the  ears,  by 
Theodore  de  Saussure,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing results  : 

Potass ]5 

Phosphate  of  potass 32 

Muriutc  of  potass 0-lC 

Sulphate  of  potass a  trace. 

Earthy  phosphates 445 

Silica 0-5 

Metallic  oxides 0-25 

Loss 7-59 

TUiT^ 

"  The  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  the 
straw  gave  the  following  results  : 

Potass 12-5 

Phosphate  of  potass 5 

Muriate  of  potass 3 

Sulphate  of  potass 2 

Eartliy  phosphates 62 

Earthy  carbonates I 

Silica 61-5 

Metallic  oxides 1 

Loss 7 '8 

TotT 
"  The  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  the 
whole  plant,  when  in  blossom,  gives 
of 

Soluble  salts 41 

Earthy  phosphates 10-75 

Earthy  carbonates 025 

Silica       26 

Metallic  oxides 05 

Loss 2 1  5 

100- 

"By  comparing   these   results,  it 
will  appear  that,  from  the  time  of 
flowering  to  the  maturity  of  the  seed, 
a  portion  of  the  soluble  salts  is  re- 1 
placed  by  earthy  phosphates ;    that | 
silica  accumulates  in  the  straw,  but  | 
not  in  the  grain  ;   and  as  potass  is  ; 
the  principal  moans  of  rendering  the 
silica  soluble,  it  is  an  imiiortant  in- 
gredient in  a  wheat  soil,  as  well  as 
the    phosphoric   acid.     This   last  is 
found  chiefly  in  bone  earth  and  ani- , 
mal  manures.  1 

"  Although  wheat  thrives  best  on  ! 
heavy  soils,  and,  without  due  prepar- ' 
ation,  produces  only  scanty  and  un- 
certain crops  in  those  wluch  are  nat- 
urally light  and  loose,  it  may  be  made 
to  give  a  very  good  return  in  soils , 


[  which  would  once  have  been  thought 
j  fitted  only  for  the  growth  of  rye  and 
j  oats  ;  but  then  the  texture  and  com- 
[  ])Osition  of  th(!se  soils  must  have  been 
greatly  improved  by  judicious  tillage 
and  manuring.  A\'hile  tlu;  heavy  soils 
are  repeatedly  ploughed  and  pulver- 
ized to  render  them  mellow,  the  light- 
er are  rendered  more  compact  by 
marling,  where  this  can  be  readily 
done,  by  adding  composts  in  whicli 
the  princii)al  earth  is  clay,  and  espe- 
cially by  such  plants  as  have  sub- 
stantial and  long  roots,  by  which  the 
soil  is  kept  together,  such  as  clover, 
lucern,  sainfoin,  and  other  grasses. 
If  these  i)lants  have  been  well  manu- 
red, and  cover  the  ground  well,  keep- 
ing in  the  moisture,  the  soil  will  have 
become  sufficiently  compact  to  bear 
wheat.  One  ploughing  is  then  quite 
sufficient ;  and  if  a  heavy  land-press- 
er  is  made  to  follow  two  ploughs  and 
press  in  the  furrows,  so  as  to  leave 
deep,  smooth  drills,  eight  or  nine 
inches  apart,  in  which  the  seed  can 
find  a  solid  bed,  there  will  be  every 
probability  of  a  good  crop  of  wheat, 
which  will  come  up  in  regular  rows, 
the  roots  being  at  such  a  depth  as 
to  run  no  risk  of  wanting  moisture 
till  the  stem  has  arisen  to  its  full 
height  and  the  ear  is  formed  ;  a  few 
showers  at  that  critical  time  will 
make  the  grain  swell,  and  ensure  a 
good  crop. 

"  On  some  soils  it  may  not  be  ju- 
dicious to  attempt  to  sow  wheat; 
hut  these  are  the  poorest  loose  sands, 
which  naturally  would  bear  only  oats 
and  buckwheat  ;  on  these,  unless 
they  can  be  abundantly  marled,  it  is 
much  better  to  sow  rye.  When 
wheat  is  sown  on  light  soils  in  good 
heart,  it  grows  vigorously  in  spring, 
if  it  has  not  been  injured  by  the  frost, 
which  is  very  apt  to  raise  up  tho 
roots  and  throw  them  out  of  the 
ground.  The  driving  of  sheep  ovci 
the  field  presses  the  roots  into  the 
ground,  and  prevents  this  throwing 
out ;  but  a  vigorous  growth  of  straw 
is  not  always  a  sure  sign  of  a  good 
crop  at  harvest,  as  many  farmers 
know  by  sad  experience ;  what  would 
be  advisable  in  heavy  soils  is  not  al- 
855 


WHEAT. 


ways  so  in  ligliter.  A  heavy  rolling 
in  sprinjr  after  a  light  harrowing  is 
very  usclul  at  a  time  when  the  sur- 
face is  moist.  It  clo.ses  the  pores 
and  eheciis  the  evaporation  ;  and  the 
tigliter  the  surface  can  he  made,  the 
hotter  chance  tlicre  is  of  a  fair  crop. 
Tlie  Norfoli<  rotation,  as  it  is  gener- 
ally called,  in  which  wheat  is  sown 
after  clover,  is  the  only  one  well 
adapted  for  wheat  on  light  soils. 
The  manure  havin;^  heen  put  ahun- 
dantly  for  the  turni|)s  or  roots,  and 
the  land  being  freed  from  weeds,  the 
barley  which  follows  is  generally  a 
good  crop  ;  and  the  clover,  which  is 
sown  in  this,  is  trodden  in  the  reap- 
ing and  carrying  of  the  barley  ;  and 
there  is  only  one  ploughing  from  the 
time  the  barley  is  sown  to  the  sow- 
ing of  the  wheat.  If  this  be  dibbled 
on  the  turned  sward  of  the  clover, 
the  land  will  receive  another  tread- 
ing by  the  dibblers,  the  seed  will  be 
regularly  deposited  at  a  proper  depth, 
and  no  preparation  of  light  land  can 
be  more  likely  to  produce  good  wheat. 
On  heavy  soils  the  process  must  be 
varied  ;  the  surface,  instead  of  being 
rendered  more  coinpact,  will  often 
be  so  bound  as  to  require  to  be  stir- 
red by  harrowing  or  hoeing  before 
the  wheat  plant  can  properly  tiller. 
If  a  farmer  is  anxious  to  have  good 
crops  of  wheat,  he  must  not  rest  sat- 
isfied after  he  has plouglied,  manured, 
and  sown ;  he  must  watch  the  growth 
of  this  important  crop  daily,  and  use 
the  means  which  experience  and  ob- 
servation have  suggested  to  assist 
the  growth  and  to  remove  the  caus- 
es of  failure. 

"In  heavy  soils  nothing  is  more 
detrimental  than  excess  of  moisture. 
Even  in  well-drained  fields  the  water 
will  stand  too  long  in  the  furrows  if 
there  is  not  a  proper  outlet  for  it. 
Tlie  furroAvs  should  be  well  cleared 
out  with  the  spade  as  soon  as  the 
seed  is  sown,  drilled,  or  dibbled,  the 
earth  being  thrown  evenly  over  the 
surface  of  the  stitches,  and  not  left 
in  an  unsightly  ridge,  which  crumbles 
down  with  tiie  furrow  at  the  first 
frost.  In  proper  places  and  at  regu- 
lar distances,  deeper  water-furrows 
856 


'  should  he  dug  out  after  the  plough 
has  ploughed  a  deep  furrow  in  the 
intended  line  ;  and  this  should  then  be 
finished  as  is  said  above  ;  so  that  if 
a  heavy  fall  of  rain  should  come  sud- 
denly, the  water  will  have  a  regular 
course  and  outlet  into  the  ditches 
which  lie  in  the  lowest  part  of  the 
land,  without  soaking  into  the  soil, 
which  is  already  too  retentive  of 
moisture.  It  is  chiefly  in  spring  and 
when  snow  melts  that  there  should 
be  a  daily  inspection  of  the  wheat- 
fields.  An  experienced  eye,  going 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ridges  of  a 
large  field,  will  discover  at  once 
whether  there  is  any  stoppage  of  the 
water ;  and  by  means  of  a  spade  or 
shovel  it  will  be  remedied  with  little 
trouble.  \^'hen  the  surface  binds, 
as  it  does  in  some  soils,  and  jire- 
vents  the  access  of  air  to  the  roots, 
the  land  is  harrowed,  and  in  a  few 
days  the  effect  will  be  apparent. 

"  Soils  which  lie  on  a  very  porous 
subsoil,  or  which,  by  artificial  drain- 
ing, have  been  so  dried  and  mellow- 
ed that  horses  can  go  over  the  land 
at  all  times  without  making  such  an 
impression  as  will  retain  water  if  it 
rains,  may  be  laid  flat,  without  more 
open  furrows  than  are  necessary  for 
the  convenience  of  ploughing  with  a 
fixed  turn-furrow ;  and  thus  a  con 
siderable  portion  is  made  productive 
which  would  be  taken  up  by  furrows, 
and,  perhaps,  produce  w-eeds.  But 
if  the  soil  is  of  a  tenacious  quality, 
easily  compressed  when  moist,  and 
horses  cannot  safely  be  allowed  to 
pass  over  it  when  wet,  it  is  absolute- 
ly necessary  to  divide  the  land  into 
stitches,  or  beds  with  furrows  be- 
tween them,  in  which  the  horses  can 
walk  while  they  draw  harrows  or 
any  other  implement  over  the  land. 
All  the  implements  should  be  so  con- 
structed tliat,  if  they  have  wheels, 
these  may  run  in  the  furrows,  so 
that  nothing  will  disturb  the  even- 
ness of  the  stitches,  which  should 
have  a  gentle  slope  from  the  centre  to- 
wards the  two  furrows  which  bound 
it.  For  spring  crops  this  is  not  so 
essential,  although  it  is  advisable  not 
to  deviate  from  the  usual  form,  even 


WHEAT. 


when  barley  and  clover  are  sown  : 
because,  when  the  surface  is  laid  in 
double  stitches,  as  is  somt'times  done, 
it  is  not  very  easy  to  lay  it  in  narrow 
stitches  again,  at  one  ploughing,  for 
wheat.  No  doubt  a  very  expert 
ploughman  would  do  so,  but  it  is  not 
often  that  many  expert  ploughmen 
are  on  the  same  farm.  Even  in  very 
light  soils,  as  in  Flanders,  narrow 
stitciies  with  deep  intervals  are 
thought  most  advantageous. 

"  It  is  a  very  common  notion  that 
good  wheat  and  bean  land  is  not  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  roots,  espe- 
cially of  such  as  are  usually  fed  off 
the  land  by  sheep,  because  the  tread- 
ing of  animals  is  injurious  in  winter 
and  spring,  when  these  crops  are 
usually  wanted  ;  and  if  they  are  cart- 
ed ofl;  the  wheels  and  the  horses 
make  such  impressions  as  are  equal- 
ly detrimental,  or  more  so.  But  all 
roots,  even  the  white  turnip,  will 
grow  luxuriantly  on  heavy  soils,  well 
prepared  and  manured  ;  and  they 
may  be  so  managed  as  to  be  taken 
oft'  before  the  winter.  The  bulbs 
will  not  be  so  large,  but  they  will  be 
more  succulent,  and  may  be  kept  in 
various  ways  till  they  are  wanted  for 
the  cattle.  The  land,  being  plough- 
ed immediately  on  the  removal  of 
the  roots,  will  be  v.ell  prepared  for 
wheat,  or,  when  mellowed  by  the 
winter's  frost,  may  be  sown  in  spring 
with  beans,  barley,  or  oats.  The 
manure  will  be  incorporated  with  the 
soil,  even  if  it  has  been  put  on  in  a 
very  fresh  state  for  the  roots,  which 
can  only  be  recommended  on  very 
compact  soils.  If  the  root  crops  are 
well  cleaned,  fallows  may  be  avoid- 
ed, or,  at  least,  recur  very  seldom, 
and  tlien  only  v.  hen  weeds  have  ac- 
cumulated from  neglect. 

"When  the  wheat  has  blossomed, 
and  the  grain  in  the  ear  is  fully  form- 
ed, it  should  be  watched,  and  as  soon 
as  the  seed  feels  of  the  consistence 
of  tough  dough,  and  the  straw  is  dry 
and  yellow  below  the  ear,  it  should 
be  reaped.  The  skin  of  the  grain 
will  be  thinner,  and  its  substance 
will  harden  readily,  by  mere  drying, 
while  the  straw  is  better  fodder  for 
4C2 


the  cattle.  It  is  found  by  experience 
that  the  increase  of  (lour  hy  adopting 
this  method  is  very  considerable. 

"  It  was  the  custom  of  our  fore 
fathers  to  cut  the  straw  half  way  be- 
tween the  ear  and  the  ground  ;'  and 
their  reason  was,  that  thus  less  room 
was  required  in  the  barn,  and  no 
seeds  of  weeds  were  carried  there 
in  the  straw  ;  but  the  loss  of  half  the 
straw,  which  might  have  afforded  lit- 
ter or  fodder  for  cattle,  was  over- 
looked :  and  if  the  weeds  were  not 
taken  into  the  barn,  where  they  could 
do  little  harm,  except  giving  a  little 
more  trouble  in  winnowing  and  sift- 
ing the  corn,  they  were  left  to  shed 
their  seeds  on  the  land,  and  thus  per- 
petuate its  foulness,  or  add  much  to 
the  labour  of  weeding  the  succeed- 
ing crops.  The  stubble  or  haulms  had 
to  be  mown  or  raked  off  before  the 
land  could  be  well  ploughed  ;  and, 
although  this  might  make  a  very  good 
shelter  for  cattle  in  a  yard,' when 
made  into  haulm-walls,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  there  was  a  great 
loss  of  labour  in  thus  going  twice 
over  the  field.  The  most  approved 
mode  of  reaping  now  is  that  which 
is  called  fagging  or  bagging  (see 
Harvest) ;  but  the  most  expeditious 
is  mowing,  which,  by  means  of  a  cra- 
dle scythe,  may  be  done  so  regularly 
as  to  allow  all  the  corn  to  be  tied  up 
in  sheaves  without  any  loss.  The 
weeds  are  tied  up  with  the  corn,  and 
when  the  whole  is  thrashed,  the 
seeds  of  the  latter  are  winnowed  out 
and  burned  ;  thus  they  cannot  infest 
the  land,  and  there  is  double  the  quan- 
tity of  straw  to  convert  into  manure  : 
a  matter  of  great  importance  where 
cattle  are  fed  on  turnips  in  the  yard, 
chiefly  for  the  sake  of  their  dung. 

"  The  choosing  of  wheat  for  seed 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance. 
Some  farmers  liKe  to  change  their 
seed  often  ;  others  sow  the  produce 
of  their  own  land  continually,  and 
both  seem  persuaded  that  their  meth- 
od is  the  best.  The  fact  is,  that  it  is 
not  always  the  finest  wheat  which 
makes  the  best  seed  ;  but  il  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  land  on  which  it 
grew.  vSome  soils  are  renowned  fai 
8f>7 


WHEAT. 


and  wide  for  producing  good  seed, 
and  it  is  well  known  that  this  seed 
degenerates    in  otlier  soils,  so  that 
the  original   soil  is  resorted  to  for 
fresh  seed.     Many  places  have  been 
noted  for  this  peculiarity,  and  among 
them  we  may  mention  Genesee,  New- 
York  ;  the  wheat  which  grows  there 
is  sold  for  seed  at  a  price  considera- 
bly above  the  average.     It  has  been 
asserted  of  late,  and  we  have  no  rea- 
son to  doubt  the  assertion,  that  the 
various    noted    seed-wheats,    when 
analyzed,  are  found  to  contain  the 
different  elements  of  which  they  are 
composed  in  nearly  the  same  propor- 
tion, especially  the  starch   and  glu- 
ten.    For  bread,  that  which  contains 
most  gluten  is  preferred,  as  we  ob- 
served before  ;  but  to  produce  a  per- 
fect vegetation  there  should  be  no 
excess  of  this  substance,  nor  any  de- 
ficiency.  The  seed,  also,  should  have 
come  to  perfect  maturity.     This  last 
is   usually  obtained  by  beating   the 
sheaves  over  a  block  of  wood  or  a 
cask,  without  untying  them,  by  which 
means  the  ripest  seeds  fall  out.    The 
proportion  between  the   starch   and 
gluten  is  easily  ascertained  by  care- 
fully  washing   the    flour   when    the 
wheat  has  been  ground.     It  is  most 
convenient  to  tie  up  the  flour  in  a 
cloth,  which,  shaken  and  beaten  in 
water,  will  let   all  the  starch  pass 
through,  and  retain  only  the  gluten. 
The  operation  should  be  continued 
as  long  as  the  water  is  tinged  with 
the  white  starch.     Anyone  can  read- 
ily  make   the  experiment ;    and   as 
soft  wheats  vary  much  in  the  propor- 
tion of  the  gluten  they  contain,  the 
difference  will  be  readily  ascertained. 
This  leads  to  a  practical  conclusion  ; 
if  we  \\'ish  to  grow  any  peculiar  sort 
of  wheat  for  seed,  and   if  we   find 
that,  by  our  preparation  of  the  soil, 
or  its  original  composition,  we  pro- 
duce a  wheat  in  which  the  gluten  and 
starch  are  in  a  different  proportion 
from  that  of  the  original  seed,  we  may 
conclude  that  this  is  owing  to  more 
or  less  animal  or  vegetable  manure 
in  the  soil ;    and  by  increasing    the 
one  or  the  other,  we  may  bring  our 
wheat  to  have  all  the  properties  of  I 
858 


the  original  seed.  This  is  a  valuable 
discovery,  and  deserves  to  be  fully 
confirmed  by  experience.  The  glu- 
ten varies  from  10  to  35  per  cent. 

"Diseases. — While  the  wheat  is 
growing,  it  is  exposed  to  various  ac- 
cidents, which  it  is  often  difficult  to 
foresee,  and  more  difficult  to  guard 
against.  The  smut  and  burned  ear 
are  diseases  which  may  be  generally 
prevented  by  a  proper  preparation  of 
the  seed  before  it  is  sown.  (See 
Stnut.)  Many  corrosive  substances 
have  been  recommended  to  steep  the 
seed  in,  such  as  blue  vitriol  and  arse- 
nic, and  those  who  have  used  these 
steeps  place  great  confidence  in  them. 
It  seems,  however,  that  washing  the 
seed  well  with  plain  water,  or  with 
salt  and  water,  and  afterward  drying 
it  with  quicklime,  sufficiently  destroys 
the  germ  of  the  snuit  to  prevent  its 
propagation.  The  most  common  steep 
is  water  in  which  so  much  salt  has 
been  dissolved  as  will  enable  it  to  float 
an  egg.  In  this  the  seed  may  be  left  for 
twelve  hours  or  more,  and  then  spread 
on  a  floor,  and  mixed  with  as  much 
quicklime  as  will  absorb  the  moisture, 
and  allow  it  to  be  sown  or  drilled,  with- 
out the  grains  adheringto  one  another. 
"  In  the  second  volume  of  the 
'  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Agri- 
culture of  England,'  Part  I.,  is  a  val- 
uable paper,  by  the  Rev.  T.  S.  Hens- 
low,  on  the  diseases  of  wheat.  He 
describes  the  different  fungi  which 
produce  the  various  diseases  of  pep- 
per brand,  dust  brand,  rust,  and  mil- 
dew ;  he  doubts  the  truth  of  the  as- 
sertion that  Berbery  trees  or  bushes 
cause  mildew  in  wheat  which  grows 
near  them,  although  this  is  believed 
by  many  farmers. 

"The  ergot  in  wheat  is  an  excres- 
cence from  the  ear,  like  a  small  horn, 
into  which  the  seed  is  transformed. 
It  has  a  poisonous  quality,  and  is 
medicinal.     See  Ergot. 

'  Another  disease  of  the  seed  is 
called  ear-cockles,  and  is  caused  by 
extremely  minute  insects,  like  eels, 
which  fill  the  skin  of  the  seeds  instead 
of  flour.  This  insect,  which  is  call- 
ed Vibrio  trilici,  is  described  by  Mr. 
Bauer  in  the  '  Philosophical  Trans- 


WHE 


WHE 


actions'  for  1823.  This  disease  is 
not  so  common  as  the  smut  and  pep- 
per brand,  It^  probable,  according 
to  Mr.  lIenslo\v,  that  the  animalcules 
may  be  killed  by  exposing  the  grain 
to  a  certain  heat,  so  as  not  to  destroy 
its  power  ol"  vegetation,  but  sufficient 
to  kill  the  vibrio." 

The  chiiick  bug,  in  the  Southern 
States,  is  often  more  destructive  than 
the  Hessian  fiy. 

"  Great  attention  has  been  lately 
paid  to  tlie  introduction  of  the  best 
and  most  prolific  varieties  of  wheat, 
and  by  merely  observing  what  cars  ap- 
pear much  superior  to  others  in  a  held 
of  ripe  wheat,  and  collecting  these  to 
be  sown  separately  in  a  garden  or  por- 
tion of  a  field,  the  variety,  which  may 
have  been  produced  by  some  fortui- 
tous impregnation,  or  some  peculiarity 
in  the  spot  where  it  grew,  is  perpet- 
uated. By  carefully  selecting  the 
seed  which  is  best  adapted  to  tlie 
soil,  by  a  more  careful  and  garden-like 
cultivation,  and  by  adding  those  ma- 
nures which  are  found  most  adapted 
to  favour  its  perfect  vegetation,  crops 
of  wheat  have  been  raised  which,  at ; 
one  time,  would  have  been  thought 
miraculous." 

WHEAT,   CULTIVATION   IN  ! 
^^'ESTER^•  NEW-YORK.    The  fol- ' 
lowing,   from   General    Harmon,   is  I 
worthy  of  great  attention  from  its 
practical  value  :  i 

"  The  soil  that  I  have  under  culti-  j 
vation  is  probably  as  well  adapted  to  ; 
the  producing  of  as  fine  a  quality  of  j 
wheat  as  any  in  the  world.     It  is  a  | 
gravelly  loam,  with  limestone  of  small ! 
size  gravel  up  to  several  pounds  each.  ' 
It  is  what  has  been  called  the  hard  ! 
oak  openings.   My  rotation  is  of  three  j 
years  shift.  Clover  is  invariably  sown  ' 
on  wheat  in  March  or  April,  about 
eight  pounds  to  the  acre  ;   and  as  : 
soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  in  April,  sow 
one   bushel  of  plaster  to  the   acre. 
The  next  year  pasture  or  mow  ;  the 
third  year,  in  June,  plough  seven  or 
eight  inches  deep.    The  clover  should 
be  mostly  eaten  off  when  ploughed.  I 
The  turning  under  of  a  great  growth 
of  clover  1  believe  to  be  injurious  to 
the  next  crop  of  wheat.     If  fed  offi 


i  with  sheep,  the  manure  they  drop  is 
worth  more  to  tlie  wheat  crop  tiian 
if  it  had   been    turned  under  in   its 
green  state.     In  turning  under  green 
clover,  there  is  in  the  next  crop  fre- 
quently  a  coarseness  in  tlie  leaf  and 
!  straw  that  is  not  favourable  to  the 
I  production   of  a  fine  quality.     1  go 
over  the  ground  thus  ploughed  with 
I  the  cultivator  harrow  three  or  four 
I  times  by  the  first  of  September  ;  then 
cross-plough,  and  sow  on  the  furrow 
from    the    10th   to   the   loth   of  the 
month ;  then  harrow  it  in  with  the  cul- 
tivator harrow.     It  buries  the  wheat 
deeper  than  the  common  harrow,  giv- 
ing the  plant  a  more  vigorous  appear- 
ance, and  rendering  it  less  liable  to  in- 
jury by  the  thawing  and  freezing  in 
March  and  April.     M'heat,  for  seed, 
should  be  selected  from  that  part  of 
the  field  tliat  is  iirst  ripe  and  where  it 
ripens  evenly.     All  lodged  or  rusty 
straw  should  be  rejected,  for  wheat 
from  such  straw  does  not  fully  malu;  e. 
It  will  grow  as  soon  as  any  other, 
but  wheat  of  superior  quality  is  se.- 
dom  obtained  tVom  such  seed.     A,l 
small  or  imperfect  kernels  should  b.i 
sifted  out,  and  nothing  but  the  pure 
seed  sown.     Twenty-four  hours  be- 
fore the  wheat  is  sown  it  should  be 
washed  in  a  brine  as  strong  as  salt 
will  make  it.     After  draining  a  few- 
minutes,  mix  with  each  bushel  two 
quarts   of  newly-slacked    lime,   and 
then  sow  one  and  one  fourth  bushels 
to  the  acre.    The  above  is  ray  cours.e 
of  operation.     My  average  crop  for 
several  years  past  has  been  over  20 
bushels  per   acre,  of  very  superior 
quality,  mostly  sold   for   seed  ;    the 
past  season  over  1100  bushels.     My 
price  has  uniformly  been  twenty-five 
cents  over  the  millers.     One  great 
difficulty  in  the  way  of  farmers  im- 
proving their  wheat  crops  is,  the  sow- 
ing of  poor  grain  mixed  with  other 
seeds,  and  believing  that  Wheat  turns 
to  chess.     While  at  the  State  Fair, 
at  Poughkecpsie,  last  fall,  I  saw  sev- 
eral barrels  of  wheat,  of  different  va- 
rieties, all  mixed  with  so  much  cockle 
and  chess,  that  a  Wheatland  miller 
would  not  take  such  for  flouring  as 
first  quality.     The  man  that  had  it 


^^'HE 


WHE 


said  it  was  sent  to  him  from  Western 
New-York  for  seed,  and  he  was  try- 
ing to  sell  it  as  such.  As  U>ng  as 
such  seed  is  sown,  we  shall  have 
those  farmers  that  believe  wheat  will 
degenerate  into  chess.  In  selecting 
the  best  winter  variety,  1  will  name 
the  ones  that  I  believe  will  do  best 
on  the  different  soils  where  wheat  is 
sown.  There  are  some  varieties  that 
succeed  hotter  on  some  soils  than 
others.  If  the  soil  is  rich  clay  loam, 
it  is  important  to  sow  a  small  and 
early  variety  :  the  Kentucky  white, 
better  known  as  Hutchinson  wheat  ; 
Mediterranean;  or  Wheatland  red.  If 
sandy,  gravelly  loam,  the  improved 
white  Flint,  old  Genesee  red,  Chaff 
bald,  Saul's  wheat,  and  Flint.  In  se- 
lecting the  variety  that  will  do  best 
on  all  soils,  I  am  confident  the  im- 
proved white  Flmt  stands  first  for  the 
quantity  and  siiperior  quality,  produ- 
cing more  flour  of  superior  quality 
than  any  other  of  nearly  forty  differ- 
ent varieties  that  I  have  had  under 
cultivation.  I  know  of  no  spring  va- 
riety that  will  come  up  to  the  winter 
where  they  succeed  well.  In  some 
sections  of  country  none  but  spring 
varieties  will  succeed.  The  Black 
Sea  red,  Chaff  bearded,  are  the  hard- 
iest and  most  productive  "f  any  of 
the  spring  varieties  of  good  quality. 
The  Tea  wheat  is  a  very  beautiful 
spring  wheat,  white,  chaff  bald,  berry 
white.  It  is  not  as  productive  as  the 
Black  Sea  ;  the  qualitv  is  superior." 

WHEAT,  COW.    S'ee  Cow  Wheat. 

WHEAT  GRASSES.  Grasses  of 
the  same  genus  as  wheat  {Tnlicuin), 
of  which  the  couch  grass  (7'.  repcns) 
is  best  known.  They  are  not  indige- 
nous in  the  United  States,  and,  al- 
though very  nutritious,  are  not  ob- 
jects of  special  cultivation. 

WHEAT,  INSECTS  OF.  The 
two  most  severe  enemies  are  species 
of  Cccidomyia,  a  genus  resembling 
the  gnat. 

Tlie  Hessian  fli/  {C.  destructor),  Fig., 
b,  is  represented  of  the  natural  size 
at  c;  it  has  a  black  head,  thorax,  and 
wings,  with  a  brownisii  tjody.  Two 
generations  appear  in  the  year :  the 
first  in  spring,  the  second  in  Septem- 
8G0 


her  and  October.     The  females  lay 
their  eggs   on  the  young  shoots  of 
spring   or    fall   wheat.     The   worm, 
which  is  hatched  in  a  few  days,  de- 
scends to  the  lower  parts  of  the  stem 
near  the  earth,  where  they  become 
changed  into  grubs  of  the  size  and 
appearance  of  a  flaxseed  (d) ;  here 
the  winter   generation    remain,   and 
are  converted  into  winged  insects  in 
spring.     They  destroy  the  plant  by 
sucking  its  juices,  and  hinder  the  de- 
j  velopment  of  flower  steins.  The  most 
effective  means  to  avoid  this  fly  is  by 
selecting  wheat  with  a  tough  straw, 
\  as  the  Mediterranean,  by  sowing  ear- 
j  ly,  and  preparing  the  ground  and  seed, 
I  so  as  to  give  it  a  good  start.     Scat- 
j  tering  lime,  and  using  nutritious  ma- 
nures, such   as  guano,  early  in  the 
{  spring,  may  do  good.     Close  feeding 
i  by  sheep  is  also  adopted  where  the 
'  grubs  are  found  early.     Burning  the 
infected  straw  is  a  preventive.     The 
Hessian  fly  is  attacked  by  ichneumon 
flies,  which  deposite  their  eggs  in  the 
}  body  of  the  grub. 

The  wheat  midge,  or  Jlij  (C.  tritici), 
Fig.,  a,  has  been  of  late  a  severe  pest 
in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States. 
It  is  smaller  (c)  than  the  Hessian  fly, 
of  a  yellow  colour,  with  clear  wings. 
They  are  seen  in  June,  when  the 
wheat  is  in  flower,  and  the  eggs  are 
deposited  during  dusk  in  the  scales 
of  the  chaff.  The  maggots  (/)  are 
of  a  yellow  colour,  changing  to  brown, 
and  eat  the  young  seed  as  it  is  form- 
ed, g  represents  one  of  the  worms 
magnified.     The  maggots  fall  to  the 


WHE 


WHE 


ground  to  change  into  chrysales,  and 
aio  protected  in  the  soil  until  the 
next  season,  when  tliey  come  forth  in 
spring. 

Fumigations  with  sulphur  and 
smoke  have  been  tried  during  the 
evening  to  destroy  the  worms  ;  the 
success  is,  however,  only  partial. 
Sprinkling  lime  and  ashes  is  much 
better  :  a  mixture  of  half  a  bushel  of 
each  may  be  used  to  tlie  acre.  The 
lime  should  he  water-slacked.  After 
an  invasion  of  these  destructive  in- 
sects, the  stubble  should  be  burned, 
the  soil  ploughed  dee[),  and  no  wheat 
sown  for  one  or  more  seasons.  Early 
or  late  sowing  wdl  do  little  towards 
saving  a  crop  of  wheat,  for  it  ap- 
pears that  the  midge  lives  for  thirty- 
nine  days. 

The  English  papers  mention  an- 
other insect,  tiie  Ascius  pumilanus, 
which  attacks  wheat  in  the  same  way 
as  the  Hessian  fly. 

In  Virginia,  and  some  other  South- 
ern States,  the  chinck  hvg  is  often 
destructive.     See  that  insect. 

The  wheat  weevils  found  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Calandra  {Cur- 
culio)  granaria  and  ori/z(e;  they  are 
both  readily  destroyed  by  kiln-drying, 
at  150°  to  ISO  -  Fahr.  A  figure  of  the 
former  will  be  found  in  the  article  on 
insects. 

Besides  these,  other  insects  are 
occasionally  found  in  smaller  quan- 
tities, preying  on  the  roots  and  young 
stem,  but  they  seldom  produce  the 
destruction  of  the  crop. 

WHEEL  and  AXLE.  A  common 
mechanical  contrivance  for  raising 
weights,  especially  water  from  wells ; 
the  advantage  is  increased  by  en- 
larging the  wheel  and  diminishing 
the  axle,  hut  always  with  a  loss  of 
time.  The  best  form  for  great  me- 
chanical advantage  is  that  represent- 
ed in  the  figure. 


WHEELBARROW.  A  light  car- 
riage driven  by  a  man  and  moving  on 
one  wheel.  It  is  made  of  .stout  jjlank 
for  carrying  st(Uie  and  earth,  and  is 
lighter  and  larger  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  grain. 

WHEEL  PLOUGH.  A  plough 
with  a  wheel  m  the  heel  to  dinunish 
the  friction  of  the  sole.     See  rUmsli. 

W  HEELS  OF  CARRl AOES. 
The  wheel  consists  of  three  parts  : 
the  nave,  centre,  or  hub ;  the  spokes  ; 
and  the  circumference,  or  felloes, 
bounded  with  its  iron  tire.  The  ma- 
terials may  be  of  iron  or  wood  ;  if  the 
latter,  elm  or  white  oak  is  preferred 
for  the  nave,  white  oak  for  the  spokes, 
and  ash  for  the  felloes.  The  centre 
of  the  nave  is  furnished  with  an  iion 
box  to  receive  the  axletree.  The 
wood  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned, 
and  the  framing  of  the  wheel  set  to- 
gether some  weeks  before  the  tire  is 
put  on.  The  manner  of  setting  tlie 
tire  is  well  known  ;  it  is  healed  in  a 
brush  fire  until  nearly  red  hot,  and 
then  placed  over  the  felloes  and  at 
once  chilled  with  water.  It  should 
be  so  set  as  to  allow  the  nails  used 
to  fasten  it  to  be  driven  into  the 
spokes.  Great  improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  axle,  which  is  en- 
closed in  iron  or  of  wrought  iron  : 
the  latest  im[)rovement  is  that  of  sur- 
rounding it  with  a  systein  of  friction 
wheels,  which  lie  between  the  box 
and  axle,  and  reduce  the  friction  to 
a  minimum. 

The  advantage  of  the  wheel  is  two- 
fold. "  In  the  first  place,  they  greatly 
diminish  the  friction  on  the  ground 
by  transferring  it  from  the  circum- 
ference to  the  nave  and  axle  ;  and  in 
the  second  place,  they  serve  to  raise 
the  carriage  more  easily  over  obsta- 
cles and  asperities  met  with  on  the 
roads.  The  friction  is  diminished  in 
the  proportion  of  the  circumference 
of  the  axle  to  that  of  the  wheel  ;  and 
hence  the  larger  the  wheel,  and  the 
smaller  the  axle,  the  less  is  the  fric- 
tion. Large  wheels  are,  therefore, 
best  adapted  for  surmounting  inequal- 
ities of  the  road.  There  are,  howev- 
er, circumstances  which  prescribe 
liuiits  to  llic  height  of  the  wheels  of 
861 


WHE 


WHI 


carriages.  If  the  radius  exceeds  the 
height  of  that  part  of  the  horse  to 
whicli  the  traces  are  attached,  the 
line  of  traction  will  he  inclined  to  the 
horizon,  and  part  of  the  power  will 
be  exerted  in  pressing  tlie  wheel 
against  the  ground.  The  hest  aver- 
age size  of  wheels  is  considered  to 
be  about  six  feet  in  diameter.  The 
fore  wheels  of  carriages  and  wagons 
in  this  country  are  usually  much  too 
small. 

"  Cylindrical  wheels  are  best  adapt- 
ed for  level  roads  ;  and  the  breadth 
of  the  rim  should  be  considerable  (not 
less  than  three  inches),  to  prevent 
liieir  sinking  into  the  ground.  In 
hilly  and  uneven  roads  a  slight  incli- 
nation of  the  spokes,  called  dishing, 
tends  to  give  strength  to  the  wheel ; 
but  it  is  very  frequently  carried  to 
excess." 

"  Carriages  with  four  wheels  are 
much  more  advantageous  than  car- 
riages with  two  wheels,  as  carts  ;  for 
with  two  wheels,  it  is  plain  the  tiller 
horse  carries  part  of  the  weight  in 
one  way  or  other;  in  going  down  lull 
the  weight  bears  upon  the  horse,  and 
in  going  up  hill  the  weight  falls  the 
other  wa)*  and  lifts  the  horse,  which 
is  still  worse.  Besides,  as  the  wheels 
sink  into  the  holes  in  the  roads,  some- 
times on  one  side,  sometimes  on  the 
other,  the  shafts  strike  against  the 
horse's  sides,  which  destroys  many 
animals  ;  moreover,  when  one  of  the 
wheels  sinks  into  a  hole  or  rut,  half 
the  weight  falls  that  way,  which  en- 
dangers the  overturning  of  the  car- 
nage." 

Mr.  Scripture,  of  New-York,  has 
recently  patented  a  carriage  wheel 
which  i)romises  well.  It  is  furnished 
with  two  separate  hubs,  which  can 
be  screwed  together  ;  by  this  means 
the  pressure  of  the  spokes  on  the  fel- 
h)es  and  tire  is  easily  regulated,  and 
the  tire  can  neither  become  bound 
nor  .so  loose  as  to  want  cutting. 

WHEEL-SHAPED  COROLLA. 
A  rotate  corolla  :  it  is  monopetalous, 
with  a  spreading  border  and  very 
short  tube. 

WHEEL  WORK.    A  combination 
of  wheels  for  the  purpose  of  increas- , 
862 


ing  speed  or  gaining  power.  Motion 
is  communicated  from  the  circumfe- 
rence of  one  wheel  to  the  axis  or  pin- 
ion of  another  by  teeth,  belts,  or  oc- 
casionally by  friction.  The  teeth  of 
all  the  wheels  and  pinions  in  the 
work  must  be  of  the  same  size  ;  they 
should  also  be  smooth  on  their  surfa- 
ces, and  curved  gradually  to  the  sum- 
mit to  diminish  friction.  "  Toothed 
wheels  are  of  three  kinds  :  spur 
ivhccls,  crown  wheels,  and  bevelled 
wheels.  When  the  teeth  are  raised 
upon  the  edge  of  the  wheel,  or  are 
perpendicular  to  the  axis,  the  wheel 
is  a  spur  wheel ;  when  they  are  rais- 
ed parallel  to  the  axis,  or  perpendic- 
ular to  the  plane  of  the  wheel,  it  is  a 
crown  wheel ;  and  when  they  are 
raised  on  a  surface  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  the  wheel,  it  is  called  a  bev- 
elled wheel.  The  combination  of  a 
crown  wheel,  with  a  spur  wheel  as 
pinion,  is  used  when  it  is  required  to 
communicate  motion  round  one  axis 
to  another  at  right  angles  to  it." 

WHEEZING  IN  HORSES. 
Broken  wind. 

WHELP.  The  voung  of  the  dog. 
WHETHERING.  Retention  of 
the  after-birth  in  cows.  It  should  be 
removed  by  hand  if  retained  too  long, 
as  the  decomposition  of  the  substance 
will  otherwise  destroy  the  animal. 

WHETSTONE.  A  silicious  slate 
used  for  whetting  implements. 

WHEY.  The  watery  parts  of 
milk  containing  the  sugar  of  milk, 
with  a  little  casein  and  saline  mat- 
ters. It  is  fermentable,  and  made 
by  some  of  the  Asiatics  into  an  in- 
toxicating drink.  In  the  dairy  there 
are  two  kinds  of  whey ;  that  which 
is  clear  and  separates  from  the  milk 
when  rennet  is  added,  and  that  which 
is  pressed  out  from  the  curd.  The 
latter  is  white,  and  used  to  make 
whey  butter  or  cottage  cheese.  See 
Butter.  Whey  is  used  for  feeding 
hogs,  and  given  in  Scotland  even  to 
horses. 

WHEY  BUTTER.     See  Butter. 
WHIN.     Gorse.     See  Furze. 
WHINSTONE.     A  kind  of  basalt. 
WHIP  GRAFTING.     Tongue 
grafting.     See  Grafting. 


WHI 


WIL 


WHIPPING  OUT  GRAIN.  Stri- 
king the  ears  against  a  stone  or  the 
edge  of  a  board  till  the  corn  is  sep- 
arated from  the  straw. 

WHIPPLE-TREE.  A  swinging 
tree.  The  bar  to  which  the  traces  of 
the  horse  are  fastened. 

^VHIRLBONE.      The   knee   pan. 


uated  near  the  joints.  It  is  very  dif- 
ficult to  manage. 

WHITE  VITRIOL.  Sulphate  of 
zinc.  It  is  a  powerful  emetic,  and  is 
also  vised  in  lotions. 

WHITEWASH.  Awash  of  milk 
of  lime  with  size,  to  enable  it  to  ad- 
here.    Whitewashing  not   only   ini- 


In  the  horse,  the  articulation  of  the    proves  the  appearance  of  wood-work, 
thigh  bone  in  the  pelvis  ;   the  ace-    but  protects  it  from  the  weather  and 


tabulum. 

WHIRLWIND.  A  revolving  wind, 
blowing  to  a  centre.  The  tornado  is 
a  violent  whirlwind. 


msccts.     It  is  a  good  means  of  puri- 
fying rooms  in  which  substances  of  a 
bad  odour  have  been  stored. 
WHITE  WEED.    The  larger  per- 


WHISKEY.  A  strong  spirit  dis- I  ennial  May  weed  {Chrysanthemum), 
tilled  from  the  fermented  mash  of  occurring  in  wheat  fields  and  mead- 
corn,  barlev,  wheat,  or  other  grains.  I  ows. 

WHITE  ARSENIC.  Common  ■  WHITE  WOOD.  The  tulip-tree, 
arsenic,  arsenious  acid.  It  has  been  WHITING.  Prepared  chalk,  for 
recommended  for  dusting  grain  after  >  cleaning  brasses  and  silver 


brining,  but  should  never  be  used  ; 
for  other  substances,  as  blue  vitriol, 
answer  muchbetter,  and  are  not  so 
dangerous. 

WHITE  CEDAR.     See  Cedar. 

WHITE  CROPS.  Grain  crops  ; 
the  Cercalia.  They  are  exhausting, 
from  the  quantity  of  seed  they  form, 


WHITLOW.  A  painful  inflamma- 
tion near  the  bone,  tending  to  suppu- 
ration. 

WHITLOW  GRASS.  The  genus 
Draha :  cruciferous  plants,  some  of 
which  are  ornamental. 

WHORL.  In  botany,  an  arrange- 
ment of leaves  orother  organs  around 


and   are  foul   crops,  from   allowing  |  the  stem,  and  apparently  on  the  same 
weeds  to  grow  among  them.    White  .  level,  as  the  leaves  of  madder, 
crops  require  to  be  followed  by  clean        WHORTLEBERRY.    The  genus 
crops,  and  should  be  preceded  by  root    Vaccinium,  yielding  the  berries  called 
crops,  as  far  as  practicable.        •  bilberries,  huckleberries,  and  whor- 

WHITE-LEAD.  Carbonate  of  tleberries.  The  plants  are  small 
lead,  a  valuable  pigment,  but  liable  to  ,  shrubs,  often  es'ergreen,  and  growing 
adulteration  with  sulphate  of  barytes.  \  in  rocky  v.-astes  or  boggy  places.   The 


This  is  detected  by  mixing  a  sample 
with  dilute  nitric  acid,  which  will  dis- 
solve  all  the   true   white -lead   and 


leaves  contain  much  tannin,  and  turn 
red  when  dead.  They  are  readily 
propagated  by  root  suckers,  by  root 


leave  the  barytes.     It  is  the  basis  of  or  stem  cuttings,  or  seed. 


all  colours  used  in  common  painting, 

WHITE  PRECIPITATE.  A  vio- 
lent mercurial  poison,  used  in  oint- 
ments for  destroying  vermin. 

WHITE  ROOT.  Asclepms  Inbe- 
rosa.  Colic  or  pleurisy  root ;  but- 
terfly weed.  It  is  used  in  domestic 
practice  as  a  cathartic,  diaphoretic, 
and  expectorant. 

WHITE  SCOUR.     Diarrhoea. 

A\'  H  I  T  E  THORN.  The  haw- 
thorn. 


WICKET  GATE.  A  small,  light 
gate  for  the  passage  of  men  and  hor- 
ses onlv.  and  not  for  wagons. 

!  WILD  INDIGO.  Baptism  tincfo- 
ria.  A  perennial  leguminous  plant, 
with  wedge-ovate  leaves,  and  yellow 
terminal  racemes,  flowering  in  July. 
It  grows  three  feet  high,  is  common 

:  in  the  woods  throughout  the  States, 

j  and  affords  a  good  amount  of  indigo 

!  dye. 

i      WILDING.     Young  trees  produ- 


A\'HITE  TOP.     Agrostis  alba.     A    ccd  from  seeds  naturally  distributed, 
grass  verv  similar  to  red  top.  ,      WILD  PEAR.     The  June  beny. 

A\'Hri  E  SWELLING.     An  indo-        WILD  RICE.      Ztzaina  aqualica. 
lent,  scrofulous  tumour,  usually  sit- ,  Water  oats.     See  Rice,  wild. 

863 


WIN 


WIN 


WILLOW.    The  genus  Saliz,  con- 1 
taining  thiity-five  species  indigenous  ' 
to    the    United    States.      They    are  , 
amentaceous  and  dicEcious  trees  and  I 
shrubs,  growing  for  the  most  ])art  in  i 
swampy  lands.     The  genus  iuchides 
large    trees,    as    the    6'.    Babylonica,  I 
weeping-willow,  and  some  shrubs  of  j 
only  a  few  inches  height.     The  light  i 
and  elegant  appearance  of  many  spe-  \ 
cies  have  introduced  them  into  shrub-  [ 
heries  and  parks,  as  the  .S'.  vilcilina, 
yellow  willow  ;  S.  alba,  white  willow ; 
<S'.  Russcliiana,  the  Leicester  or  Bed- 
ford willow :  the  last  is  also  valua- 
ble for  timber,  the  tannin  of  its  bark, 
and  the  proportion  of  salicine  it  con- 
tains,  and   is  therefore  extensively 
cultivated  in  England. 

The  wood  of  most  of  our  willows 
is  of  no  service  except  for  charcoal, 
and  of  this  they  produce  a  kind  pre- 
ferred for  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder. The  commonest  species  are 
S.  nigra,  the  root  of  which  is  very 
bitter,  and  used  as  a  domestic  medi- 
cine ;  S.  luciJa,  or  shining  willow, 
the  twigs  of  which  are  used  for  coarse 
baskets.  The  bark  of  some  kinds  is 
used  for  domestic  dyeing,  and  produ- 
ces a  yellowish  red  colour.  In  the 
north  of  Europe  the  .S'.  alba  is  put  to 
a  variety  of  purposes  :  the  bark  is 
employed  for  tanning  and  dyeing,  and 
the  leaves  and  young  shoots  used  as 
fodder,  both  in  the  fresh  and  dried 
state.  See  Osier,  for  basket  willows ; 
also  Sallow.  Nearly  all  the  species 
are  readily  propagated  by  cuttings 
placed  in  a  moist  soil  or  well  watered. 

WILLOW  HERB.  The  genus 
EpUobmm,  perennial  herbs,  growing 
in  wet  soils  :  a  few  are  cultivated 
for  their  flowers. 

WILLOW  LICE.  Aphidians,  plant 
lice. 

WILLOW  WE  ED.  An  annual 
weed.  Polygonum  lapalhifolium,  grow- 
ing in  wet,  light,  arable  lands.  The 
seed  resembles  a  small  buckwheat ; 
they  are  relished  by  birds  and  hogs. 

WINCH.  A  bent  or  rectangular 
handle  for  turning  an  axis,  attached 
to  grindstones,  the  windlass,  and 
other  machines. 

WIND.     The  motion  of  large  por- 
8o4 


tions  of  atmospheric  air.  It  occurs 
with  a  velocity  differing  from  a  few 
miles  to  sixty  or  more  miles  the  min- 
ute. The  origin  of  winds  is  usually 
referred  to  the  unequal  temperature 
imparted  to  the  earth's  surface  by  the 
sun  ;  this  not  only  varies  with  the 
latitude,  but  with  the  elevation,  geo- 
logical character,  and  extent  of  wa- 
ter, and,  secondly,  to  the  sudden  con- 
densation of  large  quantities  o{  its 
vapour.  The  excess  in  expansion  of 
the  air  produced  at  any  place  causes 
an  upward  current,  which  affects  the 
bulk  of  air  lying  around,  and  gener- 
ates a  motion  from  all  points  to  the 
centre.  In  seeking  the  centre,  the 
motion  is  spiral  or  centripetal,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  theories.  Winds 
are  of  interest  to  the  farmer  from  the 
meteoric  effects  they  produce,  as 
rain,  snow,  frost,  increase  of  the 
drying  power,  and  hail.  A  body  of 
air  in  motion  increases  the  evapora- 
tion of  water  from  the  land  and  plants 
even  to  double  the  extent  of  the  or- 
dinary action  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture ;  this  increases  their  coldness, 
and  may  produce  frost  even  during  a 
mild  season  ;  in  hot,  dry  weather, 
plants  wither  more  rapidly  during 
windy  weather.  For  this  reason, 
tender  plants  require  shelter  from 
rough  winds.  Tiie  character  of  any 
wind  is  dependant  upon  the  country 
over  which  it  passes  ;  those  which 
sweep  over  hundreds  of  miles  of  the 
sea  or  lakes  are  usually  surcharged 
with  moisture,  and  produce  rain  if 
they  pass  into  a  northern  region,  as 
in  the  case  of  our  southwestern 
storms.  Winds  which  sweep  over 
hot,  dry  deserts  become  simooms  ; 
their  contact  withers  vegetation  in  a 
few  minutes.  So  winds  produce 
coldness  which  come  from  snowj' 
districts,  and  warmth  when  they  come 
from  the  south.  The  study  of  the 
peculiarities  of  every  wind,  and  the 
season  of  its  prevalence,  is  to  the 
farmer  one  of  the  most  important  ob- 
jects, and,  taken  in  connexion  with 
the  fluctuations  of  the  barometer  and 
thermometer,  will  after  a  time  enable 
him  to  foretell  rain  for  many  hours 
before  its  appearance. 


WIN 


WIN 


WIND  FLOWER.  Anemone  Vir- 
giniana.     A  wood  flower. 

WIND  GAUGE.    See  Anemometer. 

WIND  IN  HORSES.  Respira- 
tion.    See  Broken  Wind. 

WIND  GALLS.  Small  tumours 
near  the  fetlocks  of  horses,  produced 
by  strains  and  over-driving :  they 
contain  a  serous  lluid.  The  animal 
should  have  rest :  astringent  lotions 
may  be  used,  and  a  bandage  applied 
very  tight.  If  they  do  not  disappear, 
a  little  blistering  ointment  may  be 
applied  near  them. 

WINDLASS.  .\  simple  mechani- 
cal contrivance,  of  the  wheel  and  axle 
kind,  the  winch,  D  C  B,  being  the 
representative  of  the  wheel  (Fig.). 
c 

BFV. 


In   heavy  windlasses,  as  those  em- 
ployed on  shipboard,  the  axis  is  large, 
and  moved   by  levers   inserted   into  ; 
mortices  cut  into   it  at  convenient  ■ 
distances.     A  strong  windlass,  made  ! 
by  taking  the  trunk  of  a  tree  for  the  ] 
axis,    and    adjustuig   it    lengthwise  i 
against  the  stems  of  two  trees,  might 
be  used  in  tearing  up  stumps.     This  i 
a.xis  siiould  be  pierced  with  mortices 
and  turned  with  handspikes;  it  should  i 
also  be  furnished  with  ratchets  (pauls)  j 
or  wedges,  to  hinder  it  from  turning 
backward  when  the  handspikes  are  | 
out.     A  strong  chain  made  fust  in  the 
stump,  and  to  the  windlass,  will  af-  j 
ford  a  means  of  acting  upon  the  for-  ' 
mer,  and,  by  cutting  the  longest  roots 
at  a  little  distance,  it  may  be  drawn  ' 
out  sutliciently  to  permit  the  use  of 
the  plough. 

WINDMILL.  "In  mechanics,  a 
mill  which  receives  its  motion  from 
the  wind.  The  building  containing 
the  machinery  is  usually  circular.  To 
the  extremity  of  the  principal  axis,  or 
wind  shaft,  are  attached  rectangular 
frames  (generally  five),  on  which 
canva.'js  is  usually  stretched  to  form 
the  sails  The  surfaces  of  the  sails 
i  D 


are  not  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  but 
inclined  to  it  at  a  certain  angle,  about 
72°  at  the  extremities  nearest  to  the 
axle,  and  83°  at  the  farther  extremi- 
ties ;  so  that  their  form  is  in  some 
degree  twisted,  and  difi'erent  from  a 
plane  surface.  The  wind-shaft  is  in- 
clined to  the  horizon  in  an  angle  of 
from  8°  to  15°,  principally  with  a 
view  to  allow  room  for  the  action  of 
the  wind  at  the  lower  part,  where  it 
would  be  weakened  if  the  sails  came 
too  nearly  in  contact  with  the  build- 
ing. 

"  As  the  direction  of  the  wind  is 
constantly  changing,  some  apparatus 
is  required  for  bringing  the  axle  and 
sails  into  their  proper  position.  This 
is  sometimes  effected  by  supporting 
the  machinery  on  a  strong  vertical 
axis,  the  pivot  of  which  moves  in  a 
socket  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground,  so 
that  the  whole  structure  may  be  turn- 
ed round  by  a  lever.  But  it  is  now 
usual  to  construct  the  building  with 
a  movea!)le  roof,  which  revolves  upon 
friction  rollers  ;  and  the  shaft,  being 
fixed  in  the  roof,  is  brought  round 
along  with  it.  The  roof  is  brought 
into  the  required  position  by  means 
of  a  small  vane  wheel,  furnished  with 
wind  sails,  which  turns  round  when 
the  wind  strikes  on  either  side  of  it, 
and  drives  a  pinion  which  works  into 
the  teeth  of  a  large  crown  wheel 
connected  with  and  surrounding  the 
moveable  roof." 

This  is  the  vertical  windmill,  but 
sometimes  the  sails  are  fixed  on  a 
horizontal  axis.  Windmills  are  sel- 
dom made  because  of  their  inferiority 
to  water  and  horse,  or  steam  power 
mills.  The  internal  machinery  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  water-mill. 

WINDROW.  A  line  or  rovr  of 
grass,  peat,  or  produce  exposed  to 
dry.     The  unfilled  borders  of  a  field. 

WINE.     See  Vine. 
'      WINE  STONE.     Crude  tartar, 
argal. 

I      WINGS.     Alee.     In  botany,  the 
side  petals  of  pea-like  flowers,  the 
membranous  expansions  of  the  seeds 
'  of  the  ash,  alanthus,  parsnip,  and  oth- 
er seeds. 

1      WINLE  STRAWS     Bents,  the 
665 


WIN 


WIR 


withered  flower-stalks  of  grasses 
standing  in  meadows. 

WINNOWING.  The  separation 
of  wheat  or  grain  from  cliatf,  an- 
ciently performed  hy  throwing  up 
shovelfuls  into  the  air  on  a  windy  day, 
but  now  accomplished  by  the  fan. 

WINNOWING  MACHINE.  The 
wheat  or  grain  fun.  A  machine  for 
separating  grain  from  chaff",  and 
cleaning  wheat  from  cockle,  cheat, 
and  other  small  seeds.  It  consists 
of  a  frame-work  enclosing  a  fan, 
which  is  moved  by  a  crank  and 
wheel-work  on  the  outside.  Tiie 
grain  faWs  from  a  hopper  at  the  top 
of  the  machine  upon  a  sieve,  to  which 
a  jogging  motion  is  given  hy  the 
crank ;  in  this  way  it  is  sifted  from 
stones  or  bodies  larger  than  the  grain. 
The  current  of  wind  produced  by  the 
fan  blowing  over  the  sieve  drives  out 
all  light  particles  of  chaff".  The  seeds 
which  pass  down  from  the  sieve  fall 
on  the  upper  parts  of  an  inclined 
shaking  screen  of  wire,  set  too  close 
for  the  transmission  of  plump  grains, 
but  allowing  shrivelled  seed,  cockle, 
&c.,  to  pass  through.  A  machine  is 
provided  with  three  screens  and 
sieves  to  enable  the  farmer  to  use  it 
for  different  grain.  Forty  to  fifty 
bushels  can  be  cleaned  in  an  hour 
with  the  common  fans. 

The  English  winnowing  machines 
are  combined  with  smut  machines, 
and  are  therefore  much  more  expen- 
sive and  complicated.  The  follow- 
ing description  is  of  Mr.  Salter's  pat- 
ent: 

"  The  undressed  grain  from  the 
hopper  passes  through  a  cylindrical 
sieve,  having  within  it  a  rotary  spin- 
dle, upon  which  short,  blunt  arms  are 
arranged  in  a  spiral  direction  ;  these 
agitate  the  grain  as  it  passes  along, 
and  thus  separate  the  small  dirt  and 
dust  as  well  as  the  awns  of  barley, 
which  fall  through  in  a  closed  box  or 
cupboard.  The  cylinder  is  placed  in 
a  slanting  direction,  and  is  provided 
at  each  end  with  slides,  which  regu- 
late the  quantity  and  speed  with 
which  the  grain  shall  pass.  Through 
the  slide  aperture  at  the  lower  cad, 
the  grain  is  introduced  upon  other 
866 


sieves,  which,  having  a  backward  and 
forward  motion,  distribute  it  equally 
over  their  surface,  when  it  is  sub- 
jected to  the  blast  of  the  fan,  driving 
obliquely  through  the  sieves ;  this 
carries  the  chaff' out  of  the  machine  ; 
the  grain  falls  on  a  screen,  which, 
having  a  similar  motion  to  the  sieves, 
separates  from  it  all  small  seeds,  and 
the  dross  corn  is  carried  away  in  a 
division  formed  for  the  purpose.  The 
grain,  dross  corn,  and  chaff  are  thus 
all  thorougly  separated  from  each 
other,  and  the  dust,  dirt,  and  small 
seeds,  having  fallen  in  an  enclosed 
box  from  the  cylinder,  may  be  entire- 
ly removed." 

WINTER  BERRY.  Prinos  vcr- 
(iciHalis.  False  alder,  a  shrub  of  four 
to  eight  feet,  with  permanent  red  ber- 
ries, adapted  to  shrubberies. 

WINTER  CRESS.  Barharca  prce- 
cox.  An  indigenous,  perennial,  cru- 
ciferous plant,  growing  in  the  Nor- 
thern and  Eastern  States,  near  spring 
branches.  It  is  very  similar  to  wa- 
ter-cress, but  more  pungent  in  fla- 
vour. B.  vulgaris,  also  indigenous, 
is  the  water-radish,  or  rocket. 

WINTER  GREEN.  The  genus 
Chimaphtla  ;  pretty  Alpine  plants. 
They  are  perennial,  with  long  roots, 
and  grow  in  the  shade  of  woods.  The 
C.  umhellata,  pipsissiwa,  is  used  in 
domestic  medicine  as  a  tonic  and  as- 
tringent. 

WINTER  PROUD.  A  term  ap- 
plied to  wheat  or  barley  which  ap- 
pears too  forward  in  winter,  and 
hence  frequently  gets  injured,  and 
yields  a  poor  harvest. 

WIPERS.  "  In  some  kinds  of  ma- 
chinery, as  oil  mills,  powder  mills, 
fulling  mills,  pieces  projecting  gen- 
erally from  horizontal  axles,  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  stampers,  pound- 
ers, or  heavy  pistons,  in  vertical  di- 
rections, and  then  leaving  them  to 
fall  by  their  own  weight.  The  prin- 
cipal object  to  be  attended  to  in  the 
construction  of  wipers  is  to  give  them 
such  a  form  that  the  weight  shall  be 
raised  with  a  uniform  force  and  ve- 
locity." 

WIRE  GRASS.  Several  grasses 
are  so  called,  but  the  true  wire  grass 


WOA 


WOA 


is  the  Eleusine  Iiidica,  an  annual,  flow- 
ering in  spilces. 

W  I  R  E  WORM.  Elatcr  segctis. 
See  Insects.  The  following  plan  for 
the  destruction  of  wire-worms  is  by 
a  practical  farmer,  Mr.  Tarrant :  He 
cleans  the  infested  field  of  all  weeds 
and  roots,  and  drills  white  mustard 
seed,  keeping  the  land  hoed,  and  by 
the  end  of  the  season  finds  the  worms 
entirely  gone. — {British  Farm.  Mag., 
1831.) 

WISP.  A  small  bundle  of  hay  or 
straw. 

WITHE.   A  flexible  twig  or  bough. 

WITHERITE.  Mineral  carbonate 
of  baryta. 

WITHERS.  The  high  portion  of 
an  animal's  back  over  the  shoulders. 
Horses  with  high  withers  are  said 
to  have  the  fore  hand  well  up  ;  they 
go  high  above  the  ground,  and  are 
quick  and  safe.  In  draught  horses 
the  breadth  or  weight  of  the  fore 
hand  is  desirable. 

The  word  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  womb  of  the  cow.  Casting  the 
u-ithcrs  is  inversion  and  protrusion  of 
the  womb.  It  should  be  returned  by 
the  hand  and  arm,  and  maintained  in 
its  place  by  a  roll  of  linen  introduced 
into  the  vagina  in  a  wet  state.  The 
animal  must  be  kept  quiet  and  free 
from  fever. 

W  0  A  D.  Isatis  tinctoria.  See 
Fig.  "  It  has  been  greatly  superseded 


by  iodigo,  which  gives   a   stronger 


and  finer  blue  ;  but  on  some  soils  it 
might  be  still  cultivated  to  great  ad- 
vantage, especially  as  it  is  said  to  im- 
prove the  quality  and  colour  of  indi- 
go when  mi.ved  with  it  in  a  certain 
proportion. 

"The  woad  is  a  plant  of  the  natu- 
ral order  of  the  Crnafcra.  It  has  a 
strong  tap-root,  which  lasts  two  years. 
The  height  of  the  plant,  when  in  per- 
fection, is  from  three  to  four  feet.  It 
throws  out  many  branches  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  stem.  The  leaves 
are  alternate  and  smooth.  The  flow- 
ers are  yellow,  in  panicles  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  branches.  The  fruit  is 
a  heart-shaped  pod,  with  two  valves, 
containing  one  seed  only.  It  grows 
well  on  the  borders  of  the  Baltic,  and 
is  very  hardy. 

"  It  is  still  cultivated  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  in  the  south  of  France 
and  Flanders.  It  requires  a  good 
substantial  soil  of  considerable  depth 
and  fertility  ;  for  the  larger  and  more 
numerous  the  leaves  are,  the  more 
profit  is  derived  from  the  plant.  A 
wet  clay  soil  is  not  at  all  suited  to 
its  growth,  nor  a  loose  sandy  one. 

"  When  it  was  largely  cultivated  in 
England,  old  pastures  ploughed  up 
atTorded  the  best  soil  for  the  woad  to 
grow  in.  To  have  good  woad.  the 
land  should  be  naturally  very  rich,  or 
much  manure  should  be  intimately 
mixed  with  it  some  time  before.  No- 
thing but  completely  decomposed 
dung  should  be  used,  or  compost 
made  on  purpose  a  long  time  before. 

"The  land,  having  been  prepared 
by  repeated  ploughings,  and  perfectly 
clean,  is  laid  into  narrow  beds  with 
deep  intervals.  On  these  beds  the 
seed  is  sown  as  early  in  spring  as 
possible.  It  is  sometimes  sown  broad- 
cast, and  the  plants  thinned  out ;  but 
sowing  it  in  drills,  two  rows  on  a 
four-feet  bed,  is  much  the  best  prac- 
tice. The  drills  are  one  foot  from  the 
edge,  with  two  feet  clear  between 
them  ;  some  make  iive-feet  beds,  and 
there  is  an  interval  of  thirty  inches 
between  the  rows,  which  allows  of 
better  cleaning,  and  gives  the  plants 
more  room  to  spread.  When  the 
plants  are  come  up  iu  the  rows,  they 
867 


WOAD. 


must  be  thinned  out  by  hand,  leaving 
the  strongest  about  two  iVet  apart : 
the  leaves  will  soon  fill  up  the  inter- 
vals. They  begin  to  ripen  in  June. 
They  are  fit  to  gather  wlicn  they  be- 
gin to  droop  and  become  yellowish  : 
This  should  be  done  in  very  dry  weath- 
er, and  alter  the  dew  is  off.  The 
leaves  of  the  woad  are  either  twisted 
off  close  to  the  stems,  or  cut  down 
with  a  sickle.  Great  care  must  be 
taken  that  no  dirt  or  earth  adheres  to 
them.  Some  recommend  taking  off 
the  lower  leaves  first,  when  they  ap- 
pear ripe  by  drooping  and  turning 
yellow,  and  letting  the  upper  leaves 
remain  till  they  show  the  same  ap- 
pearance ;  then  nothing  but  ripe 
leaves  will  be  gathered.  This  strip- 
ping may  be  repeated  two  or  three 
times,  as  the  leaves  grow  again.  I'lie 
plants  destined  for  seed  are  only  strip- 
ped once  or  twice,  for  fear  of  weak- 
ening them.  It  might  probably  be  ad- 
vantageous not  to  strip  them  at  all, 
but  to  leave  the  whole  strength  for 
the  formation  of  the  seed,  which  will 
be  larger  and  produce  finer  plants  the 
next  year. 

"  The  first  gathering  of  the  leaves 
is  the  best ;  they  should  therefore  be 
kept  separate,  to  obtain  the  best  dye. 
As  soon  as  the  leaves  are  gathered 
the  beds  should  be  well  and  deeply 
hoed  or  dug,  to  give  a  fresh  impulse 
to  the  roots. 

'•  The  leaves  are  naturally  full  of 
sap,  and  soon  begin  to  decompose  if 
laid  in  a  heap.  They  should  there- 
fore be  partially  dried,  and  imme- 
diately carried  to  the  mill  to  be  man- 
ufactured. 

"  There  is  a  variety  of  this  plant 
cultivated  in  Flanders  and  about  Va- 
lenciennes, which  has  seeds  of  a 
violet  colour,  and  the  leaves  very 
smooth  ;  it  is  larger  than  the  other, 
and  gives  a  better  dye.  It  is  that 
which  is  cultivated  near  Avignon, 
■whence  the  best  woad  dye  is  procu- 
red. The  leaves  are  ground  in  a  mill, 
like  an  oil  mill,  into  a  paste,  which, 
when  quite  uniform  and  smooth,  is 
laid  in  heaps  under  a  shed,  and  pressed 
with  the  hands  or  feet  into  a  mass  : 
each  addition  is  carefully  joined  to 
tC8 


the  preceding,  so  that  the  whole  crop 
forms  a  long  heap.  A  fermentation 
is  soon  established,  by  which  the  blue 
dye  is  separated.  A  black  crust  is 
formed  all  over  the  heap,  which  keeps 
in  the  gases  produced.  If  any  part 
of  this  crust  is  cracked,  it  must  be 
immediately  stopped  up  with  some 
of  the  paste.  It  takes  a  fortnight  to 
complete  the  operation.  When  the 
disengagement  of  gas  ceases,  which 
is  soon  perceived  by  the  smell,  the 
heap  is  broken  up,  the  crust  is  mixed 
with  the  inside,  and  small  portions, 
like  bricks  of  about  one  pound  weight, 
arc  made  up  with  the  hands  by  press- 
ure in  a  mould,  which,  when  dry, 
are  fit  for  sale.  As  great  attention 
is  required  both  in  the  growing  and 
preparing  of  the  woad,  it  is  best  done 
by  those  who  make  a  trade  of  it, 
and  have  the  necessary  experience. 
When  the  crop  succeeds,  the  profit 
is  very  considerable  ;  but,  like  all  oth- 
er crops,  it  is  liable  to  many  acci- 
dents. 

"Woad  is  often  shamefully  adul- 
terated with  earth  and  other  impuri- 
ties. In  Germany  the  process  of  pre- 
paring the  woad  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent. The  leaves  are  first  washed, 
and  then  put  into  a  tub  three  quarters 
full  of  water,  and  kept  under  water 
by  blocks  of  wood  laid  on  them.  l"he 
fermentation  soon  begins,  and  is 
shown  by  a  blue  scum  on  the  water. 
When  it  has  gone  on  to  a  certain 
point,  the  water  is  drawn  off  below, 
and  it  comes  away  of  a  deep  green. 
It  is  strained  through  a  cloth,  the  re- 
maining leaves  are  waslied  with  fresh 
water,  and  this  is  added  to  the  first. 
Lime-water  is  now  added,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  or  three  pounds  for 
every  ten  pounds  of  leaves  used,  and 
the  mixture  is  well  shaken  for  some 
time  ;  the  dye  is  deposited  in  the 
form  of  a  powder,  as  starch  is ;  the 
water  is  decanted  off,  and  the  thick 
part  at  the  bottom  is  filtered  through 
very  tine  cloths  ;  the  powder  which 
remains  is  washed  repeatedly,  tdl  the 
water  comes  off  without  being  dis- 
ccdoured.  The  residue  is  cut  into 
squares  and  set  to  dry.  If  there  is  too 
much  water  added,  the  dye  is  iiife- 


woo 


AVOO 


rior  ;  and  if  not  enough,  there  is  less 
of  it.  '1  he  exact  (|iianlity  can  only  be 
derided  by  practice  and  exi)erience. 
"Tlie  seed  will  vegetate  wjien  two 
years  old,  but  cannot  be  depended  on 
after  that. 

"  Woad  is  also  occasionally  sown 
as  food  for  cattle  ;  and  as  everything, 
old  and  new,  has  been  brought  for- 
ward by  the  late  renewed  zeal  for 
agriculture,  it  has  been  reconnnend- 
ed  for  thi-s  purpose  under  its  French 
name  of  '  Pastel.'  Its  vigorous 
growth  and  hardy  nature  have  rec- 
ommended it  ;  but  it  will  only  grow 
in  very  rich  soils.  There  are  many 
other  plants  as  vigorous  and  hanly, 
which  will  thrive  well  in  inferior 
soils,  and  therefore  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. But  for  its  dye,  this  plant 
is  well  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
those  who  have  good  rich  and  deep 
soils." 

WOLF.  On  the  prairies  much  loss 
is  sustained  by  shepherds  from  the 
attacks  of  wolves  ;  these  may  be  de- 
stroyed in  the  same  way  as  the  fox, 
or  poisoned  by  sprinkling  twenty 
grains  of  arsenic  on  some  offal  placed 
in  their  way.  Some  use  a  quarter  of 
a  grain  of  strychnine,  inserted  in  a 
l)i(>ce  of  meat. 

WOLF'S  BANE.     Monk's  hood. 

WOLLASTONITE.  A  species  of 
prismatic  augite. 

W  O  O  D.     The  substance   of  the 
trunk  of  exogenous  trees  ;  it  consists 
of  an  internal  hard  and  coloured  por- 
tion, the  heart-wood  (duramen),  and 
an  external,  softer,  and  more  perish- 1 
able  part,  the  new  wood,  sap  w'ood,  I 
or  alburnum.     It  consists  of  woody  | 
fibre  and  ducts.    (See  Timber,  and  the 
different  trees.)     The  composition  of 
oak  wood,  according  to  Gay  Lussac, 
is,  carbon,  52-5;  oxygen,  -11-8;  hy- 
drogen, 5  7  per  cent.     Wood  decays 
slowly,  and  yields  water  and  carbonic 
acid  when  in  contact  with  air. 

WOOD  ASHES.  The  saline  bod- 
ies of  trees  :  they  are  obtained  for 
their  potash.  Oak  and  hickory  ashes 
contain  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
per  cent,  of  real  potash,  and  yield  the 
best  ashes.  As  a  manure,  ten  bush- 
els of  fresh  ashes  to  the  acre  in  com- 
4D3 


'  post  are  enough,  hut  if  unleached, 
twenty  or  more  may  be  employed. 
See  A.shes  and  I'ola.sh. 

WOODBINE      The  honeysuckle. 

WOOD  S  O  R  R  E  L.  The  genus 
Oxalis,  the  leaves  of  which  are  sour, 
and  contain  oxalate  of  potash  :  tliey 
grow  in  rich,  shady  places.  Many 
species  bear  beautiful  fiowers. 

WOOD  WASPS.     The  saw  flics. 

WOOD  WAXEN.  Gcmsia  tniclo- 
ria.  Dyer's  broom,  a  perennial  legu- 
minous plant,  with  yellow  flowers, 
growing  one  foot  high,  leaves  lanceo- 
late, smooth,  stem  round,  uprigl^J, 
without  spines.  It  is  exotic,  but 
grows  readily  in  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States  The  plant  in  flower 
yields  a  yellow  dye,  which  is  fixed 
by  solution  of  tin  or  acetate  of  alu- 
mina. It  may  be  readily  rai«ed  from 
seed,  in  drills  a  foot  apart,  and  the 
plants  kept  clean  bv  the  cultivator. 

WOODY  FIBRE.  Very  slender, 
tapering  cellular  tissue,  containing 
lignin,  and  forming,  when  compacted 
together,  the  tough  fibre  of  hemp,  flax, 
and  vegetables,  as  well  as  the  bulk 
of  wo.id. 

W^OOL.  Hair  which  is  somewhat 
curled  and  possesses  the  quality  of 
felting  ;  this  results  from  numerous 
serratures  on  the  staple.  For  the 
qualities  of  wool,  see  Sheep.  The 
value  of  wool  depends  upon  the  fine- 
ness, felting  quality,  and  trueness  of 
the  staple,  which  arc  explained  in  the 
article  on  Sherp  ;  but  the  quality  of  a 
fleece  is  not  the  same  throughout :  it 
is,  indeed,  divisible  into  four  parcels. 
In  some  ijarts  of  Europe  it  is  the  cus- 
tom for  the  farmer  to  make  the  sep- 
aration, but  in  the  United  States  this 
is  left  to  the  manufacturers.  The 
only  preparation  necessary  is  to  re- 
move burs,  tags,  and  the  coarse  hairs 
of  the  legs,  which  is  done  before 
shearing.  The  sheep  is  washed  a 
week  or  ten  days  before  shearing,  in 
a  cistern  or  trough,  or,  w-liat  is  prefer- 
al)le,  n  running  stream  ;  the  tags  are 
first  removed,  and  the  wa.shing  made 
perfect  by  squeezing  the  wool.  In 
the  case  of  Merino  bucks  a  little  soft 
soap  may  be  used,  for  the  cleaner 
the  wool  the  higher  the  price  obtain- 
869 


WOOL. 


ed.     In  Spain,  it  is  the  custom  to 

sweat  the  sheep  the  night  before 
shearing,  by  keeping  as  large  a  num- 
ber as  can  he  crowded  together  in  a 
hut :  the  wool  is  removed  the  next 
day  witliout  being  washed,  that  op- 
eration being  conducted  afterward. 
The  wool  is  first  sorted  into  three 
parcels  ;  in  some  places  these  parcels 
contain  the  different  qualities  :  1st, 
superfine  picklock  (rcjinn),  taken  from 
the  back,  flanks,  and  sides  of  the 
neck ;  2d,  fine  ifma),  from  the 
breast,  belly,  sides  of  the  haunches, 
and  upper  part  of  the  neck ;  3d, 
third  kind  (iercera),  from  the  cheeks, 
upper  part  of  the  throat,  the  fore  legs 
above  the  knee,  the  hams,  and  back 
of  the  haunches  ;  the  fourth  quality, 
or  cayda,  is  refuse,  and  is  from  the 
tail,  rump,  lower  parts  of  the  legs,  and 
between  the  legs.  The  assorted  par- 
cels are  hence  treated  separately : 
first  they  are  beaten  on  hurdles  ;  then 
placed  in  vats  containing  water  heat- 
ed to  120=  Fahrenheit,  where  they 
are  stirred  with  sticks  ;  then  removed 
to  drain  and  transferred  to  a  running 
stream  ;  here  the  wool  is  pressed  by 
the  feet  of  the  workmen,  and  finally 
thrown  out  to  dry  on  the  grass  :  in  a 
few  days  of  hot,  dry  weather  it  be- 
comes sufficiently  dry  to  be  packed. 
When  sheep  are  washed,  as  with  us, 
the  wool  is  by  no  means  so  clean  ; 
indeed,  Spanish  Merino  wool  by 
scouring  only  loses  ten  per  cent., 
whereas  American  Merino  loses  for- 
ty per  cent.  The  washed  sheep  are 
transferred  to  clean  meadows,  and  if 
fed  in  sheds,  they  should  be  laid  with 
clean  straw.  If  the  weather  he  fine, 
in  a  week  the  fleece  will  be  dry,  and 
a  new  secretion  of  j'olk  will  have  in- 
creased its  weight. 

The  shearing  must  be  postponed 
to  fine,  warm,  settled  weather,  and 
may  take  place  in  a  well-lighted  barn, 
the  floor  of  which  is  spread  with 
straw  and  then  covered  with  a  can- 
vass ;  but  a  clean  sward  is  well 
enougli.  {See  Shearing.)  The  fleece 
is  to  be  removed  carefully,  tiie  wool 
cut  truly,  and  not  clipped  irregularly, 
but  severed  with  each  stroke  of  the 
ehears.  A  good  workman  can  man- 
670 


age  25  to  30  sheep  a  day  of  the  Me 

rino  breed.  All  tags,  burs,  and  hail 
about  the  legs  should  be  removed 
before  bringing  the  sheep  on  the  can- 
vass, which  is  to  be  done  with  man- 
agement, and  not  violently.  The  re- 
moval of  hair  is  important,  as  it  af- 
fords shelter  to  ticks,  and  may  hide 
diseases  of  the  skin.  After  shearing, 
the  sheep  should  be  classified,  accord- 
ing to  the  wool  they  produce,  their 
healthiness  and  form,  and  marked  so 
as  to  carry  out  the  views  of  their 
owner.  They  may  be  marked  with 
a  ho-t  iron  on  the  forehead,  or  with 
an  ointment  of  lampblack  and  lard  : 
tar  is  objectionable  on  the  wool-bear- 
ing parts. 

The  fleeces  are  piled  one  on  the 
other  until  the  shearing  is  done  ;  or 
they  may  be  removed  by  a  new  hand, 
and  carried  to  a  table,  one  by  one,  to 
be  rolled.  With  each  fleece  the  loose 
locks  are  taken,  but  the  hair  of  th.e 
legs  separated  and  placed  in  a  bag  or 
elsewhere.  The  fleece  is  carefully 
spread  out  on  the  table,  the  ragged 
portions  on  the  edges  are  separated, 
and,  with  all  the  loose  wool,  thrown 
into  the  middle.  The  workman  next 
presses  the  sides  inward,  so  as  to 
condense  the  wool ;  the  sides  and 
ends  are  then  turned  over,  so  that 
the  folded  fleece  forms  an  oblong  two 
or  three  feet  long  and  one  and  a  half 
feet  wide  ;  this  is  drawn  to  the  front 
edge  of  the  table  and  rolled,  during 
which  the  assistance  of  a  boy  is  ne- 
cessary to  press  the  wool  together 
and  condense  it;  the  roll  is  finally 
tied  with  a  stout  twine.  The  fleeces 
are  preserved  in  a  well- ventilated  loft. 
When  sold,  they  are  put  up  in  bales  : 
these  are  made  of  burlaps ;  a  piece 
of  a  yard  wide  and  three  yards  long 
is  used  for  a  sack.  The  sack  is  kept 
open  by  a  hoop,  and  the  fleeces  press- 
ed down  by  a  man  until  the  bag  is 
nearly  full ;  it  is  then  made  up  and 
sewed  along  the  top. 

The  weight  of  a  fleece,  and  the  price 
it  fetches  in  the  market  per  pound, 
are  subject  to  considerable  difference. 
The  following  represents  the  average 
fleece  :  Saxons,  2  to  3  lbs.  ;  Merinos, 
2.i  to  3  lbs. ;  South  Downs,  3  to  4  lbs  ; 


woo 

new  Leieesters,  6  to  7  lbs. ;  Cots- 
volds,  7  to  8  lbs.  ;  Lincolns,  8  to  10 
I!js.  The  price  of  wool  per  pound,  as 
reported  in  1845,  was,  Saxony,  35  to 
50  cents  ;  pure  Merino,  30  to  35 
cents  ;  liaK-biood  Merino,  25  to  30 
cents  ;  common  country  sheep,  20  to 
25  cents.  Tlie  wool  of  the  English 
kinds  are  not  separated,  but  are  worth 
about  the  same  as  the  half-breed  Me- 
rinos. 

WOOL-GROWING.  In  the  arti- 
cle Food,  we  remarked  that  provender 
differed  in  its  effects,  some  kinds,  as 
the  oily  seeds,  producing  rapid  fatten- 
ing ;  others,  as  the  dry  grains,  serv- 
ing to  sustain  strength.  The  fod- 
ders best  calculated  to  increase  the 


WOR 

}  weight  of  wool  may  be  ascertained 
J  theoretically  by  considering  the  com- 
position of  that  staple  (see  Wovllcn 
Rags) ;  it  is  there  seen  tlial  100  lbs  ,  in 
the  ordinary  state,  contain  177  nitro- 
gen, a  quantity  unusually  large.  The 
inference  is,  therefore, 'that  azotized 
or  nitrogen  food  is  best  calculated  for 
the  increase  of  wool,  and  that  pease, 
beans,  rye,  barley,  may  be  judiciously 
I  given.  On  this  point  theory  is  also 
abundantly  confirmed  by  the  experi- 
ments of  M.  de  Ilaumer,  of  Silesia. 
The  following  table  exhibits  the  value 
of  1000  lbs.  of  vari<)us  fodders  in  in 
creasing  the  live  weight,  producing 
wool  and  tallow- :  the  sheep  were 
Saxons : 


Inrreaseof 

Prod need 

Produced 

Nitrogen 

Kinds  of  food. 

weight  in 
live  animal. 

w 

rioi. 

OW. 

per  cent, 
in  food. 

IIjs. 

r,z. 

U.S.     o7.. 

1000  noun 

lis  of  raw  potatoes,  with  salt  .     .     . 

46J 

6 

b? 

12 

5i 

0-36 

1000       " 

"        "           without  salt 

44 

t) 

8 

10 

m 

0-36 

1000       " 

raw  mangold  wurzel      .     .     . 

38 

5 

3* 

6 

5i 

0.21 

1000      " 

pease  

134 

14 

11 

41 

6 

3  83 

1000      " 

wheat 

155 

13 

I3i  59 

9 

209 

1000       " 

rye,  with  salt 

90 

13 

14i  35 

lU 

200 

1000       " 

rye,  without  salt 

83 

12 

lOi  33 

Hi, 

2-00 

1000      " 

oats 

14fi 

9 

12    40 

8 

1  TO 

1000     " 

barter 

136 

11 

fiA  60 

1 

1-90 

1000      " 

buckwheat 

no 

10 

U  33 

8 

210 

1000       « 

good  hav . 

58 

7 

lOi  12 

14 

115 

1000      " 

hav,  with  straw,  without  otlier 

fodder 

31 

15 

8      6 

n 



1000       " 

whiskey  still-grains  or  wash  . 

35 

6 

1      4 

0 



The  daily  ration  of  the  sheep  is 
i-egulated  in  the  same  way  as  for  cat- 
t(e  ;  two  per  cent,  of  the  weight  be- 
ing allowed  for  those  in  an  ordinary 
state,  and  more  for  such  as  are  put 
up  to  fatten  ;  2  to  2i  lbs.  of  hay,  or 
its  equivalent  in  other  fodders,  are 
about  the  average.  In  M.  de  Rau- 
mer's  experiments  the  animals  were 
permitted  to  eat  all  they  would,  and 
tlie  result  shows  that  they  took  each 
daily  of  potatoes,  sliced,  7  lbs.,  with 
straw  ;  mangold,  8  lbs.,  with  straw  ; 
pease  and  beans,  2  lbs. :  these  should 
be  soaked  in  water  or  steamed,  to  en- 
able the  sheep  to  chew  them  ;  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  from  2  to  21  lbs. ; 
buckwheat,  3  lbs.  :  in  every  instance 
where  dry  fodders  were  given,  the 
animals  required  two  or  three  quarts 
of  water. 

WOOLLEN  RAGS.  They  are 
used  as  manure,  at  the  rate  of  half  a 
ton  to  the  acre,  citlier  alone,  chop- 


ped into  pieces  not  exceeding  half  an 
inch  square,  or  in  compost.  The  hop, 
tobacco,  turnips,  and  plants  requiring 
much  putrescent  manure,  are  most 
benefited.  Wool  is  almost  identical 
in  composition  with  hair,  horns,  and 
feathers  :  it  consists  of  506  carbon  ; 
7  0  hydrogen  ;  17-7  nitrogen,  and  247 
oxygen,  with  a  very  small  amount 
ofash.  The  rags  alone  will  show 
good  effects  for  four  or  five  years. 
In  their  decay,  100  pounds  produce 
20  pounds  of  ammoia,  which  is  liber- 
ated in  the  form  of  carbonate.  When 
rotted  in  compost,  200  pounds  will  be 
enough  to  the  acre,  spread  as  a  top- 
dressing  on  growing  plants. 

WOOL  SHEARS.     Sheep  shears. 

WOR.M.  A  common  name  for  cat- 
erpillars and  the  tribe  Vermes.  See 
Cm/  Worm,  Wire  Worm. 

W'OR.MING.  An  operation  per- 
formed on  puppies,  consisting  in  the 
removal  of  a  vermiform  ligament  from 
871 


wou 


FAM 


under  the  tongue :  it  is  sometimes 
supposed  to  prevent  madness,  hut,  in 
faet,  mert^Iy  biealvs  them  of  their  hab- 
it of  gnawini,'. 

WORM  SEED.  Goosefoot,  Jeru- 
salem oak.  An  oil  is  distilled  from 
the  seeds,  and  called  worm-seed  oil : 
it  is  exceedingly  nauseous,  and  is  giv- 
en to  children  in  the  dose  of  five  to 
ten  droi)s,  and  followed  by  cathartics. 
See  Goosefoot. 

WORMS,  INTESTINAL.  There 
are  many  species  infesting  animals, 
especially  horses.  The  principal  are 
hots;  lumbrici,  or  round,  long  worms, 
resembling  the  earthworm;  ascandes, 
which  are  slender  and  with  flattened 
heads,  and  ttsnicE,  or  tape  worms. 

The  etfects  of  worms  are  soon  seen 
in  the  health  of  animals ;  they  get 
poor,  low-spirited,  and  weak,  notwith- 
standing their  appetite  is  often  vo- 
racious. As  soon  as  these  symptoms 
are  discovered,  measures  must  be  ta- 
ken for  the  expulsion  of  the  worms  : 
this  is  n.ot  easily  accomplished,  but 
purgatives  containing  calomel,  jalap, 
and  aloes  are  most  effective.  The 
tape  worm  must  be  previously  killed 
by  doses  of  turpentine  ;  for  this  pur- 
pose, a  wine-glassful  should  be  giv- 
en at  intervals  of  six  hours,  three 
or  four  times,  until  portions  of  the 
worm  are  evacuated  by  the  purge. 
See  Bots,  Horse. 

WORxMWOOD.  The  genus  Arte- 
misia, including  southernwood,  mug- 
wort,  &c.  Tliey  are  composite,  bit- 
ter perennials,  with  a  strong,  rank 
odour,  and  have  been  much  used  as 
tonic  bitters,  and  some  species  are 
vermifuges.  Common  wormwood  is 
A.  absinthnim  :  the  French  flavour  a 
cordial  with  it.  The  seeds  of  any  of 
the  species  grow  readily  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  :  they  are  also  propagated 
by  root  slips. 

WORT.  A  decoction  of  malt ;  an 
old  name  for  an  herb. 

WO ULFE'S  APPARATUS.  A 
series  of  two  or  three  necked  bottles, 
connected  by  intermediate  tubes,  used 
in  the  chemical  laboratory  for  impreg- 
nating water  and  other  liquids  with 
various  gases  or  vapours. 

WOUND.  A  division  of  the  soft 
872 


parts.  If  it  he  a  clean  cut  or  incised 
wound,  all  tiiat  is  necessary  is  to 
wash  the  parts  with  tepid  water  to 
remove  all  dirt,  and  bring  the  sides 
of  the  wound  together  with  sticking 
plaster.  Torn  and  contused  wounds 
do  not  heal  so  kindly,  but  often  run 
into  suppuration.  If  an  artery  be  di- 
vided, it  is  flrst  to  be  tied  with  a  silk 
thread  before  the  wound  is  closed. 

W  0  U  N  D  W  O  R  T.  The  genus 
Stachys,  weeds  of  little  account. 

WROUGHT.  Materials  which 
have  been  brought  to  a  surface  by 
hammering  or  other  labour. 

X. 

XANTHINE  (from  ^avdoc,  yellmc). 
A  yellow  colouring  principle  in  mad- 
der. 

XANTHOPHYL  (from  ^avdoQ,  and 
<pv?L?Mv,  a  leaf).  The  yellow  colour- 
ing matter  of  autumnal  foliage. 

XYLITE  (from  ^vlov,  wood).  Lig- 
nonc,  an  empyreumatic  spirit  exist- 
ing in  the  products  of  vinegar  distil- 
led from  wood. 

XYLOPHAGANS,  XYLOPHA- 
GA  (from  ^vlov,  and  ^ayw,  I  eat).  A 
tribe  of  coleopterous  insects,  compre- 
hending those  of  which  the  larva;  de- 
vour the  wood  of  trees  in  which  they 
are  developed  ;  also  applied  to  a  fam- 
ily of  dipterous  insects,  the  larva; 
of  which  have  similarly  destructive 
habits. 

XYLOPHILANS,  XILOPHILI 
(from  ^vT^ov,  and  (j>iXeu,  I  love).  A 
tribe  of  beetles,  consisting  of  those 
which  live  on  decayed  wood. 

XYLOTROGES,  XYLOTROGI 
(from  ^v?^ov,  and  rpuyo,  I  gnaw).  A 
tribe  of  serricorn  beetles,  compre- 
hending those  which  perforate  timber. 


YAK.  The  Himalayan  bison,  re- 
sembling the  buffiilo,  three  and  a  half 
feet  high,  and  with  flue,  long  hair. 

YAM.  The  tuber  of  the  Ihoscorea 
sativa,  alata,  and  other  species.  It  is 
similar  to  the  sweet  potato,  but  much 
larger.  The  cultivation  is  the  same, 
only  that  a  stake  is  driven  near  each 
plant,  to  allow  the  stem  to  climb. 

YAM    ROOT.     Dioscorea    villosa. 


YEL 


YEL 


An  indigenous  perennial  climbing 
plant,  of  the  same  geiuis  as  the  yam. 

YARD  DUNG.  Farmyard  ma- 
nure. 

YARD  OF  LAND.  A  measure 
varying  from  15  to  34  acres. 

YARROW.  The  genus  Achillea. 
Bitter,  aromatic  weeds,  of  the  com- 
posite family.  They  are  wholesome, 
and  are  found  in  good  pastures,  es- 
pecially A.  millefolium,  common  yar- 
row. They  have  been  recommended 
for  cultivation. 

YEARLINGS.  Calves  and  other 
stock  one  year  old. 

YEAST,  BARM.  The  substance 
produced  during  the  vinous  ferment- 
ation of  vegetable  juices  and  decoc- 
tions, rising  partly  to  the  surface,  in 
the  form  of  a  frothy,  flocculcnt,  and 
somewhat  viscid  matter,  insoluble  in 
water  and  alcohol,  and  gradually  pu- 
trefying in  a  warm  atmosphere.  It 
excites  fermentation,  and  accelerates 
the  process  when  added  to  saccha- 
rine liquors.  It  is  changed  gluten 
and  other  protein  compounds  in  in- 
cipient decomposition. 

Artificial  yeast,  or  that  made  with- 
out recourse  to  the  introduction  of  a 
portion  of  yeast,  is  very  important  in 
families.  The  following  recipe  gives 
a  good  yeast :  Boil  a  handful  of  hops 
in  three  pints  of  water ;  add  three 
mashed  boiled  potatoes,  strain,  and 
mix  with  a  cupful  of  flour;  set  aside 
to  cool,  and  tlicu  add  a  lea-spoonful 
of  sugar,  and  bottle  up  for  use.  A 
more  permanent  ferment  is  made  by 
boiling  a  quantity  of  wheat  bran  and 
hops  in  water  ;  the  decoction  is  not 
long  in  fermenting,  and  when  this 
has  taken  place,  throw  in  a  sufficient 
portion  of  bran  to  form  the  whole  into 
a  thick  paste,  which  work  into  balls, 
and  afterward  dry  by  a  slow  heat. 
When  wanted  for  use,  they  are  bro- 
ken, and  boiling  water  is  poured  upon 
them  ;  having  stood  a  jjroper  time, 
the  fluid  is  decanted,  and  m  a  lit  state 
for  leavening  bread.  In  the  place  of 
bran,  Indian  corn  meal  may  be  used, 
if  a  little  of  a  previous  ferment  be 
broken  up  in  the  mass. 

YELLOW  DYES.  Persian  ber- 
ries, weld,  quercitron   bark,  fustic, 


turmeric,  dyer's  broom,  annotta,  wil- 
low leaves,  berberry  roots,  are  the 
principal  vegetable  dyes.  Chrome 
yellow,  oxide  of  iron,  sulphurels  of 
antimony  and  arsenic,  and  nitric  acid 
are  obtained  from  the  mineral  king- 
dom. Solutions  of  alum  and  tin  are 
used  as  mordants. 

YELLOW  FEVER.  A  bilious  re- 
mittent fever  of  a  malignant  kind. 
It  attacks  animals  as  well  as  men, 
but  does  not  so  readily  destroy  them. 
Large  doses  of  calomel,  with  bleed- 
ing, m  the  earliest  stages,  form  the 
best  treatment ;  but  in  the  later  sta- 
ges the  system  is  often  so  prostrated 
that  it  re(piires  sustenance  from  spir- 
ituous licjuors  and  carbonate  of  am- 
monia. 

YELLOW  RATTLE.  The  weed 
lihi n a n t hits  cristagalii . 

YELLOWS.  Jaundice,  irritation 
of  the  liver,  attended  with  a  yellow- 
ness of  the  eyeballs.  A  calomel 
purge  is  necessary,  and  bleeding,  if 
there  be  fever. 

YELLOWS  IN  TREES.  This, 
which  is  called  a  disease  of  trees,  is 
only  an  effect  produced  by  different 
causes,  such  as  plant  lice,  worms  at 
the  root  or  in  the  bark,  and  improper 
soils.  The  leaves  turn  yellow,  and  nu- 
trition being  cut  off",  they  usually  die. 
Whenever  this  symptom  is  seen  du- 
ring early  summer,  the  tree  should 
be  thoroughly  examined,  to  ascertain 
the  cause,  and  treated  accordingly. 
Scraping  the  bark,  making  an  incis- 
ion from  the  branches  to  the  root,  and 
washing  the  stem,  root,  and  large 
branches  with  solution  of  whale-oil 
soap  may  be  found  serviceable.  Plant 
lice  are  to  be  smoked  with  tabacco. 
See  Plant  Lice,  Borers,  and  Scale  In- 
sects. Peach  trees  are  very  liable  to 
this  ailment  in  the  Northern  States. 

Y  E  L  L  O  W  S  E  E  D.  The  weed 
Thiaspi  campcstrc,  false  flax,  mithri- 
date  mustar<i,  a  cruciferous  annual 
with  mustard-flavoured  pods,  which 
abounds  in  flax  fiolds,  and  is  very 
troublesome.  It  can  only  be  avoided 
by  screening  the  flax  seed  carefully, 
and  omitting  the  cultivation  of  flax 
for  a  season,  introducing  cleaning  or 
hoed  crops  instead. 

873 


YOL 


ZEO 


YELLOW  TOP.    White  top. 

Agros/is  alha. 

YELLOW  WASH.  An  applica- 
tion to  ulcers.  Jt  is  made  l)y  adding 
a  draclun  of  lime-water  to  two  grains 
of  corrosive  sublimate  dissolved  in 
one  ounce  of  water. 

YELLOW  WEED.  The  butter- 
cups, or  Ranunculus,  are  so  called. 

YELLOW  WOOD.  Vngdm  lulca. 
A  medium-sized  leguminous  tree  of 
West  Tennessee,  seldom  attaining 
forty  feet,  and  growing  in  rich,  deep 
soils.  The  leaves  are  large,  smooth, 
pinnate  ;  the  flowers  in  pendulous 
clusters,  like  the  locust,  and  white. 
It  is  a  highly  ornamental  tree,  and 
an  infusion  of  the  bark  affords  a  yel- 
low dye. 

YEW.  The  genus  Taxus,  conif- 
erous trees  and  shrubs,  with  ever- 
green, small  leaves,  of  slow  growth, 
but  producing  very  hard,  strong  wood, 
formerly  reputed  for  bows,  and  now- 
used  in  cabinet-work.  The  T.  bac- 
cala  is  the  yew-tree  ;  the  T.  Canaden- 
sis is  a  shrub  of  five  feet.  They  make 
good  hedges,  but  the  leaves  are  poi- 
sonous. 

YOKE.  A  frame  of  wood  fixed 
with  bows  over  the  necks  of  oxen, 
whereby  they  are  coupled  together, 
or  yoked.  It  is  sometimes  written 
"yoak,"  and  is  composed,  1.  Of  a  thick 
piece  of  wood  that  passes  over  the 
neck,  and  is  properly  called  the 
"yoke  ;■'  2.  Of  a  bow,  which  encom- 
passes the  neck  ;  and,  3.  Of  the 
"  wreathings,''  or  "stitchings,"  that 
serve  to  connect  the  whole.  Besides 
these  parts,  there  are  employed  a 
ring,  denominated  the  "  yoke-ring," 
and  a  chain  for  securing  the  traces. 
For  a  new  method  of  yoking,  see  Ox 
Yoke. 

Yoke  is  also  an  old  measure  of 
land,  the  quantity  ploughed  in  a  day 
by  a  couple  of  oxen. 

YOLK.  The  yellow  of  the  egg. 
An  animal  soap,  also  called  gum,  se- 
creted by  the  skin  of  sheep,  and  per- 
vading the  wool.  The  finest  fleeces 
contain  most  yolk,  especially  that  of 
the  Merinos.  It  is  readily  softened 
by  warm  water,  and  may  be  washed 
out  without  trouble  ;  but  there  re- 
874 


mains  an  oil  among  the  wool,  which 
is  only  separated  with  trouble.  Tlie 
amount  varies  from  twenty  to  fifty 
[jer  cent,  of  the  fleece,  and  is  most  in 
warm  climates  and  fine  fleeces. 

YTTRIL.M.  The  metallic  base  of 
yttria,  a  rare  earth  resembling  alu- 
mina. 

YUCCA.  Adam's  needle,  bear's 
grass.  A  genus  of  shrubl)y,  liliaceous 
plants,  with  large,  rigid  leaves,  inhab- 
iting the  sandy  sea-coasts  of  Georgia 
and  the  South.  The  Sisal  hemp  is 
of  this  genus,  and  the  leaves  of  all 
the  species  may  be  wrought  into  a 
long  staple.  l"he  Y.  glonosa,  petre, 
is  celebrated  for  its  magnificent  in- 
florescence, and  yields  sti'ong  hemp. 
The  roots  of  some  species  abound  in 
farina,  and  w'ere  used  by  the  Indians 
for  food. 

YULE.     Christmas. 

Z. 

ZAMIA.  A  genus  of  cycadeous 
trees,  the  stems  of  which  yield  a  kind 
of  sago.  The  Z.  integrifulia  and  Z. 
pumila  grow  in  Florida,  and  furnish 
sago,  or  what  is  improperly  called  ar 
row-root. 

ZAPZIEGER  CHEESE.  Sap 
sago.     See  Cheese. 

ZEA.  The  generic  name  of  the 
Indian  corn  (Z.  7nays). 

ZEBRA.  The  zebra  is  of  the  size 
and  general  appearance  of  the  mule, 
but  with  a  skin  striped  with  brown,  or 
black  and  white  :  it  has  not  been  do- 
mesticated. 

ZEDOARY.  Curcuma  Zedoaria. 
An  East  Indian  plant,  of  the  same 
family  as  the  ginger,  but  producing 
rhizomes  not  quite  as  pungent. 

Z  E  C  K  S  T  E  I  N.  A  magnesian 
limestone,  lying  below  the  red  sand- 
stone. 

ZEIN.  The  azotized  product  of 
Indian  corn,  similar  to  albumen. 

ZENITH.  The  vertical  point  in 
the  sky  of  any  place  ;  the  point  im- 
mediately overhead. 

ZEOLITE.  A  family  of  minerals 
which  fuse  and  boil  before  the  blow- 
pipe ;  they  are  silicates  of  alumina 
and  lime,  or  soda  with  water.  The 
soda  zeolite  is  called  Nalrohte. 


ZIZ 

ZERO.  Nothing;  it  is  used  to 
designate  the  0"  jwint  of  graduated 
scales,  as  the  thermometer,  areome- 
ter, and  usually  means  a  degree  equal 
to  a  given  lest ;  thus,  the  zero  oftiic 
areometer  is  the  specitic  gravity  of 
IKire  water  at  59°  Fahr. ;  the  zero 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  is  the 
temperature  of  snow  mixed  with 
salt.  The  zero  of  the  Centigrade 
and  Reaumer  scales  is  the  freezing 
point.  Degrees  ahove  zero  are  plus 
(-J-),  below  it  minus  ( — ). 

ZERUMBET.  An  East  Indian 
rhizome,  similar  to  ginger. 

ZIMO.ME.  That  part  of  the  glu- 
ten of  wheat  which  is  insoluble  in  al- 
cohol. 

ZINC.  Spelter.  A  valuable  met- 
al for  rooting  and  the  construction 
of  vessels,  such  as  are  made  of  tin 
plate,  than  which  it  is  more  durable 
and  stronger.  In  chemistry,  it  is  of 
great  use  for  the  construction  of  gal- 
vanic circles  and  batteries,  forming 
the  positive  surface  or  pole  of  single 
circles.  It  is  rapidly  acted  on  by  the 
strong  acids,  and  forms  an  oxide 
which  combines  with  most  acids.  Of 
its  salts,  the  suJphaie,  or  white  vit- 
riol, is  most  employed  ;  it  is  emetic 
and  irritant,  and  used  chiefly  in  lo- 
tions. See  Pharmacopeia.  Calamine 
is  an  impure  native  carbonate  of  zinc. 
Tutty  is  an  impure  artiticial  oxide. 

ZIXCOUS,  ZINCOID,  ZLNCODE. 
Resembling  zinc.  This  term  is  used 
to  designate  any  metal  or  other  body 
which,  in  a  galvanic  circle,  occupies 
the  place  of  the  zinc.  It  is  the  same 
as  positive  metal  or  pole,  positive 
electrode,  anode,  and  the  derivatives. 
Zincnlysis  means  the  same  as  elec- 
trolysis ;  zincolyte,  as  electrolyte. 
These  terms  are  indeed  to  be  prefer- 
red over  those  previously  in  exist- 
ence, because  they  refer  to  tlie  zinc 
element,  or  its  substitute,  as  the  ori- 
gin of  the  galvanic  action. 

ZINGIBER.  The  generic  name 
of  the  ginger  plant  (Z.  qfficuialis). 

ZIRCOATU.M.  A  rare  metal,  the 
base  of  zirconium. 

ZIZANIA.  Wild  rice.  Sec  Rice, 
WUd. 

ZIZIPHUS.    The  generic  name  of 


200 

the  shrubs  yielding  the  jujube  (Z.ju 
juha). 

ZONE  (from  ^uvn,  a  bell).  A  word 
much  used  by  naturalists  to  denote  a 
band  or  stripe  running  around  any 
object.  In  geography,  a  division  of 
the  earth's  surface.  There  are  five 
great  zones.  The  tropic  or  torrid 
■zone,  occupying  the  central  or  equa- 
torial regions  of  the  earth  to  a  dis- 
tance of  23^  degrees  north  and  south, 
and  therefore  having  a  width  of  47 
degrees.  The  north  temperate  zone 
lies  between  23^  N.  lat  and  66^  N. 
lat.,  and  occupies  43°  of  latitude.  The 
south  temperate  zone  lies  in  the  same 
space  on  the  south  side  of  the  globe. 
The  north  and  south  frigid  zones  oc- 
cupy the  space  beyond  66^  degrees 
to  the  poles  ;  they  are  also  called  the 
arctic  and  antarctic  regions. 

ZOOLOGY  (from  ^uov,  an  animal, 
and  /.oyog.  a  discourse).  The  history 
and  classification  of  animals.  The 
objects  of  the  animal  kingdom  are  so 
extremely  variaus  that  a  classifica- 
tion of  them  is  one  of  the  severest 
labours.  Numerous  suggestions  have 
been  made  as  a  basis  for  classifica- 
tion, but  the  advance  of  knowledge 
has  shown  them  all  to  be  wanting  in 
comprehensiveness.  When  it  is  re- 
membered that  under  the  term  ani- 
mal is  grouped  thousands  of  species 
differing  from  the  scarcely  organized 
and  imperceptible  dots  of  jelly  called 
monads,  to  the  most  complicated  quad- 
rupeds, the  difficulties  of  classifica- 
tion will  be  apparent.  The  following 
view  by  Professor  Owen  is  the  most 
complete  we  have  seen. 

In  this  there  are  four  primary  di- 
visions, or  sub-kingdoms  :  1.  Verte- 
brafa,  or  animals  furnished  with  a 
regular  back  bone :  2d.  Artieulata, 
animals  which  contain  no  internal 
skeleton,  but  are  covered  with  a  crust 
or  shell  made  of  distinct  parts  or  ar- 
ticulations, as  the  lobster ;  3d.  Mol- 
lusca,  animals  destitute  of  skeleton  or 
articulations,  but  usually  inhabiting 
shells  ;  and,  4th.  Radiala,  animals  of 
the  lowest  organization,  destitute  of 
an  internal  respiratory  organ,  and 
having  a  nervous  system  composed 
of  mere  lines,  which  are  often  radia- 
875 


zoo 

ted  from  a  centre.  These  sub-king- 
doms contain  each  several  classes,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  table. 

Kingdom  Ani.malia. 
Sub-kingdom  Vertcbrata. 
Class  Mammalia,  mammals. 
AvES,  birds. 
Reptilia,  reptiles. 
Pisces,  fishes. 

Sub-kingdom  ArticuJata, 
Class  Crustacea,  such  as  lobsters. 
Arachnida,  spiders. 
Insecta,  insects. 
Anellata,  loorms. 
CiRRiPEDiA,  barnacles. 

Sub-kingdom  Mollusca. 
Class  Cephalopoda,  with  a  cartilagi- 
nous head. 

Gasteropoda,  with  an  organ 
forlocomotion  situated  under 
the  stomach,  as  the  snail. 

Pteropoda,  organs  of  locomo- 
tion two  membranous  fins, 
situated  at  the  sides  of  the 
neck. 

Lamellibranchiata,  without 
head,  the  gills  disposed  in 
bands,  as  oysters. 

Brachiopoda,  without  head,  en- 
closed in  a  mantle,  with  two 
fleshy  arms. 

Tunicata,  without  head,  with- 
out shell,  covered  with  a 
membrane. 

Sub-kingdom  Radiata. 
Nematoneura,  nerves  apparent. 
876 


ZYM 

Acrita,  nerves  rudimentary. 
Class  EcHiNODERMA    (Cuvicr),   those 
furnished  with  a  crust. 

AcALEPHA(Cuvier),those\vhich 
are  witiiout  crust. 

Ccelelmintha  (Owen)^  Ento- 
zoa,  with  a  distinct  alimen- 
tary canal. 

Sterklmintha  (Owen),  without 
a  separate  abdommal  cavity, 
hydatids. 

Ciliobrachiata  (Farre),  with  a 
distinct  abdomen  and  anus. 

Nudibrachiata  (Farre),  corals 
without  intestines  or  sepa- 
rate anus. 

RoTiFERA  (Ehrenb.),  Infusoria, 
furnished  with  a  nervous  sys- 
tem, a  distinct  abdominal 
cavity,  and  cdliae  around  the 
mouth. 

PoLVGASTRA  (Ehrcnb),  Infuso- 
ria, a  simple  jelly  containing 
many  cavities  or  stomachs. 

ZOONOMY.  General  animal 
physiology. 

ZOOPHYTES,  ZOOPHYTA  (from 
fwoi',  and  <ivTov,  a  plant).  Plant-like 
animals,  as  the  corals,  corallines, 
sponges. 

ZU.MIC  ACID.  An  acid  found  in 
sour  bread,  and  other  vegetable  bod- 
ies, resembling  the  lactic  acid. 

ZYGO.MA.  The  zygomatic  pro- 
cess of  the  temporal  bone,  which, 
with  the  molar  or  cheek  bone,  forms 
the  zygomatic  fossa  or  cavity  under 
the  temple. 

ZYMOME.     Zimome. 


i 


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A  beautifully-executed  volume  for  youno^  readers,  presenting  in  that  easy,  admirable  style 
of  which  Mr.  Abbott  is  such  a  consummate  master,  the  strange  incidents  of  the  life  of  this 
most  interesting  personage.  The  story  is  complete,  and  the  impressions  left  on  the  mind  wil' 
be  ineffaceable. — Evangelist. 

Kings  anh  (ttnccns; 

Or,  Life  in  the  Palace.     By  J.  S.  C.  Abbott.     With  Illustrations.     12mo, 
Muslin.     Si  00. 

We  have  read  its  pages  with  the  most  intense  interest.  It  comprises  the  sterling  worth  of 
historical  truth  with  the  enchantment  of  the  romance  and  the  novel. — Eastern  Times. 

(£I}C  ^^istoi-11  of  Qllcxanbcr  tlje  (Qxcat. 

By  Jacob  Abbott.     With  an  Illuminated  Title-page  and  numerous  Illus- 
trations.    12mo,  Muslin.     60  cents. 

^  Summer  in  Srotlanb. 

By  Jacob  Abbott.     With  numerous  Illustrations.     12mo,  Muslin.     $1  00. 

Truthful  in  its  descriptions,  beautiful  in  its  style,  and  unexceptionable  in  its  moral  tone. — 
London  Athetueum. 

®l)c  €a%ton3. 

A  Family  Picture.     Attributed  to  Sir  E.  Bqlwer  Lyttox,  Bart.     8vo,  Pa- 
per,        cents. 

^atolh,  ll)c  Cast  of  tijc  Qajcon  Kings. 

By  Sir  Edward  Bclwer  Lytton.     8vo,  Paper.     50  cents. 

A  splendid  effort,  combining  all  the  brilliancy  of  his  genius  with  the  laborious  research  of 
his  best  productions  ;  as  a  drama  of  real  life,  it  is  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  any  similar  work  of 
the  age. — Mirror. 

QIlic  i^orgerg. 

By  G.  P.  R.  James,  Esq.     8vo,  Paper.      cents. 

2ri)irtg  ^cars  Since; 

Or,  the  Ruined  Family.    A  Tale.    By  G.  P.  R.  James,  Esq.    8vo,  Paper. 
25  cents. 

A  tale  of  much  amusement  and  interest.  We  heartily  commend  it  to  our  readers  as  a  very 
pleasant  and  a  very  clever  work. — Literary  Gazette. 

An  original  novel,  by  an  able  hand. — Spectator. 

The  story  is  well  told,  the  characters  clearly  unfolded,  and  the  conclusion  natural  and  »at» 
igfactory. — Athenaum. 


2       Popular  Literature  PuhUshed  by  Harper  Sf  Brothers. 
ai)e  £ife  of  ^cnrj)  tl)e  iTonrtl), 

King  of  France  and  Navarre.     By  G.  P.  R.  James,  Esq.     2  vols.  12mo, 

Muslin.     S2  50. 

Mr.  James  has  endeavored,  and  with  success,  to  throw  more  light  upon  the  earlier  years  of 
Ilenry  than  has  hitherto  been  done,  the  latter  and  more  important  events  in  his  striking  ca- 
reer having  naturally  attracted  the  greatest  attention. — Literary  Gazette. 

®l)e  U0mance  of  ^adjting 

Voyage  the  First.     By  Joseph  C.  Hakt.     12mo. 

iHobel  men. 

Modeled  by  Horace  Mayhew.  With  numerous  Comic  Illustrations. 
18mo,  Paper.     25  cents. 

Sketches  of  various  characters  smartly  executed,  and  one  of  the  steam-boat  and  rail-way 
class  of  belles-lettres.  The  embellishments  are  also  clever.  Perhaps  the  "  Fast  Man"  will 
appear  to  be  the  most  extraordinary  nuisance  to  country  readers,  and  to  persons  who  are  only 
acquainted  with  the  higher  classes  of  society. — London  Literary  Gazette. 

®I}e  ittoral.  Social,  anii  Professional  Duties  of  ^ttor- 
ncBS  anb  Solicitors. 

By  Samuel  Waeren,  Esq.,  F.R.S.     18mo,  Muslin.  cents. 

^oro  anb  STlicn. 

A  Tale.  By  Samuel  Warren,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents; 
Paper,  50  cents. 

Dr.  Warren's  skill  is  of  a  peculiar  kind  ;  it  is  earnest  and  emphatic.  This  tale  excites 
strong  interest. — Athenmum. 

<:^rabian  J^igl)ts'  Entertainments. 

Newly  Translated  and  arranged  for  Family  Reading,  vi^ith  Explanatory 
Notes,  by  E.  W.  Lane,  Esq.  Illustrated  with  Six  Hundred  Exquisite 
Engravings,  &c.     2  vols.  8vo,  Muslin  extra  gilt,  or  Morocco  super. 

Fifty  volumes  of  books  of  travel  extant  will  not  convey  the  instruction  concerning  the  sin- 
gular and  graceful  habits  of  the  Asiatics,  that  may  be  found  in  the  reading  of  these  fascinating 
tales,  and  in  the  correct  and  beautiful  engravings.  This  edition  will  be  valued  by  the  accom- 
plished scholar  as  a  precious  gallery  of  Oriental  pictures:  from  the  title-page  to  the  last  en- 
graving, it  is  a  casket  of  rare  and  beautiful  gems,  and  from  the  palace  to  the  hut,  it  lays  bare 
all  that  is  interesting  to  know  of  the  followers  of  Mohammed. — Neio  York  Sun. 

Mrs.  ittarkljam's  ^istor^  of  irance. 

Prepared  for  the  Use  of  Schools,  with  a  supplementary  Chapter,  bringing 
down  the  History  to  the  Present  Time,  by  Jacob  Abbott.  Maps,  En- 
gravings, &c.     12mo,  half  Bound.     $\  25. 

Mrs.  Markham's  historical  works  have,  by  common  consent,  long  occupied  the  highest  rank 
as  school  histories  ;  it  has  been  stated  that  upward  of  56,000  copies  of  her  excellent  series 
have  already  been  sold  in  England.  The  London  Journal  of  Education,  referring  to  her  pro- 
ductions, admits  they  are  constructed  on  a  plan  well  chosen,  and  adds  that  they  can  not  be 
too  strongly  recommended  as  adapted  for  youth. 

2:i)c  ^istorg  of  Congress,  jBiograpljical  anir  political: 

Comprising  Memoirs  of  Members  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
drawn  from  authentic  Sources.     By  H.  G.  Wheeler.     Numerous  Steel 
Portraits.     8vo,  Muslin.     $3  00  per  vol.     {Vols.  I.  and II.  are  now  ready.) 
The  author  has  enjoyed  unusual  opportunities  for  collecting  the  materials  for  such  a  work  ; 
he  has  entered  upon  his  task  with  a  zeal  and  determination  to  make  it  permanently  and  emi- 
nently valuable. — New  York  Courier  and  Enquirer. 


Popular  Literature  Puhlislied  hy  Harper  Sf  Brothers.       3 
^axnt  Influence: 

A  Tale  for  Mothers  and  Daughters.     By  Grace  Aguilar.     12mo,  Muslin, 
$1  00;  Paper,  75  cents. 

The  author's  intention  in  this  volume  is  to  aid  in  educating  the  heart — an  object  which  must 
commend  itself  to  all  who  have  the  Christian  faith,  and  all  who  hope  and  believe  that  the 
■world  may,  by  kindly  influences,  be  transformed  from  a  world  of  warring  passions  to  one  of 
love,  and  faith,  and  hope. — Cincinnati  Journal. 

®l)e  Image  of  l)is  i^atljcr. 

A  Tale  of  a  Young  Monkey.     By  the  Brolliers  M.vyhew.     With  Illustra- 
tions.    12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents  ;  Taper,  50  cents. 
Sportively  sarcastic  and  humorous,  it  touches  off  very  graphically  many  follies  of  the  day. 

•^Baltimore  AmeHcan. 

A  very  witty  production  of  those  distinguished  comic  writers,  the  Brothers  Mayhew,  two  of 

the  most  celebrated  disciples  of  the  "Punch  School." — Spirit  of  the  Times. 


toutl)cring  ^eigl)t0. 


By  A.  Bell.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents  ;  Paper,  50  cents. 

We  strongly  recommend  all  our  readers  who  love  novelty  to  get  this  story,  for  we  can  prom- 
ise them  that  they  never  read  any  thing  like  it  before. — Douglas  Jebrold 

ODliJ  i^icks  tl)c  enibe; 

Or,  Adventures  in  the  Camanche  Country  in  Search  of  a  Gold  Mine.  By 
C.  W.  Webber.     12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00  ;  Paper,  75  cents. 

It  has  incidents  enough  for  a  score  of  novels. — Mirror. 

Here  is  a  book  to  stir  a  fever  in  the  blood  of  age.  Full  of  wild  adventures,  and  running  over 
with  life. — Graham's  Magazine. 

<^bt)entnres  in  iHc^cico  anb  tl)e  Hockjj  iflonntains. 

By  George  Ruston.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents ;  Paper,  50  cents. 
Crowded  with  the  wildest  adventures,  it  has  that  reality  which  makes  Melville's  "  South 
Seas"  so  charming  and  fresh.     It  has  none  of  the  homeliness  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  but  the  ad- 
ventures are  as  startling. — London  Economist. 

banitn  fair; 

Or,  Pen  and  Pencil  Sketches  of  English  Society.  By  Wm.  Makepeace 
Thackeray.  With  numerous  Illustrations  by  the  Author.  8vo,  Muslin, 
$1  25;  Paper,  $1  00. 

He  is  the  prince  of  etchers  and  sketchers.  His  genius  is  environed  with  a  warm  and  glow- 
ing atmosphere  of  fine  feeling  and  cultivated  fancies— light,  playful,  kindling,  acting  upon  the 
Imagination  and  heart  of  the  reader  with  a  secret  but  irresistible  influence.  A  humor,  re- 
markable for  Its  geniality,  illumes  and  vivifies  every  page. — Dickens's  Daily  Netos. 

She  Cl)iibren  of  tl)e  Nero  i^crrcet. 

By  Captain  Marryat.     12mo,  Muslin,  50  cents  ;  Paper,  37^  cents. 

The  author's  facility  of  description  has  here  brought  out  a  romance  which  will  freshen  the 
recoUections  of  his  former  fame  in  the  mind  of  the  public. — Springfield  Gazette. 

a;i)c  Storn  of  tl)e  peitinsnlar  iHar. 

By  General  Charles  W.  Vane,  Marquess  of  Londonderry.  New  Edition, 
revised,  with  considerable  Additions.  12mo,  Muslin,  81  00;  Paper,  75 
cents. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  publication  to  present  what  has  long  been  a  desideratum— a  Complete 
History  of  the  Peninsular  War  down  to  the  peace  of  1814,  in  the  smallest  possible  compass, 
and  at  so  moderate  a  cost  as  to  be  accessible  to  all  classes  of  readers  ;  it  will  be  regarded  as 
aa  indispensable  companion  to  "  The  Story  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo." — Athemcum. 


4       Popular  Literature  Published  by  Harper  Sf  Brothers. 

Coiterings  in  ^urc^ae; 

Or,  Sketches  of  Travel  in  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Austria, 
Prussia,  Great  Britain,  and  Ireland.  With  an  Appendix,  containing  Ob- 
servations on  European  Charities  and  Medical  Institutions.  By  J.  W. 
Corson,  M.D.     12mo,  Muslin,  $1  00  ;  Paper,  75  cents. 

The  author  evidently  wrote  just  as  he  traveled,  with  a  perfect  overflowing  of  enthusiasm. 
The  impressions  which  he  received,  and  which  he  communicates  to  the  reader,  have  all  the 
minute  fidelity  of  the  Daguerreotype  as  to  form,  while  the  author's  imagination  imparts  to 
them  those  natural  hues  which  are  heyond  the  reach  of  that  art. — Journal  of  Commerce. 

2ri)c  Sattle  0f  Btiena  bista, 

With  the  Operations  of  the  "  Army  of  Occupation"  for  One  Month.  By 
Captain  Carleton.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents;  Paper,  50  cents. 

The  best  description  that  has  yet  appeared  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  battles  fought 
during  the  Mexican  campaign.  We  read  it  through  from  title-page  to  Colaphon  with  unabated 
interest.  Its  style  is  simple  and  pure,  and  its  pictures  vivid  in  a  marked  degree. — Knicker- 
bocker. 

Man  anb  Iji©  ittotiDe©. 

By  George  Moore,  M.D.     12mo,  Muslin.     50  cents. 

Dr.  Moore  is  one  of  the  very  best  writers  of  the  day.  He  is  both  a  practical  and  a  philo- 
sophical physician,  and  he  derives  much  advantage  in  developing  the  spiritual  as  well  as  phys- 
ical nature  of  man,  from  the  practice  of  his  own  profession.  This  is  the  third  of  his  works,  all 
of  which  have  been  placed  by  intelligent  readers  in  the  first  class  of  modern  literature  and  phi- 
losophy.— Cincinnati  Herald. 

a;i)e  tenant  of  toilbfdl  ^a\\. 

By  A.  Bell.     12mo,  Muslin,  75  cents  ;  Paper,  50  cents. 

It  is  by  all  odds  the  best  temperance  story  we  ever  read.  It  is  difficult  not  to  believe  in 
the  reality  of  the  scene.  You  can  not  doubt  that  it  is  an  actual  copy  of  life.  You  forget  you 
are  reading  a  romance,  and  put  just  as  much  trust  in  the  narration  as  if  it  were  told  of  your 
next-door  neighbors.  To  produce  this  effect  completely  is,  we  take  it,  the  highest  success  of 
a  novelist. — Mirror. 

®l)c  0tDis0  i^amib  Hobinson; 

Or,  Adventures  of  a  Father  and  Mother  and  Four  Sons  on  a  Desert  Island. 
]3eing  a  Continuation  of  the  Work  published  some  years  since  under  this 
Title.     2  vols.  18mo,  Muslin.     75  cents. 

Every  one  will  remember  the  first  two  volumes  of  this  charming  story  for  children,  and,  of 
course,  be  desirous  to  see  the  conclusion.  The  present  volumes  are  quite  as  interesting  as  the 
former.— Godet/'s  Lady's  Magazine. 

The  first  two  Volumes  of  the  same  work  may  still  be  had.  2  vols.  18mo, 
Muslin.     62^  cents. 

®l)e  (3ooli  genius  tl)at  ttxrneb  @t)crg  ®l)ing  into  (3olh; 

Or,  the  Queen  Bee  and  the  Magic  Dress.  A  Christmas  Fairy  Tale.  By 
the  Brothers  Mayhew.  Engravings.  l8mo.  Muslin,  gilt  edges,  45  cents; 
Muslin,  plain,  37^  cents  ;  Fancy  paper  covers,  37^  cents. 

This  IS  a  most  charming  little  fairy  tale,  written  with  singular  beauty  and  spirit,  and  incul- 
cating the  duty  of  industry. 

©moo;  or,  a  Narrative  of  ^bocntnres  in  t\)c  SoutI)  Qeas. 

By  Herman  Melville.     12mo,  Muslin,  $1  25  ;  Paper,  $1  00. 
Musing  the  other  day  over  our  matinal  hyson,  we  suddenly  found  ourselves  in  the  entertain- 
ing society  of  Marquesan  Melville,  the  phcenix  of  modern  voyagers,  sprung,  it  would  seem,  from 
the  mingled  ashes  of  Captain  Cook  and  Robinson  Crusoe.     The  title  signifies  a  rover ;  the 
book  is  excellent  quite  first-rate. — Blackwood. 


Popular  Literature  Published  by  Harper  Sf  Brothers.       5 
£ife  of  ittoiamc  Cati)arin£  Qlborna. 

Including  some  leading  Facts  and  Traits  in  her  Religious  Experience.  To- 
gether with  Explanations  and  Remarks,  tending  to  Illustrate  the  Doc- 
trine of  Holiness.  By  T.  C.  Upham,  D.D.  12mo,  Muslin,  gilt  edges,  60 
cents  ;  Muslin,  plain,  50  cents. 

This  is  a  very  curious  piece  of  biography  ;  the  sources  from  which  it  has  been  principally 
derived  were  the  manuscript  notes  of  Madame  Adoma's  confessor,  .Marabotti.  She  lived  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  was  a  remarkable  instance  of  exemplary  piety  and 
eminent  moral  worth.  The  story  of  her  life  presents  a  rare  and  highly  interesting  chapter  in 
the  records  of  religious  experience. 

Coroper's  |)octical  tHorke. 

Illustrated  by  Seventy-five  exquisite  Designs.  With  a  Biographical  and 
Critical  Introduction  by  Rev.  Thomas  Dale.  2  vols.  8vo,  Turkey  Moroc- 
co, gilt  edges,  S5  00  ;  Imitation  Morocco,  gilt  edges,  S4  25 ;  Muslin,  gilt 
edges,  S3  75. 

Cowper  has  long  been  regarded  as  the  favorite  Christian  poet ;  his  muse  devoted  to  the  in- 
culcation of  the  domestic  virtues  and  the  sublime  truths  of  religion,  will  ever  take  elevated 
rank  among  the  great  classics  of  the  language. 

ilXilton's  Poetical  ttJorks. 

With  a  Memoir  and  Critical  Remarks  on  his  Genius  and  Writings,  by  J. 
Montgomery.  Illustrated  by  120  Engravings.  2  vols.  8vo,  Morocco, 
gilt  edges.  So  00  ;  Imitation  Morocco,  gilt  edges,  84  25 ;  Muslin,  gilt 
edges,  S3  75. 

Says  a  distinguished  critic,  "  He  possesses  sablimity  enongh  to  command  our  fear,  and  gen- 
tleness enough  to  awaken  our  affection.  He  unites  the  fancy  of  Spenser  to  the  majesty  of 
^schylus,  and  the  delicate  finish  and  grace  of  Canova  to  the  bold  and  sweeping  outlines  of 
Michael  Angelo.  The  humblest  thought,  subjected  to  the  alchemy  of  Milton's  genius,  became 
transmuted  into  something  precious  and  costly.  He  was  an  encfianter  who  changed  all  the 
earthen  edifices  of  the  imagination  into  pure  gold." 

£ife  of  tl)c  Cl^eoalier  jBasari. 

By  W.  GiLMORE  SiMMs.     With  Engravings.     12mo,  Muslin.     Si  00. 

The  present  production  is  the  most  valuable  that  has  appeared  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Simms, 
and  will  do  more  than  all  his  preceding  works  to  establish  his  reputation.  It  displays  consid- 
erable research  into  the  history  of  the  period  to  which  it  relates,  and  is  clothed  with  all  the 
fascination  which  beauty  of  style  and  chivalric  adventure  can  throw  around  it. — Literary  Reg- 
itter. 

2l()c  Discipline  of  £ife. 

A  Novel.     8vo,  Paper.     25  cents. 

This  work  is  intended  to  show  how  much  of  happiness  depends  on  self-discipline  ,  and  it  can 
not  fail  to  place  the  authoress  in  the  first  rank  of  female  novelists.  It  contains  passages  of 
great  beauty  and  pathos,  evidently  written  by  one  who  thinks  much  and  feels  deeply,  and  im- 
presses us  with  a  high  idea  of  the  talent  of  the  author. — Britannica. 

!3rotl)ers  avib  Sisters. 

A  Tale  of  Domestic  Life.  By  Fredrika  Bremer.  Translated  from  the 
Original  unpublished  Manuscript,  by  Mary  Howitt.  Svo,  Paper.  25 
cents. 

"Brothers  and  Sisters"  will  share  in  the  popularity  the  author's  former  works  have  acquired, 
aa  it  possesses  the  like  qualities. — Chronicle. 

Jfane  (Egre:  on  ^ntobiograpf)2. 

Svo,  Paper.     25  cents. 

There  is  a  freshness  and  purity  of  thouglit  and  sentiment  that  one  rarely  meets  with  stamped 
on  every  page.  We  repeat  it — if  people  will  read  novels,  let  them  peruse  Jane  Eyre. — NeaVt 
Gazette. 


6        Popular  Literature  PuhlisJied  hy  Harper  ^  Brotlters. 

^^omcs  anb  i^annts  of  tlje  most  (Eminent  Sritisl}  |)oet0. 

By  William  Howitt.  With  Numerous  Illustrations.  2  vols.  12mo,  Mus- 
lin.    $3  00. 

Full  of  beautiful  descriptions,  of  lively  and  affecting  anecdotes ;  full  of  the  lessons  of  hu- 
man experience,  and  the  teachings  of  human  weakness  and  griefs  ;  and  as  full  of  inspirations 
to  the  young  mind  and  heart. — Golden  Rule. 

Conis  tl)e  iTonrtcentl),  anb  tl)e  Conrt  of  Sxanu  in  tl)e 
Qcvcnttentl)  Centnrs- 

By  Miss  Pardoe.  With  numerous  Engravings,  Portraits,  &c.  2  vols. 
12mo,  Muslin,  $3  50  ;  Paper,  $3  00. 

We  do  not  know  of  any  work  in  the  language  which  tells  the  same  things  so  well  nor  so 
prettily. — London  Herald. 
An  accession  to  our  literature,  as  eminently  useful  as  it  is  delightful. — British  Quart.  Rev. 

Men,  tDomen,  anb  Books. 

By  Leigh  Hunt.  A  Selection  of  Sketches,  Essays,  and  Critical  Memoirs, 
from  his  uncollected  Prose  Writings.     2  vols.  12mo,  Muslin.     $1  50. 

They  have  a  sunshine  in  them  which  will  be  as  good  sunshine  fifty  years  hence  as  it  was 
at  the  very  first.  There  is  so  much  variety,  and  such  agreeable  lore  of  all  kinds  in  them — such 
a  soul  of  reflection — such  brilliant  animal  spirits — and  so  cheerful  a  philosophy,  that  we  may 
recommend  them  to  all.  The  topics  embrace  almost  every  variety  of  a  pleasurable  or  refiuing 
kind. — London  Atlas. 

SCmc  Qtorg  of  tl)e  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

By  Rev.  R.  Gleig.     12mo,  Muslin,  90  cents  ;  Paper,  75  cents. 

This  account  is  instinct  with  spirit,  and  many  are  the  touching  and  striking  anecdotes  which 
add  to  its  interest.  It  is  likely  to  become  one  of  the  most  popular  productions  of  the  day. — 
Literary  Gazette. 

Bog's  Book  of  tl)e  Seasons; 

By  Thomas  Miller.  Descriptive  of  the  Scenery,  Rural  Life,  and  Country 
Amusements.  With  Numerous  Engravings.  4  vols.  12mo,  Muslin,  50 
cents  each  ;  Paper,  37^  cents  each. 

Charming  books,  written  in  most  captivating  style,  and  illustrated  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  must  be  popular  with  the  young  people.  Pure  books  for  little  readers — they  are  far  pref- 
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other  book  that  has  come  to  us.  The  author  seems  to  have  a  horror  of  being  one  moment  dull. 
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ilXarg  ©rower; 

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iJaluablc  anb  ^ttractbc  New  lUorks 

RECENTLY    PUBLISHED    BV 

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the  reader  with  him,  unwearied  and  delighted. — Methodist  Protestant. 

The  best  book  of  the  kind  we  have  seen  for  a  long  time. — Courier  and  Enquirer. 

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Mr.  Warren's  skill  is  of  a  peculiar  kind  ;  it  is  earnest  and  emphatic.  This  tale  excitea 
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We  scarcely  remember  a  work  in  the  whole  range  of  modern  fiction  so  thrilling  in  its  char- 
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thor of  "  Diary  of  a  Physician.'' — Albion. 

Hamartfnc's  iJ^fstorg  of  tlic  dffroutrists. 

Wilh  Portraits.     3  vols,  limo.  Muslin,  §2  10  ;  Paper,  $1  80. 

A  magnificent  and  oratorical  style — spangled  with  gems,  some  of  "  purest  ray  serene,"  some 
dazzling  and  gaudy  even  to  giddiness — abundant,  yet  not  prolix — rythmical  and  measured,  yet 
wanting  occasionally  in  variety.  The  reader  is  sure  to  find  in  every  chapter  treasures  many. 
— London  Athenattm. 

No  work  in  our  day  seems  to  have  created  such  a  ferment  in  Paris.  The  tale  of  the  victims 
of  the  Revolution  is  told  with  pathetic  splendor  by  De  Lamartiue;  he  unites  so  many  of  the 
highest  qualifications  for  a  great  historian. — Edinburgh  Review. 

No  history,  romance,  or  poem  has  for  a  long  time  appeared,  that  possesses  more  attractions, 
or  that  will  have  a  wider  popularity. — Knickerbocker 

Simms'.s  3lifc  of  Chcbnlicr  iJanartr. 

"  THE    GOOD   KNIGHT." — "  SA.NS  PEUR  ET  SANS  KEPROCHB." 

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Chevalier  Bayard  is  one  of  the  most  romantic  and  attractive  figures  in  history,  and  Mr. 
Simms  has  made  a  hit  in  selecting  him  as  his  subject.  For  the  public,  it  will  have  more  at- 
traction than  a  novel,  and  we  predict  for  the  book  an  extensive  popularity.  The  style  has  an 
agreeable  qaaintness  quite  appropriate  to  the  theme. — Tribune. 

The  Chevalier  Uayard  stands  in  history  as  a  type  of  the  noblest  properties  of  the  chivalry 
of  the  Middle  Ages— pure  in  life,  great  in  exploits,  self-denying,  courteous,  and  manly — a  re- 
alization of  the  highest  ideal  of  the  gentleman,  in  the  chivalric  sense  of  the  word.  The  roman- 
tic incidents  of  his  life,  as  well  as  his  generous  and  attractive  personal  characteristics,  are  de- 
lineated with  unaffected  admiration  and  with  a  happy  tact.  It  is  a  picture  of  the  age  of  chiv- 
alry which,  as  illustrating  the  peculiarities  of  a  marked  era  of  the  history  of  civilization,  is 
well  worth  the  study  of  the  literary  man  and  the  Christian.  There  are  several  well-conceived 
embellishments,  which  adorn  the  beautiful  pages  of  the  volume. — Ncxo  York  Evangelist. 


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The  curiosity  excited  by  the  title  of  this  volume  is  abundantly  stimulated  and  satisfied  in 
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3LtiQ\x  pjunrs  ^ttiy  Sisromcu,  antr  iJoofes. 

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We  have  found  the  largest  amount  of  enjoyment  in  these  volumes.— Lonrfon  Atlas. 

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and  his  narrative  rajiid  and  well  connected.     The  "  Campaign  Sketches"  are  evidently  the 

work  of  a  gentleman,  a  scholar,  and  a  soldier — Tria  juncta  in  uno. — Spirit  of  the  Times. 

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As  a  library  book,  this  edition  is  sure  to  make  its  way ;  we  can  hardly  promise  readers  a 
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brings  to  light  a  vast  deal  of  information  respecting  the  early  literature  of  the  language,  and 
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He  writings  and  life  constitute  a  bright  page  in  the  history  of  that  period.  Her  life  was 
active  and  useful,  and  her  writings  evince  a  vivid  intellect. — Albany  Journal. 

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A  careful  examination  of  this  work,  we  arc  satisfied,  will  not  fail  to  produce  the  conviction 
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writers  on  chemistry  have  their  appropriate  notice  in  the  present  volume,  and,  as  far  as  wo 
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